487:. While many states export resources or license their development by foreign parties, rentier states are characterized by the relative absence of revenue from domestic taxation, as their naturally occurring wealth precludes the need to extract income from their citizenry. According to Douglas Yates, the economic behavior of a rentier state "embodies a break in the work-reward causation ... ewards of income and wealth for the rentier do not come as the result of work but rather are the result of chance or situation." Hazem Beblawi has argued that this could create a "rentier mentality," while political scientist
544:
Middle East, “why have certain rentier states (such as Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) remained so remarkably stable, while others (such as Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Libya and Sudan) have become—either before or during the Arab Spring—scenes of violent unrest?” Abulof points to political legitimacy as a determining factor, and argues that authoritarian rentier regimes are in fact more fragile than they seem to be.
217:. He stated that a limited amount of rentier states, or creditor states, would accumulate capital through the export of capital to underdeveloped and politically dependent debtor states. According to Lenin rentier states were a “state of parasitic, decaying capitalism, and this circumstance cannot fail to influence all the socio-political conditions of the countries concerned”.
548:
significantly, inter-state relations in the region have been affected as oil states try to ensure stability and tranquillity for their rent by buying allegiance from neighbouring states – in effect, sharing the oil rent. Beblawi highlights the case of Egypt whose receipt of financial aid from oil-rich neighbours declined significantly after
228:. He defined rentier states as countries that receive on a regular basis substantial amounts of external rents. External rents are in turn defined as “rentals paid by foreign individuals, concerns or governments to individual concerns or governments of a given country”. According to Mahdavy the payments for the passage of ships through the
571:
Indeed, it has never been my understanding that the rentier state paradigm should be either the sole or the overwhelming tool of interpretation of the political economy of oil-producing countries. I believe that reliance on a stream of rent accruing directly to the state from the rest of the world is
491:
has posited that such states fail to develop politically because, in the absence of taxes, citizens have less incentive to place pressure on the government to become responsive to their needs. Instead, the government essentially 'bribes' the citizenry with extensive social welfare programs, becoming
268:
by looking at the potential social and political effects of rentierism and focused on how rents were distributed and generated. According to
Beblawi an essential characteristic of rentier states is the fact that only a few are engaged in the generation of rent (wealth) and a majority involved in the
535:
is frequently bloated and inefficient – and indeed comes to resemble a rentier class in society. Moreover, local laws often make it impossible for foreign companies to operate independently. This leads to a situation where citizenship becomes a financial asset. To do business, foreign enterprises
543:
Rentier state theory foregrounds important puzzles in contemporary politics. For example, as Abulof asks, “If rents increase regime stability, especially authoritarian durability, why, then, are rentier regimes, particularly in authoritarian petro-states, more prone to civil wars?” Looking at the
579:
criticizes the relationship between rentierism and regime type. Using a counterfactual measure which excludes the effect of oil on the economy, Herb shows that oil-rich countries fit the same patterns as other countries. He did not find a consistent support for the thesis that rentierism has a
547:
The crucial nature of oil has led to a situation where non-oil states have started to behave like rentier states. This can be seen for the region as a whole – so some states have been able to exploit location rent due to their strategic location, for example, as sites for military bases. More
503:
Moreover, because control of the rent-producing resources is concentrated in the hands of the authorities, it may be used to alternately coerce or coopt their populace, while the distinction between public service and private interest becomes increasingly blurred. There is, in the words of
192:
cannot be defined as rentier states, as they would require a productive domestic sector. In such an economy rents would only be a part of the total income, while in rentier economies rents take up a substantial part. Rentier states thus rely on
244:
can be seen as external rents. Mahdavy denies the idea that oil royalties are a compensation for the extraction of resources. He shows that in the Middle East governments and companies are able to make larger profits through
273:. Different from conventional economics is that this mentality breaks from the work-reward system. In a rentier state income or wealth is gained not from productivity or risk bearing, but rather from chance or situation.
540:) who allows the company to trade in his name in return for a proportion of the proceeds – another type of rent. In addition, the oil rent leads to secondary rents, usually stock market or real estate speculation.
512:, "no fiscal connection between the government and the people. The government has only to keep its people in line so that they do not overthrow it and start collecting the oil rents themselves."
1466:
528:. Hence, theorists such as Beblawi conclude that the nature of rentier states provides a particular explanation for the presence of authoritarian regimes in such resource rich states.
563:, one of the original theorists on rentier states, criticizes the dominance of rentier state theories. These theories are often solely used to analyse resource-rich countries in the
205:
The first use of the term “rentier states” was by economists in the early 20th century who used the term to describe
European states that extended loans to non-European governments.
388:
Only a small proportion of the working population is actually involved in the generation of the rent, whereas the majority is only involved in the distribution or utilization of it.
355:
Dependent upon it as a source of income, rentier states may generate rents externally by manipulating the global political and economic environment. Such manipulation may include
269:
distribution or utilization of it. Often it is the government that is the main recipient of the external rent. It is precisely these characteristics that bring forth a specific
531:
Beblawi identifies several other characteristics particularly associated with rentier oil states. For example, where the government is the largest and ultimate employer, the
142:. They show that rentier states receive income without an increase in the productivity of the domestic economy or political development of the state, that is, the ability to
1018:
181:
defined ‘rents’ as a reward of the ownership of a resource. When applied to natural resources rents can be seen as “the income derived from the gift of nature”.
893:
154:. With virtually no taxes citizens are less demanding and politically engaged and the income from rents negates the need for economic development.
253:. He also shows that within the Middle East there is no significant relation between oil export and production processes of domestic economies.
367:
in exchange for political influence or conversely the solicitation of loans in exchange for the reserve currency, e.g., the United States.
197:
and not on the productivity of the domestic sector. This creates a rentier economy which influences multiple aspects of a state's society.
1471:
1282:
Mahdavy, Hossein (1970). "Patterns and
Problems of Economic Development in Rentier States : the Case of Iran". In M. A. Cook (ed.).
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negative effect on democracy scores. Herb does however emphasize that rentierism is a distinctive condition that influences development.
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The economy relies on a substantial external rent – and therefore does not require a strong domestic productive sector.
1439:"Revisiting Rentierism: The Changing Political Economy of Resource-Dependent States in the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula"
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Rentier state theories can also be applied to nations which trade on their strategic resources, such as an important
157:
As of 2020, rentier state theories were a dominant frame of reference for studies of resource-dependent countries in
70:
1143:
334:
321:, may seek to strategically extract outside income linked to their treatment of these group(s), as in the cases of
868:
404:
in the 1970s brought a renewed interest in thinking on rentier economies in the aforementioned disciplines of
962:"Leveraging the European Refugee Crisis: Forced Displacement and Bargaining in Greece's Bailout Negotiations"
1483:
479:
Rentier state theory has been one of several theories advanced to explain the predominance of authoritarian
177:, are different from wages which must be labored for. They are based on the ownership of land or resources.
1522:
484:
237:
1001:"POMEPS Studies 33: The Politics of Rentier States in the Gulf – Project on Middle East Political Science"
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are also important oil producers with rentier economies, earning income from trading natural resources.
1214:
Herb, Michael (1 April 2005). "No
Representation without Taxation? Rents, Development, and Democracy".
1000:
146:
citizens. The unequal distribution of external income in rentier states has thus a negative effect on
1512:
762:
17:
409:
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Perhaps most importantly, the state's government is the principal recipient of the external rent.
31:
309:, rely on migrants’ remittances or international economic aid. According to political scientist
903:
225:
1066:
Smith, Benjamin (2004). "Oil Wealth and Regime
Survival in the Developing World, 1960-1999".
929:"The Syrian Refugee Crisis and Foreign Policy Decision-Making in Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey"
421:
151:
147:
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8:
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552:, and money going instead to Iraq, Syria and the PLO who were considered more assertive.
401:
310:
162:
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1083:
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832:
Richards, Alan (1991). "The political economy of dilatory reform: Egypt in the 1980s".
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Consequently, in these resource-rich rentier states there is a challenge to developing
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to explain a multitude of outcomes. Such dominance was not the intention of
Luciani:
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The usage of rentier states is based on the concept of ‘rents’. Rents, as defined by
27:
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1106:"'Can't buy me legitimacy': The elusive stability of Mideast rentier regimes"
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which derives all or a substantial portion of its national revenues from the
256:
The use of the term “rentier states” became well known through the works of
1297:
A Dictionary of
Business and Management in the Middle East and North Africa
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604:
576:
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417:
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158:
139:
1376:"Introduction: revisiting rentierism—with a short note by Giacomo Luciani"
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532:
473:
233:
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Anderson, Lisa (1987). "The State in the Middle East and North Africa".
500:. The budget, in effect, is little more than an expenditure programme.
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594:
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The emergence of the new oil states and their increasing importance in
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as well as a few states in Latin
America, all of whom are members of
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from the United States given their regional geopolitical importance.
241:
1467:
State
Formation Processes in Rentier States: The Middle Eastern Case
895:
Sovereignty After Empire: Comparing the Middle East and Central Asia
412:. Examples of rentier states include oil-producing countries in the
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The Rentier State Model and Central Asian Studies: The Turkmen Case
1044:
246:
23:
Government which derives all or most of its income from foreigners
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314:
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are forms of external rents. Also the revenues of the export of
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330:
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290:
1253:
Beblawi, Hazem (1987). "The Rentier State in the Arab World".
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This article is about Rentier capitalism. For other uses, see
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457:
441:
437:
286:
206:
220:
The modern meaning of “rentier states” was first defined by
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Dead Ends of Transition Rentier Economies and Protectorates
1184:
After Jihad: America and the Struggle for Islamic Democracy
449:
429:
425:
413:
165:, but were also used to analyse other forms of rentierism.
99:
62:
59:
761:
Lenin (1917). "VIII. PARASITISM AND DECAY OF CAPITALISM".
50:
364:
337:. Building on international relations theory and work by
143:
96:
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an important consideration, but surely not the only one.
1337:
Ross, Michael L. (2001). "Does Oil Hinder Democracy?".
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in the Middle East and the apparent lack of success of
892:
Cummings, Sally N.; Hinnebusch, Raymond (2011-07-31).
634:
632:
630:
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paid by foreign individuals, concerns or governments.
71:
53:
960:
Tsourapas, Gerasimos; Zartaloudis, Sotirios (2022).
959:
93:
84:
56:
47:
710:
On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
627:
378:suggested four characteristics of a rentier state:
134:on the development of oil-rich countries, known as
90:
44:
1286:(1 ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 428–467.
1284:Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East
1110:Journal of International Relations and Development
891:
382:In a rentier economy rent situations predominate.
264:. They expanded on the more economic analysis of
1499:
898:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 282–304.
359:, trading restrictions, and the solicitation of
723:Marshall, Alfred (1920). "Book II Chapter IV".
1416:
1186:, New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 139.
863:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 29–30.
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764:Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
1320:A Dictionary of Politics in the Middle East
1144:"SEMP – Evidence based disaster management"
781:A dictionary of politics in the Middle East
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650:
126:(RST) became well known after the works of
1484:(Keine) Demokratie im Rentierstaat Syrien?
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163:wider Middle East and North African region
1443:British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
1417:Beblawi, Hazem; Luciani, Giacomo (1987).
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1380:British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
1313:
1099:
1097:
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926:
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184:In a rentier state the economy relies on
1314:Ulrichsen, Kristian Coates, ed. (2018).
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904:10.3366/edinburgh/9780748643042.003.0013
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722:
1374:Yamada, Makio; Hertog, Steffen (2020).
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1500:
1103:
1094:
966:JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies
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708:Ricardo, David (1817). "Chapter III".
370:
1494:(ebook about the rentier state Syria)
1068:American Journal of Political Science
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760:
692:
232:and the payments to countries in the
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1290:
1213:
341:, Tsourapas differentiates between
13:
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933:Journal of Global Security Studies
693:Smith, Adam (1776). "Chapter XI".
213:), or usurer states, as a form of
14:
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224:in his economic analysis of the
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1508:Political science terminology
1393:10.1080/13530194.2020.1714267
927:Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2019).
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293:have traditionally extracted
118:The academic use of the term
846:10.1016/0305-750X(91)90015-A
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7:
1322:. Oxford University Press.
1299:. Oxford University Press.
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515:
395:
10:
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1518:Economy of the Middle East
15:
452:. African states such as
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1462:What is a Rentier State?
1291:Neal, Mark, ed. (2019).
990:Beblawi 1987, p. 384-385
822:Beblawi 1987, p. 385-386
536:engage a local sponsor (
317:population group(s), or
236:to allow the passage of
168:
859:Robins, Philip (2004).
725:Principles of Economics
485:democracy in the region
410:international relations
209:viewed rentier states (
124:rentier states theories
32:international-relations
1316:"rentier state theory"
1255:Arab Studies Quarterly
1104:Abulof, Uriel (2017).
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333:in the context of the
319:refugee rentier states
247:monopolistic positions
226:Imperial State of Iran
1476:Michael Dauderstädt:
695:The Wealth of Nations
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335:Syrian refugee crisis
188:. Economies based on
1351:10.1353/wp.2001.0011
1216:Comparative Politics
1204:Beblawi 1987, p. 393
1195:Beblawi 1987, p. 389
1182:Feldman, N. (2003).
1173:Beblawi 1987, p. 388
1164:Beblawi 1987, p. 387
1154:on October 29, 2005.
1122:10.1057/jird.2014.32
1033:Comparative Politics
946:10.1093/jogss/ogz016
813:Beblawi 1987, p. 385
804:Mahdavy 1970, p. 429
638:Mahdavy 1970, p. 428
422:United Arab Emirates
152:economic development
148:political liberalism
1523:Petroleum economics
861:A History of Jordan
590:Debt-trap diplomacy
565:Greater Middle East
371:Key characteristics
311:Gerasimos Tsourapas
299:Semi-rentier states
978:10.1111/jcms.13211
778:Ulrichsen (2018).
610:Rentier capitalism
498:distributive state
315:forcibly-displaced
1492:978-3-640-11110-7
1430:978-1-315-68486-4
1420:The Rentier State
840:(12): 1721–1730.
834:World Development
751:Ross 2001, p. 329
416:region including
406:political science
313:, states hosting
271:rentier mentality
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1008:pomeps.org
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