Reparations for slavery in the United States

2866:: The city council approved reparations on a 7–0 vote on July 14, 2020. "udgetary and programmatic priorities may include but not be limited to increasing minority home ownership and access to other affordable housing, increasing minority business ownership and career opportunities, strategies to grow equity and generational wealth, closing the gaps in health care, education, employment and pay, neighborhood safety and fairness within criminal justice," the resolution reads. The resolution establishes the Community Reparations Commission which will make concrete recommendations for programs and resources allocations to ultimately carry out the reparations. The Asheville City Council also voted unanimously on June 9, 2020, to remove two confederate monuments as a result of demands made by a group called "Black Asheville Demands" and the work of the Racial Justice Coalition with led the push for the effort. The City Council meeting had so much community engagement public comment was extended for an extra hour beyond the normal meeting time. 2191:, was one of the earliest leaders to argue clearly for "retroactive compensation", and the message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. On July 28, 1951, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing the text: "Peace! All nations and peoples who have suppressed and oppressed the under-privileged, they will be obliged to pay the African slaves and their descendants for all uncompensated servitude and for all unjust compensation, whereby they have been unjustly deprived of compensation on the account of previous condition of servitude and the present condition of servitude. This is to be accomplished in the defense of all other under-privileged subjects and must be paid retroactive up-to-date". 2198:, a Chicago social activist, would require the federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks who wish to remain in America, they should receive reparations in the form of free education, free medical, free legal and free financial aid for 50 years with no taxes levied," and "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars or more, backed by gold, in reparation." At the convention Amariel's proposal received approval from the 100 or so participants. Nevertheless, the question of who would receive such payments, who should pay them and in what amount, has remained highly controversial, since the 2932:: "In 2016 to give admissions preference to descendants of the 272 slaves formally apologized for its role in slavery two buildings on its campus to acknowledge the lives of enslaved people". In April, 2019 students at Georgetown University voted to increase their tuition by $ 27.20 to benefit the descendants of the 272 slaves sold by the Jesuits who ran the school in 1838. The student-led referendum was non-binding. Later that year, after further pressure and follow up from the Georgetown University Student Association, the university eventually moved forward with a similar proposal without the students' covering the cost with a tuition increase. 2673:

poll from The Washington Post showed that "63% of Americans don't think the U.S. should pay reparations to the descendants of slaves". Notably, 82% of Black Americans support reparations, while 75% of White Americans do not. Some arguments also highlight the complications behind reparations, such as "not all Black Americans are descendants of slaves" or that the people alive today are not responsible for the harms of slavery. Others still argue that reparations will do nothing in the face of racism, and that structural and policy changes would be more effective. In the midst of

2032:, in federal court against the U.S. Treasury Department for 68 million dollars. $ 68 million was the amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 and 1868 and, it was argued, was due to the plaintiffs because this cotton had been produced by them and their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. This was the first documented Black reparations litigation in the US on the federal level. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia denied the claim based on governmental immunity as did the U.S. Supreme Court, siding with the Appeals Court's decision. 2689:, with people of color disproportionately likely to be laid off, to struggle financially, and to die from the virus. For example, 40% of black-owned businesses have closed permanently since March due to the pandemic, compared to 17% of white-owned businesses during the same period. This relates back to the fact that white families have roughly ten times the wealth of black families. This limits black-owned businesses' access to credit and loans, and they do not have the safety net in times of crises that many white-owned businesses do. 1728:. The call for reparations intensified in 2020, amidst the protests against police brutality and the COVID-19 pandemic, which both kill Black Americans disproportionately. Calls for reparations for racism and discrimination in the US are often made by black communities and authors alongside calls for reparations for slavery. The idea of reparations remains highly controversial, due to questions of how they would be given, how much would be given, who would pay them, and who would receive them. 8092: 1634: 2184:

value placed on cotton produced by enslaved Blacks was $ 250 million (~$ 6.66 billion in 2023). For the descendants of the 12.5 million Blacks who were shipped in chains from Western Africa, “America has a genetic birth defect when it comes to the question of race,” as stated recently by U.S. Representative Hakeem Jeffries. If America is to atone for this defect, reparations for Black Americans is part of the healing and reconciliation process.

1952: 2834:: On June 16, 2020, in a 7–0 vote, Buncombe County Commissioners decided to remove several Confederate monuments including the Vance Monument which is named after North Carolina Governor Zeb Vance, a slave owner who used convict labor to build the railroad to Western North Carolina. Significant community involvement led to the decision. Leading up to the vote, the board received 549 supporting messages and 19 opposing. 2618:

was subject to racism? There are no real answers to these questions, as this is an unprecedented case. Other cases of reparations, such as to the Jewish people who survived the Holocaust or the Native Americans in the United States, are very different in the way that it is much easier to identify the group who should receive them, and the reparations were paid more quickly than in the case of reparations for slavery.

2850:: "In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $ 5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health, education and emotional well-being." 2759:– In December of 2023, Gov. Kathy Hochul signed a bill setting up a commission for the study of slavery's legacy. The commission will possibly make recommendations for monetary compensation or other reparations for New York's Black residents under the effort. The Democrat-controlled state Legislature approved the measure in June. 2180:

or part of this amount be paid to the descendants of slaves in the United States, the current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of that cost, since it has been in existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from the 1700s until World War I, the average wage for one day's unskilled labor in America was one dollar.

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In his book, Bittker lays out some of the practical and constitutional problems that would likely arise in an attempt to execute a program of reparations to Blacks. Would it be the same payment to every person? Would they have to prove ancestry to an African slave, or would it be any black person who

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The estimates of the monetary value of stolen slave labor and subsequent discrimination vary “from an outrageously low $ 3.2 million to $ 4.7 billion,” and to as much as $ 12 trillion. This also raises the question of who is responsible for paying. Generally, three actors are agreed upon: federal and

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If one or more of the defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves in 1850, and the plaintiffs can establish standing to sue, prove the violation despite its antiquity, establish that the law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly or by providing the basis for a common law action

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Forms of reparations which have been proposed in the United States by city, county, state, and national governments or private institutions include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, and systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation related

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In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $ 5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health,

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By 2002, nine lawsuits were filed around the country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann and the Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. The litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from the banking, insurance, textile, railroad, and tobacco industries. The cases

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Later that year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported in the first biography of Brown that he "was not merely an emancipationist, but a reparationist. He believed, not only that the crime of slavery should be abolished, but that reparation should be made for the wrongs that had been done to the

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Reparations in the U.S. have never gained widespread public support. Often in these conversations, the White reaction is to claim that this is a form of unjustifiable "reverse racism", or that demands for reparations are an example of the "Black refusal to move beyond the memory of slavery". A 2020

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published an article that argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money in health care expenses and lost wages, and should be paid back. Ray and Perry state in a Brookings article that the lack of a social safety

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estimated that the total of reparations due was about "$ 97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 and 1865, regardless the United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after the Revolutionary War in 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993". Should all

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In addition, African Americans continue to get infected and die from COVID-19 at rates more than 1.5 times their share of the population. In August 2020, the CDC released data showing that Blacks, Latinos, and American Indians are experiencing hospitalizations at rates 4.5 to 5.5 times higher than

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Some claim that closing the wealth gap involves paying descendants of slaves “individual cash payments in the amount that will close the Black-white racial wealth divide”. Another suggestion is for reparations to "come in the form of wealth-building opportunities that address racial disparities in

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The wealth of the United States was greatly enhanced by the exploitation of African-American slave labor: some argue it is the bedrock for the U.S. economy and capitalism. However, former slaves and their descendants are among the poorest demographic in America. According to this view, reparations

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organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which include: reparations, for what they say are past and continuing harms to African Americans, an end to the death penalty, legislation to acknowledge the effects of slavery, a move to defund the police, seizing homes owned by white families

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of Southern blacks to Chicago in the 1940s, redlining was used to keep former slaves segregated from whites and to prevent black families from getting a mortgage. Thus they were forced to buy houses on contracts from real estate speculators, which were a scam. Not only did this cause thousands of

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According to the Brookings Institution, in 1860, over $ 3 billion (~$ 83 billion in 2023) was the value assigned to the physical bodies of enslaved Black Americans to be used as free labor and production. This was more money than was invested in factories and railroads combined. In 1861, the

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Since further injustices and discrimination have continued since slavery was outlawed in the US, some black communities and civil rights organizations have called for reparations for those injustices as well as for reparations directly related to slavery. Some suggest that the U.S. prison system,

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was called by a coalition of reparations groups under the sponsorship of the Restitution Study Group. The boycott targets the student loan products of banks deemed complicit in slavery—particularly those identified in the Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of the boycott, students are asked to

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The technical side of reparations is very complex, and could be a reason why they have not yet been implemented. Some argue against the idea of putting a monetary value on the traumas that Black Americans have faced, dubbing it "transactionalism". On the other hand, some dismiss the case for

2858:: "The City Council of Evanston, Illinois, voted to allocate the first $ 10 million in tax revenue from the sale of recreational marijuana (which became legal in the state on January 1, 2020) to fund reparations initiatives that address the gaps in wealth and opportunity of black residents." 2261:

Inc. was her first target because of their practice of writing life insurance policies on the lives of enslaved Africans with slave owners as the beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, and the "corporate restitution movement" was born.

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and Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, the organization was "the first mass reparations movement led by African Americans." The organization and its leaders were hounded with false allegations and criminal prosecutions until its last local branches closed in the 1930's.

2485:, "as slavery faded into the background, it was succeeded by a caste system embodying white supremacy". Many argue that while reparations may be a first step towards amending the harms caused by slavery, the systemic racism that exists in many institutions will not be fixed as easily. 2747:: Adopted legislation asking the insurance commissioner to request if insurance companies they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department. 2610:, reparations have been implemented in the form of "investments in areas where Black residents face disparities". However, the complications that surround this are significant, and others argue that putting the money into communities is not efficient, due to people moving and 2727:– Adopted legislation requiring insurance companies to determine whether they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department. The 4606: 2470:, and thirty-five years of racist housing policy". The legacy of these policies have kept African Americans from opportunities to build wealth, while slavery "enriched white slave owners and their descendants". Today, the district of North Lawndale in Chicago, where 2427:. Therefore, many scholars and activists call for reparations to eliminate "racial disparities in wealth, income, education, health, sentencing and incarceration, political participation, and subsequent opportunities to engage in American political and social life". 2753:– Adopted legislation requiring insurance companies to determine whether they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department. 2741:– Adopted legislation requiring insurance companies to determine whether they have records going back to when slavery existed in this country and, if so, to provide information on insurance policies held by slaveholders on slaves to the state's insurance department. 2313:

for conspiracy, conversion, or restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons or their descendants, identify their ancestors, quantify damages incurred, and persuade the court to toll the statute of limitations, there would be no further obstacle to the grant of relief.

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net and the wealth gap are particularly highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic. They explain that “disparities in access to health care along with inequities in economic policies combine,” making this inequality a life or death situation for black Americans.

2337:, whose namesake family was involved in the slave trade, has also established a committee to explore the issue of reparations. In February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses to its Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice. While in 1995 the 1910:

engaged in a massive campaign of terrorism throughout the Southeast in order to keep African Americans in their prescribed social place. For decades this assumed inequality and injustice was ruled on in court decisions and debated in public discourse.

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slave. What he believed, he practiced. On this occasion , after telling the slaves that they were free, he asked them how much their services had been worth, and—having been answered—proceeded to take property to the amount thus due to the negroes."

2814:– In 2007, the Tennessee House of Representatives voted in unanimous support on a resolution stating that it "regrets" its involvement in the enslavement of Africans. The House had specifically removed any "apology" language from the resolution. 2418:

published an article which argued that if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess and retain the profits of their labor, their descendants might now control a much larger share of American social and monetary wealth. Not only did the

3967: 1773:, almost unanimously insisted that freed slaves were entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of his sin of owning a chattel slave, he needs to atone for it by making amends. Quakers cited the book of 1569: 1456: 2369:

and providing them free to blacks, as well as investments in education initiatives, mental health services, and jobs programs. These calls for reparations have been bolstered amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and the high rates of

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of Kentucky, who is a descendant of slave owners, while acknowledging that slavery was an "original sin" of the United States, opposes providing reparations because he believes "none of us currently living are responsible."

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declared himself a "reparationist", and implies that in his view, the lands of the Confederacy should be given to the ex-slaves. He also quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that refers to "the course of reparation".

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and prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. According to the 45th President, Donald Trump, states may designate up to 25% of low-income census tracts as Opportunity Zones. Opportunity Zones were created under the

1717:") is the most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society and accumulate wealth. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving the land back to its former Confederate owners. 2598:

reparations entirely due to practical concerns, such as who would receive these financial payments, why should the current generation pay for wrongs for which they are not responsible, and how much should be paid.

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to independence, apologies and acknowledgements of the injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone), and the removal of monuments and streets named to slave owners and defenders of slavery.

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The arguments surrounding reparations are based on the formal discussion about many different reparations, and actual land reparations received by African Americans which were later taken away. In 1865, after the

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stated: "If you stick a knife in my back nine inches and pull it out six inches, there's no progress. If you pull it all the way out that's not progress. Progress is healing the wound that the blow made."

3209: 2940:: In 2019 the Seminary announced a $ 27 million commitment for various initiatives to recognize how it benefited from black slavery. This is the largest monetary commitment by an educational institution. 2317:

In October 2000, California passed the Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business there to report on their role in slavery. The disclosure legislation, introduced by Senator

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and provided reparations of $ 20,000 to each survivor, to compensate for loss of property and liberty during that period. No compensation was given to the descendants of affected individuals though.

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which sets a deadline for filing; these have all long since passed, which prevents courts from granting relief under existing laws. This has been used effectively in several suits, including

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state governments, who supported and protected the institution of slavery; private companies that benefited from it; and “rich families that owe a good portion of their wealth to slavery”.

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as concerns surrounding race were heightened due to current events. It was further amplified because of African-American people were dying prematurely and disproportionately due to the

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The discriminatory practices of 1940 through 1970 still reverberate today, as the average White family has roughly ten times the amount of wealth as the average Black family. As

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Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations.

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Many argue that giving reparations for slavery is too complicated, but there is a strong basis for them on the past and current discrimination that blacks in America face.

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of the NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies that have historical ties to slavery and engaging all parties to come to the table."

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Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002.

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to both "assure the harmony of action in the area of operations" and to solve problems caused by the masses of freed slaves, a temporary plan granting each freed family

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in 1878, receiving $ 2,500 (~$ 78,931 in 2023) in damages. Though the verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.

3996: 1702:. In the US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling in court and/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals and institutions. 1674: 1418: 3750: 8117: 5021: 3047: 1709:

in 1783, in the form of a pension, and since then reparations continue to be proposed. To the present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed. The 1865

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which were given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves were settled on 400,000 acres (1,600 km) in Georgia and South Carolina. However, President

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in the sea islands and around Charleston, South Carolina for the exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. The army also had a number of unneeded

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passed in some Southeastern states to reinforce the existing inequality that slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations such as the

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prejudice, affirmed the majority of the district court's judgment, and reversed the portion of the district court's judgment dismissing the plaintiffs'

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was the strongest, is the poorest neighborhood in the city, with an unemployment rate of 18.6% and 42% of residents living below the poverty line.

8127: 8002: 7242: 4912: 2662: 609: 3789: 2874:: In March 2023, "reparation payments of $ 5 million to eligible Black residents unanimously accepted by San Francisco’s Board of Supervisors." 8071: 8046: 4483: 1744:(UNICOR), is a modern form of legal slavery that still primarily and disproportionately affects black populations and other minorities via the 1648: 1549: 296: 168: 22: 4245: 8056: 8051: 6983: 6431: 2173:

Some proposals have called for direct payments from the U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made.

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Prager, Jeffery (November 4, 2017). "Do Black Lives Matter? A Psychoanalytic Exploration of Racism and American Resistance to Reparations".

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the case for further proceedings consistent with its opinion. Thus, the plaintiffs may bring the lawsuit again, but must clear considerable

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News Service reported that Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign making a historic demand for

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and Fleet for unjust enrichment by "a system that enslaved, tortured, starved and exploited human beings," this suit was dismissed.

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Advocates have used other examples of reparations to argue that victims of institutional slavery should be similarly compensated.

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Miller, J. R. (2020, August 14). Seattle BLM protesters demand white people ‘give up’ their homes. Retrieved from New York Post:

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Steven Greenhut, the western region director for the R Street Institute, has suggested that reparations would make racism worse.

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for their unpaid labor and suffering. Chartered in 1898 in Nashville, Tennessee, the organization was founded by former slaves

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not receive a share of these profits, but they were stripped of the small amounts of compensation paid to some of them during

8024: 7982: 7794: 6342: 6208: 6203: 6088: 4659: 4435:"Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention" 4026: 2370: 1235: 312: 301: 163: 117: 112: 85: 7972: 7957: 7821: 7730: 7725: 7659: 6120: 4965: 1338: 1298: 1240: 1195: 55: 5496: 4128: 7947: 7784: 7754: 7536: 7115: 6327: 4548:"Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans" 2525: 1225: 1205: 1050: 619: 465: 5233: 4395: 3877: 3763: 3549: 3303:

Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)

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passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. The Senate apologized in 2009.

7937: 7831: 7747: 7591: 7372: 7172: 6323: 6301: 5808: 5761: 5706: 4616: 4328: 3735: 3653: 3620: 3146: 2394: 2060: 2017: 1699: 1353: 1333: 887: 752: 184: 5192: 8084: 6474: 6125: 4633: 3928:"H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act" 3824:"H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act" 2728: 1999: 1813: 233: 65: 5395: 4867: 2501:

In several cases the federal government has formally apologized to or compensated minority groups for past actions:

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advocate for compensation to be in the form of community rehabilitation and not payments to individual descendants.

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is a cosponsor of H.R. 40, the only piece of legislation in Congress to study and develop reparations proposals and

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came to an end in 1877 without the issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of

8012: 7977: 7962: 7720: 7322: 6566: 6536: 6352: 6081: 4080: 1865: 1643: 1579: 1190: 840: 253: 153: 3468: 8019: 7942: 7737: 7581: 7312: 7177: 6882: 6521: 5946: 5255: 3517: 2889:: Apologized in 2000 for issuing life insurance policies to enslavers covering the lives of enslaved people from 1835:

Calls for permanent confiscation and redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives

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presented suggestions on what could or should be done to compensate the enslaved workers after their liberation.

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Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies

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Nine states have officially apologized for their involvement in the enslavement of Africans. Those states are:

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was assassinated, the land was returned to its previous owners, and the blacks were forced to leave. In 1867,

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asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did

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pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism and police brutality also sparked outrage across the country, notably the

7649: 7625: 7620: 7603: 7571: 7514: 6627: 6576: 6409: 5681:"Georgetown University announces reparations fund to benefit descendants of slaves once sold by the school" 5442:"Ethics Newsline® » News » Aetna Apologizes For Pre-Civil-War Policies Issued On Lives Of Slaves" 4913:"Sen. Mitch McConnell's great-great-grandfathers owned 14 slaves, bringing reparations issue close to home" 2514: 2056: 1919: 1869: 1273: 1165: 1150: 1135: 1102: 401: 80: 5467: 5149: 4731:"How decades of US welfare policies lifted up the white middle class and largely excluded Black Americans" 3676: 7914: 7906: 7849: 7764: 7252: 7157: 7013: 6995: 6897: 6556: 6526: 6251: 6171: 6150: 6051: 4001: 3696: 2506: 2338: 2150: 1710: 1496: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1220: 692: 483: 453: 391: 340: 268: 158: 4608:

The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War

7932: 7869: 7859: 7409: 7167: 7127: 6484: 6178: 6058: 6037: 5653: 5396:"NEWS & POLITICS: SAN FRANCISCO BOARD APPROVES $ 5 MILLION REPARATION PAYMENTS FOR BLACK RESIDENTS" 4893: 4822: 4455: 2985: 2964: 2404: 1781: 1511: 1491: 994: 929: 702: 604: 571: 358: 243: 3717: 7841: 7654: 7486: 7047: 6546: 6384: 6191: 5574: 2870: 2862: 2607: 2049: 1820: 1749: 1741: 1466: 1210: 1170: 459: 5046: 7531: 7095: 7008: 6652: 6441: 6256: 6196: 6186: 6112: 4253: 3727: 2453: 2301: 2045: 1962: 1045: 825: 672: 556: 330: 211: 39: 5416: 3968:"The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage" 2329:

has called for more of such legislation at local and corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes,

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does not track descent from slaves or slave owners and relies on self-reported racial categories.

7864: 7414: 7068: 7037: 6817: 6757: 6622: 6365: 5622: 5292: 5107: 4939:"McConnell opposes paying reparations: 'None of us currently living are responsible' for slavery" 4510: 4211: 3942:"S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act" 3849: 3283: 3025: 2064: 1966: 1691: 1559: 1501: 964: 924: 647: 546: 424: 238: 4800: 7779: 7509: 6747: 6541: 6531: 6469: 6279: 6218: 4073: 3015: 2582: 2068: 1873: 1714: 258: 248: 228: 4369: 3106: 2160:

in the 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate in South Carolina voiced his support for reparations.

7854: 7367: 7232: 7187: 7003: 6722: 6687: 6506: 6489: 6296: 6213: 5881: 5122: 4472:

https://nypost.com/2020/08/14/seattle-blm-protesters-demand-white-people-give-up-their-homes/

4421:

Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice

3927: 3823: 3554: 3010: 2928: 2904: 2398:

Black Americans to lose their homes and their money, it also created what are known today as

2080: 882: 872: 804: 767: 551: 541: 441: 122: 1705:

The first recorded case of reparations for slavery in the United States was to former slave

8096: 7504: 7267: 7078: 7030: 6902: 6792: 6697: 6464: 6454: 6426: 6291: 6145: 5022:"Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations" 4031: 3048:"Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations" 2589:, which dismissed a high-profile suit against a number of businesses with ties to slavery. 2199: 2175: 1892:

sponsored a bill for the redistribution of land to African Americans, but it did not pass.

1737: 1638: 1090: 335: 127: 60: 4836: 4547: 4183: 3515: 2547:

Virginia established a compensation fund for victims of involuntary sterilization in 2015.

8: 7879: 7237: 7152: 6632: 6421: 6311: 6241: 5785: 4868:"People are again talking about slavery reparations. But it's a complex and thorny issue" 4434: 3702: 3402: 3322: 3214: 2297: 2209:

passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.

2104: 1506: 984: 946: 363: 194: 7884: 3469:"Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System" 3426:"HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality" 2028:

In 1915, under Callie House's leadership, the association filed a class-action lawsuit,

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non-Hispanic whites, and that African Americans are dying at 2.4 times the white rate.

2532: 2467: 2424: 2365: 2249:

Private institutions and corporations were also involved in slavery. On March 8, 2000,

2098: 1861: 1844: 1695: 877: 662: 429: 406: 95: 4102: 7399: 7120: 6782: 6752: 6347: 6104: 6020: 6011: 5804: 5757: 5716: 4712: 4612: 4571: 4027:"Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'" 3731: 3719:

Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America

3649: 3597: 3530: 3142: 2820:– Apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans on February 26, 2007. 2784:– Apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans on February 11, 2016. 2686: 2536: 2257:

and apologies from modern companies that played a direct role in enslaving Africans.

2076: 2029: 682: 523: 30: 5754:

Reparations for Slavery and the Slave Trade: A Transnational and Comparative History

4014:

This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations.

3808: 3370: 2808:– In 2007, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America. 2802:– In 2007, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America. 2796:– In 2007, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America. 2790:– In 2008, apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans in America. 1062: 7555: 7526: 7521: 7419: 7387: 7360: 7085: 6702: 6672: 6662: 6657: 6224: 6047: 5848: 5749: 5400: 4700: 4559: 3723: 3589: 3526: 2449: 2334: 2145: 2114: 2108: 2053: 1889: 1840: 1836: 1057: 914: 742: 677: 657: 566: 5596: 5103:"NY to study reparations for slavery, possible direct payments to Black residents" 5079: 4996:"As Pandemic Deaths Add Up, Racial Disparities Persist — And In Some Cases Worsen" 4332: 3616:"The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation" 3139:

From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century

2772:– Apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans on April 25, 2007. 2528:

transferred land, federal money, and a portion of oil revenues to native Alaskans.

2322:, is the prototype for similar laws passed in 12 states around the United States. 7550: 7377: 7287: 7282: 7213:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

7063: 7018: 6872: 6862: 6842: 6827: 6727: 6602: 6592: 6231: 6027: 6005: 4775: 3643: 2630: 2551:

Other countries have also opted to pay reparations for past grievances, such as:

2420: 2305: 2275: 1885: 1085: 892: 642: 561: 6043: 5373:"In historic move, North Carolina city approves reparations for Black residents" 3318:"Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening" 3311: 3309: 7987: 7392: 7355: 7345: 7105: 7100: 7042: 6877: 6807: 6737: 6732: 6236: 6160: 5853: 4515: 4343: 4129:"U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum" 3084: 2920: 2638: 2611: 2411:

would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances.

2289: 2194:

At the first National Reparations Convention in Chicago in 2001, a proposal by

2132: 1915: 1881: 1785: 1706: 1544: 969: 939: 697: 687: 518: 5801:

Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing

5278:"Monumental decision: Buncombe County approves removal of Confederate statues" 3858: 2095:

Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act

8111: 6945: 6927: 6917: 6887: 6832: 6787: 6772: 6717: 6707: 6692: 6642: 6637: 6607: 6404: 6332: 6155: 5843: 5720: 3692: 3672: 3601: 3534: 3306: 2654: 2543:

U.S. state governments have made reparations in some specific circumstances:

2510: 2478: 2463: 2436: 2188: 2139: 2128: 1903: 1824: 1804:

writes that, "he may fairly be called the father of American reparationism".

1797: 1613: 1608: 5942:"Wendell Phillips and 'The Negro's Claim': A Neglected Reparations Document" 4154: 3593: 7257: 7025: 6950: 6922: 6907: 6892: 6847: 6822: 6802: 6712: 6682: 6677: 6647: 6597: 6449: 6135: 6031: 5707:"Seminary Built on Slavery and Jim Crow Labor Has Begun Paying Reparations" 4048:"Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress" 3210:"Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer" 3182: 2995: 2969: 2732: 2581:

Most state and federal laws under which parties can sue for damages have a

2518: 2458: 2021: 1907: 1801: 1745: 1097: 909: 637: 500: 5920:

African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future

4307: 4280:"Delaware apologizes for slavery and Jim Crow. No reparations forthcoming" 7277: 7262: 7110: 7073: 6912: 6867: 6852: 6617: 6612: 6459: 3447: 2646: 2606:

education, housing, and business ownership". For example, in the city of

2254: 2118: 2090: 2072: 1927: 1789: 1777:, in which owners were exhorted to share their goods with former slaves. 1774: 1765:

The debate on reparations reaches as far back as the eighteenth century.

1263: 919: 772: 652: 436: 5959: 3809:"Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice" 3577: 3398:"Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today" 2778:– In 2009 apologized for its involvement in the enslavement of Africans. 2121:

have both indicated some level of support for reparations, according to

1918:

successfully sued for compensation after having been kidnapped from the

6812: 6797: 6767: 6762: 6511: 6479: 6318: 6286: 5941: 5796: 4704: 3550:"Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist" 2390: 2319: 2157: 1931: 368: 107: 7148:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

5326:"In historic move, Asheville approves reparations for Black residents" 4825:. Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services. 7426: 7272: 6777: 6561: 6499: 6394: 5784:

Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "

5472: 3878:"Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $ 100B in Slavery Reparations" 3178:"Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?" 2556: 2486: 2471: 1593: 934: 667: 446: 273: 6073: 4634:"Being Black in America Is a Health Risk. It's Time for Reparations" 1951: 1740:

and continuing through the present-day government-owned corporation

7899: 7894: 7404: 4966:"40% of black-owned businesses not expected to survive coronavirus" 4563: 4456:

Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations",

4155:"Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations" 3903:"2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?" 3516:

Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007).

3234: 3052: 2912: 2645:(2002). Other works that discuss problems with reparations include 1793: 979: 904: 897: 7163:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

6021:

Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act

5786:

The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations.

2908:: Apologized for the history of slavery at the university in 2004. 2272:

United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois

2067:, shot while out for a run by three white men in Georgia; and the 6516: 6008:– a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery. 4484:"Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up" 3000: 2846: 2345: 2288:

On December 13, 2006, that court, in an opinion written by Judge

2250: 1766: 1067: 373: 6038:

Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery

5927:

Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations

3346:"Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered" 3164:"The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained" 2148:

is "open to considering some form of reparations," according to

7350: 5803:(Newly Revised and Updated ed.). Joy Degruy Publications. 4894:"Reparations Are More Likely to Divide the Nation Than Heal It" 3678:

The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States

3344:

Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020).

2399: 2014:

National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty and Pension Association

974: 2972:– lawsuits brought by slaves to obtain freedom and reparations 1930:. After the American Civil War, she was freed and returned to 7162: 5829:

The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations

5654:"Board of Directors Meets, Does Not Vote on GU272 Referendum" 3764:"In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won" 2885: 2326: 2258: 747: 5779:

Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations

5073: 5071: 5069: 5067: 4865: 2896:. In 2002, when Farmer-Paellman brought suit against Aetna, 7207: 5906:

Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics

5824:. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004. 5623:"America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went" 5293:"America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went" 5234:"Confederate monuments to be moved from downtown Asheville" 5215:"TN votes to express regret for slavery, but not apologize" 4184:"Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance" 3078: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3070: 2651:

Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics

2292:, modified the district court's judgment to be a dismissal 1923: 1877: 777: 5915:. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009. 2643:

Uncivil Wars: The Controversy Over Reparations for Slavery

1796:

as early as 1778, in the form of cash payments, land, and

5064: 4943: 4586:

U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News

3425: 3229: 3227: 3225: 2897: 2330: 2122: 4823:"Victims of Eugenics Sterilization Compensation Program" 4359:, 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006). 3751:"Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander 3343: 3067: 2349:

choose from other banks to finance their student loans.

2341:

apologized for the "sins" of racism, including slavery.

4508: 3790:"2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details" 3141:. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. 2354:

National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America

6034:, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed. 5351:"City OKs monuments' removal, pending county approval" 4801:"The Legal Basis of the Claim for Slavery Reparations" 3222: 2283:

United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit

1812:

Well before slavery was abolished nationally in 1865,

1692:

reparations to victims of slavery or their descendants

5468:"Aetna, CSX, FleetBoston face slave reparations suit" 3371:"America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism" 2561:

Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany

5913:

Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities

5047:"Senate approves resolution apologizing for slavery" 2621: 2565:

Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany

2107:

detailed a plan for reparations in an interview for

5892:"Her Family Owned Slaves. How Can She Make Amends?" 5871:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P 3807:Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). 3046:Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). 2924:: Apologized for its connection to slavery in 2005. 2916:: Apologized for its connection to slavery in 2005. 2135:

is a co-sponsor for the Senate version of the bill.

1570:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

5444:. Globalethics.org. March 13, 2000. Archived from 5256:"When past is present: Zeb Vance and his monument" 5175:"House Passes Resolution to Apologize for Slavery" 2685:The call for reparations has amplified due to the 5781:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. 4837:"In re: African-American Slave Descents Ligation" 4631: 3578:"Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist" 3006:Public apologies for slavery in the United States 2878: 2142:declared in April 2019 she supports reparations. 1819:Early in 1859, in a book dedicated to "Old Hero" 8109: 7198:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 5836:Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations 5020:Medish, Mark; Lucich, Daniel (August 30, 2019). 4866:Breeanna Hare and Doug Criss (August 15, 2020). 4658:Ray, Rashawn; Perry, Andre M. (April 15, 2020). 4072:Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). 4071: 3821: 3648:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. 3424:Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). 2696: 2675:America's racial unrest from 2020 to the present 2571: 8118:Race-related controversies in the United States 7243:Black players in professional American football 7193:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 4356:In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig. 3645:Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist 3446:Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). 3235:"Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section" 3045: 5984:A Moral Debt: The Legacy of Slavery in the USA 4308:"North Carolina Senate apologizes for slavery" 4177: 4175: 4045: 3994: 3423: 2071:, a Black American killed during an arrest by 2040:The topic became a prominent theme during the 1720:Reparations have been a recurring idea in the 297:Education of freed people during the Civil War 6089: 5460: 4660:"Why we need reparations for Black Americans" 4181: 4152: 3490:Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). 1668: 8133:Reparations for slavery in the United States 8123:Political controversies in the United States 6956:Historically black colleges and universities 5908:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. 5838:. New York: New York University Press, 2007. 5738:Bibliography of slavery in the United States 5572: 5291:Hassan, Adeel; Healy, Jack (June 19, 2019). 5019: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4344:http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf 4126: 3997:"Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations" 3965: 3822:Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). 3806: 2731:was established in 2020 as a non-regulatory 2677:, these tensions were particularly exposed. 2535:of 1993 apologized for the overthrow of the 2376: 2274:. The district court dismissed the lawsuits 2163: 2086:Candidates that endorsed the idea included: 2042:2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries 1914:In one anomalous case, a former slave named 1850: 1771:the first abolitionists in the United States 1726:2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries 308:Historically black colleges and universities 5497:"Judge rejects lawsuit seeking reparations" 5290: 4936: 4212:"Congress Apologizes for Slavery, Jim Crow" 4172: 2680: 2168: 1980:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 292:Education during the slave period in the US 6096: 6082: 5939: 5860:Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. 5319: 5317: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4509:Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). 4206: 4204: 3448:"The school to prison pipeline, explained" 3445: 2735:to study and develop reparation proposals. 2592: 2266:were consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 1407 to 2101:, while speaking on the Karen Hunter show. 1941: 1755: 1675: 1661: 615:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 7173:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 5575:"Wachovia apologizes for ties to slavery" 5193:"Tennessee weighs an apology for slavery" 4910: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4680: 4644: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4246:"What States Have Apologized for Slavery" 3715: 3709: 3667: 3665: 2587:In re: African American Slave Descendants 2576: 2443: 2389:played a big role in creating the racial 2000:Learn how and when to remove this message 1902:and oppression arose in Southern states. 71:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 5929:. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003. 5889: 5869:Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries 5842:Kauffman, Matthew (September 29, 2002). 5774:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. 5150:"Riley signs slavery-apology resolution" 5100: 5077: 4891: 4657: 4302: 4300: 4273: 4271: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4222: 3865:. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube. 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3161: 3132: 3130: 3128: 5993:Gannon is a descendant of Robert E. Lee 5323: 5314: 4989: 4987: 4759: 4748: 4604: 4552:The Journal of African American History 4201: 3691: 3671: 3489: 2976:History of slavery in the United States 2637:One publication against reparations is 2244: 2079:$ 20 bill, that sparked the nationwide 1807: 8128:African-American-related controversies 8110: 8072:Topics related to the African diaspora 7178:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 5864:. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007. 5795: 5704: 5549:"UA apologizes for history of slavery" 5414: 5275: 5231: 4861: 4859: 4857: 4724: 4722: 4690: 4677: 4545: 4530: 3685: 3662: 3575: 3547: 3262: 3207: 3136: 3107:"Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?" 2991:History of slavery in the Muslim world 2960:American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS) 2708:United States House of Representatives 2207:United States House of Representatives 2187:The Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as 8052:Landmark African-American legislation 6103: 6077: 5520: 5393: 5253: 5147: 5101:Robinson, David (December 19, 2023). 4546:Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). 4297: 4277: 4268: 4219: 3876:Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). 3875: 3859:"What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?" 3787: 3315: 3249: 3125: 3087:. University of Massachusetts Amherst 3082: 2701: 2513:, the U.S. government apologized for 2381: 2359: 1690:is the application of the concept of 813:Athletic associations and conferences 302:History of African-American education 7183:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 5820:Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. 5679:Ebbs, Stephanie (October 30, 2019). 5678: 5546: 5078:McCarthy, Kevin (February 1, 2012). 4993: 4984: 4578: 4074:"The Case Against Slave Reparations" 3761: 3641: 3576:Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). 2669:(Edinburgh University Press, 2012). 2281:, and the claimants appealed to the 1978:adding citations to reliable sources 1945: 1760: 736:Association for the Study of African 7537:African-American Vernacular English 6057:Wenger, Kaimipono (March 2, 2006). 6030:– A bill introduced by Congressman 5640:education and emotional well-being. 5597:"JP Morgan admits US slavery links" 5494: 5309:education and emotional well-being. 5221:. Associated Press. April 16, 2020. 5080:Slavery Era Insurance Registry Laws 4994:Wood, Daniel (September 23, 2020). 4854: 4719: 4632:Jason Silverstein (June 19, 2019). 4278:Moyer, Justin (February 11, 2016). 4216:but made no mention of reparations. 3698:The public life of Capt. John Brown 3395: 3281: 3111:The Royall House and Slave Quarters 2526:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 2352:Pro-reparations groups such as the 2093:said that he supports H.R. 40, the 1700:reparations in transitional justice 1550:Race and ethnicity in the US census 1051:African-American Vernacular English 620:National Conference of Black Mayors 13: 7455:U.S. cities with large populations 7158:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 5981:Gannon, James (October 25, 2018). 5822:The Case against Slave Reparations 5731: 5651: 5521:Olson, Walter (October 31, 2008). 5434: 4937:Ted Barrett, Ted (June 19, 2019). 4892:Greenhut, Steven (April 5, 2019). 4370:"NAACP to target private business" 4127:Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). 3621:Historical Society of Pennsylvania 3263:Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). 2061:Louisville Metro Police Department 1748:and what has been criticized as a 753:National Black Chamber of Commerce 14: 8144: 6328:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 6324:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 6131:African American founding fathers 6006:Reparations for Slavery: a Reader 5999: 5276:Walter, Rebecca (June 17, 2020). 5232:Penter, Caitlyn (June 16, 2020). 4911:Siemaszko, Corky (July 8, 2019). 3788:Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). 3492:"Slavery in the US prison system" 3208:Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). 2729:California Reparations Task Force 2622:Additional arguments and opinions 2075:police after allegedly passing a 1457:Places by plurality of population 123:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 113:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 66:Abolitionism in the United States 8090: 7208:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 6353:Nadir of American race relations 6059:"Reparations Conference at TJSL" 5790:Journal of Economic Perspectives 5698: 5672: 5645: 5615: 5589: 5566: 5547:Cruz, Gilbert (April 20, 2004). 5540: 5514: 5488: 5415:Groark, Virginia (May 5, 2002). 5394:Grove, Rashad (March 16, 2023). 4728: 4488:The Center for Popular Democracy 4182:Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). 4153:Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). 4081:National Legal and Policy Center 4046:Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). 3995:David Catanese (April 3, 2019). 3316:Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). 1950: 1866:General William Tecumseh Sherman 1632: 154:Black Belt in the American South 6214:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 6204:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 5947:Massachusetts Historical Review 5933: 5852:. pp. 192–197 – via 5742: 5495:Cox, James (January 26, 2004). 5408: 5387: 5365: 5343: 5324:Burgess, Joel (July 14, 2020). 5284: 5269: 5254:Ready, Milton (June 25, 2015). 5247: 5225: 5207: 5185: 5167: 5141: 5115: 5094: 5039: 5013: 4958: 4930: 4904: 4885: 4829: 4815: 4793: 4768: 4625: 4598: 4502: 4476: 4464: 4449: 4427: 4413: 4388: 4362: 4348: 4337: 4322: 4252:. June 12, 2019. Archived from 4146: 4120: 4095: 4065: 4039: 4019: 3988: 3959: 3934: 3920: 3895: 3869: 3842: 3815: 3800: 3781: 3755: 3744: 3635: 3608: 3569: 3541: 3509: 3483: 3461: 3439: 3417: 3389: 3363: 3337: 3297: 3275: 3162:Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). 2832:Buncombe County, North Carolina 2563:and various programs under the 2509:, signed into law by President 2308:and substantive hurdles first: 1696:reparations in legal philosophy 758:National Council of Negro Women 7203:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 6209:Civil right movement 1896–1954 5890:Severson, Kim (July 4, 2021). 5877:"Taking Reparations Seriously" 5875:Millman, Noah (May 29, 2014). 5867:Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. 5523:"So long, slavery reparations" 4762:The Case for Black Reparations 3966:David Weigel (April 4, 2019). 3201: 3170: 3155: 3099: 3039: 3021:Slavery in contemporary Africa 2937:Princeton Theological Seminary 2879:Organizations and institutions 2718: 2483:The Case for Black Reparations 2430: 1555:Racism against Black Americans 1: 7383:Cherokee freedmen controversy 6359:The Negro Motorist Green Book 5705:Wright, Will (May 31, 2021). 5573:Katie Benner (June 2, 2005). 5148:White, David (May 31, 2007). 5123:"Riley Signs Slavery Apology" 5082:(Report). OLR Research Report 4593:American Humanist Association 4437:. Southern Baptist Convention 3396:Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). 3083:Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). 3032: 2945:Virginia Theological Seminary 2890: 2697:Legislation and other actions 2572:Arguments against reparations 2493: 2416:American Humanist Association 2393:that exists today. After the 1858:Confederate States of America 1722:politics of the United States 763:National Pan-Hellenic Council 5219:Chattanooga Times Free Press 4002:U.S. News & World Report 2763: 2667:Freedom from Past Injustices 2515:Japanese American internment 2222:Delaware – February 11, 2016 2151:U.S. News & World Report 2057:emergency medical technician 1934:, where she won her case in 1874:forty acres of tillable land 1870:Special Field Orders, No. 15 1565:School segregation in the US 1103:Black American Sign Language 1077:Languages and other dialects 7: 7253:Black players in ice hockey 7188:National Urban League (NUL) 7014:American Society of Muslims 6252:Selma to Montgomery marches 6172:Brown v. Board of Education 5940:Finkenbine, Roy E. (2005). 3716:McKivigan, John R. (2008). 3582:Journal of American History 3548:Heller, Mike (March 2019). 2952: 2824: 2539:, but gave no compensation. 2507:Civil Liberties Act of 1988 2339:Southern Baptist Convention 1711:Special Field Orders No. 15 392:African-American businesses 10: 8149: 7410:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 7168:Nashville Student Movement 6179:Children of the plantation 5831:. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005. 5772:Reparations: Pro & Con 5735: 4803:. American Bar Association 3681:. New York: A. B. Burdick. 3265:"The Case for Reparations" 2986:History of slavery in Asia 2965:American slave court cases 2405:2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 930:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 605:Congressional Black Caucus 572:African Diaspora Religions 359:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 8080: 8047:Index of related articles 7925: 7840: 7564: 7497: 7435: 7335: 7296: 7228: 7221: 7136: 7056: 7048:Doctrine of Father Divine 6994: 6936: 6585: 6440: 6432:Women's suffrage movement 6385:Reconstruction Amendments 6192:Voting Rights Act of 1965 6111: 6026:October 22, 2008, at the 5652:Li, Amy (June 25, 2019). 4621:– via Google Books. 2871:San Francisco, California 2863:Asheville, North Carolina 2839: 2713: 2608:Asheville, North Carolina 2377:Arguments for reparations 2164:Proposals for reparations 2050:killing of Breonna Taylor 1926:and sold into slavery in 1884:reversed the order after 1851:The Reconstruction period 1750:school-to-prison pipeline 1742:Federal Prison Industries 1694:. There are concepts for 1437:US states and territories 738:American Life and History 460:Lift Every Voice and Sing 169:Treatment of the enslaved 8097:United States portal 7532:African-American English 6961:Inventors and scientists 6653:George Washington Carver 6257:Chicago Freedom Movement 5974: 4605:Stevens, Robert (2010). 3728:Cornell University Press 3137:Darity, William (2020). 2681:Reparations and COVID-19 2454:The Case for Reparations 2268:multidistrict litigation 2216:Alabama – April 25, 2007 2169:United States government 1639:United States portal 1046:African-American English 557:African-American Muslims 118:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 8020:African-American firsts 7069:Back-to-Africa movement 7038:Black Hebrew Israelites 6818:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 6366:Partus sequitur ventrem 6040:– NPR, August 27, 2001. 5660:. Georgetown University 5108:Utica Observer-Dispatch 4760:Bittker, Boris (2003). 3026:Slavery reparation scam 2659:Reparations Pro and Con 2593:Technical complications 2065:murder of Ahmaud Arbery 2035: 1942:Post-Reconstruction Era 1756:U.S. historical context 1724:, most recently in the 1688:Reparations for slavery 1560:Reparations for slavery 648:Back-to-Africa movement 547:Black Hebrew Israelites 425:African-American beauty 7988:Spingarn Medal winners 7477:States and territories 7248:Black NFL quarterbacks 6748:Martin Luther King Jr. 6280:Dred Scott v. Sandford 6219:Montgomery bus boycott 5911:University of Kansas. 4310:. NSNBC. April 5, 2007 3642:Nash, Gary B. (2017). 3016:Republic of New Afrika 2706:On July 30, 2008, the 2583:statute of limitations 2577:Statute of limitations 2444:Current discrimination 2387:Housing discrimination 2364:Many groups under the 2315: 2205:On July 30, 2008, the 2069:murder of George Floyd 1715:Forty acres and a mule 1030:Dialects and languages 190:Second Great Migration 7298:Athletic associations 7233:Negro league baseball 7004:African-American Jews 6723:Ketanji Brown Jackson 6688:Henry Highland Garnet 6547:Negro National Anthem 6297:George Floyd protests 6262:Post–civil rights era 6061:. Concurring Opinions 6012:Reparations, R.I.P., 5882:American Conservative 4214:. NPR. July 30, 2008. 3830:. Library of Congress 3594:10.1093/jahist/jay310 3555:George Fox University 3011:Reparations (website) 2929:Georgetown University 2905:University of Alabama 2310: 2234:North Carolina – 2007 2081:George Floyd protests 1860:were defeated in the 1442:US metropolitan areas 1269:List of neighborhoods 883:Alabama Creole people 873:African-American Jews 805:Negro league baseball 768:National Urban League 720:Civic/economic groups 552:African-American Jews 442:African-American hair 304:, after the Civil War 133:Post–civil rights era 7505:Afro-Seminole Creole 7031:Azusa Street Revival 6903:Booker T. Washington 6427:Underground Railroad 6292:Free people of color 6146:Atlantic slave trade 5925:Winbush, Raymond A. 5127:Alabama Public Radio 4693:Political Psychology 4374:The Washington Times 4032:The Washington Times 3762:McDaniel, W. Caleb. 2687:coronavirus pandemic 2555:Reparations for the 2462:as "ninety years of 2344:In December 2005, a 2245:Private institutions 2200:United States Census 2097:, sponsored by Rep. 1974:improve this section 1808:Before the Civil War 1738:convict lease system 1599:Criminal stereotypes 1374:District of Columbia 1091:Afro-Seminole Creole 533:Non-Christian groups 128:Black power movement 92:during the Civil War 61:Atlantic slave trade 7900:Trinidad and Tobago 7515:Black American Sign 7342:By African descent 7336:Ethnic subdivisions 7323:Southwestern (SWAC) 7238:Baseball color line 7153:Black Panther Party 7057:Political movements 6974:in computer science 6633:Carol Moseley Braun 6422:Tulsa race massacre 6415:Treatment of slaves 6247:March on Washington 6242:Birmingham movement 5918:Walters, Ronald W. 5603:. November 15, 2017 5448:on October 17, 2013 4460:, December 6, 2005. 4284:The Washington Post 3703:Thayer and Eldridge 3519:Slavery and Justice 3403:The Washington Post 3323:The Washington Post 3215:The Washington Post 3113:. December 27, 2017 2894: 1853 to 1860 2629:Republican Senator 2481:claims in his book 2298:consumer protection 2105:Marianne Williamson 1769:, who were some of 995:Sierra Leone Creole 956:Specific ancestries 841:Southwestern (SWAC) 364:Black History Month 195:New Great Migration 149:Agriculture history 7998:US representatives 7993:US cabinet members 7885:Dominican Republic 7472:Metropolitan areas 7313:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 7138:Civic and economic 7116:Self-determination 6937:Education, science 6858:Fred Shuttlesworth 6838:A. Philip Randolph 6743:Coretta Scott King 6668:Frederick Douglass 6495:Harlem Renaissance 6400:Separate but equal 6390:Reconstruction era 6378:Plessy v. Ferguson 6269:Cornerstone Speech 6183:Civil Rights Acts 6166:Black Lives Matter 6141:American Civil War 5897:The New York Times 5834:Henry, Charles P. 5770:Brophy, Alfred L. 5712:The New York Times 5627:The New York Times 5421:The New York Times 5297:The New York Times 4780:notable-quotes.com 4776:"Malcolm X Quotes" 4729:Ward, Marguerite. 4705:10.1111/pops.12436 4511:"The Black Plague" 4401:. Brown University 4256:on January 3, 2020 3282:Marable, Manning. 2981:History of slavery 2855:Evanston, Illinois 2702:Federal government 2533:Apology Resolution 2468:separate but equal 2382:Accumulated wealth 2366:Black Lives Matter 2360:Black Lives Matter 2099:Sheila Jackson Lee 2059:, fatally shot by 1862:American Civil War 1845:Radical Republican 1736:starting with the 1004:Sexual orientation 878:Afro-Puerto Ricans 831:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 466:Self-determination 430:Black is beautiful 96:Reconstruction era 8105: 8104: 7933:African Americans 7805:Dallas–Fort Worth 7400:Black Southerners 7331: 7330: 6783:Thurgood Marshall 6753:Bernard Lafayette 6348:Million Man March 6105:African Americans 5792:, 36 (2): 99–122. 5750:Araujo, Ana Lucia 5527:Los Angeles Times 4107:peacemission.info 4052:Houston Chronicle 2847:Chicago, Illinois 2537:Kingdom of Hawaii 2466:, sixty years of 2231:New Jersey – 2008 2176:Harper's Magazine 2063:in her home; the 2030:Johnson v. McAdoo 2010: 2009: 2002: 1782:Revolutionary War 1761:In colonial times 1685: 1684: 1622: 1621: 1520: 1519: 1294:Dallas-Fort Worth 1111: 1110: 1021: 1020: 965:Americo-Liberians 848: 847: 786: 785: 711: 710: 580: 579: 524:Womanist theology 474: 473: 416:Symbols and ideas 202: 201: 81:Antebellum period 76:Revolutionary War 31:African Americans 8140: 8095: 8094: 8093: 8057:Lynching victims 7556:Louisiana Creole 7527:American English 7415:Louisiana Creole 7388:Choctaw freedmen 7226: 7225: 6763:Huddie Ledbetter 6703:Fannie Lou Hamer 6673:W. E. B. Du Bois 6663:Claudette Colvin 6658:Shirley Chisholm 6475:Family structure 6343:Military history 6225:Browder v. Gayle 6098: 6091: 6084: 6075: 6074: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6048:Independent Lens 5995: 5970: 5968: 5966: 5901: 5886: 5857: 5849:Hartford Courant 5814: 5767: 5725: 5724: 5702: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5676: 5670: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5649: 5643: 5642: 5636: 5634: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5593: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5582: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5481: 5476:. March 24, 2002 5464: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5417:"Slave Policies" 5412: 5406: 5405: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5321: 5312: 5311: 5305: 5303: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5240: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5211: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5200: 5195:. April 16, 2014 5189: 5183: 5182: 5179:Hartford Courant 5171: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5089: 5087: 5075: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5006: 4991: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4977: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4925: 4923: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4863: 4852: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4797: 4791: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4772: 4766: 4765: 4757: 4746: 4745: 4743: 4741: 4735:Business Insider 4726: 4717: 4716: 4688: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4670: 4655: 4642: 4641: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4602: 4596: 4591:, Nov/Dec 2008 ( 4584:Ananda S. Osel, 4582: 4576: 4575: 4543: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4490:. 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Julian 1677: 1670: 1663: 1637: 1636: 1635: 1584:media depictions 1533: 1532: 1428:Population count 1124: 1123: 1058:Liberian English 1037:English dialects 1034: 1033: 990:Samaná Americans 915:Creoles of color 861: 860: 799: 798: 743:Black conductors 724: 723: 593: 592: 567:Louisiana Voodoo 489: 488: 234:Family structure 217: 216: 164:Military history 159:Business history 90:military history 45: 44: 18: 17: 8148: 8147: 8143: 8142: 8141: 8139: 8138: 8137: 8108: 8107: 8106: 8101: 8091: 8089: 8076: 8042:Historic places 8035:US state firsts 7921: 7836: 7560: 7493: 7465:2010 majorities 7460:2000 majorities 7431: 7378:Black Seminoles 7327: 7318:Southern (SIAC) 7301: 7300:and conferences 7299: 7292: 7288:Serena Williams 7283:Jackie Robinson 7217: 7141: 7139: 7132: 7052: 7019:Nation of Islam 6990: 6938: 6932: 6873:Sojourner Truth 6863:Clarence Thomas 6828:Gabriel Prosser 6728:Michael Jackson 6603:Crispus Attucks 6593:Ralph Abernathy 6581: 6537:Musical theater 6436: 6302:Great Migration 6274:COVID-19 impact 6232:Sit-in movement 6107: 6102: 6064: 6062: 6056: 6028:Wayback Machine 6002: 5980: 5977: 5964: 5962: 5936: 5874: 5841: 5811: 5777:Brooks, Roy L. 5764: 5748: 5745: 5740: 5734: 5732:Further reading 5729: 5728: 5703: 5699: 5689: 5687: 5677: 5673: 5663: 5661: 5650: 5646: 5632: 5630: 5629:. June 19, 2019 5621: 5620: 5616: 5606: 5604: 5595: 5594: 5590: 5580: 5578: 5571: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5553:Tuscaloosa News 5545: 5541: 5531: 5529: 5519: 5515: 5505: 5503: 5493: 5489: 5479: 5477: 5466: 5465: 5461: 5451: 5449: 5440: 5439: 5435: 5425: 5423: 5413: 5409: 5392: 5388: 5378: 5376: 5375:. July 15, 2020 5371: 5370: 5366: 5356: 5354: 5353:. June 15, 2020 5349: 5348: 5344: 5334: 5332: 5322: 5315: 5301: 5299: 5289: 5285: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5258: 5252: 5248: 5238: 5236: 5230: 5226: 5213: 5212: 5208: 5198: 5196: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5181:. May 22, 2009. 5173: 5172: 5168: 5158: 5156: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5130: 5121: 5120: 5116: 5099: 5095: 5085: 5083: 5076: 5065: 5055: 5053: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5030: 5028: 5018: 5014: 5004: 5002: 4992: 4985: 4975: 4973: 4972:. June 22, 2020 4964: 4963: 4959: 4949: 4947: 4935: 4931: 4921: 4919: 4909: 4905: 4890: 4886: 4876: 4874: 4864: 4855: 4845: 4843: 4835: 4834: 4830: 4821: 4820: 4816: 4806: 4804: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4784: 4782: 4774: 4773: 4769: 4764:. Random House. 4758: 4749: 4739: 4737: 4727: 4720: 4689: 4678: 4668: 4666: 4656: 4645: 4630: 4626: 4619: 4603: 4599: 4583: 4579: 4544: 4531: 4521: 4519: 4507: 4503: 4493: 4491: 4482: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4458:The NewStandard 4454: 4450: 4440: 4438: 4433: 4432: 4428: 4418: 4414: 4404: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4393: 4389: 4379: 4377: 4376:. July 12, 2005 4368: 4367: 4363: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4338: 4327: 4323: 4313: 4311: 4306: 4305: 4298: 4288: 4286: 4276: 4269: 4259: 4257: 4244: 4243: 4220: 4210: 4209: 4202: 4192: 4190: 4188:The NewStandard 4180: 4173: 4163: 4161: 4151: 4147: 4137: 4135: 4125: 4121: 4111: 4109: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4086: 4084: 4076: 4070: 4066: 4056: 4054: 4044: 4040: 4025: 4024: 4020: 4007: 4005: 3993: 3989: 3976: 3974: 3972:Washington Post 3964: 3960: 3950: 3948: 3940: 3939: 3935: 3926: 3925: 3921: 3911: 3909: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3886: 3884: 3874: 3870: 3863:www.youtube.com 3857: 3854:Wayback Machine 3847: 3843: 3833: 3831: 3820: 3816: 3805: 3801: 3786: 3782: 3772: 3770: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3714: 3710: 3690: 3686: 3670: 3663: 3656: 3640: 3636: 3626: 3624: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3574: 3570: 3560: 3558: 3546: 3542: 3522: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3488: 3484: 3474: 3472: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3452: 3450: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3428: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3394: 3390: 3380: 3378: 3377:. June 11, 2020 3369: 3368: 3364: 3354: 3352: 3342: 3338: 3328: 3326: 3314: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3288: 3286: 3280: 3276: 3261: 3250: 3240: 3238: 3237:. June 26, 2020 3233: 3232: 3223: 3206: 3202: 3189: 3187: 3186:. June 20, 2020 3176: 3175: 3171: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3135: 3126: 3116: 3114: 3105: 3104: 3100: 3090: 3088: 3081: 3068: 3058: 3056: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3030: 2955: 2921:JP Morgan Chase 2893: 2881: 2842: 2835: 2827: 2766: 2721: 2716: 2704: 2699: 2683: 2631:Mitch McConnell 2624: 2595: 2579: 2574: 2496: 2446: 2433: 2395:Great Migration 2384: 2379: 2362: 2247: 2240:Virginia – 2007 2228:Maryland – 2007 2196:Howshua Amariel 2171: 2166: 2109:Ebony Magazine. 2038: 2006: 1995: 1989: 1986: 1971: 1955: 1944: 1853: 1810: 1794:freed ex-slaves 1763: 1758: 1681: 1633: 1631: 1624: 1623: 1618: 1574: 1530: 1522: 1521: 1516: 1461: 1423: 1399:Omaha, Nebraska 1364:Historic places 1358: 1250: 1121: 1113: 1112: 1107: 1072: 1031: 1023: 1022: 1017: 999: 951: 893:Black Seminoles 858: 857:Sub-communities 850: 849: 836:Southern (SIAC) 796: 788: 787: 782: 737: 721: 713: 712: 707: 624: 590: 582: 581: 576: 562:Nation of Islam 528: 505: 486: 476: 475: 470: 411: 378: 345: 317: 278: 254:Musical theater 214: 204: 203: 185:Great Migration 42: 12: 11: 5: 8146: 8136: 8135: 8130: 8125: 8120: 8103: 8102: 8100: 8099: 8087: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8075: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8038: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8017: 8016: 8015: 8010: 8008:Visual artists 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7968:Mathematicians 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7929: 7927: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7919: 7918: 7917: 7909: 7904: 7903: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7874: 7873: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7846: 7844: 7838: 7837: 7835: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7818: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7792: 7787: 7785:South Carolina 7782: 7777: 7776: 7775: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7755:North Carolina 7752: 7751: 7750: 7740: 7735: 7734: 7733: 7723: 7718: 7717: 7716: 7708: 7707: 7706: 7700:Massachusetts 7698: 7697: 7696: 7686: 7681: 7680: 7679: 7669: 7664: 7663: 7662: 7652: 7647: 7646: 7645: 7635: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7611: 7601: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7589: 7579: 7574: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7561: 7559: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7544: 7542:social context 7539: 7529: 7519: 7518: 7517: 7507: 7501: 7499: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7490: 7489: 7484: 7474: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7439: 7437: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7429: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7396: 7395: 7393:Creek Freedmen 7390: 7385: 7380: 7370: 7368:Alabama Creole 7365: 7364: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7339: 7337: 7333: 7332: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7308:Central (CIAA) 7304: 7302: 7297: 7294: 7293: 7291: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7229: 7223: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7144: 7142: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7131: 7130: 7125: 7124: 7123: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7101:Pan-Africanism 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7082: 7081: 7071: 7066: 7060: 7058: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7050: 7045: 7043:Black theology 7040: 7035: 7034: 7033: 7023: 7022: 7021: 7016: 7006: 7000: 6998: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6988: 6987: 6986: 6984:in STEM fields 6981: 6976: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6942: 6940: 6939:and technology 6934: 6933: 6931: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6880: 6878:Harriet Tubman 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6808:Michelle Obama 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6738:Barbara Jordan 6735: 6733:Harriet Jacobs 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6623:Amelia Boynton 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6589: 6587: 6586:Notable people 6583: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6522:LGBT community 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6503: 6502: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6446: 6444: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6418: 6417: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6374: 6369: 6362: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6321: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6237:Freedom Riders 6234: 6229: 6221: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6181: 6176: 6168: 6163: 6161:Black genocide 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6117: 6115: 6109: 6108: 6101: 6100: 6093: 6086: 6078: 6072: 6071: 6054: 6041: 6035: 6018: 6009: 6001: 6000:External links 5998: 5997: 5996: 5976: 5973: 5972: 5971: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5930: 5923: 5916: 5909: 5904:Torpey, John. 5902: 5887: 5872: 5865: 5858: 5854:newspapers.com 5839: 5832: 5825: 5818: 5815: 5810:978-0985217273 5809: 5793: 5782: 5775: 5768: 5763:978-1350010604 5762: 5756:. Bloomsbury. 5744: 5741: 5736:Main article: 5733: 5730: 5727: 5726: 5697: 5671: 5644: 5614: 5588: 5565: 5539: 5513: 5487: 5459: 5433: 5407: 5386: 5364: 5342: 5313: 5283: 5268: 5246: 5224: 5206: 5184: 5166: 5140: 5129:. May 31, 2007 5114: 5093: 5063: 5038: 5012: 4983: 4957: 4929: 4903: 4884: 4853: 4828: 4814: 4792: 4767: 4747: 4718: 4699:(4): 637–651. 4676: 4643: 4624: 4618:978-1257851256 4617: 4597: 4577: 4564:10.1086/696364 4558:(1–2): 44–64. 4529: 4516:The New Yorker 4501: 4475: 4463: 4448: 4426: 4412: 4387: 4361: 4347: 4336: 4329:28 U.S.C. 4321: 4296: 4267: 4218: 4200: 4171: 4159:worldpress.org 4145: 4119: 4103:"Peace Stamps" 4094: 4064: 4038: 4018: 3987: 3958: 3933: 3919: 3894: 3868: 3841: 3814: 3799: 3780: 3754: 3743: 3737:978-0801446733 3736: 3708: 3693:Redpath, James 3684: 3673:Redpath, James 3661: 3655:978-0812294361 3654: 3634: 3607: 3588:(3): 660–661. 3568: 3540: 3508: 3482: 3460: 3438: 3416: 3388: 3362: 3336: 3305: 3296: 3274: 3248: 3221: 3200: 3169: 3154: 3148:978-1469654973 3147: 3124: 3098: 3066: 3037: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2967: 2962: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2949: 2941: 2933: 2925: 2917: 2909: 2901: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2875: 2867: 2859: 2851: 2841: 2838: 2837: 2836: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2822: 2821: 2815: 2809: 2806:North Carolina 2803: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2765: 2762: 2761: 2760: 2754: 2748: 2742: 2736: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2682: 2679: 2639:David Horowitz 2623: 2620: 2612:gentrification 2594: 2591: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2568: 2549: 2548: 2541: 2540: 2529: 2522: 2495: 2492: 2445: 2442: 2432: 2429: 2425:Reconstruction 2383: 2380: 2378: 2375: 2361: 2358: 2290:Richard Posner 2246: 2243: 2242: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2225:Florida – 2008 2223: 2220: 2217: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2137: 2136: 2133:Bernie Sanders 2126: 2111: 2102: 2037: 2034: 2008: 2007: 1958: 1956: 1949: 1943: 1940: 1916:Henrietta Wood 1896:Reconstruction 1882:Andrew Johnson 1852: 1849: 1843:, both of the 1809: 1806: 1800:arrangements. 1788:advocated for 1786:Warner Mifflin 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1707:Belinda Royall 1683: 1682: 1680: 1679: 1672: 1665: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1626: 1625: 1620: 1619: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1576: 1575: 1573: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1545:Black genocide 1541: 1538: 1537: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1518: 1517: 1515: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1473: 1470: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1459: 1454: 1452:US communities 1449: 1444: 1439: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1425: 1424: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1409:South Carolina 1406: 1404:North Carolina 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1252: 1251: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1226:South Carolina 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1206:North Carolina 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1106: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1093: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1074: 1073: 1071: 1070: 1065: 1063:Samaná English 1060: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1019: 1018: 1016: 1015: 1013:LGBT community 1009: 1006: 1005: 1001: 1000: 998: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 970:Creek Freedmen 967: 961: 958: 957: 953: 952: 950: 949: 944: 943: 942: 940:Carmel Indians 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 901: 900: 895: 885: 880: 875: 869: 866: 865: 859: 856: 855: 852: 851: 846: 845: 844: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 821:Central (CIAA) 815: 814: 810: 809: 808: 807: 797: 794: 793: 790: 789: 784: 783: 781: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 732: 729: 728: 722: 719: 718: 715: 714: 709: 708: 706: 705: 700: 695: 690: 688:Pan-Africanism 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 634: 631: 630: 626: 625: 623: 622: 617: 612: 607: 601: 598: 597: 591: 588: 587: 584: 583: 578: 577: 575: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 538: 535: 534: 530: 529: 527: 526: 521: 519:Black theology 515: 512: 511: 507: 506: 504: 503: 497: 494: 493: 487: 482: 481: 478: 477: 472: 471: 469: 468: 463: 456: 451: 450: 449: 439: 434: 433: 432: 421: 418: 417: 413: 412: 410: 409: 404: 399: 394: 388: 385: 384: 383:Economic class 380: 379: 377: 376: 371: 366: 361: 355: 352: 351: 347: 346: 344: 343: 338: 333: 327: 324: 323: 322:Academic study 319: 318: 316: 315: 310: 305: 299: 294: 288: 285: 284: 280: 279: 277: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 225: 222: 221: 215: 210: 209: 206: 205: 200: 199: 198: 197: 192: 187: 179: 178: 174: 173: 172: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 143: 142: 138: 137: 136: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 104: 103: 93: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 50: 49: 43: 38: 37: 34: 33: 27: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8145: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8116: 8115: 8113: 8098: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8079: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8067:Neighborhoods 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8030:Sports firsts 8028: 8026: 8023: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7935: 7934: 7931: 7930: 7928: 7924: 7916: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7848: 7847: 7845: 7843: 7839: 7833: 7832:West Virginia 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7774: 7771: 7770: 7769:Pennsylvania 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7749: 7748:New York City 7746: 7745: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7732: 7729: 7728: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7705: 7702: 7701: 7699: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7678: 7675: 7674: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7661: 7658: 7657: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7644: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7619: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7606: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7593: 7592:San Francisco 7590: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7565:By state/city 7563: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7534: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7523: 7520: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7511: 7510:American Sign 7508: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7496: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7479: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7457: 7456: 7453: 7449: 7446: 7445: 7444: 7443:Neighborhoods 7441: 7440: 7438: 7434: 7428: 7425: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7375: 7374: 7373:Black Indians 7371: 7369: 7366: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7340: 7338: 7334: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7303: 7295: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7227: 7224: 7220: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 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6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6788:Toni Morrison 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6773:Joseph Lowery 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6718:Jesse Jackson 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6708:Kamala Harris 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6693:Marcus Garvey 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6643:Blanche Bruce 6641: 6639: 6638:Edward Brooke 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6628:James Bradley 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6608:James Baldwin 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6588: 6584: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6552:Neighborhoods 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6501: 6498: 6497: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 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magazine 2428: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2374: 2372: 2367: 2357: 2355: 2350: 2347: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2314: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2189:Father Divine 2185: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2153: 2152: 2147: 2146:Beto O'Rourke 2143: 2141: 2140:Kamala Harris 2134: 2130: 2129:Tulsi Gabbard 2127: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2033: 2031: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2012:In 1896, the 2004: 2001: 1993: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1969: 1968: 1964: 1959:This section 1957: 1953: 1948: 1947: 1939: 1937: 1936:federal court 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1904:Jim Crow laws 1901: 1897: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1829: 1826: 1825:James Redpath 1822: 1817: 1815: 1814:abolitionists 1805: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1733: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1666: 1664: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1655: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1627: 1615: 1614:Minstrel show 1612: 1610: 1609:Magical Negro 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1540: 1539: 1535: 1534: 1526: 1525: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1432: 1431: 1427: 1426: 1420: 1419:West Virginia 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1355: 1354:San Francisco 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1334:New York City 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1259: 1258: 1254: 1253: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1117: 1116: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1081: 1080: 1076: 1075: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1049: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1027: 1026: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1008: 1007: 1003: 1002: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 985:Nova Scotians 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 962: 960: 959: 955: 954: 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6908:Ida B. Wells 6898:David Walker 6893:C. T. Vivian 6848:Paul Robeson 6843:Hiram Revels 6823:Colin Powell 6803:Barack Obama 6758:James Lawson 6713:Jimi Hendrix 6683:James Farmer 6678:Medgar Evers 6648:Ralph Bunche 6598:Maya Angelou 6572:Middle class 6450:Afrofuturism 6376: 6364: 6357: 6278: 6223: 6170: 6136:Afrocentrism 6126:Abolitionism 6063:. Retrieved 6032:John Conyers 6013: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5963:. Retrieved 5951: 5945: 5934:19th century 5926: 5919: 5912: 5905: 5895: 5880: 5868: 5861: 5847: 5835: 5828: 5827:Hakim, Ida. 5821: 5800: 5789: 5778: 5771: 5753: 5743:21st century 5710: 5700: 5688:. Retrieved 5684: 5674: 5662:. Retrieved 5657: 5647: 5638: 5631:. Retrieved 5626: 5617: 5607:November 15, 5605:. Retrieved 5600: 5591: 5581:November 15, 5579:. Retrieved 5568: 5556:. Retrieved 5552: 5542: 5530:. Retrieved 5526: 5516: 5504:. Retrieved 5500: 5490: 5478:. Retrieved 5471: 5462: 5452:February 12, 5450:. Retrieved 5446:the original 5436: 5424:. Retrieved 5420: 5410: 5399: 5389: 5377:. 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Retrieved 3051: 3041: 2996:Legal remedy 2970:Freedom suit 2943: 2935: 2927: 2919: 2911: 2903: 2884: 2869: 2861: 2853: 2845: 2831: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2733:state agency 2724: 2705: 2691: 2684: 2671: 2666: 2661:(2006), and 2658: 2650: 2642: 2636: 2628: 2625: 2616: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2586: 2580: 2550: 2542: 2519:World War II 2500: 2497: 2482: 2476: 2459:The Atlantic 2457: 2447: 2434: 2414:In 2008 the 2413: 2409: 2385: 2363: 2351: 2343: 2324: 2316: 2311: 2293: 2287: 2276: 2264: 2248: 2211: 2204: 2193: 2186: 2182: 2174: 2172: 2156: 2149: 2144: 2138: 2085: 2039: 2027: 2022:Callie House 2011: 1996: 1987: 1972:Please help 1960: 1913: 1908:Ku Klux Klan 1894: 1854: 1834: 1830: 1818: 1811: 1802:Gary B. Nash 1779: 1764: 1746:war on drugs 1734: 1730: 1719: 1704: 1687: 1686: 1512:Sierra Leone 1344:Philadelphia 1314:Jacksonville 910:Brass Ankles 663:Conservatism 638:Afrocentrism 610:Joint Center 501:Black church 492:Institutions 407:Billionaires 397:Middle class 350:Celebrations 313:Fraternities 15: 8003:US senators 7973:Republicans 7958:Journalists 7815:San Antonio 7780:Puerto Rico 7721:Mississippi 7614:Tallahassee 7587:Los Angeles 7278:Jesse Owens 7263:Arthur Ashe 7121:Nationalism 7111:Raised fist 7074:Black power 6979:in medicine 6913:Roy Wilkins 6868:Emmett Till 6853:Al Sharpton 6618:Julian Bond 6613:James Bevel 6577:Upper class 6567:Stereotypes 6460:Black mecca 6372:Plantations 6151:Black Codes 6065:December 3, 6016:Autumn 2008 5954:: 105–119. 5797:DeGruy, Joy 5577:. CNN/Money 5558:January 30, 5379:October 30, 5335:October 30, 5159:January 30, 5133:January 30, 5056:October 21, 5031:October 21, 5005:October 30, 4976:October 19, 4922:January 29, 4877:October 19, 4785:October 19, 4740:October 19, 4669:October 30, 4494:October 19, 4333:§ 1407 4083:. p. 1 3768:Smithsonian 3117:October 29, 2776:Connecticut 2719:Legislation 2647:John Torpey 2431:Health care 2255:restitution 2219:Connecticut 2119:Cory Booker 2091:Andrew Yang 2077:counterfeit 2073:Minneapolis 2018:reparations 1928:Mississippi 1900:segregation 1798:shared crop 1790:restitution 1780:During the 1775:Deuteronomy 1580:Stereotypes 1507:Nova Scotia 1389:Mississippi 1349:San Antonio 1329:Los Angeles 1264:Black mecca 1191:Mississippi 1098:Negro Dutch 920:Dominickers 864:Multiethnic 773:TransAfrica 683:Nationalism 653:Black power 437:Black pride 402:Upper class 101:Politicians 8112:Categories 7948:Astronauts 7738:New Jersey 7582:California 7086:Capitalism 6883:Nat Turner 6813:Rosa Parks 6798:Diane Nash 6768:John Lewis 6557:Newspapers 6527:Literature 6512:Juneteenth 6465:Businesses 6319:Exodusters 6287:Free Negro 5989:Al-Jazeera 5844:"The Debt" 3773:October 6, 3701:. 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