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Institute maintains the term "synthetic bacterial cell" but they also clarify "...we do not consider this to be "creating life from scratch" but rather we are creating new life out of already existing life using synthetic DNA". Venter plans to patent his experimental cells, stating that "they are pretty clearly human inventions". Its creators suggests that building 'synthetic life' would allow researchers to learn about life by building it, rather than by tearing it apart. They also propose to stretch the boundaries between life and machines until the two overlap to yield "truly programmable organisms". Researchers involved stated that the creation of "true synthetic biochemical life" is relatively close in reach with current technology and cheap compared to the effort needed to place man on the Moon.
355:
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Sexual reproduction, he argued, was like purchasing fewer tickets but with a greater variety of numbers and therefore a greater chance of success. The point of this analogy is that since asexual reproduction does not produce genetic variations, there is little ability to quickly adapt to a changing environment. The lottery principle is less accepted these days because of evidence that asexual reproduction is more prevalent in unstable environments, the opposite of what it predicts.
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884:), and many plants are examples. When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is employed to exploit suitable conditions for survival such as an abundant food supply, adequate shelter, favorable climate, disease, optimum pH or a proper mix of other lifestyle requirements. Populations of these organisms increase exponentially via asexual reproductive strategies to take full advantage of the rich supply resources.
841:
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734:. In 2004, by altering the function of a few genes involved with imprinting, other Japanese scientists combined two mouse eggs to produce daughter mice and in 2018 Chinese scientists created 29 female mice from two female mice mothers but were unable to produce viable offspring from two father mice. Researches noted that there is little chance these techniques would be applied to humans in the near future.
892:). In addition, sexual reproduction usually results in the formation of a life stage that is able to endure the conditions that threaten the offspring of an asexual parent. Thus, seeds, spores, eggs, pupae, cysts or other "over-wintering" stages of sexual reproduction ensure the survival during unfavorable times and the organism can "wait out" adverse situations until a swing back to suitability occurs.
475:). Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent. Thus, offspring have a combination of the parents' genes. It is believed that "the masking of deleterious alleles favors the evolution of a dominant diploid phase in organisms that alternate between haploid and diploid phases" where recombination occurs freely.
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There is some debate within the scientific community over whether this cell can be considered completely synthetic on the grounds that the chemically synthesized genome was an almost 1:1 copy of a naturally occurring genome and, the recipient cell was a naturally occurring bacterium. The Craig Venter
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Organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction tend to grow in number exponentially. However, because they rely on mutation for variations in their DNA, all members of the species have similar vulnerabilities. Organisms that reproduce sexually yield a smaller number of offspring, but the large
915:
Scientists have speculated about the possibility of creating life non-reproductively in the laboratory. Several scientists have succeeded in producing simple viruses from entirely non-living materials. However, viruses are often regarded as not alive. Being nothing more than a bit of RNA or DNA in a
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depends on a variety of circumstances. Animals with few offspring can devote more resources to the nurturing and protection of each individual offspring, thus reducing the need for many offspring. On the other hand, animals with many offspring may devote fewer resources to each individual offspring;
887:
When food sources have been depleted, the climate becomes hostile, or individual survival is jeopardized by some other adverse change in living conditions, these organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction. Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species. The variations
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in one explanation for the widespread use of sexual reproduction. He argued that asexual reproduction, which produces little or no genetic variety in offspring, was like buying many tickets that all have the same number, limiting the chance of "winning" – that is, producing surviving offspring.
2045:
Gibson, D.; Glass, J.; Lartigue, C.; Noskov, V.; Chuang, R.; Algire, M.; Benders, G.; Montague, M.; Ma, L.; Moodie, M.M.; Merryman, C.; Vashee, S.; Krishnakumar, R.; Assad-Garcia, N.; Andrews-Pfannkoch, C.; Denisova, E.A.; Young, L.; Qi, Z.-Q.; Segall-Shapiro, T.H.; Calvey, C.H.; Parmar, P.P.;
505:. The advantage of diploidy, heterosis, only exists in the diploid life generation. Bryophytes retain sexual reproduction despite the fact that the haploid stage does not benefit from heterosis. This may be an indication that the sexual reproduction has advantages other than heterosis, such as
725:
Scientific research is currently investigating the possibility of same-sex procreation, which would produce offspring with equal genetic contributions from either two females or two males. The obvious approaches, subject to a growing amount of activity, are
888:
found in offspring of sexual reproduction allow some individuals to be better suited for survival and provide a mechanism for selective adaptation to occur. The meiosis stage of the sexual cycle also allows especially effective repair of DNA damages (see
528:
or abiotic carriers such as wind. Fertilization begins when the pollen is brought to a female gamete through the pollen tube. Allogamy is also known as cross fertilization, in contrast to autogamy or geitonogamy which are methods of self-fertilization.
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for these types of animals it is common for many offspring to die soon after birth, but enough individuals typically survive to maintain the population. Some organisms such as honey bees and fruit flies retain sperm in a process called
1723:
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168:. These organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting" themselves into two or more copies of themselves. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species
140:
Asexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create genetically similar or identical copies of themselves without the contribution of genetic material from another organism. Bacteria divide asexually via
523:
Allogamy is the fertilization of flowers through cross-pollination, this occurs when a flower's ovum is fertilized by spermatozoa from the pollen of a different plant's flower. Pollen may be transferred through
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Sexual reproduction has many drawbacks, since it requires far more energy than asexual reproduction and diverts the organisms from other pursuits, and there is some argument about why so many species use it.
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The production of a truly living organism (e.g. a simple bacterium) with no ancestors would be a much more complex task, but may well be possible to some degree according to current biological knowledge. A
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The existence of life without reproduction is the subject of some speculation. The biological study of how the origin of life produced reproducing organisms from non-reproducing elements is called
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813:(including all grain crops), and certain species of salmon, spider, bamboo and century plant. Often, they die shortly after reproduction. This is often associated with
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Tobler, M. & Schlupp, I. (2005) Parasites in sexual and asexual mollies (Poecilia, Poeciliidae, Teleostei): a case for the Red Queen? Biol. Lett. 1 (2): 166–168.
1330:
T.M. Sonneborn (1938). "Mating Types in
Paramecium Aurelia: Diverse Conditions for Mating in Different Stocks; Occurrence, Number and Interrelations of the Types".
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between members of the species, allowing the expression of a wider range of traits and thus making the population more able to survive environmental variation.
191: – reproduction without seeds or spores – but can also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by
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for many years after birth and even then produce few offspring. Others reproduce quickly; but, under normal circumstances, most offspring do not survive to
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is a major puzzle for biologists. The two-fold cost of sexual reproduction is that only 50% of organisms reproduce and organisms only pass on 50% of their
45:). The small plant in front is about 1 cm (0.4 in) tall. The concept of "individual" is obviously stretched by this asexual reproductive process.
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of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself. The
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471:. Most animals (including humans) and plants reproduce sexually. Sexually reproducing organisms have different sets of genes for every trait (called
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567:. The term "autogamy" is sometimes substituted for autogamous pollination (not necessarily leading to successful fertilization) and describes
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In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to
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2046:
Hutchison Ca, C.A.; Smith, H.O.; Venter, J.C. (2010). "Creation of a
Bacterial Cell Controlled by a Chemically Synthesized Genome".
1785:
Li, Zhi-Kun; Wang, Le-Yun; Wang, Li-Bin; Feng, Gui-Hai; Yuan, Xue-Wei; Liu, Chao; Xu, Kai; Li, Yu-Huan; Wan, Hai-Feng (2018-10-01).
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has been transferred into an existing bacterium where it replaced the native DNA, resulting in the artificial production of a new
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456:). Because both gametes look alike, they generally cannot be classified as male or female. For example, in the green alga,
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Eckert, C.G. (2000). "Contributions of autogamy and geitonogamy to self-fertilization in a mass-flowering, clonal plant".
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The resultant number of cells is four times the number of original cells. This results in cells with half the number of
126:. This produces offspring organisms whose genetic characteristics are derived from those of the two parental organisms.
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There are a wide range of reproductive strategies employed by different species. Some animals, such as the human and
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827:. Iteroparous animals survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes). This is more associated with
1787:"Generation of Bimaternal and Bipaternal Mice from Hypomethylated Haploid ESCs with Imprinting Region Deletions"
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Sexual reproduction typically requires the sexual interaction of two specialized reproductive cells, called
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768:(mature after 10–14 days) can produce up to 900 offspring per year. These two main strategies are known as
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1982:"Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template"
1933:"Reproductive polyphenism and its advantages in aphids: Switching between sexual and asexual reproduction"
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1532:
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Young, Truman P.; Carol K. Augspurger (1991). "Ecology and evolution of long-lived semelparous plants".
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460:, there are so-called "plus" and "minus" gametes. A few types of organisms, such as many fungi and the
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904:. Whether or not there were several independent abiogenetic events, biologists believe that the
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Bernstein, H.; Hopf, F.A.; Michod, R.E. (1987). "The
Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".
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368:
226:. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called
2325:
Dr. Tatiana's Sex Advice to All
Creation: Definitive Guide to the Evolutionary Biology of Sex.
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The resultant number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of original cells. The number of
421:. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup by creating
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764:. For example, a rabbit (mature after 8 months) can produce 10–30 offspring per year, and a
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Biological process by which new organisms are generated from one or more parent organisms
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187:) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of
61:
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1957:
1932:
1834:
Cole, Lamont C. (June 1954). "The
Population Consequences of Life History Phenomena".
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452:), but may have separable properties and then may be given other different names (see
72:" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. There are two forms of reproduction:
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Segers, Seppe; Mertes, Heidi; Pennings, Guido; de Wert, Guido; Dondorp, Wybo (2017).
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1652:"Using stem cell-derived gametes for same-sex reproduction: an alternative scenario"
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Kumar R, Meena M, Swapnil P (2019). "Anisogamy". In Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds.).
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stage is relatively small and short-lived compared to the haploid stage, i.e.
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Production of new individuals along a leaf margin of the miracle leaf plant (
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848:. If each organism were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two),
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Parasite Rex: Inside the
Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures
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amount of variation in their genes makes them less susceptible to disease.
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produce offspring in successive (e.g. annual or seasonal) cycles, such as
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1115:"A Guide to the Recognition of Parthenogenesis in Incubated Turkey Eggs"
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304: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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Ridley M (2004) Evolution, 3rd edition. Blackwell
Publishing, p. 314.
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478:
449:
69:
2220:
1975. Sex and
Evolution. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.
697:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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cells. This process occurs in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis II.
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2298:"Allogamy, cross-fertilization, cross-pollination, hybridization".
1847:
1275:"What do isogamous organisms teach us about sex and the two sexes?"
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reproduce sexually, but the larger and commonly-seen organisms are
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406:
343:
227:
65:
1539:(3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Academic Press. pp. 595–606.
1451:"Living together and living apart: the sexual lives of bryophytes"
254:(e.g. some reptiles, some fish, and very rarely, domestic birds).
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fused in fertilization come from the same individual, e.g., many
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the population remains the same size each generation, where the
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in the offspring cells is the same as that of the parent cell.
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490:
428:. Most organisms form two different types of gametes. In these
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215:
123:
103:
1980:
Cello, Jeronimo; Paul, Aniko V.; Wimmer, Eckard (2002-08-09).
1273:
Lehtonen, Jussi; Kokko, Hanna; Parker, Geoff A. (2016-10-19).
145:; viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses;
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Some species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like
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Many organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
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10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0532:coaagt]2.0.co;2
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360:
219:
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3619:
1748:"No father necessary as mice are created with two mothers"
1626:"Timeline of same-sex procreation scientific developments"
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species, the two sexes are referred to as male (producing
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2044:
1244:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–5.
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Promiscuity: An Evolutionary History of Sperm Competition
243:
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1884:
1412:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–370.
413:
material of two organisms in a process that starts with
3936:
575:, transfer of pollen to a different flower on the same
2341:. Sinauer Associates Inc., Publishers, Sunderland, MA
2337:
Richard E. Michod and Bruce E. Levin, editors (1987).
1714:"Japanese scientists produce mice without using sperm"
1598:
Kissin DM, Adamson GD, Chambers G, DeGeyter C (2019).
1142:
637:
cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions (
2339:
The Evolution of Sex: An Examination of Current Ideas
1075:"Female Sharks Can Reproduce Alone, Researchers Find"
26:"Procreate" redirects here. For the application, see
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1524:
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thereby increasing the duration of their fertility.
641:
to diploid to haploid), in the process forming four
1407:
1272:
1203:
Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics (Second Edition)
856:
asexual population doubles in size each generation.
214:. Parthenogenesis is the growth and development of
172:is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means.
2355:. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, MA
2130:
1931:Yan, Shuo; Wang, Wan-xing; Shen, Jie (June 2020).
1746:
835:
5594:Termination of the patient-physician relationship
3082:
1521:
1332:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1235:
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803:reproduce intermittently throughout their lives.
776:(many offspring). Which strategy is favoured by
448:, the gametes are similar or identical in form (
2353:Eros and Evolution: A natural philosophy of sex
2099:
1979:
1205:, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 338–341,
809:reproduce only once in their lifetime, such as
2156:
1784:
1338:(3). American Philosophical Society: 411–434.
1329:
1149:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 583–.
5179:
3635:
3043:
2441:
1601:Assisted Reproductive Technology Surveillance
1359:"Recombination and the Evolution of Diploidy"
1356:
1242:Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior
1048:Halliday, Tim R.; Adler, Kraig, eds. (1986).
1047:
497:, which in turn produces haploid spores. The
2229:
1570:
1196:
1143:Libbie Henrietta Hyman (15 September 1992).
1930:
1722:. Sarasota Herald-Tribune. April 22, 2004.
1591:
1229:
1201:, in Maloy, Stanley; Hughes, Kelly (eds.),
1197:Griswold, M. D.; Hunt, P. A. (2013-01-01),
571:within the same flower, distinguished from
198:Other ways of asexual reproduction include
5186:
5172:
3642:
3628:
2448:
2434:
2230:Lively, C. M.; Morran, L. T. (July 2014).
2950:
2255:
2095:
2093:
2005:
1956:
1926:
1924:
1802:
1474:
1384:
1306:
908:to all present life on Earth lived about
713:Learn how and when to remove this message
320:Learn how and when to remove this message
2102:"Scientists Create First Synthetic Cell"
1169:
1136:
1113:Savage, Thomas F. (September 12, 2005).
1072:
839:
34:
1744:
1530:
1041:
5643:
2090:
1921:
1509:from the original on 25 September 2021
1146:Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
1112:
1026:
589:
467:, have more than two "sexes", called
438:or microspores) and female (producing
5167:
3623:
2429:
2300:GardenWeb Glossary of Botanical Terms
2112:from the original on January 29, 2015
1878:
5138:
2232:"The ecology of sexual reproduction"
1833:
1448:
1357:Otto, S.P.; Goldstein, D.B. (1992).
949:
662:
547:, also known as autogamy, occurs in
302:adding citations to reliable sources
273:
5148:
2420:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2309:Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary
846:twofold cost of sexual reproduction
110:of normal cells and are created by
106:, which contain half the number of
13:
4063:Evolutionary developmental biology
2385:Journal of Biology of Reproduction
2316:
1937:Journal of Integrative Agriculture
1726:from the original on July 23, 2021
924:with the assistance of a hijacked
14:
5662:
4088:Post-transcriptional modification
2366:
1533:"13 – Plant Reproductive Biology"
1410:Molecular Genetics of Development
1163:
5147:
5137:
5128:
5127:
5115:
4464:
2418:"Replication and Reproduction."
2100:Robert Lee Hotz (May 21, 2010).
667:
353:
336:
278:
93:evolution of sexual reproduction
2236:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2223:
2211:
2200:from the original on 2007-01-21
2180:
2150:
2124:
2038:
1973:
1887:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
1836:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1827:
1778:
1767:from the original on 2018-10-12
1738:
1706:
1643:
1632:from the original on 2011-02-08
1618:
1564:
1553:from the original on 2022-08-20
1491:
1449:Haig, David (19 October 2016).
1442:
1401:
1350:
1323:
1266:
1250:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_340-1
1219:from the original on 2021-04-20
1073:Eilperin, Juliet (2007-05-23).
895:
836:Asexual vs. sexual reproduction
289:needs additional citations for
3195:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous
1604:. Cambridge University Press.
1190:
1106:
1066:
1052:. Torstar Books. p. 101.
1017:
916:protein capsule, they have no
788:
633:present in the parent cell. A
1:
5193:
3165:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid
2294:, New York: Touchstone, 2001.
2276:
1958:10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62767-X
1668:10.1136/medethics-2016-103863
1418:10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7
737:
489:. The gametes fuse to form a
21:Reproduction (disambiguation)
1907:10.1016/0169-5347(91)90006-J
1745:Blakely, Rhys (2018-10-12).
1531:Simpson, Michael G. (2019).
1176:. Harvard University Press.
7:
3649:
2157:W. Wayte Gibbs (May 2004).
971:
795:Semelparity and iteroparity
693:the claims made and adding
648:
532:
512:
10:
5667:
5625:Institutional review board
1804:10.1016/j.stem.2018.09.004
1628:. samesexprocreation.com.
1377:10.1093/genetics/131.3.745
792:
741:
652:
609:, while meiosis occurs in
536:
516:
267:
261:
133:
129:
25:
18:
5602:
5526:
5480:
5392:
5359:
5331:
5303:
5255:Doctrine of double effect
5232:
5201:
5109:
5078:
4638:
4608:
4574:Polymerase chain reaction
4534:Green fluorescent protein
4484:
4473:
4462:
4370:
4302:
4234:
4174:
4111:Earliest known life forms
4096:
4043:
3960:
3867:
3707:
3698:
3657:
3504:
3438:
3363:
3340:
3307:
3240:
3114:
3107:
3073:
3034:
3009:
2983:
2974:
2941:
2906:
2870:
2839:
2816:
2807:
2777:
2756:
2738:
2729:
2699:
2673:
2664:
2634:
2608:
2573:
2564:
2557:
2471:
1656:Journal of Medical Ethics
1050:Reptiles & Amphibians
573:geitonogamous pollination
458:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
401:Sexual reproduction is a
257:
164:are able to reproduce by
2486:Mastigophora/Flagellates
2131:Craig Venter Institute.
1010:
928:'s metabolic machinery.
551:organisms where the two
417:, a specialized type of
114:, with typically a male
64:by which new individual
5346:Reproductive technology
4626:species discovery curve
3754:Response to environment
3524:Baas-Becking hypothesis
2410:Encyclopædia Britannica
2322:Judson, Olivia (2003).
2188:"NOVA: Artificial life"
2106:The Wall Street Journal
2068:10.1126/science.1190719
2007:10.1126/science.1072266
1119:Oregon State University
906:last universal ancestor
659:Reproductive technology
189:vegetative reproduction
122:to create a fertilized
85:single-celled organisms
5101:Plant morphology terms
4703:Biological engineering
4385:Biological interaction
3519:Microbial biogeography
2413:(11th ed.). 1911.
1467:10.1098/rstb.2015.0535
1291:10.1098/rstb.2015.0532
1170:Birkhead, Tim (2000).
857:
493:which develops into a
373:internal fertilization
46:
5630:Human challenge study
5569:Scientific misconduct
5498:Jewish medical ethics
4788:Developmental biology
4763:Computational biology
4743:Cellular microbiology
4083:Mendelian inheritance
3995:Energy transformation
2539:Fungus-like organisms
2351:Michod, R.E. (1994).
2302:(2.1 ed.). 2002.
994:Modes of reproduction
910:3.5 billion years ago
843:
821:Iteroparous organisms
807:Semelparous organisms
744:Modes of reproduction
742:Further information:
579:, or within a single
507:genetic recombination
346:mate in midair flight
118:a female of the same
38:
5481:Cultural differences
5384:Genetic modification
5008:Reproductive biology
4893:Mathematical biology
4818:Evolutionary biology
4768:Conservation biology
4579:Two-hybrid screening
4549:Protein purification
4380:Biogeochemical cycle
4342:Internal environment
3990:Cellular respiration
3254:Simple cell membrane
3190:Pseudoparenchymatous
3178:Filamentous/trichal/
3162:Colonial flagellated
3095:Collar of microvilli
2404:"Reproduction"
2390:Journal of Andrology
2373:Asexual Reproduction
2311:(27 ed.). 2004.
1125:on November 15, 2006
1036:The Evolution of Sex
844:Illustration of the
772:(few offspring) and
605:. Mitosis occurs in
298:improve this article
136:Asexual reproduction
28:Procreate (software)
19:For other uses, see
5395:emergent situations
4793:Ecological genetics
4504:Gel electrophoresis
4494:Genetic engineering
4447:Population dynamics
4357:Reproductive system
3468:Contractile vacuole
3419:Meiosis in protists
3400:Mitosis in protists
3378:Multinucleate cells
2600:Flagellar apparatus
2549:Ambiregnal protists
2491:Sarcodina/Amoeboids
2196:. 18 October 2005.
2163:Scientific American
2060:2010Sci...329...52G
1998:2002Sci...297.1016C
1992:(5583): 1016–1018.
1949:2020JIAgr..19.1447Y
1899:1991TEcoE...6..285Y
1719:The Washington Post
1080:The Washington Post
1004:Reproductive system
748:Life history theory
590:Mitosis and meiosis
442:or megaspores). In
405:that creates a new
264:Sexual reproduction
210:that involves only
170:Mycocepurus smithii
5574:Medical misconduct
5539:Continuity of care
5422:Court intervention
5393:Death, dying, and
5202:Classic principles
5122:Biology portal
5018:Structural biology
5003:Relational biology
4828:Generative biology
4823:Freshwater biology
4621:mark and recapture
4569:Restriction enzyme
4362:Respiratory system
4317:Circulatory system
4244:Epidermis (botany)
3299:Periplast/pellicle
3022:Periplast/pellicle
2962:Cruciform division
2395:2005-11-07 at the
2378:2018-01-22 at the
1505:. 7 October 2019.
1461:(1706): 20150535.
1033:John Maynard Smith
999:Plant reproduction
957:George C. Williams
876:, some species of
858:
801:Polycyclic animals
678:possibly contains
465:Paramecium aurelia
403:biological process
270:Human reproduction
62:biological process
47:
5638:
5637:
5472:Transplant ethics
5462:Health care proxy
5351:Gender assignment
5161:
5160:
5023:Synthetic biology
4903:Molecular biology
4758:Cognitive biology
4634:
4633:
4460:
4459:
4151:Natural selection
3932:Organic compounds
3829:Scientific method
3819:Emergent property
3760:Hierarchy of life
3730:Energy processing
3617:
3616:
3514:Microbial ecology
3500:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3473:Eyespot apparatus
3103:
3102:
3085:Choanoflagellates
3069:
3068:
3030:
3029:
2970:
2969:
2937:
2936:
2803:
2802:
2725:
2724:
2660:
2659:
2361:978-0-201-44232-8
2347:978-0-87893-459-1
2333:978-0-09-928375-1
2248:10.1111/jeb.12354
1797:(5): 665–676.e4.
1611:978-1-108-49858-6
1537:Plant systematics
1259:978-3-319-47829-6
1212:978-0-08-096156-9
1183:978-0-674-00666-9
1156:978-0-226-87013-7
1059:978-0-920269-81-7
950:Lottery principle
723:
722:
715:
680:original research
655:LGBT reproduction
503:haploid dominance
445:isogamous species
409:by combining the
369:mammals reproduce
330:
329:
322:
42:Kalanchoe pinnata
5658:
5610:Informed consent
5579:Competence (law)
5527:Personal conduct
5432:Ethics committee
5313:Consequentialism
5233:Other principles
5188:
5181:
5174:
5165:
5164:
5151:
5150:
5141:
5140:
5131:
5130:
5124:
5120:
5119:
5096:Ecological terms
4748:Chemical biology
4609:Field techniques
4482:
4481:
4468:
4327:Digestive system
4322:Endocrine system
3895:Chemical element
3854:Biology journals
3750:Self-replication
3705:
3704:
3644:
3637:
3630:
3621:
3620:
3488:Mastigont system
3441:
3366:
3343:
3332:Gliding motility
3310:
3247:
3192:/plektenchymatic
3148:Amoeboflagellate
3121:
3112:
3111:
3088:
3080:
3079:
3049:
3041:
3040:
3015:
2989:
2981:
2980:
2955:
2948:
2947:
2912:
2876:
2845:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2783:
2762:
2741:
2736:
2735:
2705:
2679:
2671:
2670:
2640:
2614:
2578:
2571:
2570:
2562:
2561:
2450:
2443:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2414:
2406:
2312:
2303:
2270:
2269:
2259:
2242:(7): 1292–1303.
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2174:
2165:. Archived from
2159:"Synthetic Life"
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2135:. Archived from
2128:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2009:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1943:(6): 1447–1457.
1928:
1919:
1918:
1882:
1876:
1875:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1806:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1750:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1528:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1514:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1478:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1388:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1310:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1121:. Archived from
1110:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1091:. Archived from
1070:
1064:
1063:
1045:
1039:
1030:
1024:
1021:
934:synthetic genome
825:perennial plants
718:
711:
707:
704:
698:
695:inline citations
671:
670:
663:
569:self-pollination
357:
340:
325:
318:
314:
311:
305:
282:
274:
185:Mating of yeasts
5666:
5665:
5661:
5660:
5659:
5657:
5656:
5655:
5641:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5615:Informed assent
5603:Research ethics
5598:
5522:
5476:
5394:
5388:
5379:Genetic testing
5355:
5327:
5299:
5245:Confidentiality
5228:
5219:Non-maleficence
5197:
5192:
5162:
5157:
5114:
5113:
5105:
5091:Botanical terms
5074:
5073:
5072:
5033:Systems biology
4998:Quantum biology
4630:
4604:
4486:
4476:
4469:
4456:
4366:
4347:Muscular system
4304:
4298:
4289:Vascular tissue
4236:
4230:
4170:
4131:History of life
4092:
4073:Gene regulation
4068:Gene expression
4039:
3956:
3863:
3694:
3653:
3648:
3618:
3613:
3506:
3492:
3439:
3434:
3364:
3359:
3341:
3336:
3308:
3303:
3244:
3241:
3236:
3118:
3115:
3099:
3083:
3065:
3044:
3026:
3010:
3005:
2984:
2966:
2951:
2933:
2907:
2902:
2871:
2866:
2842:Dinoflagellates
2840:
2835:
2817:
2799:
2778:
2773:
2757:
2752:
2739:
2721:
2700:
2695:
2674:
2656:
2635:
2630:
2609:
2604:
2574:
2553:
2474:classifications
2473:
2467:
2454:
2401:
2397:Wayback Machine
2380:Wayback Machine
2369:
2319:
2317:Further reading
2306:
2297:
2279:
2274:
2273:
2228:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2203:
2201:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2172:
2170:
2155:
2151:
2142:
2140:
2129:
2125:
2115:
2113:
2098:
2091:
2054:(5987): 52–56.
2043:
2039:
1978:
1974:
1929:
1922:
1883:
1879:
1832:
1828:
1783:
1779:
1770:
1768:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1727:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1662:(10): 688–691.
1648:
1644:
1635:
1633:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1596:
1592:
1569:
1565:
1556:
1554:
1547:
1529:
1522:
1512:
1510:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1447:
1443:
1428:
1406:
1402:
1355:
1351:
1328:
1324:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1220:
1213:
1195:
1191:
1184:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1141:
1137:
1128:
1126:
1111:
1107:
1098:
1096:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1046:
1042:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1008:
979:Breeding season
974:
952:
898:
838:
797:
791:
758:sexual maturity
756:, do not reach
754:northern gannet
750:
740:
719:
708:
702:
699:
684:
672:
668:
661:
653:Main articles:
651:
592:
577:flowering plant
557:vascular plants
541:
535:
521:
515:
399:
398:
397:
396:
395:
375:. Male mammals
358:
349:
348:
347:
341:
326:
315:
309:
306:
295:
283:
272:
266:
260:
248:parasitic wasps
208:spore formation
200:parthenogenesis
138:
132:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5664:
5654:
5653:
5636:
5635:
5633:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5606:
5604:
5600:
5599:
5597:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5534:Abuse of trust
5530:
5528:
5524:
5523:
5521:
5520:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5484:
5482:
5478:
5477:
5475:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5449:
5447:Family meeting
5444:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5398:
5396:
5390:
5389:
5387:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5365:
5363:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5337:
5335:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5309:
5307:
5301:
5300:
5298:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5236:
5234:
5230:
5229:
5227:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5205:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5191:
5190:
5183:
5176:
5168:
5159:
5158:
5156:
5155:
5145:
5135:
5125:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5082:
5080:
5076:
5075:
5071:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4888:Marine biology
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4698:Bioinformatics
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4636:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4612:
4610:
4606:
4605:
4603:
4602:
4595:
4588:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4529:DNA microarray
4526:
4524:DNA sequencing
4521:
4516:
4514:Centrifugation
4511:
4509:Chromatography
4506:
4501:
4499:Transformation
4496:
4490:
4488:
4479:
4471:
4470:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4438:
4437:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4410:Climate change
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4376:
4374:
4368:
4367:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4352:Nervous system
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4284:Vascular plant
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4240:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4228:
4223:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4191:
4186:
4180:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4141:Microevolution
4138:
4136:Macroevolution
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4102:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4049:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4030:Photosynthesis
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3985:Cell signaling
3982:
3977:
3972:
3966:
3964:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3871:
3869:
3868:Chemical basis
3865:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3834:Taxonomic rank
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3814:Reductionistic
3811:
3757:
3722:
3717:
3711:
3709:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3687:
3686:
3685:
3675:
3670:
3661:Introduction (
3658:
3655:
3654:
3647:
3646:
3639:
3632:
3624:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3562:
3561:
3560:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3542:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3510:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3444:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3431:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3375:
3369:
3367:
3361:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3346:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3313:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3250:
3248:
3238:
3237:
3235:
3234:
3221:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3216:Siphonocladous
3214:
3206:
3199:Multinucleated
3196:
3193:
3187:
3185:Parenchymatous
3182:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3124:
3122:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3091:
3089:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3052:
3050:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3018:
3016:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2990:
2986:Kinetoplastids
2978:
2972:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2965:
2964:
2958:
2956:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2915:
2913:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2879:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2848:
2846:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2822:
2820:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2786:
2784:
2775:
2774:
2772:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2744:
2742:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2708:
2706:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2682:
2680:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2655:
2654:
2652:Phycobilisomes
2649:
2647:Pit connection
2643:
2641:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2626:Phycobilisomes
2623:
2617:
2615:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2581:
2579:
2576:Chloroplastida
2568:
2566:Archaeplastida
2559:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2488:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2415:
2399:
2387:
2382:
2368:
2367:External links
2365:
2364:
2363:
2349:
2335:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2304:
2295:
2283:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2271:
2222:
2218:Williams G. C.
2210:
2179:
2149:
2123:
2089:
2037:
1972:
1920:
1893:(9): 285–289.
1877:
1848:10.1086/400074
1842:(2): 103–137.
1826:
1791:Cell Stem Cell
1777:
1737:
1705:
1642:
1617:
1610:
1590:
1579:(2): 532–542.
1563:
1546:978-0128126288
1545:
1520:
1503:Biology Online
1490:
1441:
1427:978-0120176243
1426:
1400:
1371:(3): 745–751.
1349:
1322:
1265:
1258:
1228:
1211:
1189:
1182:
1162:
1155:
1135:
1105:
1065:
1058:
1040:
1025:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
981:
975:
973:
970:
963:tickets as an
951:
948:
897:
894:
837:
834:
833:
832:
818:
804:
793:Main article:
790:
787:
739:
736:
721:
720:
675:
673:
666:
650:
647:
591:
588:
561:foraminiferans
549:hermaphroditic
537:Main article:
534:
531:
526:pollen vectors
517:Main article:
514:
511:
359:
352:
351:
350:
342:
335:
334:
333:
332:
331:
328:
327:
286:
284:
277:
262:Main article:
259:
256:
143:binary fission
134:Main article:
131:
128:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5663:
5652:
5649:
5648:
5646:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5601:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5529:
5525:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5485:
5483:
5479:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5412:Cardiac death
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5399:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5366:
5364:
5362:
5358:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5338:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5324:
5323:Virtue ethics
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5310:
5308:
5306:
5302:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5231:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5189:
5184:
5182:
5177:
5175:
5170:
5169:
5166:
5154:
5146:
5144:
5136:
5134:
5126:
5123:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5108:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4968:Phylogenetics
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4863:Human biology
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4753:Chronobiology
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4728:Biotechnology
4726:
4724:
4723:Biostatistics
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4616:Belt transect
4614:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4601:
4600:
4596:
4594:
4593:
4589:
4587:
4586:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4564:Southern blot
4562:
4560:
4559:Northern blot
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4491:
4489:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4472:
4467:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4436:
4433:
4432:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4373:
4369:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4337:Immune system
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4301:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4254:Ground tissue
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4239:
4233:
4227:
4224:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4156:Phylogenetics
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4121:Genetic drift
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4099:
4095:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3927:Nucleic acids
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3911:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3890:Chemical bond
3888:
3886:
3885:Carbohydrates
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3866:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3645:
3640:
3638:
3633:
3631:
3626:
3625:
3622:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3563:
3559:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3545:Fertilization
3543:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3503:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3437:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3420:
3417:
3413:Pleuromitosis
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3350:Hydrogenosome
3348:
3347:
3345:
3339:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3239:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3224:Multicellular
3222:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3046:Dictyostelids
3042:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2957:
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2949:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:Apicomplexans
2905:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2863:
2860:
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2796:
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2785:
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2776:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2755:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2731:Stramenopiles
2728:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
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2642:
2638:
2633:
2627:
2624:
2622:
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2607:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
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2537:
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2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
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2518:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2497:
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2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2478:
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2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2451:
2446:
2444:
2439:
2437:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2411:
2405:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2388:
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2383:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2320:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2280:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2226:
2219:
2214:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2169:on 2012-10-13
2168:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2139:on 2010-12-28
2138:
2134:
2127:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2094:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1925:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
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1814:
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1796:
1792:
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1766:
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1720:
1715:
1709:
1701:
1697:
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1685:
1681:
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1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
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1627:
1621:
1613:
1607:
1603:
1602:
1594:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1552:
1548:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1525:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1494:
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1477:
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1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
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1445:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1360:
1353:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1269:
1261:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1232:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1166:
1158:
1152:
1148:
1147:
1139:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1095:on 2018-04-28
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1020:
1016:
1005:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
990:
989:Mating system
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
976:
969:
966:
962:
958:
947:
943:
941:
940:
935:
929:
927:
923:
920:and can only
919:
913:
911:
907:
903:
893:
891:
885:
883:
882:fragmentation
879:
875:
871:
867:
862:
855:
851:
847:
842:
830:
829:K-strategists
826:
822:
819:
816:
815:r-strategists
812:
811:annual plants
808:
805:
802:
799:
798:
796:
786:
784:
783:sperm storage
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
749:
745:
735:
733:
729:
717:
714:
706:
696:
692:
688:
682:
681:
676:This section
674:
665:
664:
660:
656:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
622:
618:
614:
612:
608:
607:somatic cells
604:
603:cell division
601:are types of
600:
596:
587:
585:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
545:fertilization
540:
530:
527:
520:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
474:
470:
466:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
446:
441:
437:
433:
432:
427:
424:
420:
419:cell division
416:
412:
408:
404:
393:
389:
385:
381:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
356:
345:
339:
324:
321:
313:
303:
299:
293:
292:
287:This section
285:
281:
276:
275:
271:
265:
255:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
232:invertebrates
229:
225:
224:fertilization
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
204:fragmentation
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
156:
152:
151:invertebrates
148:
144:
137:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
44:
43:
37:
33:
29:
22:
5651:Reproduction
5620:Human rights
5589:Incompetency
5374:Gene therapy
5333:Reproduction
5332:
5013:Sociobiology
4993:Protistology
4958:Photobiology
4953:Pharmacology
4943:Parasitology
4938:Paleontology
4918:Neuroscience
4898:Microbiology
4808:Epidemiology
4778:Cytogenetics
4738:Cell biology
4718:Biosemiotics
4708:Biomechanics
4688:Biogeography
4683:Biochemistry
4678:Bacteriology
4673:Astrobiology
4597:
4590:
4583:
4554:Western blot
4544:Enzyme assay
4519:Cell culture
4420:Conservation
4305:and function
4303:Animal form
4237:and function
4010:Fermentation
3788:Organ system
3746:Reproduction
3745:
3724:Properties (
3565:Heterotrophy
3535:Reproduction
3534:
3410:Orthomitosis
3395:Heterokaryon
3342:Mitochondria
3243:Cell surface
3119:organization
3075:Opisthokonta
2898:Micronucleus
2893:Macronucleus
2795:Pneumatocyst
2611:Glaucophytes
2595:Phragmoplast
2534:Thallophytes
2461:Protistology
2457:Microbiology
2419:
2408:
2352:
2338:
2323:
2308:
2307:"Allogamy".
2299:
2289:
2286:Zimmer, Carl
2239:
2235:
2225:
2213:
2202:. Retrieved
2191:
2182:
2171:. Retrieved
2167:the original
2162:
2152:
2141:. Retrieved
2137:the original
2126:
2114:. Retrieved
2105:
2051:
2047:
2040:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1940:
1936:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1794:
1790:
1780:
1769:. Retrieved
1752:
1740:
1730:November 19,
1728:. Retrieved
1717:
1708:
1659:
1655:
1645:
1634:. Retrieved
1620:
1600:
1593:
1576:
1572:
1566:
1555:. Retrieved
1536:
1511:. Retrieved
1502:
1493:
1458:
1454:
1444:
1409:
1403:
1368:
1362:
1352:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1282:
1278:
1268:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1221:, retrieved
1202:
1192:
1172:
1165:
1145:
1138:
1127:. Retrieved
1123:the original
1118:
1108:
1097:. Retrieved
1093:the original
1078:
1068:
1049:
1043:
1035:
1028:
1019:
953:
944:
937:
930:
914:
899:
896:Life without
886:
874:sea anemones
863:
859:
853:
849:
845:
820:
806:
800:
751:
728:female sperm
724:
709:
700:
677:
626:
625:
616:
615:
593:
542:
522:
502:
485:and produce
477:
469:mating types
464:
457:
444:
443:
430:
429:
400:
382:through the
316:
307:
296:Please help
291:verification
288:
197:
174:
157:
139:
101:
82:
57:
53:
50:Reproduction
49:
48:
40:
32:
5457:Next of kin
5407:Brain death
5402:Arbitration
5214:Beneficence
5153:WikiProject
5063:Xenobiology
5058:Virophysics
5028:Systematics
4983:Primatology
4928:Ornithology
4868:Ichthyology
4853:Herpetology
4848:Gerontology
4813:Epigenetics
4773:Cryobiology
4663:Agrostology
4653:Aerobiology
4648:Abiogenesis
4485:Laboratory
4332:Homeostasis
4235:Plant form
4058:Epigenetics
3980:Cell theory
3880:Amino acids
3859:Common name
3849:Peer review
3824:Mechanistic
3595:Necrotrophy
3580:Saprotrophy
3570:Phagotrophy
3558:Phototrophy
3551:Nutrition:
3540:Life cycles
3531:Development
3505:Ecology and
3373:Nucleomorph
3327:Pseudopodia
3128:Unicellular
3012:Euglenoidea
2996:Kinetoplast
2780:Brown algae
2748:Mastigoneme
2686:Mastigoneme
2676:Cryptophyta
2586:green algae
2544:Slime molds
939:M. mycoides
902:abiogenesis
870:slime molds
789:Other types
774:r-selection
770:K-selection
631:chromosomes
621:chromosomes
431:anisogamous
310:August 2021
252:vertebrates
236:water fleas
193:conjugation
116:fertilizing
108:chromosomes
54:procreation
5584:Competency
5564:Misconduct
5437:Euthanasia
5318:Deontology
5295:Persuasion
5250:Conscience
5079:Glossaries
5048:Toxicology
5043:Teratology
4988:Proteomics
4973:Physiology
4913:Neontology
4878:Lipidology
4873:Immunology
4843:Geobiology
4803:Embryology
4783:Dendrology
4713:Biophysics
4693:Biogeology
4487:techniques
4442:Microbiome
4269:Plant stem
4161:Speciation
4106:Adaptation
4035:Prokaryote
4015:Metabolism
3975:Cell cycle
3806:>
3802:>
3798:>
3796:Population
3794:>
3790:>
3786:>
3782:>
3778:>
3774:>
3770:>
3766:>
3742:Regulation
3726:Adaptation
3609:Auxotrophy
3604:Mixotrophy
3585:Parasitism
3575:Osmotrophy
3553:Autotrophy
3507:physiology
3383:Plasmodium
3309:Locomotion
3245:structures
3209:Coenocytic
2953:Phytomyxea
2924:Apicoplast
2852:Dinokaryon
2831:Trichocyst
2702:Haptophyte
2590:Phycoplast
2558:Morphology
2529:Cryptogams
2277:References
2204:2007-01-19
2173:2012-12-22
2143:2011-04-24
1771:2018-10-12
1636:2008-01-31
1557:2022-08-20
1499:"Allogamy"
1223:2020-10-05
1129:2006-10-11
1099:2023-03-27
942:organism.
918:metabolism
738:Strategies
703:April 2021
687:improve it
639:tetraploid
584:gymnosperm
581:monoecious
495:sporangium
479:Bryophytes
450:isogametes
392:copulation
344:Hoverflies
268:See also:
5554:Liability
5508:Suffering
5493:Etiquette
5452:Mediation
5417:Consensus
5285:Ownership
5240:Authority
5195:Bioethics
4963:Phycology
4948:Pathology
4933:Osteology
4923:Nutrition
4883:Mammalogy
4858:Histology
4599:in silico
4475:Research
4452:Resources
4425:Ecosystem
4415:Community
4400:Biosphere
4312:Breathing
4194:Eukaryote
4176:Diversity
4126:Gene flow
4098:Evolution
4005:Eukaryote
3917:Molecules
3808:Biosphere
3804:Ecosystem
3800:Community
3772:Organelle
3667:Evolution
3590:Biotrophy
3463:Extrusome
3453:Cytostome
3317:Flagellum
3274:Cell wall
3233:/histonal
3213:Siphonous
3204:Syncytial
3172:Coenobial
3168:Sarcinoid
3117:Levels of
3056:Macrocyst
3036:Amoebozoa
3001:Glycosome
2929:Microneme
2809:Alveolata
2717:Haptonema
2712:Coccolith
2691:Periplast
2637:Red algae
2621:Cyanelles
2508:Infusoria
2116:April 13,
2016:1095-9203
1967:218971234
1813:1934-5909
1761:0140-0460
1753:The Times
1676:0306-6800
1513:20 August
1299:0962-8436
1238:Anisogamy
1199:"Meiosis"
1089:0190-8286
922:replicate
778:evolution
766:fruit fly
762:adulthood
732:male eggs
691:verifying
386:into the
377:ejaculate
158:Hydroidea
70:offspring
66:organisms
60:) is the
5645:Category
5513:Religion
5442:Executor
5361:Genetics
5341:Abortion
5305:Theories
5260:Equality
5209:Autonomy
5133:Category
5053:Virology
5038:Taxonomy
4978:Pomology
4908:Mycology
4838:Genomics
4833:Genetics
4658:Agronomy
4639:Branches
4592:in vitro
4189:Bacteria
4166:Taxonomy
4146:Mutation
4116:Function
4045:Genetics
3947:Proteins
3792:Organism
3768:Molecule
3752:),
3708:Overview
3683:Timeline
3663:Genetics
3483:Axostyle
3478:Pyrenoid
3458:Fimbriae
3390:Dikaryon
3355:Mitosome
3284:Skeleton
3269:Frustule
3259:Mucilage
3231:tissular
3155:Colonial
3138:Amoeboid
3133:Monadoid
3061:Sorocarp
2976:Excavate
2943:Rhizaria
2873:Ciliates
2857:Dinocyst
2818:General:
2769:Frustule
2740:General:
2666:Hacrobia
2517:Sporozoa
2512:Ciliates
2501:Heliozoa
2481:Protozoa
2465:Protists
2393:Archived
2376:Archived
2266:24617324
2198:Archived
2110:Archived
2076:20488990
2024:12114528
1915:21232483
1872:26986186
1864:13177850
1821:30318303
1765:Archived
1724:Archived
1700:35387886
1692:28122990
1684:26535499
1630:Archived
1551:Archived
1507:Archived
1485:27619699
1364:Genetics
1317:27619696
1285:(1706).
1217:archived
972:See also
878:starfish
649:Same-sex
565:ciliates
539:Autogamy
533:Autogamy
519:Allogamy
513:Allogamy
407:organism
365:reptiles
228:apomixis
222:without
58:breeding
5518:Respect
5488:Dignity
5467:Suicide
5290:Privacy
5224:Justice
5143:Commons
5086:Biology
5068:Zoology
4798:Ecology
4668:Anatomy
4585:in vivo
4477:methods
4430:Habitat
4405:Climate
4390:Biomass
4372:Ecology
4219:Protist
4184:Archaea
4078:Genomes
4025:Mitosis
4020:Meiosis
3942:Polymer
3922:Monomer
3910:Quantum
3744:,
3740:,
3736:,
3732:,
3728:,
3715:Science
3700:Biology
3678:History
3673:Outline
3651:Biology
3426:Zygotic
3423:Gametic
3365:Nucleus
3143:Coccoid
3108:General
2919:Rhoptry
2826:Alveoli
2759:Diatoms
2496:Testate
2257:4077903
2084:7320517
2056:Bibcode
2048:Science
2032:5810309
1994:Bibcode
1986:Science
1945:Bibcode
1895:Bibcode
1856:2817654
1573:Ecology
1476:5031620
1436:3324702
1395:1628815
1386:1205045
1308:5031617
984:Masting
965:analogy
961:lottery
890:Meiosis
685:Please
643:haploid
635:diploid
627:Meiosis
617:Mitosis
611:gametes
599:meiosis
595:Mitosis
586:plant.
563:, some
559:, some
553:gametes
499:diploid
487:gametes
483:haploid
473:alleles
462:ciliate
454:isogamy
426:gametes
423:haploid
415:meiosis
411:genetic
390:during
250:), and
242:, some
212:mitosis
166:budding
153:of the
130:Asexual
120:species
112:meiosis
104:gametes
89:cloning
74:asexual
5369:Gender
5265:Equity
4733:Botany
4539:vector
4395:Biomes
4264:Phloem
4249:Flower
4209:Fungus
4204:Animal
4000:Enzyme
3905:Matter
3900:Lipids
3839:Theory
3780:Tissue
3734:Growth
3429:Sporic
3407:Closed
3322:Cilium
3279:Lorica
3180:hyphal
2888:Cirrus
2883:Cilium
2790:Lamina
2472:Former
2359:
2345:
2331:
2264:
2254:
2082:
2074:
2030:
2022:
2014:
1965:
1913:
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