Reinforcement - Knowledge

3048:'wanting' (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). But why one target becomes more 'wanted' than all others has not been fully explained. In addicts or agonist-stimulated patients, the repetition of dopamine-stimulation of incentive salience becomes attributed to particular individualized pursuits, such as taking the addictive drug or the particular compulsions. In Pavlovian reward situations, some cues for reward become more 'wanted' more than others as powerful motivational magnets, in ways that differ across individuals (Robinson et al., 2014b; Saunders and Robinson, 2013). ... However, hedonic effects might well change over time. As a drug was taken repeatedly, mesolimbic dopaminergic sensitization could consequently occur in susceptible individuals to amplify 'wanting' (Leyton and Vezina, 2013; Lodge and Grace, 2011; Wolf and Ferrario, 2010), even if opioid hedonic mechanisms underwent down-regulation due to continual drug stimulation, producing 'liking' tolerance. Incentive-sensitization would produce addiction, by selectively magnifying cue-triggered 'wanting' to take the drug again, and so powerfully cause motivation even if the drug became less pleasant (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). 1771:

the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim's ability to receive countervailing self-referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency ... The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim's capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression.

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several reward functions. ... Rewards are attractive. They are motivating and make us exert an effort. ... Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. ... Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. ... Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward.

282:. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength (response rate) rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future; for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of "cookie-requesting behavior" increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing "cookie-requesting behavior". If however, "cookie-requesting behavior" does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. 1741:

behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.

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factor, be it pleasant or unpleasant, to the environment, whereas "negative" actions are those that remove or withhold from the environment a factor of either type. In turn, the strict sense of "reinforcement" refers only to reward-based conditioning; the introduction of unpleasant factors and the removal or withholding of pleasant factors are instead referred to as "punishment", which when used in its strict sense thus stands in contradistinction to "reinforcement". Thus, "positive reinforcement" refers to the addition of a pleasant factor, "positive punishment" refers to the addition of an unpleasant factor, "negative reinforcement" refers to the removal or withholding of an unpleasant factor, and "negative punishment" refers to the removal or withholding of a pleasant factor.

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that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.

1419:. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement. 2990:& Stacy, 2006; Hickey et al., 2010a; Piech et al., 2010; Anderson et al., 2011). The CS even takes on some incentive properties similar to its UCS. An attractive CS often elicits behavioral motivated approach, and sometimes an individual may even attempt to 'consume' the CS somewhat as its UCS (e.g., eat, drink, smoke, have sex with, take as drug). 'Wanting' of a CS can turn also turn the formerly neutral stimulus into an instrumental conditioned reinforcer, so that an individual will work to obtain the cue (however, there exist alternative psychological mechanisms for conditioned reinforcement too). 1671:

article, a few of the most salient are: availability of immediate reinforcement (e.g. the ever-present bag of dog yummies); contingency, assuring that reinforcement follows the desired behavior and not something else; the use of secondary reinforcement, as in sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response; shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; intermittent reinforcement, reducing the frequency of those yummies to induce persistent behavior without satiation; chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually put together.

1690:. Providing positive reinforcement in the classroom can be beneficial to student success. When applying positive reinforcement to students, it's crucial to make it individualized to that student's needs. This way, the student understands why they are receiving the praise, they can accept it, and eventually learn to continue the action that was earned by positive reinforcement. For example, using rewards or extra recess time might apply to some students more, whereas others might accept the enforcement by receiving stickers or check marks indicating praise. 1240: 2929:

specific case of drug , cues and contexts that are intimately and repeatedly associated with drug use will often themselves become reinforcing ... A fundamental piece of Robinson and Berridge's incentive-sensitization theory of addiction posits that the incentive value or attractive nature of such secondary reinforcement processes, in addition to the primary reinforcers themselves, may persist and even become sensitized over time in league with the development of drug addiction (Robinson and Berridge, 1993). ...

55:. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on. In this example, the light is the antecedent stimulus, the lever pushing is the operant behavior, and the food is the reinforcer. Likewise, a student that receives attention and praise when answering a teacher's question will be more likely to answer future questions in class. The teacher's question is the antecedent, the student's response is the behavior, and the praise and attention are the reinforcements. 994: 1538: 29: 4785: 841:

While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat much food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.

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subsuming both reward and punishment and "negative" as referring to the responding operant's evaluation of the factor being introduced. By contrast, technical parlance would use the term "negative reinforcement" to describe encouragement of a given behavior by creating a scenario in which an unpleasant factor is or will be present but engaging in the behavior results in either escaping from that factor or preventing its occurrence, as in

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consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.

1608:(i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become 1294: 1686:

reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations"). They may also use indirect rewards such through

339:, in 1938, and elaborated this research in many subsequent publications. Notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. Though punishment may seem just the opposite of reinforcement, Skinner claimed that they differ immensely, saying that positive reinforcement results in lasting 1521:

first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (teaching each behavior in the chain simultaneously). People's morning routines are a typical chain, with a series of behaviors (e.g. showering, drying off, getting dressed) occurring in sequence as a well learned habit.

1820:, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer 1726:

persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they take in, the persistent slot-machine user invariably loses in the long run. Slots machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a factor underlying gambling addiction.

1261:– A single schedule with two components where progress in one component affects progress in the other component. In an interlocking FR 60 FI 120-s schedule, for example, each response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing two seconds from the FI schedule. 1770:

The other source indicated that 'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from

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Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences

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Thus, artificial reinforcement can be used to build or develop generalizable skills, eventually transitioning to naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase the behavior. Another example is a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain

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Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior. As

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The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected a behavior to produce a given outcome, but in the behavioral

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An important goal in future for addiction neuroscience is to understand how intense motivation becomes narrowly focused on a particular target. Addiction has been suggested to be partly due to excessive incentive salience produced by sensitized or hyper-reactive dopamine systems that produce intense

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An important dimension of reinforcement highly relevant to the addiction process (and particularly relapse) is secondary reinforcement (Stewart, 1992). Secondary reinforcers (in many cases also considered conditioned reinforcers) likely drive the majority of reinforcement processes in humans. In the

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Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification

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Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to

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Rewards in operant conditioning are positive reinforcers. ... Operant behavior gives a good definition for rewards. Anything that makes an individual come back for more is a positive reinforcer and therefore a reward. Although it provides a good definition, positive reinforcement is only one of

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in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable

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Challenging behaviors seen in individuals with autism and other related disabilities have successfully managed and maintained in studies using a scheduled of chained reinforcements. Functional communication training is an intervention that often uses chained schedules of reinforcement to effectively

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in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice

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and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior,

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the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks.

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refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by

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Specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, and these rules apply across many different species. The varying consistency and predictability of reinforcement is an important influence on how the different schedules operate. Many simple and complex schedules were

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was introduced by Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm, the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm, the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and then a potential

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This usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement", which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as

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When a Pavlovian CS+ is attributed with incentive salience it not only triggers 'wanting' for its UCS, but often the cue itself becomes highly attractive – even to an irrational degree. This cue attraction is another signature feature of incentive salience. The CS becomes hard not to look at (Wiers

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Increasingly, understanding of the role reinforcers play is moving away from a "strengthening" effect to a "signalling" effect. That is, the view that reinforcers increase responding because they signal the behaviors that are likely to result in reinforcement. While in most practical applications,

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Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger

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It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between

1255:– A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial. 968:

Behavior is not always reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of reinforcement strongly affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues when reinforcement ceases. The simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous

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in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers.

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Extinction occurs when a given behavior is ignored (i.e. followed up with no consequence), where it will disappear over time if the behavior continuously receives no reinforcement. Behavior after extinction spikes first and then declines over time. Extinction does not have to be deliberate in order

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Negative reinforcement is a special condition associated with a strengthening of behavioral responses that terminate some ongoing (presumably aversive) stimulus. In this case we can define a negative reinforcer as a motivational stimulus that strengthens such an "escape" response. Historically, in

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Abused substances (ranging from alcohol to psychostimulants) are initially ingested at regular occasions according to their positive reinforcing properties. Importantly, repeated exposure to rewarding substances sets off a chain of secondary reinforcing events, whereby cues and contexts associated

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Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this

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Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the

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In the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "Positive" actions are those that add a

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Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use,

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rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created a

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The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said

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The intervention of shaping is used in many training situations, and also for individuals with autism as well as other developmental disabilities. When shaping is combined with other evidence-based practices such as Functional Communication Training (FCT), it can yield positive outcomes for human

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Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. Eventually the rat will be reinforced for

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is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different. They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the

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In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors

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Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that the consequence of each behavior is both the reinforcement for the previous behavior, and the antecedent stimulus for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the

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When trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." If the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g. candy) then it is a primary reinforcer. If, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g. a dollar

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positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.

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In 1970, Baer and Wolf developed the concept of "behavioral traps." A behavioral trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by

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their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be

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Reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end. The table below illustrates the adding and

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of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D.

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As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of

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Shaping is also used for food refusal. Food refusal is when an individual has a partial or total aversion to food items. This can be as minimal as being a picky eater to so severe that it can affect an individual's health. Shaping has been used to have a high success rate for food acceptance.

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A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,” and some studies have shown that

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Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management and

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the effect of any given reinforcer will be the same regardless of whether the reinforcer is signalling or strengthening, this approach helps to explain a number of behavioral phenomena including patterns of responding on intermittent reinforcement schedules (fixed interval scallops) and the

1098:(DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking. 1498:

pressing the lever. The successful attainment of one behavior starts the shaping process for the next. As training progresses, the response becomes progressively more like the desired behavior, with each subsequent behavior becoming a closer approximation of the final behavior.

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Reinforcement in the business world is essential in driving productivity. Employees are constantly motivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, such as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are also driven by negative reinforcement, such as by eliminating unpleasant

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If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed

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Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a negative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to act in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the long

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or, less commonly, providing contingent punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the student when he or she calls

1434:. Other examples of the use of superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010). 1249:– A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time. 1181:

Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction.

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Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.

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proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase the frequency of an operant behavior as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a

1446:, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a 1400:

thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the

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parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.

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may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears. This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a

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Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it.

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Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to

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of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of

912:. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior. 810:

Some reinforcement can include both positive and negative features, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (positive reinforcement) and also to eliminate withdrawal symptoms (negative

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relation to drug addiction, this phenomenon has been consistently observed in humans whereby drugs of abuse are self-administered to quench a motivational need in the state of withdrawal (Wikler, 1952).

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Distinguishing between positive and negative reinforcement can be difficult and may not always be necessary. Focusing on what is being removed or added and how it affects behavior can be more helpful.

1070:(FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule. 1383:

tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.

1223:– A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement. 1580:

Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.

1279:– completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced. 1210:

Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are:

1663: 1120:(DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement. 869:

A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide-variety of

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Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to

1235:– Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. 1174:

fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.

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Garland AF, Hawley KM, Brookman-Frazee L, Hurlburt MS (May 2008). "Identifying common elements of evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children's disruptive behavior problems".

1229:– Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. 1273:– Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started. 333:, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes. A number of others continued this research, notably B.F. Skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in 1379:

that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule".

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Socially-mediated reinforcement involves the delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another organism. For example, another person is providing the reinforcement.

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The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.

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Harter JK, Shmidt FL, Keyes CL (2002). "Well-Being in the Workplace and its Relationship to Business Outcomes: A Review of the Gallup Studies.". In Keyes CL, Haidt J (eds.).

120:– psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain 1267:– Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started 1188:

Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.

2745:"CORRIGENDUM to "Further Evaluations of Functional Communication Training and Chained Schedules of Reinforcement to Treat Multiple Functions of Challenging Behavior"" 2802:"Functional Communication Training and Chained Schedules of Reinforcement to Treat Challenging Behavior Maintained by Terminations of Activity Interruptions" 1114:(DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior. 2283:

Tucker M, Sigafoos J, Bushell H (October 1998). "Use of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior. A review and clinical guide".

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Simonsen B, Fairbanks S, Briesch A, Myers D, Sugai G (2008). "Evidence-based Practices in Classroom Management: Considerations for Research to Practice".

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Lozano Bleda JH, Pérez Nieto MA (November 2012). "Impulsivity, intelligence, and discriminating reinforcement contingencies in a fixed-ratio 3 schedule".

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Droleskey RE, Andrews K, Chiarantini L, DeLoach JR (1992). "Use of fluorescent probes for describing the process of encapsulation by hypotonic dialysis".

726:, not negative reinforcement. The difference is that reinforcement always increases the likelihood of a behavior whereas punishment always decreases it. 3474:

Dutton; Painter (1981). "Traumatic Bonding: The development of emotional attachments in battered women and other relationships of intermittent abuse".

2926:

with drug use may themselves become reinforcing and thereby contribute to the continued use and possible abuse of the substance(s) of choice. ...

2701:

Turner, Virginia R; et al. (2020). "Response Shaping to Improve Food Acceptance for Children with Autism: Effects of Small and Large Food Sets".

1130:

Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).

860:

bill), it is a secondary reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satisfaction and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.

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A chart demonstrating the different response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each hatch mark designates a reinforcer being given

2084:

meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.

3103:

Forgatch MS, Patterson GR (2010). Parent management training — Oregon model: An intervention for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents.

1217:– A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement. 1156:

The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of

1617:

as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing

4034: 81:. The concept has been applied in a variety of practical areas, including parenting, coaching, therapy, self-help, education, and management. 916:

no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".

70:, which involves taking away an undesirable stimulus. An example of negative reinforcement would be taking an aspirin to relieve a headache. 1502:

behavior. Shaping typically uses continuous reinforcement, but the response can later be shifted to an intermittent reinforcement schedule.

1478:

is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by

897:

Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a

1463:

the schedules. In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect.

1076:(VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. 876:

In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism without regard to any prior behavior.

241: 3087:

Kazdin AE (2010). Problem-solving skills training and parent management training for oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder.

969:

reinforcement, where every response is reinforced, and extinction, where no response is reinforced. Between these extremes, more complex

48: 3512: 1011:– a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer. 2431:

Vollmer TR, Iwata BA (1992). "Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: procedural and functional variations".

175:– dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome) 1569: 1146:

Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar.

952:

Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted skills.

698:

is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases.

131:– an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake) 2493:

McSweeney FK, Murphy ES, Kowal BP (2001). "Dynamic changes in reinforcer value: Some misconceptions and why you should care".

856:

that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money).

4464: 3613: 3588: 3499: 3069: 2685: 2613: 2343: 4810:"Developing and Implementing a Positive Behavioral Reinforcement Intervention in Prison-Based Drug Treatment: Project BRITE" 3276:"Task clarification, performance feedback, and social praise: Procedures for improving the customer service of bank tellers" 3755: 1973:

Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).

1568:

There has been research on building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, which is short for

4736: 4208: 4065: 2893:

Edwards S (2016). "Reinforcement principles for addiction medicine; from recreational drug use to psychiatric disorder".

1185:

Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly.

1015:

Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for a specific response.

4598: 52: 1422:

Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach conflict,

890:, which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity. 3919: 3898: 3877: 3767:

Brechner KC, Linder DE (1981). "A social trap analysis of energy distribution systems". In Baum A, Singer JE (eds.).

3458: 3185: 3119:

Domjan, M. (2009). The Principles of Learning and Behavior. Wadsworth Publishing Company. 6th Edition. pages 244–249.

2910: 2531: 1982: 1361:

Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple

1336: 942:

exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavioral traps have four characteristics:

343:(long-term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short-term) and has many detrimental side-effects. 302: 668:

paradigm, the experimenter triggers (elicits) the desirable response by presenting a reflex eliciting stimulus, the

278:

was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and

209:– a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress 4661: 4528: 3678:

McCormack J, Arnold-Saritepe A, Elliffe D (June 2017). "The differential outcomes effect in children with autism".

1878: 234: 2367:

Baer DM, Wolf MM. "The entry into natural communities of reinforcement". In Ulrich R, Stachnik T, Mabry J (eds.).

4741: 4731: 1868: 1705: 1423: 1196:

Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones.

4763: 3997: 2800:

Falcomata, Terry S.; Roane, Henry S.; Muething, Colin S.; Stephenson, Kasey M.; Ing, Anna D. (9 February 2012).

1318: 17: 4364: 2229: 1447: 264: 1825:

Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not broadly used in psychology.

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it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking

955:

They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects.

901:

behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are

703: 32: 4125: 3527: 1193:

Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.

4191: 227: 51:

that increase the likelihood of an organism's future behavior, typically in the presence of a particular

4626: 4161: 3548: 1680: 1388: 1362: 193:– stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach 4870: 4691: 4621: 4573: 4533: 4413: 4267: 3105: 3089: 2384:"Toward a technology of generalization: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement" 2231:

Well-Being in the Workplace and its Relationship to Business Outcomes: A Review of the Gallup Studies

2146: 1843: 1309: 335: 298: 4043: 4031: 1549: 1415:

Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating

1153:

than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).

1140:

Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.

4374: 3716: 1863: 1637: 290: 171: 4676: 4666: 4644: 4058: 1858: 1800: 1764: 1150: 1134: 1105: 1088: 909: 683: 473: 391: 682:

is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning, see

4696: 4516: 4483: 4408: 4403: 4196: 3201:

Baker GL, Barnes HJ (1992). "Superior vena cava syndrome: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment".

722:. Doing something unpleasant to people to prevent or remove a behavior from happening again is 665: 205: 1087:(DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an undesired response is decreased by placing it on 4758: 4686: 4671: 4583: 4181: 3490: 2895:

Neuroscience for Addiction Medicine: From Prevention to Rehabilitation - Constructs and Drugs

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Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of

1370:

a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a

340: 78: 4880: 4681: 4538: 4349: 4226: 4203: 4145: 4120: 4082: 2112: 1787: 1699: 1492: 1443: 1431: 973:

specify the rules that determine how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer.

870: 853: 837: 750:

subtracting of stimuli (pleasant or aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment.

377: 356: 314: 127: 74: 2951:"From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation" 2605: 2597: 8: 4605: 4488: 4438: 4433: 4423: 4418: 4369: 4135: 1817: 1629: 1625: 318: 217:– the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose 155: 3785:

Cowie S (2019). "Some weaknesses of a response-strength account of reinforcer effects".

2116: 905:

necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning.

143:– the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose 4885: 4842: 4809: 4788: 4751: 4726: 4716: 4511: 4448: 4428: 4130: 4051: 3976: 3951: 3866: 3840: 3815: 3802: 3655: 3630: 3429: 3391: 3383: 3348: 3300: 3275: 3174: 3154: 3142: 3033: 3008: 2975: 2950: 2837: 2782: 2726: 2629:

Ghaemmaghami, Mahshid; Hanley, Gregory P.; Jessel, Joshua; Landa, Robin (14 May 2018).

2573: 2548: 2408: 2383: 2308: 2069: 2044: 2016: 1999: 1946: 1921: 1614: 1605: 1239: 1005:– the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed. 306: 59: 4847: 4829: 4746: 4588: 4115: 4021: 3981: 3915: 3894: 3873: 3845: 3806: 3737: 3660: 3609: 3584: 3577: 3495: 3454: 3433: 3395: 3340: 3305: 3256: 3218: 3181: 3158: 3146: 3065: 3038: 2980: 2966: 2916: 2906: 2829: 2821: 2786: 2774: 2766: 2730: 2718: 2681: 2658: 2650: 2609: 2578: 2527: 2448: 2444: 2413: 2349: 2339: 2300: 2270: 2128: 2074: 2021: 1978: 1951: 1754: 1304: 883: 294: 135: 4026: 3352: 2841: 2312: 1572:. Peter Killeen has made key discoveries in the field with his research on pigeons. 949:

Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap.

4837: 4821: 4279: 4176: 4156: 4110: 3971: 3963: 3938: 3835: 3827: 3794: 3733: 3687: 3650: 3642: 3421: 3375: 3332: 3295: 3287: 3248: 3210: 3176:

History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations of contemporary research

3138: 3028: 3020: 2970: 2962: 2898: 2868: 2813: 2756: 2710: 2642: 2568: 2560: 2502: 2475: 2440: 2403: 2395: 2331: 2292: 2120: 2064: 2056: 2011: 1941: 1933: 946:

They are "baited" with desirable reinforcers that "lure" the student into the trap.

330: 164: 4808:

Burdon, William M.; St. De Lore, Jef; Prendergast, Michael L. (7 September 2011).

3798: 873:. (One example of this is money because it is paired with many other reinforcers). 852:, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after 4825: 4770: 4654: 4379: 4038: 3909: 3888: 3857: 3448: 3252: 3024: 2521: 1848: 1780: 1657: 1645: 1593: 1479: 930: 260: 147: 105: 2335: 2330:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 326. pp. 73–80. 2161: 4636: 4168: 4105: 3336: 2902: 2714: 2179: 1937: 1760: 1687: 213: 184:– stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them 109: 3323:

Goldman NC (1992). "Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the external auditory canal".

2872: 2801: 2296: 2124: 718:

Negative reinforcement increases the rate of a behavior to avoid or escape an

4864: 4833: 4649: 3967: 3831: 2825: 2817: 2770: 2761: 2744: 2654: 1888: 1883: 1805: 1597: 1199:

Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.

1080:

Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement procedures:

935: 887: 758: 695: 197: 188: 121: 3646: 3291: 3214: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2856: 1624:

In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is

993: 293:

experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in

286:

theory, reinforcement is defined by an increased probability of a response.

201:– an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it 4851: 3861: 3849: 3664: 3309: 3260: 3150: 3042: 2984: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2920: 2833: 2778: 2722: 2662: 2582: 2417: 2132: 2078: 2025: 1955: 1907: 1853: 1816:

The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as

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An event that punishes behavior for some may reinforce behavior for others.

275: 3985: 3816:"The etymology of basic concepts in the experimental analysis of behavior" 3344: 3222: 2452: 2353: 2304: 2269:

Miltenberger, R. G. "Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures".

2060: 1662: 1644:, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of 1143:

Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.

160: 3604:

Vaccarino FJ, Schiff BB, Glickman SE (1989). Mowrer RR, Klein SB (eds.).

2995: 1455: 1416: 1401: 1396: 1392: 707: 279: 40: 4009:. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. pp. 205–224. 2937: 1537: 1430:(1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his 28: 4721: 4561: 4398: 3425: 3387: 2399: 1908:

Definition of reinforcement from the American Psychological Association

1873: 1525:

promote the appropriate and desired functional communication response.

1427: 1350: 982: 329:

Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of

2630: 4090: 4078: 4073: 3942: 3691: 3553: 3532: 3106:

Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed.)

3090:

Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (2nd ed.)

2646: 2564: 2506: 2479: 1641: 1589: 764: 719: 310: 116: 100: 3952:"Fixed and variable schedules of response-independent reinforcement" 3238: 2100: 1133:

Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to

3379: 1975:

Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience

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where subjects are rewarded for certain behavior by the therapist.

4258: 3631:"Reinforcement: food signals the time and location of future food" 3241:

Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

2325: 2045:"Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction" 1149:

Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to

4232: 1977:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375. 1618: 1157: 1124: 58:

Consequences that lead to appetitive behavior such as subjective

3771:. Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. 3724:

Brechner KC (1977). "An experimental analysis of social traps".

2799: 1026:

th response. An FR 1 schedule is synonymous with a CRF schedule.

4320: 3747:

Social Traps, Individual Traps, and Theory in Social Psychology

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creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.

1735: 1633: 1451: 1409: 1405: 1371: 898: 1674: 672:(UCS), which they pair (precede) with a neutral stimulus, the 4330: 4325: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4253: 4238: 3411: 2897:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 63–76. 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2628: 2371:. Vol. 2. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. pp. 319–24. 1922:"Neuronal Reward and Decision Signals: From Theories to Data" 108:

disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including

4807: 2466:

Derenne A, Flannery KA (2007). "Within Session FR Pausing".

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The Use of Resealed Erythrocytes as Carriers and Bioreactors

289:

The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of

4248: 4243: 3749:. Bulletin No. 870001. Pasadena, CA: Time River Laboratory. 3450:

Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents

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Administrating two reinforcement schedules at the same time

3929:

Skinner BF (1956). "A case history in scientific method".

2879: 4273: 3273: 1376: 151:– symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use 3440: 2676:

Tarbox and Lanagan Bermudez, Jonathan and Taira (2017).

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treatment based on the idea of positive reinforcement.

3407: 3405: 3234: 3232: 2237:. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. 1763:

in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and

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upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.

2604:(2nd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. pp. 2595: 2282: 2184:. New York: Meredith Publishing Company. p. 381. 4524:

Community reinforcement approach and family training

3274:

Crowell CR, Anderson DC, Abel DM, Sergio JP (1988).

2631:"Shaping complex functional communication responses" 2546: 2492: 823: 3628: 3402: 3229: 3006: 2181:

Operant Behavior: Areas of Research and Application

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The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis

1972: 1104:(DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without 1102:

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior

1022:(FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every 112:) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences 23:

Consequence affecting an organism's future behavior

4007:Flourishing: The Positive Person and the Good Life 3865: 3576: 3173: 2549:"On Choice, Preference, and Preference For Choice" 2160: 2042: 1759:Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing 1628:in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of 1604:of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it 1085:Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior 744: 4004: 3756:"Superimposed schedules applied to rent control." 3062:Carrots and sticks: principles of animal training 1966: 1426:, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by 886:is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by 4862: 3956:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3890:A dynamic theory of personality: Selected papers 3820:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3635:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3608:. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 3579:Skinner for the classroom : selected papers 2043:Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016). 1391:in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of 2465: 2381: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2253: 1112:Differential reinforcement of low response rate 159:– dependence that involves persistent physical– 3856: 3766: 3059: 2547:Martin TL, Yu CT, Martin GL, Fazzio D (2006). 1314:convert Author (Year) citations to wiki style. 1125:Effects of different types of simple schedules 4059: 3494:. Jessica Kingsley Publishers; 15 June 2008. 3482: 3473: 3083: 3081: 2519: 2215:Learning Processes: Instrumental Conditioning 2202:. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1991: 798: 235: 62:(desire and pleasure) function as rewards or 3366:Brophy J (1981). "On praising effectively". 3359: 3316: 2430: 2250: 2036: 1096:Differential reinforcement of other behavior 863: 738:to have an effect on a subject's behavior. 3780:(5th ed.). Toronto: Thomson-Wadsworth. 3629:Cowie S, Davison M, Elliffe D (July 2011). 3446: 3200: 2680:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 1–6. 2596:Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2011). 2212: 2206: 1675:Child behavior – parent management training 1583: 1474:, a quantitative relationship known as the 1253:Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement' 73:Reinforcement is an important component of 4066: 4052: 4022:An On-Line Positive Reinforcement Tutorial 3078: 2857:"Mathematical principles of reinforcement" 1997: 1609: 1459:likelihood of reinforcement on the other. 305:and is a core concept in some medical and 242: 228: 4841: 3975: 3839: 3726:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 3654: 3299: 3064:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3032: 2974: 2760: 2572: 2407: 2149:", 1938 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 2101:"Some Experiments on Animal Intelligence" 2098: 2068: 2015: 1945: 1404:analogy could be used to analyze the way 1337:Learn how and when to remove this message 1283: 713: 689: 3813: 3753: 3744: 3723: 3713:An experimental analysis of social traps 3710: 3007:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). 2948: 2193: 2191: 2000:"Cellular basis of memory for addiction" 1661: 1601: 1570:mathematical principles of reinforcement 1238: 992: 27: 3928: 3907: 3574: 3540: 3491:Counselling Survivors of Domestic Abuse 3322: 2892: 2854: 2247:Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism 2158: 1919: 1808:market that is under legal evaluation. 1470:When both the concurrent schedules are 1437: 1355:superimposed schedules of reinforcement 1118:Differential reinforcement of high rate 1060:amount of time, but not always exactly 350: 163:withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and 4863: 3949: 3775: 3758:. In Levine DK, Pesendorfer W (eds.). 3525: 3513:"Traumatic Bonding | Encyclopedia.com" 3365: 3171: 2703:Research in Developmental Disabilities 2700: 2433:Research in Developmental Disabilities 2227: 2221: 1913: 1528: 836:, is a stimulus that does not require 4047: 3914:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 3886: 3872:. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 3787:European Journal of Behavior Analysis 3784: 2678:Treating Feeding Challenges in Autism 2197: 2188: 2177: 2152: 1205: 694:Positive reinforcement occurs when a 645: 643: 634: 632: 630: 596: 594: 592: 579: 577: 568: 566: 561: 559: 550: 504: 502: 484: 471: 469: 467: 465: 463: 454: 452: 450: 404: 402: 400: 389: 387: 385: 383: 381: 376: 374: 372: 370: 368: 366: 364: 3996:. University of Iowa. Archived from 3769:Advances in Environmental Psychology 3575:Skinner BF (1982). Epstein R (ed.). 3546: 3325:Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery 3280:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 3180:. Baltimore: University Park Press. 3097: 2955:The European Journal of Neuroscience 2635:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2366: 2171: 1748: 1715:Gambling – variable ratio scheduling 1532: 1287: 964:Intermittent reinforcement schedules 921:Natural and artificial reinforcement 4737:Discrimination against drug addicts 3583:. Champaign, Ill.: Research Press. 3414:Education and Treatment of Children 1056:(VI) – reinforced on an average of 1036:th response, but not always on the 1032:(VR) – reinforced on average every 988: 927:Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement 13: 4599:Tobacco cessation clinics in India 3703: 3143:10.5209/rev_sjop.2012.v15.n3.39384 3094:211–226. New York: Guilford Press. 2228:Harter JK (2002). Keyes CL (ed.). 2213:D'Amato MR (1969). Marx MH (ed.). 2004:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 1651: 14: 4897: 4015: 3994:"Glossary of reinforcement terms" 3203:American Journal of Critical Care 3131:The Spanish Journal of Psychology 3110:159–78. New York: Guilford Press. 2523:Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2217:. Toronto: The Macmillan Company. 2167:. Toronto: The Macmillan Company. 2087:of severe substance-use disorder. 838:pairing with a different stimulus 824:Primary and secondary reinforcers 303:experimental analysis of behavior 265:learning to avoid electric shocks 92:Addiction and dependence glossary 4784: 4783: 4662:Low-threshold treatment programs 4529:Motivational enhancement therapy 3754:Brechner KC (28 February 2003). 2967:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x 2382:Kohler FW, Greenwood CR (1986). 1879:Reinforcement sensitivity theory 1610:conditioned positive reinforcers 1536: 1292: 977:investigated at great length by 664:reinforcer is delivered. In the 650:Behavior avoids noxious stimulus 4801: 4742:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome 4732:Category:Vaccines against drugs 3671: 3622: 3597: 3568: 3519: 3505: 3467: 3267: 3194: 3165: 3122: 3113: 3060:McGreevy PD, Boakes RA (2007). 3053: 3009:"Pleasure systems in the brain" 2848: 2793: 2737: 2694: 2669: 2622: 2589: 2540: 2513: 2486: 2459: 2424: 2375: 2360: 2319: 2276: 2241: 2049:New England Journal of Medicine 1910:Retrieved on January 30th, 2024 1869:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer 1706:Consumer demand tests (animals) 1575: 745:Reinforcement versus punishment 270: 3606:Contemporary learning theories 2855:Killeen PR (4 February 2010). 2520:Iversen IH, Lattal KA (1991). 2139: 2092: 1901: 1774: 1009:Continuous reinforcement (CRF) 720:aversive situation or stimulus 84: 18:Reinforcement (disambiguation) 1: 4814:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 4365:Adverse childhood experiences 3814:Dinsmoor JA (November 2004). 3799:10.1080/15021149.2019.1685247 3368:The Elementary School Journal 2861:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1895: 1811: 1666:A chicken riding a skateboard 1602:a primary positive reinforcer 1448:two-alternative forced choice 732: 4826:10.1080/02791072.2011.601990 4594:Nicotine replacement therapy 4579:Intensive outpatient program 4567:Residential treatment center 4507:Cognitive behavioral therapy 3738:10.1016/0022-1031(77)90054-3 3447:Weisz JR, Kazdin AE (2010). 3253:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816765c2 3025:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018 2445:10.1016/0891-4222(92)90013-v 1998:Nestler EJ (December 2013). 1831:differential outcomes effect 1693: 704:high probability instruction 33:Operant conditioning chamber 7: 4192:Internet addiction disorder 2336:10.1007/978-1-4615-3030-5_9 1836: 1801:monetization of video games 1600:; that is, it functions as 1509: 1424:approach–avoidance conflict 1312:. The specific problem is: 696:desirable event or stimulus 263:experimente involving dogs 10: 4902: 4627:List of twelve-step groups 4027:Scholarpedia Reinforcement 3868:Schedules of reinforcement 3549:"Are loot boxes gambling?" 3547:Hood V (12 October 2017). 3526:Hopson J (27 April 2001). 3337:10.1177/019459989210600211 2949:Berridge KC (April 2012). 2903:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.005 2715:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103574 2553:The Behavior Analyst Today 2495:The Behavior Analyst Today 2468:The Behavior Analyst Today 2200:The Power of Reinforcement 1938:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014 1799:As part of a trend in the 1792: 1778: 1752: 1733: 1718: 1703: 1697: 1681:Parent management training 1678: 1655: 1513: 1490: 1486: 1389:schedules of reinforcement 1363:schedules of reinforcement 971:schedules of reinforcement 799:Further ideas and concepts 641:following correct behavior 584:Remove appetitive stimulus 557:following correct behavior 354: 324: 35:for reinforcement training 15: 4779: 4709: 4692:Supervised injection site 4635: 4622:Addiction recovery groups 4614: 4574:Heroin-assisted treatment 4552: 4534:Motivational interviewing 4497: 4476: 4463: 4388: 4357: 4348: 4217: 4144: 4098: 4089: 3911:The behavior of organisms 3893:. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2873:10.1017/S0140525X00033628 2369:Control of human behavior 2297:10.1177/01454455980224005 2125:10.1126/science.7.181.818 2099:Thorndike E (June 1898). 1844:Applied behavior analysis 1729: 864:Other reinforcement terms 624: 622: 620: 612: 608: 602: 544: 542: 540: 532: 530: 528: 520: 516: 510: 500: 496: 490: 444: 442: 440: 438: 436: 434: 426: 422: 420: 414: 412: 410: 336:The Behavior of Organisms 299:applied behavior analysis 223: 96: 91: 4375:Psychological dependence 4209:Digital media addictions 3968:10.1901/jeab.1968.11-405 3832:10.1901/jeab.2004.82-311 3760:Economic and Game Theory 3717:Arizona State University 3680:Behavioral Interventions 3528:"Behavioral Game Design" 2818:10.1177/0145445511433821 2762:10.1177/0145445520945810 2755:(1): 254. 24 July 2020. 1864:Overjustification effect 1638:psychological dependence 1584:Addiction and dependence 1046:(FI) – reinforced after 834:unconditioned reinforcer 172:psychological dependence 4677:Needle exchange program 4667:Managed alcohol program 4645:Category:Harm reduction 3950:Zeiler MD (July 1968). 3647:10.1901/jeab.2011.96-63 3292:10.1901/jaba.1988.21-65 3215:10.4037/ajcc1992.1.1.54 2526:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 1920:Schultz W (July 2015). 1859:Learned industriousness 1598:intrinsically rewarding 1596:. An addictive drug is 1030:Variable ratio schedule 854:pairing with a stimulus 789:Negative reinforcement 775:Positive reinforcement 684:punishment (psychology) 639:Remove noxious stimulus 555:Add appetitive stimulus 341:behavioral modification 4697:Tobacco harm reduction 4517:Contingency management 4484:Alcohol detoxification 4197:Internet sex addiction 4037:2 October 2011 at the 1667: 1395:, such as when humans 1284:Superimposed schedules 1277:Higher-order schedules 1259:Interlocking schedules 1244: 1215:Alternative schedules' 998: 850:conditioned reinforcer 832:, sometimes called an 767:(unpleasant) stimulus 714:Negative reinforcement 690:Positive reinforcement 670:unconditional stimulus 666:classical conditioning 563:Negative reinforcement 552:Positive reinforcement 206:substance use disorder 68:negative reinforcement 64:positive reinforcement 60:"wanting" and "liking" 36: 4759:Motivational salience 4687:Stimulant maintenance 4672:Moderation Management 4584:Methadone maintenance 4032:scienceofbehavior.com 3931:American Psychologist 3778:Learning and Behavior 3172:Kazdin, Alan (1978). 2806:Behavior Modification 2749:Behavior Modification 2598:"Chapter 7: Learning" 2285:Behavior Modification 2061:10.1056/NEJMra1511480 1926:Physiological Reviews 1704:Further information: 1665: 1636:and sweating) and/or 1242: 1221:Conjunctive schedules 996: 871:motivating operations 848:, sometimes called a 783:Removing/taking away 706:(HPI) treatment is a 309:models, particularly 79:behavior modification 41:behavioral psychology 31: 4682:Responsible drug use 4539:Motivational therapy 4204:Video game addiction 3745:Brechner KC (1987). 3711:Brechner KC (1974). 3488:Chrissie Sanderson. 2388:The Behavior Analyst 1788:video game addiction 1700:Behavioral economics 1493:Shaping (psychology) 1444:operant conditioning 1438:Concurrent schedules 1432:force field analysis 1319:improve this section 1308:to meet Knowledge's 1247:Concurrent schedules 846:secondary reinforcer 786:Negative punishment 778:Positive punishment 761:(pleasant) stimulus 674:conditional stimulus 661:operant conditioning 573:Add noxious stimulus 378:Operant conditioning 357:Operant conditioning 351:Operant conditioning 75:operant conditioning 16:For other uses, see 4876:Behavioral concepts 4606:Twelve-step program 4489:Drug detoxification 4370:Physical dependence 3908:Skinner BF (1938). 2159:Skinner BF (1948). 2117:1898Sci.....7..818T 1630:physical dependence 1529:Mathematical models 925:In his 1967 paper, 581:Negative punishment 570:Positive punishment 156:physical dependence 53:antecedent stimulus 4764:Incentive salience 4752:Inhibitory control 4727:Category:Addiction 4717:Addiction medicine 4512:Relapse prevention 4449:Tanning dependence 3453:. Guilford Press. 3426:10.1353/etc.0.0007 2400:10.1007/bf03391926 1668: 1615:drug paraphernalia 1606:incentive salience 1548:. You can help by 1472:variable intervals 1245: 1227:Multiple schedules 1206:Compound schedules 999: 894:Premack principle. 830:primary reinforcer 772:Adding/presenting 586:following behavior 575:following behavior 307:psychopharmacology 136:drug sensitization 37: 4797: 4796: 4747:Cognitive control 4705: 4704: 4589:Smoking cessation 4544:Physical exercise 4459: 4458: 4445:Non-drug stimuli 4344: 4343: 4188:Internet-related 4000:on 13 April 2007. 3776:Chance P (2003). 3615:978-0-89859-915-2 3590:978-0-87822-261-2 3500:978-1-84642-811-1 3071:978-0-521-68691-4 2687:978-0-12-813563-1 2615:978-1-4292-3719-2 2345:978-1-4613-6321-7 2271:Thomson/Wadsworth 1755:Traumatic bonding 1749:Traumatic bonding 1626:self-administered 1566: 1565: 1347: 1346: 1339: 1310:quality standards 1301:This section may 1265:Chained schedules 1054:Variable interval 884:Premack principle 793: 792: 656: 655: 478:Decrease behavior 461:Increase behavior 295:special education 261:Martin Seligman’s 252: 251: 141:reverse tolerance 4893: 4871:Behavior therapy 4856: 4855: 4845: 4805: 4787: 4786: 4474: 4473: 4355: 4354: 4280:G9a-like protein 4096: 4095: 4068: 4061: 4054: 4045: 4044: 4010: 4001: 3989: 3979: 3946: 3943:10.1037/h0047662 3925: 3904: 3887:Lewin K (1935). 3883: 3871: 3853: 3843: 3810: 3781: 3772: 3763: 3750: 3741: 3720: 3696: 3695: 3692:10.1002/bin.1489 3675: 3669: 3668: 3658: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3582: 3572: 3566: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3509: 3503: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3409: 3400: 3399: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3303: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3236: 3227: 3226: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3179: 3169: 3163: 3162: 3126: 3120: 3117: 3111: 3101: 3095: 3085: 3076: 3075: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3036: 3004: 2993: 2992: 2978: 2946: 2935: 2934: 2890: 2877: 2876: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2764: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2698: 2692: 2691: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2647:10.1002/jaba.468 2626: 2620: 2619: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2576: 2565:10.1037/h0100083 2544: 2538: 2537: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2507:10.1037/h0099952 2490: 2484: 2483: 2480:10.1037/h0100611 2463: 2457: 2456: 2428: 2422: 2421: 2411: 2379: 2373: 2372: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2323: 2317: 2316: 2280: 2274: 2267: 2248: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2236: 2225: 2219: 2218: 2210: 2204: 2203: 2198:Flora S (2004). 2195: 2186: 2185: 2178:Honig W (1966). 2175: 2169: 2168: 2166: 2156: 2150: 2145:Skinner, B. F. " 2143: 2137: 2136: 2096: 2090: 2089: 2072: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2019: 1995: 1989: 1988: 1970: 1964: 1963: 1949: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1561: 1558: 1540: 1533: 1342: 1335: 1331: 1328: 1322: 1296: 1295: 1288: 1271:Tandem schedules 989:Simple schedules 753: 752: 647:Active avoidance 362: 361: 331:Edward Thorndike 244: 237: 230: 165:delirium tremens 89: 88: 66:. There is also 4901: 4900: 4896: 4895: 4894: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4861: 4860: 4859: 4820:(sup1): 40–50. 4806: 4802: 4798: 4793: 4775: 4771:Sober companion 4701: 4655:Reagent testing 4631: 4610: 4554: 4548: 4499: 4493: 4468: 4466: 4455: 4384: 4340: 4227:Transcriptional 4219: 4213: 4140: 4126:Methylphenidate 4121:Methamphetamine 4085: 4072: 4039:Wayback Machine 4018: 4013: 3992: 3922: 3901: 3880: 3706: 3704:Further reading 3699: 3676: 3672: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3602: 3598: 3591: 3573: 3569: 3559: 3557: 3545: 3541: 3524: 3520: 3511: 3510: 3506: 3487: 3483: 3472: 3468: 3461: 3445: 3441: 3410: 3403: 3364: 3360: 3321: 3317: 3272: 3268: 3237: 3230: 3199: 3195: 3188: 3170: 3166: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3114: 3102: 3098: 3086: 3079: 3072: 3058: 3054: 3005: 2996: 2947: 2938: 2930: 2927: 2913: 2891: 2880: 2853: 2849: 2798: 2794: 2743: 2742: 2738: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2674: 2670: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2594: 2590: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2518: 2514: 2491: 2487: 2464: 2460: 2429: 2425: 2380: 2376: 2365: 2361: 2346: 2324: 2320: 2281: 2277: 2268: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2234: 2226: 2222: 2211: 2207: 2196: 2189: 2176: 2172: 2157: 2153: 2144: 2140: 2111:(181): 818–24. 2097: 2093: 2085: 2041: 2037: 1996: 1992: 1985: 1971: 1967: 1918: 1914: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1893: 1849:Behavioral cusp 1839: 1814: 1797: 1783: 1781:Compulsion loop 1777: 1761:cycles of abuse 1757: 1751: 1738: 1732: 1723: 1717: 1708: 1702: 1696: 1688:progress charts 1683: 1677: 1660: 1658:Animal training 1654: 1652:Animal training 1646:drug withdrawal 1594:drug dependence 1586: 1578: 1562: 1556: 1553: 1546:needs expansion 1531: 1518: 1512: 1495: 1489: 1480:R.J. Herrnstein 1440: 1343: 1332: 1326: 1323: 1316: 1297: 1293: 1286: 1233:Mixed schedules 1208: 1127: 1064:amount of time. 1050:amount of time. 991: 966: 931:Charles Ferster 923: 866: 826: 811:reinforcement). 801: 795: 747: 741: 735: 729: 716: 701: 692: 657: 649: 640: 638: 585: 583: 574: 572: 556: 554: 477: 460: 359: 353: 327: 273: 248: 148:drug withdrawal 106:biopsychosocial 87: 24: 21: 12: 11: 5: 4899: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4858: 4857: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4780: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4768: 4767: 4766: 4756: 4755: 4754: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4713: 4711: 4707: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4658: 4657: 4647: 4641: 4639: 4637:Harm reduction 4633: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4624: 4618: 4616: 4615:Support groups 4612: 4611: 4609: 4608: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4596: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4558: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4514: 4503: 4501: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4486: 4480: 4478: 4477:Detoxification 4471: 4461: 4460: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4452: 4451: 4443: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4414:Benzodiazepine 4411: 4406: 4401: 4392: 4390: 4386: 4385: 4383: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4361: 4359: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4337: 4336: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4282: 4277: 4264: 4263: 4262: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4223: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4200: 4199: 4194: 4186: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4171: 4169:Palatable food 4166: 4165: 4164: 4159: 4150: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4102: 4100: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4071: 4070: 4063: 4056: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4029: 4024: 4017: 4016:External links 4014: 4012: 4011: 4002: 3990: 3947: 3926: 3920: 3905: 3899: 3884: 3878: 3854: 3811: 3782: 3773: 3764: 3751: 3742: 3721: 3715:(PhD thesis). 3707: 3705: 3702: 3698: 3697: 3686:(4): 357–369. 3670: 3621: 3614: 3596: 3589: 3567: 3539: 3518: 3504: 3481: 3466: 3459: 3439: 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1488: 1485: 1483:in schedules. 1439: 1436: 1408:flows through 1345: 1344: 1300: 1298: 1291: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1274: 1268: 1262: 1256: 1250: 1236: 1230: 1224: 1218: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1197: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1186: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1165: 1154: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1131: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1115: 1109: 1099: 1093: 1078: 1077: 1071: 1065: 1051: 1044:Fixed interval 1041: 1027: 1013: 1012: 1006: 1003:Ratio schedule 990: 987: 965: 962: 957: 956: 953: 950: 947: 922: 919: 918: 917: 913: 906: 895: 891: 880: 877: 874: 865: 862: 825: 822: 821: 820: 816: 812: 808: 805: 800: 797: 791: 790: 787: 784: 780: 779: 776: 773: 769: 768: 762: 756: 746: 743: 734: 731: 715: 712: 691: 688: 654: 652: 651: 644: 642: 633: 631: 628: 627: 625: 623: 621: 619: 617: 614: 613: 611: 609: 607: 605: 603: 601: 599: 597: 595: 593: 590: 588: 587: 578: 576: 567: 565: 560: 558: 548: 547: 545: 543: 541: 539: 537: 535: 533: 531: 529: 527: 525: 522: 521: 519: 517: 515: 513: 511: 509: 507: 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checking 4648: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4634: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4613: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4591: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4496: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4462: 4450: 4447: 4446: 4444: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4396: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4387: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4347: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4234: 4230: 4229: 4228: 4225: 4224: 4222: 4216: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4198: 4195: 4193: 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