58:
398:
316:
seek emigration, requesting an exit visa was itself seen as an act of betrayal by Soviet authorities. Thus, prospective emigrants requested permission to emigrate at great personal risk, knowing that an official refusal would often be accompanied by dismissal from work and other forms of social ostracism and economic pressure. At the same time, strong international condemnations caused the Soviet authorities to significantly increase the emigration quota. In the years 1960 through 1970, only 4,000 people (legally) emigrated from the USSR. In the following decade, the number rose to 250,000, to fall again by 1980.
46:
438:
1487:
57:
413:
were closed, and more trials followed. At the same time, strong international condemnations caused the Soviet authorities to significantly increase the emigration quota. In the years 1960 through 1970, only about 3,000 Soviet Jews had (legally) emigrated from the USSR; after the trial, in the period
388:
and Yuri
Fedorov: 15 years; Aleksey Murzhenko: 14 years; Sylva Zalmanson (Kuznetsov's wife and the only woman on trial): 10 years; Arie (Leib) Knokh: 13 years; Anatoli Altmann: 12 years; Boris Penson: 10 years; Israel Zalmanson: 8 years; Wolf Zalmanson (brother of Sylva and Israel): 10 years; Mendel
315:
which blocked their opportunities for advancement. Some government sectors were almost entirely off-limits to Jews. In addition, Soviet restrictions on religious education and expression prevented Jews from engaging in Jewish cultural and religious life. While these restrictions led many Jews to
456:
to petition for explanations of denials of their right to emigrate from the USSR, as affirmed under the
Helsinki Final Act. Failing to receive any answer, they assembled in the reception room of the Presidium on the following day. After a few hours of waiting, they were seized by the
540:, Effect Publications, Tel-Aviv, 1980.) On 9 November 1976, a week after Carter won the presidential election, the Soviet authorities released all but two of the previously arrested protesters. Several more were subsequently rearrested and incarcerated or exiled to Siberia.
606:. Jackson–Vanik affected U.S. trade relations with countries with non-market economies (originally, countries of the Communist bloc) that restricted freedom of Jewish emigration and other human rights. As such, it was applied to the USSR. According to
618:
Although
Refusenik originally had a precise meaning – those denied exit from the Soviet Union – its meaning has sometimes diverged away from this sense. It began to be used to mean "outsider" for groups other than
304:, Soviet Jews were thought to be a security liability or possible traitors. To apply for an exit visa, the applicants (and often their entire families) would have to quit their jobs, which in turn would make them vulnerable to charges of
293:(Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs) department responsible for exit visas. In many instances, the reason given for denial was that these persons had been given access, at some point in their careers, to information vital to Soviet
623:
and later to mean "those who refuse" rather than its original sense of "those who are refused". Over time, "refusenik" has entered colloquial
English for a person who refuses to do something, especially by way of protest.
547:
Vladimir and Maria Slepak stood on the eighth story balcony of their apartment building. By then they had been denied permission to emigrate for over 8 years. Vladimir displayed a banner that read "Let us go to our son in
358:), throw out the pilots before takeoff from an intermediate stop and fly it to Sweden, knowing they faced a huge risk of being captured or shot down. One of the participants, Mark Dymshits, was a former military pilot.
231:
and refuseniks were fired from their workplaces and denied employment according to their major specialty. As a result, they had to find a menial job, such as a street sweeper, or face imprisonment on charges of
53:. This type of visa was issued to those who received permission to leave the USSR permanently and lost their Soviet citizenship. Many people who wanted to emigrate were unable to receive this kind of exit visa.
38:
1536:
1346:"Soviet repression of refusenik scientists unabated. The arrest of chemist Yuri Tarnopolsky points up the continuing plight of refusenik scientists in the Soviet Union under its new leadership".
556:
and
Helsinki activist Ida Nudel held a similar display on the balcony of her own apartment. They were all arrested and charged with malicious hooliganism in violation of Article 206.2 of the
508:, was detained along with the protesters in recognition of his prior attempts to emigrate from the USSR. These events were covered by several British and American journalists including
41:
January 10, 1973. Soviet Jewish refusenik demonstration in front of the
Ministry of Internal Affairs for the right to emigrate to Israel, before being broken up by Soviet authorities.
568:
protested their arrests in circulars dated 5 and 15 June of that year. Vladimir Slepak and Ida Nudel were convicted of all charges. They served 5 and 4 years in
Siberian exile.
1468:
610:, those who benefited included Jewish refuseniks from the Soviet Union, as well as Hungarians, Romanians, and other citizens that sought to emigrate from their nations.
1108:
528:
expressed his support of the protesters in a telegram sent to
Scharansky, and urged the Soviet authorities to release them. (See Léopold Unger, Christian Jelen,
645:
However, the original meaning is preserved and used in parallel, particularly in
Israeli and Jewish articles about the historical events from which it emerged.
642:
It is occasionally used in the UK to mean "ones who refuse to comply", and also in the U.S., with many people who use it being unaware of the word's origins.
517:
405:
The affair was followed by a crackdown on the Jewish and dissident movement throughout the USSR. Activists were arrested, makeshift centers for studying the
277:. While some were allowed to leave, many were refused permission to emigrate, either immediately or after their cases would languish for years in the OVIR (
1589:
429:
movement in the USSR. His arrest on charges of espionage and treason and subsequent trial contributed to international support for the refusenik cause.
175:
227:
Applying for an exit visa was a step noted by the KGB, so that future career prospects, always uncertain for Soviet Jews, could be impaired. As a rule,
1543:
513:
179:
1871:
1856:
1337:
897:
1230:
868:
493:
1374:. A participant's account of the Soviet Jewish women movement of the 1970s and the events surrounding the arrest and imprisonment of Ida Nudel.
1733:
501:
1249:
1083:
1851:
949:
1702:
464:
In the next week, following an unsuccessful meeting between the activists' leaders and the Soviet
Minister of Internal Affairs, General
1846:
1743:
592:
1836:
1753:
576:
521:
17:
1303:
1717:
1560:
1552:
681:
468:, these abuses of law inspired several demonstrations in the Soviet capital. On Monday, 25 October 1976, 22 activists, including
325:
110:
1504:
1142:
1266:
255:, as well as a desire for better relations with the West, led to major changes, and most refuseniks were allowed to emigrate.
933:
909:
801:
157:
500:
and incarcerated in the detention center Beryozka and other penitentiaries in and around Moscow. An unrelated party, artist
1607:
1380:
Cheerful Memories/Troubled Years: A Story of a Refusenik’s Family in Leningrad and its Struggle for Immigration to Israel
62:
1211:
1748:
1568:
1529:
1446:
1438:
1423:
1405:
884:
876:
780:
588:
580:
264:
1646:
1476:(a novel, in Russian, abridged 1986; complete 1992, 2006). A saga of a refusenik family set in Moscow in the 1980s.
710:
584:
312:
160:
453:
397:
1799:
1763:
1681:
1348:
1014:
819:
636:
1058:
1831:
1636:
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334:(who already served a seven-year term in Soviet prisons), plotted to buy all the seats for the local flight
1613:
843:
677:
331:
171:
1866:
1768:
1659:
1491:
725:
599:
305:
233:
1304:"The Refusenik Exodus From Slavery to Freedom United the Jewish World and Brought Down the Soviet Union"
1876:
1674:
901:
31:
380:
under Article 64 of the Penal code of the RSFSR. Mark Dymshits and Eduard Kuznetsov were sentenced to
69:
saying he has been refused permission to move to Israel due to "knowledge of state secrets", May 1991.
1707:
1573:
240:
707:, Cuban citizens who are not legally allowed to migrate and who cross to Florida in improvised boats
1578:
632:
967:
1271:
1192:
871:
Willem A. Veenhoven and Winifred Crum Ewing (Editors). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1975. Hague.
769:
133:
is derived from the "refusal" handed down to a prospective emigrant from the Soviet authorities.
86:
989:
37:
1758:
1109:"The Legacy and Consequences of Jackson-Vanik: Reassessing Human Rights in 21st Century Russia"
445:
414:
from 1971 to 1980 347,100 people received a visa to leave the USSR, 245,951 of them were Jews.
384:
but after international protests, it was appealed and replaced with 15 years of incarceration;
183:
1841:
1738:
1669:
1040:
827:
660:
572:
565:
422:
330:
In 1970, a group of sixteen refuseniks (two of whom were non-Jewish), organized by dissident
1338:
Let My People Go: The Transnational Politics of Soviet Jewish Emigration During the Cold War
1861:
1654:
1459:
684:—a daring escape attempt from the USSR in 1970 that kickstarted the Soviet Jewry movement.
8:
1821:
1697:
1395:
925:
796:. Routledge Studies in the History of Russia and Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 153.
735:
672:: a 2016 documentary film by filmmaker Anat Zalmanson-Kuznetsov, about her parents story
631:
referred to himself as the first political "refusenik of Russia," after buildings of the
496:, were arrested in Moscow on their way to the next demonstration. They were convicted of
485:
425:
helped to establish the struggle for emigration rights within the greater context of the
461:, taken outside of the city limits and beaten. Two of them were kept in police custody.
1521:
1174:
945:
505:
465:
385:
381:
187:
1498:
1442:
1434:
1419:
1401:
1150:
959:
929:
905:
880:
872:
797:
776:
694:
668:
628:
603:
294:
244:
228:
417:
A leading proponent and spokesman for the refusenik rights during the mid-1970s was
1664:
1463:
1357:
772:
750:
730:
607:
509:
477:
335:
77:
1131:
Oxford English Dictionary,(online). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2012-06-08.
1826:
1785:
1379:
1370:
1285:
823:
715:
673:
489:
418:
406:
362:
217:
1250:"Once heroes of US Jewry, Soviet Refuseniks are largely forgotten. Not for long"
1084:"Once heroes of US Jewry, Soviet Refuseniks are largely forgotten. Not for long"
745:
441:
377:
1361:
869:
Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey. Vol. 1.
598:
Another major source of pressure in favor of the rights of refuseniks was the
1815:
1154:
963:
365:
near Leningrad, the entire group of the "wedding guests" was arrested by the
213:
195:
141:
66:
1792:
655:
620:
561:
525:
473:
426:
373:
343:
239:
The ban on Jewish immigration to Israel was lifted in 1971, leading to the
221:
194:
A typical basis to deny emigration was the alleged association with Soviet
126:
122:
45:
1621:
1584:
1515:
1411:
1231:"Soviet refusenik and her filmmaker daughter recount 'Operation Wedding'"
720:
497:
342:, under the guise of a trip to a wedding, on a small 12-seater aircraft
274:
252:
203:
114:
109:) was an unofficial term for individuals—typically, but not exclusively,
557:
520:. The October demonstrations and arrests coincided with the end of the
469:
401:
Jewish emigration from USSR, before and after the First Leningrad Trial
273:
to leave the Soviet Union, especially in the period following the 1967
639:
requested that Gorbachev would be forbidden from leaving the country.
481:
458:
444:, one of the Soviet Union's most prominent refuseniks, who served as
392:
339:
270:
149:
50:
1018:
816:
552:". His wife Maria held a banner that read "Visa for my son". Fellow
1342:
Ethan Rundell, trans. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2015.
1212:"A Saga Between Tries, Novak Djokovic Again Aims for His 21st Slam"
704:
301:
248:
153:
859:
857:
664:, chronicling the human rights struggle of the Soviet refuseniks.
437:
145:
898:
The Jews of the Soviet Union: the history of a national minority
1626:
1486:
699:
549:
208:
164:
118:
854:
536:, Типография Ольшанский Лтд, Иерусалим, 1979; Феликс Кандель,
1398:: The Classic Memoir of One Man's Triumph over a Police State
410:
1631:
247:
in the Soviet Union in the mid-1980s, and his policies of
366:
290:
199:
1551:
865:
Anti-Jewish discrimination since the end of World War II
987:
635:
were taken by the Russian government and the country's
1041:"Советский Союз. Евреи в Советском Союзе в 1967–85 гг"
265:
Persecution of Jews § Russia and the Soviet Union
136:
In addition to the Jews, broader categories included:
1505:"Timeline of the Jewish Movement in the Soviet Union"
452:
On 18 October 1976, 13 Jewish refuseniks came to the
353:
284:
91:
1518:– A free educational resource in English and Hebrew
1499:
Timeline: 30 Major events the Soviet Jewry Struggle
1286:"Operation Wedding, documentary - Official website"
258:
1416:Gates of November: Chronicles of the Slepak Family
393:Crackdown on the refusenik activism and its growth
1143:"Yeltsin Transfers Gorbachev Foundation Property"
1813:
1509:Project for the Study of Dissidence and Samizdat
534:Зона отдыха, или Пятнадцать суток на размышление
571:Various activist organizations constituted the
1734:Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia
1537:
1228:
956:The History of Dissident Movement in the USSR
524:. On October 25, U.S. presidential candidate
347:
278:
27:Soviet citizens denied permission to emigrate
1247:
1038:
794:Brezhnev and the Decline of the Soviet Union
198:. Some individuals were labelled as foreign
844:"Beyond the Pale: The Right to Emigrate II"
817:"Злоупотребления законодательством о труде"
538:Врата исхода нашего: Девять страниц истории
289:) or Office of Visas and Registration, the
1744:National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry
1544:
1530:
1059:"Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry (SSSJ)"
593:National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry
575:. Human rights organizations included the
269:A large number of Soviet Jews applied for
1275:. June 27, 2008. Accessed June 28, 2008.
1039:энциклопедии, Редакция (4 October 2018).
944:
577:Cleveland Council on Soviet Anti-Semitism
432:
1857:Political repression in the Soviet Union
1209:
1140:
522:1976 United States presidential election
436:
396:
220:) as a means of escaping punishment for
206:who purportedly wanted to abuse Israeli
56:
44:
36:
770:Refusenik, trapped in the Soviet Union.
448:(Israel's parliament) from 2013 to 2020
297:and could not now be allowed to leave.
105: 'refusal'; alternatively spelled
14:
1814:
1267:"The struggle behind the Iron Curtain"
1045:Электронная еврейская энциклопедия ОРТ
923:Documents on Soviet Jewish Emigration.
838:
836:
613:
1525:
1329:
791:
768:Mark Azbel' and Grace Pierce Forbes.
711:Eastern Bloc emigration and defection
319:
1872:Soviet Union–United States relations
1852:Jews and Judaism in the Soviet Union
1553:Jews and Judaism in the Soviet Union
1106:
958:] (in Russian). Vilnius: Vest'.
648:
421:. Sharansky's involvement with the
180:Baptists and other Protestant groups
167:and other southern lands to Siberia.
1081:
833:
682:Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
361:On 15 June 1970, after arriving at
326:Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
24:
1324:
532:, A. Michel 1977; Феликс Кандель,
311:Many Jews encountered systematic,
25:
1888:
1749:Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
1569:The Holocaust in the Soviet Union
1480:
589:Union of Councils for Soviet Jews
581:Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
1837:Anti-Zionism in the Soviet Union
1485:
1015:"Московская Хельсинкская Группа"
585:Bay Area Council for Soviet Jews
363:Smolnoye (later Rzhevka) Airport
259:History of the Jewish refuseniks
1349:Chemical & Engineering News
1296:
1278:
1260:
1241:
1222:
1203:
1185:
1167:
1141:Erlanger, Steven (1992-10-08).
1134:
1125:
1100:
1075:
1051:
1032:
1007:
454:Presidium of the Supreme Soviet
176:Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
1800:The Black Book of Soviet Jewry
1682:Joseph Stalin and antisemitism
1229:Adam Reinherz (26 June 2023).
1210:Streeter, Kurt (23 May 2022).
981:
938:
915:
890:
810:
785:
762:
13:
1:
1847:Israel–Soviet Union relations
1637:Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee
988:The Refusenik Project staff.
741:Movement to Free Soviet Jewry
658:released a documentary film,
372:The accused were charged for
280:ОВиР, Отдел Виз и Регистрации
115:denied permission to emigrate
1718:Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking
1614:Jewish Communist Youth Union
1063:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
756:
680:, leading characters in the
121:, by the authorities of the
7:
1660:Night of the Murdered Poets
1235:Pittsburgh Jewish Chronicle
688:
354:
285:
172:persecuted religious groups
140:Other ethnicities, such as
125:and other countries of the
92:
10:
1893:
1675:Anti-cosmopolitan campaign
1453:
1387:
1356:(20): 45–47. 15 May 1983.
1179:Merriam Webster Dictionary
951:История инакомыслия в СССР
902:Cambridge University Press
323:
313:institutional antisemitism
262:
65:to a 76-year-old man from
32:Refusenik (disambiguation)
29:
1777:
1726:
1708:1970s Soviet Union aliyah
1690:
1645:
1600:
1590:Jewish history in the JAO
1574:Jewish autonomy in Crimea
1559:
1467:
1362:10.1021/cen-v061n020.p045
348:
279:
243:. The coming to power of
241:1970s Soviet Union aliyah
224:or sedition from abroad.
81:
1579:Jewish Autonomous Oblast
1511:. University of Toronto.
1371:Against the Kremlin Wall
950:
921:Boris Morozov (Editor).
848:www.friends-partners.org
286:Otdel Viz i Registratsii
144:attempting to leave for
18:Refusenik (Soviet Union)
1769:Jackson–Vanik amendment
1272:Philadelphia Daily News
726:Jackson–Vanik amendment
600:Jackson–Vanik amendment
346:(colloquially known as
1778:Media and publications
1727:International activism
1703:Anti-Zionist Committee
1608:Jewish Communist Party
792:Crump, Thomas (2013).
449:
446:Speaker of the Knesset
433:International pressure
402:
308:, a criminal offense.
152:wanting to join their
70:
54:
42:
1739:Soviet Jewry movement
1670:Rootless cosmopolitan
1494:at Wikimedia Commons
1107:Pomeranz, William E.
1088:www.timesofisrael.com
994:The Refusenik Project
990:"Historical Overview"
828:Moscow Helsinki Group
573:Soviet Jewry Movement
566:Moscow Helsinki Group
440:
423:Moscow Helsinki Group
400:
60:
48:
40:
1832:Cold War terminology
1655:1931 Menshevik Trial
1460:David Shrayer-Petrov
1113:www.wilsoncenter.org
926:Taylor & Francis
826:, a document of the
633:Gorbachev Foundation
376:, punishable by the
30:For other uses, see
1698:Soviet anti-Zionism
1647:Soviet antisemitism
1469:Шраер-Петров, Давид
1290:OperationWeddingDoc
946:Alexeyeva, Lyudmila
736:Migration diplomacy
614:Refusenik as a word
518:Christopher S. Wren
486:Anatoly Shcharansky
184:Jehovah's Witnesses
49:A rare type 2 USSR
1867:Soviet phraseology
1516:* Let My People Go
1429:Yuri Tarnopolsky,
1368:Galina Nizhnikov,
1330:Books and articles
1248:Renee Ghert-Zand.
1216:The New York Times
1197:Collins Dictionary
1147:The New York Times
822:2015-05-02 at the
654:In 2008 filmmaker
506:Dzerzhinsky Square
466:Nikolay Shchelokov
450:
403:
386:Yosef Mendelevitch
382:capital punishment
320:Hijacking incident
188:Russian Mennonites
71:
55:
43:
1877:Emigration policy
1809:
1808:
1754:Cleveland Council
1490:Media related to
1474:Herbert and Nelly
1393:Natan Sharansky,
934:978-0-7146-4911-5
910:978-0-521-38926-6
896:Benjamin Pinkus.
803:978-1-134-66922-6
669:Operation Wedding
649:Documentary films
629:Mikhail Gorbachev
389:Bodnya: 4 years.
306:social parasitism
295:national security
245:Mikhail Gorbachev
234:social parasitism
229:Soviet dissidents
90:
16:(Redirected from
1884:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1523:
1522:
1512:
1489:
1471:
1365:
1335:Pauline Peretz,
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1082:Ghert-Z, Renee.
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1026:
1017:. Archived from
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1005:
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978:
976:
975:
966:. Archived from
942:
936:
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904:, January 1990.
894:
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814:
808:
807:
789:
783:
773:Houghton Mifflin
766:
751:Prisoner of Zion
731:Lishkat Hakesher
678:Eduard Kuznetsov
608:Mark E. Talisman
591:(1970), and the
543:On 1 June 1978,
514:Craig R. Whitney
510:David K. Shipler
478:Alexander Lerner
357:
351:
350:
332:Eduard Kuznetsov
288:
282:
281:
161:forcibly removed
97:
85:
83:
61:Letter from the
21:
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1503:
1483:
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1431:Memoirs of 1984
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1325:Further reading
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1313:
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1308:Tablet Magazine
1302:
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1254:Times of Israel
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863:Joseph Dunner.
862:
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842:
841:
834:
824:Wayback Machine
815:
811:
804:
790:
786:
767:
763:
759:
716:Herman Branover
691:
674:Sylva Zalmanson
651:
616:
530:Le grand retour
490:Vladimir Slepak
435:
419:Natan Sharansky
407:Hebrew language
395:
328:
322:
267:
261:
218:right to return
163:by Stalin from
117:, primarily to
35:
28:
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5:
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526:Jimmy Carter
502:Victor Motko
474:Felix Kandel
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374:high treason
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1862:Soviet Jews
1622:Yevsektsiya
1585:Birobidzhan
1412:Chaim Potok
1193:"Refusenik"
1175:"Refusenik"
999:30 December
721:Iosif Begun
498:hooliganism
300:During the
275:Six-Day War
253:perestroika
170:Members of
129:. The term
127:Soviet Bloc
111:Soviet Jews
98:, from
1822:Refuseniks
1816:Categories
1492:Refuseniks
1314:2021-10-20
1160:2021-12-13
1118:2021-10-21
1093:2021-10-20
1068:2021-10-20
1025:2015-12-02
974:2013-04-28
637:high court
558:Penal Code
545:refuseniks
470:Mark Azbel
355:kukuruznik
349:кукурузник
271:exit visas
263:See also:
113:—who were
67:Sverdlovsk
1713:Refusenik
1155:0362-4331
964:489831449
757:Footnotes
661:Refusenik
627:In 1992,
554:refusenik
482:Ida Nudel
340:Priozersk
336:Leningrad
150:Armenians
131:refusenik
87:romanized
74:Refusenik
51:exit visa
948:(1992).
928:, 1999.
820:Archived
775:, 1981.
705:Balseros
689:See also
595:(1971).
583:(1964),
579:(1963),
302:Cold War
249:glasnost
154:diaspora
107:refusnik
94:otkaznik
82:отказник
1691:Zionism
1561:History
1464:Russian
1454:Fiction
1388:Memoirs
602:to the
560:of the
146:Germany
103:(otkaz)
89::
78:Russian
1827:Aliyah
1627:Komzet
1616:(EKSM)
1610:(EKP)
1581:(JAO)
1445:
1437:
1422:
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962:
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908:
883:
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800:
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700:Aliyah
564:. The
550:Israel
516:, and
492:, and
459:police
209:aliyah
186:, and
165:Crimea
158:Greeks
156:, and
119:Israel
1759:Nativ
954:[
411:Torah
200:spies
101:отказ
1632:OZET
1443:ISBN
1435:ISBN
1420:ISBN
1402:ISBN
1151:ISSN
1001:2018
960:OCLC
930:ISBN
906:ISBN
881:ISBN
873:ISBN
798:ISBN
777:ISBN
676:and
409:and
251:and
212:and
1472:),
1358:doi
367:MVD
291:MVD
63:MVD
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