4792:
4702:
3789:
5865:
229:
2503:
6139:
6162:
1941:
3780:
5958:
4448:
119:
6293:
5895:
5847:
3032:
5915:
4945:
6070:
1952:
733:
2582:
4420:
761:
3128:
6049:
5073:
5994:
6200:
2157:
708:
1694:
6223:
6090:
2766:
5832:
3016:
6181:
2196:
6248:
1321:
3149:
2736:
5978:
6111:
95:
4132:
5938:
4575:
1835:
6030:
694:
16190:
2952:. The economic strength of Commonwealth grain trade waned from the late 17th century on. Trade relationships were disrupted by the wars, and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastructure or its agricultural practices. Serfs in the region were increasingly tempted to flee. The Commonwealth's major attempts at countering this problem and improving productivity consisted of increasing serfs' workload and further restricting their freedoms in a process known as export-led serfdom.
2725:
1096:
2177:
6010:
2050:
4282:
4850:
1210:
6335:
1475:
5300:
4560:
into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy. The faults of
Sarmatism were blamed for the demise of the country from the late 18th century onwards. Criticism, often one-sided and exaggerated, was used by the Polish reformists to push for radical changes. This self-deprecation was accompanied by works of German, Russian and Austrian historians, who tried to prove that it was Poland itself that was to blame for its fall.
4911:
4054:
1593:
6324:
747:
13589:
5741:
3362:
1241:. Lithuania's vulnerable position and rising tensions on its eastern flank persuaded the nobles to seek a closer bond with Poland. The idea of a federation presented better economic opportunities, whilst securing Lithuania's borders from hostile states to the north, south and east. Lesser Lithuanian nobility were eager to share the personal privileges and political liberties enjoyed by the Polish
4662:. With the creation of the Commonwealth, the number of Poles in comparison to the total population decreased to 50%. In 1569, the population stood at 7 million, with roughly 4.5 million Poles, 750,000 Lithuanians, 700,000 Jews and 2 million Ruthenians. Historians Michał Kopczyński and Wojciech Tygielski suggest that with the territorial expansion after the
3823:) used in funerals and other important ceremonies. As a rule, such portraits were nailed to sheet metal, six- or eight- sided in shape, fixed to the front of a coffin placed on a high, ornate catafalque. These were a unique and distinguishable feature of the Commonwealth's high culture, not found elsewhere in Europe. A similar tradition was only practiced in
2797:. Some major cities were home to craftsmen, jewellers and clockmakers. The majority of industries and trades were concentrated in the Kingdom of Poland; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was more rural and its economy was driven by farming and clothmaking. Mining developed in the south-west region of Poland which was rich in natural resources such as
13199:
3263:, never gained widespread popularity in Poland. Brzezinski, however, notes that foreign mercenaries did form a significant portion of the more elite infantry units, at least until the early 17th century. In 16th-century Poland, several other formations formed the core of the military. There was a small standing army,
2481:
Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than in majority
European countries even in the nineteenth century; note that in 1820 in France only about 1.5% of the male adult population had the right to vote, and in 1840 in Belgium, only about 5%.
4817:, "the wording and substance of the declaration of the Confederation of Warsaw of were extraordinary with regards to prevailing conditions elsewhere in Europe; and they governed the principles of religious life in the Republic for over two hundred years." Subsequently, the Catholic church initiated a
807:
between 1569 and 1795. It was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its largest territorial extent, in the early 17th century, the
Commonwealth covered almost 1,000,000 km (400,000 sq mi) and as of 1618 sustained a multi-ethnic population of
2572:
by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the
Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbours stabilised their internal affairs and increased their
4721:
followed by famine in the period from 1648 to 1657 were accountable for at least 4 million deaths. Coupled with further territorial losses, by 1717 the population had fallen to 9 million. The population slowly recovered throughout the 18th century; just before the first partition of Poland in 1772,
2480:
democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 15% of
4559:
In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme
Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride
8151:
The death of
Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 was followed by a three-year Interregnum during which adjustments were made in the constitutional system. The lower nobility was now included in the selection process, and the power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanded noble
5748:
Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. After the Peace of Jam
Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km area and a population of 7.5 million. After the Truce of Deulino
2363:(Latin), the right of an individual Sejm deputy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the
2014:
noted that Polish customs and traditions were abandoned in favour of everything foreign, and neighbouring states continued to exploit Poland to their advantage. Moreover, Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in the
Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial which
1985:
and other magnates sponsored by Sweden. The Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth was formally neutral at this point, as Augustus entered the war as Elector of Saxony. Disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by the Swedish parliament, Charles crossed into the Commonwealth and vanquished the
1854:
and the state became increasingly susceptible to foreign influence. The remaining
European powers perpetually meddled in the country's affairs. Upon the death of a king, several royal houses actively intruded in the hope of securing votes for their desired candidates. The practice was common and
4824:
Poland retained religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a place where the most radical religious sects, trying to escape persecution in other countries of the Christian world, sought
1119:
underwent an alternating series of wars and alliances across the 13th and 14th centuries. The relations between the two states differed at times as each strived and competed for political, economic or military dominance of the region. In turn, Poland had remained a staunch ally of its southern
3048:
Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. According to one source, the urban population of the Commonwealth was about 20% of the total in the 17th century, compared to approximately 50% in the Netherlands and Italy
4598:
throughout its existence – it comprised countless religious identities and ethnic minorities inhabiting the country's vast territory. The precise number of minority groups and their populations can only be hypothesised. Statistically, the most prominent groups were the Poles, Lithuanians,
3416:
wrote of 16th century Poland: "This country, which in our day we have seen divided on the pretext of religion, is the first state in Europe that exemplified tolerance. In this state, mosques arose between churches and synagogues." The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian
3088:) extended across Poland–Lithuania, which was situated in the heart of Europe and attracted foreign merchants or settlers. Countless goods and cultural artefacts continued to pass from one region to another via the Commonwealth, particularly that the country was a link between the
2083:
Poniatowski's attempts at reform were met with staunch resistance both internally and externally. Any goal of stabilizing the Commonwealth was dangerous for its ambitious and aggressive neighbours. Like his predecessors, he sponsored artists and architects. In 1765 he founded the
3310:
for the purpose of maintaining this formation. This formation was also paid for by the king, and in the peacetime, numbered about 3,500–4,000 men according to Bardach; Brzezinski gives the range of 3,000–5,000. It was composed mostly of the light cavalry units manned by nobility
2704:
called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy", fearing that a strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia. In the end, the 3 May Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after its adoption.
6199:
9521:
215:
217:
216:
10018:
1887:
also contributed by financing Frederick, whose election took place in June 1697. Many questioned the legality of his elevation to the throne; it was speculated that the Prince of Conti had received more votes and was the rightful heir. Frederick hurried with
12921:
Podobną opinię przekazał nieco późnej, w 1577 r. Marcin Kromer "Za naszej pamięci weszli do głównych miast Polski kupcy i rzemieślnicy włoscy, a język ich jest także częściowo w użyciu, mianowicie wśród wytworniejszych Polaków, którzy chętnie podróżują do
212:
1356:, and profiting from the lucrative trade with France. It was also believed that an Austrian Archduke could be too powerful and attempt to limit noble privileges. French envoys had also offered large amounts of bribes, amounting to several hundred thousand
2541:(1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish
1739:
asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. Russian annexation of Zaporizhian Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence in that part of Europe. In the years following, Polish settlers, nobles, Catholics and
5088:– officially recognised; dominant language, used by most of the Commonwealth's nobility and by the peasantry in the Crown province; official language in the Crown chancellery and since 1697 in the Grand Duchy chancellery. Dominant language in the towns.
1849:
John Sobieski's death in 1696 arguably ended the period of national sovereignty, and Poland's relative authority over the region dwindled swiftly. By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought the Commonwealth to the brink of
5864:
3164:
The military in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved from the merger of the armies from the Polish Kingdom and from the Grand Lithuanian Duchy, though each state maintained its own division. The united armed forces comprised the Crown Army
2267:). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of
6138:
3055:). Another source suggests much lower figures: 4–8% urban population in Poland, 34–39% in the Netherlands and 22–23% in Italy. The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the nobles' privileged position when compared to the
9538:
15688:
6666:, first published in 1621, writes of Poland: "Poland is a receptacle of all religions, where Samosetans, Socinians, Photinians ..., Arians, Anabaptists are to be found"; "In Europe, Poland and Amsterdam are the common sanctuaries ".
1588:
that granted Poland–Lithuania extensive territories in the east and marked its largest territorial expansion. At least five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, famine and Sigismund's invasion.
4829:: "You could live here in accordance with your ideas and preferences, in great, even the greatest freedoms, including writing and publishing. No one is a censor here." Others, particularly the leaders of the Roman Catholic church, the
2670:
These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king
5773:
1899:
ruled Poland–Lithuania and Saxony simultaneously, dividing power between the two states. In spite of his controversial means of attaining power, Augustus II lavishly spent on the arts and left an extensive cultural and architectural
3810:
The art and music of the Commonwealth was largely shaped by prevailing European trends, though the country's minorities, foreigners as well as native folk cultures also contributed to its versatile nature. A common art form of the
214:
5846:
12565:
L'union personnelle polono-saxonne contribua davantage à faire connaître en Pologne le français que l'allemand. Cette fonction de la langue française, devenue l'instrument de communication entre les groupes dirigeants des deux
6934:, Pimlico 1997, p. 554: "Poland–Lithuania was another country which experienced its 'Golden Age' during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The realm of the last Jagiellons was absolutely the largest state in Europe"
2262:
The monarch's power was limited in favour of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of
5279:, saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light at the early stages of regaining its independence, although this attitude has been changing in recent years.
3247:
excluding special units; the Lithuanian Army was to be subdivided into two divisions, eight field regiments and two cavalry brigades excluding special units. If implemented, the reform predicted an army of almost 100,000 men.
6069:
4901:
had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth. Many referred to themselves as "gente Ruthenus, natione Polonus" (Ruthenian by blood, Polish by nationality) since the 16th century onwards.
12593:
They were the first Catholic schools in which one of the main languages of instruction was Polish. Although he followed Locke in attaching weight to the native language, in general Latin lost ground to French rather than
5894:
1144:. A fundamental step in developing extensive ties with Lithuania was a succession crisis arising in the 1380s. Louis died on 10 September 1382 and, like his uncle, did not produce a son to succeed him. His two daughters,
1008:
Western Europeans often simplified the name to 'Poland' and in most past and modern sources it is referred to as the Kingdom of Poland, or just Poland. The terms 'Commonwealth of Poland' and 'Commonwealth of Two Nations'
12228:
Thus, at the time of the first partition in 1772, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth consisted of 43 per cent Latin Catholics, 33 per cent Greek Catholics, 10 per cent Christian Orthodox, 9 per cent Jews and 4 per cent
2675:
and other reformers to strengthen the country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the 3 May Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European power.
2947:
to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes and nobles in the early years of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the
228:
5365:
While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole – the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:
2521:
in 1572 – after nearly two centuries – disrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.
5055:
The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the
4246:. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or were abandoned. These towns were generally named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most prominent is
1716:, proved to be weak and impotent. The multicultural and mega-diverse federation already suffered domestic problems. As persecution of religious and ethnic minorities strengthened, several groups started to rebel.
1187:, a kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns; their descendants and successive monarchs held the titles of king and grand duke respectively. The ultimate clause dictated that Lithuania was to be merged in perpetuity (
2463:
Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
1276:
was established. Whilst the military remained separate, a unified foreign policy meant that Lithuanian troops were obliged to contribute during a conflict not to their advantage. As a result, several Lithuanian
3267:("continuous defense") about 1,500–3,000 strong, paid for by the king, and primarily stationed at the troubled southern and eastern borders. It was supplemented by two formations mobilised in case of war – the
6089:
2271:. The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones).
7580:
describes the advent of modern codified national constitutions as one of the milestones of democracy, and states that "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." John Markoff,
5914:
4733:
seaport on the Baltic and Poland's wealthiest region. Gdańsk at the time was inhabited by a German-speaking majority and further hosted large numbers of foreign merchants, particularly of Scottish, Dutch or
12977:
In 1600 the son of the chancellor of Poland was learning four languages: Latin, Greek, Turkish, and Polish. By the time he had completed his studies, he was fluent not only in Turkish but also in Tatar and
6048:
4821:, relying heavily on methods of persuasion and legal means. As a result, compared to many other European countries, the conflict between the Catholics and the Protestants in Poland was relatively peaceful.
2868:. Cereals, cattle and fur amounted to nearly 90% of the country's exports to European markets by overland and maritime trade in the 16th century. From Gdańsk, ships carried cargo to the major ports of the
1994:
in 1703. Charles then succeeded in dethroning Augustus and coercing the Sejm (parliament) to replace him with Stanisław in 1704. Augustus regained the throne in 1709, but his own death in 1733 sparked the
11633:
Obraz świata i Rzeczypospolitej w polskich gazetach rękopiśmiennych z okresu późnego baroku: studium z dziejów kształtowania się i rozpowszechniania sarmackich stereotypów wiedzy i informacji o "theatrum
5831:
10526:
1268:, attended by envoys from both nations. It was agreed that the merger will take place the same year and both parliaments will be fused into a joint assembly. No independent parliamentary convocation or
6363:
1667:, he reclaimed regions of Livonia and the Baltics which were lost during the Polish-Swedish wars. Unlike his father who worshipped the Habsburgs, Władysław sought closer ties with France and married
1580:
was transported in a cage to Warsaw where he paid a tribute to Sigismund; Vasili was later murdered in captivity. The Commonwealth forces were eventually driven out on 4 November 1612 (celebrated as
6029:
211:
19103:
3283:, recruited by the Polish commanders for the conflict. It differed from other European mercenary formations in that it was commanded by Polish officers, and dissolved after the conflict has ended.
2471:
and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is, however, difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both;
4965:
As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonised) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge
2714:
5957:
19078:
2533:. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able
6110:
4813:
signed on 28 January 1573 secured the rights of minorities and religions; it allowed all persons to practice any faith freely, though religious tolerance varied at times. As outlined by
2111:
despite the fact that it was still an independent state. A majority of control over Poland was central to Catherine's diplomatic and military strategies. Attempts at reform, such as the
17815:
15468:
5809:
formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the
10995:
6161:
4198:. Another characteristic is the common usage of black marble. Altars, fonts, portals, balustrades, columns, monuments, tombstones, headstones and whole rooms (e.g. Marble Room at the
118:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6307:
6302:
5288:
4722:
the Commonwealth's population was 14 million, including around 1 million nobles. In 1792, the population of Poland was around 11 million and included 750,000 nobles.
3376:
The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by
1085:
1081:
1077:
12640:
Although still sometimes in use by the end of the XVII century and lack of official decree like one for Grand Duchy chancellery, there was no separate Ruthenian Metrica since 1673.
213:
4666:
in 1618, the Commonwealth's population reached 12 million people, of which Poles constituted only 40%. At that time the nobility made up 10% of the entire population and the
2131:. By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania were not re-established as independent countries until 1918.
3963:
Music was a common feature of religious and secular events. To that end many noblemen founded church and school choirs, and employed their own ensembles of musicians. Some, like
6356:
6312:
4893:. Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after
1348:). Henry already posed as a candidate before Sigismund's death and received widespread support from the pro-French factions. The choice was a political move aimed at curtailing
5993:
10649:
7714:
Zbior Deklaracyi, Not I Czynnosci Głownieyszych, Ktore Poprzedziły I Zaszły Pod Czas Seymu Pod Węzłem Konfederacyi Odprawuiącego Się Od Dnia 18. Wrzesnia 1772. Do 14 Maia 1773
4742:
was more diverse than the Kingdom of Poland, and was deemed a melting pot of many cultures and religions. Hence, the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy were collectively known as
1892:
to Poland to quell any opposition. He was crowned as Augustus II in September and Conti's brief military engagement near Gdańsk in November of the same year proved fruitless.
5064:(1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km and a population of 11–12 million (including some 4 million Poles and close to a million Lithuanians).
8383:"Bitwa pod Byczyną. Zamoyski upokarza Habsburgów i gwarantuje tron Zygmuntowi III – HISTORIA.org.pl – historia, kultura, muzea, matura, rekonstrukcje i recenzje historyczne"
3222:
2937:
was forbidden in Poland in the 15th century, and formally abolished in Lithuania in 1588, replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a
1389:, as the next king. The decision was condemned by the anti-Habsburg coalition, which demanded a "native" candidate, known as "Piasts". As a compromise, on 13 December 1575
16809:
10803:
1374:
in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In June 1574, Henry abandoned Poland and headed back to claim the French crown following the death of his brother and predecessor,
9855:, Text of a presentation made at the Polish Arts Club of Buffalo on the occasion of the celebrations of Poland's Constitution Day on 3 May 1996. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
6349:
5144:– not officially recognised; but used in some official documents in the Grand Duchy and, mostly, used as a spoken language in the northernmost part of the country (in
3217:
4791:
2603:
calls the first of its kind in Europe. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a
4989:(traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. When the latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to
7233:
6180:
10958:
9898:
6222:
1435:(Elbing). Báthory, unable to penetrate the city's extensive fortifications, succumbed to the demands for greater privileges and freedoms. However, his successful
15220:
6292:
19073:
124:
926:
After a long period of prosperity, the Commonwealth entered a period of protracted political, military, and economic decline. Its growing weakness led to its
16155:
5937:
5100:– not officially recognised; replaced Latin at the royal court in Warsaw in the beginning of the 18th century as a language used in foreign relations and as
1260:, who was childless and ailing. According to historians, it was his active involvement which hastened the process and made the union possible. A parliament (
4701:
16170:
13669:
12221:
8832:
19068:
15563:
8882:
7254:
4825:
refuge. In 1561 Giovanni Bernardino Bonifacio d'Oria, a religious exile living in Poland, wrote of his adopted country's virtues to a colleague back in
4569:
3929:
populations were much simpler in décor than those in other parts of Poland–Lithuania. Mutual influence was further reflected in the great popularity of
17699:
16080:
12038:
8911:
6247:
3117:
11277:
10230:
Economy and culture in the Baltic, 1650–1700: papers of the VIIIth Visby Symposium held at Gotland's Historical Museum, Visby, August 18th–22th , 1986
9752:
7724:
Name used for the common state, Henryk Rutkowski, Terytorium, w: Encyklopedia historii gospodarczej Polski do 1945 roku, t. II, Warszawa 1981, s. 398.
8382:
7474:
5294:
3174:
2140:
10577:
2999:. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber.
7044:
7033:
6447:
6442:
859:, enforced the merger to strengthen frontiers of his dominion and maintain unity as he remained childless. His death in 1572 marked the end of the
7240:
academic journal mission statement: "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was ... characterized by religious tolerance unusual in premodern Europe"
4321:(between the entrance court and the garden). Its architecture – a merger of European art with old Commonwealth building traditions are visible in
16119:
13593:
11694:
11534:
10045:
9402:
4301:
3766:). He also authored instructions for the journey of his sons to Kraków (1640) and France (1645), a good example of liberal education of the era.
1167:, but certain factions of the nobility remained apprehensive believing that William would not secure domestic interests. Instead, they turned to
12991:
12339:
11979:
10338:
8007:
7671:
Ex quo serenissima respublica Poloniae in corpore ad exempluin omnium aliarnm potentiarum, lilulum regiuin Borussiae recognoscere decrevit (...)
1029:. The English term Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and German Polen–Litauen are seen as renderings of the 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' variant.
17746:
16549:
12794:
7367:"In the mid-1500s, united Poland was the largest state in Europe and perhaps the continent's most powerful state politically and militarily". "
7136:
2769:
Cereals exports in the years 1619–1799. Agriculture, once extremely profitable to the nobility, became much less so after the mid-17th century.
2308:
1632:
1596:
891:
507:
11842:
10553:
16085:
16075:
12502:
12363:
9592:
5877:
12415:
12391:
11076:Łyczak, Bartłomiej (1 January 2011). "The Coffin Portrait and Celebration of Death in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Modern Period".
9618:
9616:
9424:
2959:
usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdańsk, who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the
2096:, the oldest military decoration still in use. Stanisław August also admired the culture of ancient kingdoms, particularly Rome and Greece;
19098:
16373:
15595:
14268:
14096:
14011:
13750:
13072:
4124:(or "Dutch") style as their primary form of architectural expression, comparable to that of the Netherlands, Belgium, northern Germany and
11798:
11649:
W każdym razie "królowa bez korony i pierwsza dama Rzeczypospolitej", jak współcześni określali Sieniawską, zasługuje na biografię naukową
3788:
1250:
18983:
18422:
18339:
16881:
16097:
15448:
11188:
9613:
7119:
6718:
5977:
5483:
2502:
1272:
was henceforth permitted. Subjects of the Polish Crown were no longer restricted in purchasing land on Lithuanian territory and a single
12838:
9885:
9848:
9779:
9139:
1245:, but did not accept Polish demands for the incorporation of the Grand Duchy into Poland as a mere province, with no sense of autonomy.
18993:
15902:
15767:
9809:
5461:
1502:
12862:
11785:
Total and Jewish population based on Frazee; others are estimations from Pogonowski (see the following reference). Charles A. Frazee,
8957:
2493:, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal.
1246:
481:
19093:
19088:
17444:
16644:
12689:
12486:
11380:
8156:
6186:
1868:
1760:
1645:; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe.
12202:
6763:
formed part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which was ruled by Catholic monarchs who made Roman Catholicism the state religion
3917:
The religious cultures of Poland–Lithuania coexisted and penetrated each other for the entirety of the Commonwealth's history – the
2323:), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier
19003:
18988:
17515:
15658:
15392:
15328:
14165:
11500:
10414:
10070:
4068:
The architecture of the cities in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth reflected a combination of Polish, German and Italian trends.
1281:
deplored the accords and left the assembly in protest. Sigismund II used his authority as grand duke and enforced the Act of Union
17:
11998:
8404:
5920:
19033:
19018:
18998:
18276:
17864:
16759:
15822:
15583:
15419:
14483:
11699:(in Polish). Poznań: Wydawn. Nauk. Instytutu Nauk Politycznych i Dziennikarstwa Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza. p. 168.
11202:
8665:. Vol. From the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453, to the War in the Crimea, in 1857. Volume 2. London: J. Murray. p. 504
8152:
class. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and constantly supervised by a group of senators.
3194:
1912:
into a modern palatial residence. Countless landmarks and monuments in the city bear a name referencing the Saxon kings, notably
12169:
9992:
7508:
6865:
6257:
6009:
4795:
4155:
3964:
1648:
During this period, Poland was experiencing a cultural awakening and extensive developments in arts and architecture; the first
19083:
17957:
17709:
17356:
16368:
16175:
15693:
15568:
15531:
15409:
13755:
13044:
11814:
9928:
4928:
4171:
1712:
The Commonwealth's power and stability began waning after a series of blows during the following decades. Władysław's brother,
1620:
12186:
11466:
5438:
countries: Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Also some small towns in
3979:
were known for their sponsorship of arts which manifested itself in their permanently retained orchestras, at their courts in
2549:(1655), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.
1940:
1735:, for protection by the Russian Tsar. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies,
1132:, died on 5 November 1370 without fathering a legitimate male heir. Consequently, the crown passed onto his Hungarian nephew,
19028:
16794:
16288:
16160:
16047:
14535:
14090:
13570:
13551:
13528:
13509:
13490:
13454:
13397:
13380:
13348:
After a fire had destroyed a wooden synagogue in 1733 Stanislaw Lubomirski decided to found a new bricked synagogue building.
13209:
13126:
13028:
12549:
12144:
12113:
11962:
11935:
11729:
11704:
11608:
11544:
11510:
11476:
11449:
11390:
11287:
11164:
11005:
10813:
10684:
10352:
10264:
10080:
10002:
9694:
9634:
9548:
9467:
9434:
9363:
9336:
9309:
9276:
9244:
9203:
9100:
9075:
9050:
9023:
9013:
8996:
8967:
8732:
8636:
8599:
8565:
8531:
8497:
8451:
8200:
8091:
8017:
7990:
7941:
7771:
7518:
6955:
6902:
6875:
6756:
5855:
5127:
14500:
12528:
11567:
9725:
8843:
5749:(1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 1 million km (990,000 km) and a population of about 11 million.
2103:
Politically, however, the vast Commonwealth was in steady decline and by 1768, it started to be considered by Russians as a
1652:
king openly sponsored foreign painters, craftsmen, musicians and engineers, who settled in the Commonwealth at his request.
1298:
during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the
94:
19023:
19013:
17964:
16845:
16825:
16799:
16102:
15958:
15600:
13720:
11154:
9540:
In the Shadows of Poland and Russia: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden in the European Crisis of the Mid-17th Century
7751:
7144:
4270:
between 1627 and 1644, had several courtyards surrounded by fortifications. Similar fortified complexes include castles in
3063:. The nobility could also regulate the price of grain for their advantage, thus acquiring much wealth. Some of the largest
2773:
The economy of the Commonwealth was predominantly based on agricultural output and trade, though there was an abundance of
1604:
12662:
3715:
942:, during the late 18th century. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a major reform effort and enacted the
19008:
18937:
17895:
17684:
17662:
17142:
17062:
16871:
16712:
16423:
16247:
16227:
15915:
14988:
12453:
12234:
Europeanisation, national identities, and migration: changes in boundary constructions between Western and Eastern Europe
10866:
Jacek F. Gieras (1994). "Volume 30 of Monographs in electrical and electronic engineering, Oxford science publications".
10394:
10196:
4028:
1829:
1291:
was passed by the gathered deputies and signed by attendees on 1 July, thus creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
1191:) with the Polish Kingdom; however, this did not take effect until 1569. Jogaila was crowned as Władysław II Jagiełło at
1026:
12706:
12043:
11129:
11104:
10969:
5564:), westernmost and most autonomous part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, also the western part of Lithuania Proper, capital
5094:– officially recognised; commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.
946:, which was the first codified constitution in modern European history and the second in modern world history after the
19133:
19128:
19123:
17827:
17774:
17741:
17736:
16978:
16907:
16107:
15855:
15615:
13479:
An Unproclaimed Empire: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania: From the Viewpoint of Comparative Historical Sociology of Empires
11414:
8081:
7646:
3327:
2015:
resulted in financial losses. Augustus III spent little time in the Commonwealth, instead preferring the Saxon city of
911:, which tightly circumscribed royal authority. The country also exhibited unusual levels of ethnic diversity and great
16501:
13218:
11439:
5114:; officially recognised; official language in the Grand Duchy chancellery until 1697 (when replaced by Polish) and in
2477:, as only the szlachta (nobility) – around 15% of the population – had political rights;
1860:
1481:, who reigned between 1587 and 1632, presided over an era of prosperity and territorial expansion of the Commonwealth.
18020:
17844:
17588:
17147:
17089:
16840:
16835:
16830:
16817:
16315:
15473:
15453:
14258:
13435:
13416:
13284:
13259:
13234:
13182:
13157:
13001:
12969:
12944:
12913:
12888:
12858:
12834:
12775:
12714:
12685:
12658:
12606:
12524:
12482:
12449:
12411:
12387:
12359:
12335:
12269:
12241:
12061:
12034:
11794:
11641:
11334:
11235:
11057:
10911:
10875:
10850:
10432:
10318:
10237:
10212:
10145:
9881:
9829:
9805:
9775:
9748:
9721:
9664:
9588:
9497:
8865:
8828:
8693:
8259:
8049:
7914:
7865:
7837:
7625:
7590:
7559:
7454:
7424:
7399:
7352:
7264:
7229:
7209:
7205:
7115:
6838:
5162:– officially recognised; used in some foreign relations, in Ducal Prussia and by German minorities especially in the
4993:
that facilitated violence which in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between
4469:
3447:
3251:
The armies of those states differed from the organization common in other parts of Europe; according to Bardach, the
1842:
1672:
1386:
1218:
947:
31:
16052:
8722:
3779:
19153:
19118:
19113:
19108:
19063:
18922:
18517:
17820:
17202:
17177:
17077:
16025:
14803:
12729:' in 1552...//Courts juratory were written in Lithuanian language. In fact, such survived from the 17th century...
9487:
8041:
7445:
6422:
5651:
5357:
5104:. It was commonly used as a language of science and literature and as a second language among some of the nobility.
4011:
for the royal orchestra. Notable home grown musicians, who also composed and played for the King's court, included
3485:
3235:
approved landslide reforms and defined future structures of the military; the Crown Army was to be split into four
2089:
1723:
inhabiting south-eastern borderlands of the Commonwealth rioted against Polish and Catholic oppression of Orthodox
1444:
1344:. Approximately 40,000 nobles cast a vote in what was to become a centuries-long tradition of a nobles' democracy (
726:
13085:
10927:
7678:
Histoire des trois démembremens de la Pologne: pour faire suite à l'histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne par Rulhière
7344:
The Struggle for the Eurasian Borderlands. From the Rise of Early Modern Empires to the End of the First World War
7123:
1932:). First manufactories producing on a mass scale were opened to satisfy the demands of the nobility as consumers.
451:
19148:
19143:
19138:
18947:
18550:
18415:
18127:
17593:
16481:
16070:
16030:
14201:
13745:
8487:
4920:
4499:
4365:
2685:
9833:
7091:
Stone, Daniel, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001.
6130:
5060:(1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km area and a population of 7.5 million. After the
4698:. There was a tendency for the people from the more densely inhabited western territories to migrate eastwards.
4548:
as a language of thought or expression; and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost
4447:
4374:
3947:
2672:
2073:
2023:
as viceroy and minister of Polish affairs who in turn left the politics to Polish magnate families, such as the
408:
18734:
18567:
18505:
18187:
18177:
17652:
16556:
16388:
16327:
15895:
15848:
15404:
15341:
14780:
14283:
13543:
13068:
11912:
11908:
11598:
10154:
9709:
7325:
7296:
7064:
5648:), a joint domain of the Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Parts lost to Sweden in the 1620s and in 1660;
5317:
4163:
2189:
1100:
699:
10474:
10386:
8940:
5704:) was not within the Commonwealth, but small parts belonged to various Commonwealth kings; in particular, the
4777:, culture and identity became vulnerable; the country's name was changed to "Commonwealth of Poland" in 1791.
3827:. Polish monarchs and nobles frequently invited and sponsored foreign painters and artisans, notably from the
3413:
2747:(Danzig), the Commonwealth's chief seaport and trading centre from which goods would be transported along the
1230:
1155:
The Polish lords rejected Mary in favour of her younger sister Jadwiga, partly due to Mary's association with
919:, though the practical degree of religious freedom varied. Poland acted as the dominant partner in the union.
18942:
18851:
18025:
17854:
17647:
17096:
16866:
16669:
16619:
16614:
16527:
16491:
16124:
15973:
15673:
14617:
13135:
12809:
10500:
6427:
6392:
6055:
4818:
2701:
1787:
1156:
462:
420:
9040:
6144:
4336:
4187:
19053:
18139:
18097:
18071:
17935:
17925:
17849:
17694:
17679:
17508:
16659:
16349:
15538:
15426:
15321:
15271:
14253:
14241:
13760:
13465:
12721:
Official usage of Lithuanian language in the 16th century Lithuania's cities proves magistrate's decree of
11676:
5591:
4390:
3951:
2595:
The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the
1996:
1619:. This secured the Turkish frontier for the duration of Sigismund's rule. In spite of the victories in the
8755:
7470:
7041:
7030:
4076:
had a profound impact on traditional burgher architecture which can be observed to this day – castles and
3492:, formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. Commonwealth scientists included:
3326:
Following the end of the Commonwealth, the Polish–Lithuanian military tradition would be continued by the
2088:, the first state school in Poland for all classes of society. In 1773 the king and parliament formed the
18901:
18896:
18512:
18049:
17832:
17756:
17379:
17067:
17008:
16983:
16927:
16752:
16337:
16298:
16252:
16210:
16008:
15812:
15712:
15134:
15048:
14943:
14858:
14775:
14273:
14145:
14000:
13625:
13602:
12651:
Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis
12262:
Imperfect communities: identity, discourse and nation in the seventeenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania
12136:
10585:
6397:
6235:
5371:
4765:
sought to minimise the Commonwealth's diversity; the aim was to root out some minorities by imposing the
4235:
3331:
3157:
Militia, a local guard formation in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 16th and 17th centuries
2546:
2545:, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as the
1978:
1925:
1513:
sealed Sigismund's right to the throne of Poland and Sweden. Sigismund's long reign marked an end to the
1141:
374:
9626:
The headless state: aristocratic orders, kinship society, & misrepresentations of nomadic inner Asia
1991:
1802:
Ottomans. For its centuries-long opposition to Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of
18957:
18952:
18408:
18271:
18104:
18010:
17969:
17859:
17674:
17414:
17346:
17229:
16876:
16861:
16786:
16454:
16262:
16242:
16222:
16165:
16092:
15817:
15573:
15558:
15463:
15281:
15196:
14785:
14683:
12569:
10129:
9175:
6275:
6126:
5213:
5077:
3622:
3463:
2596:
2586:
2116:
2061:
1982:
1804:
1798:
marked the final turning point in the 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the
1779:, which became a major European power in the 18th century and proved to be Poland's most enduring foe.
1234:
943:
600:
587:
14973:
13623:
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Maps, history of cities in Poland, Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania
12178:
12161:
11354:
9399:
8033:
6694:
6216:
architecture in Europe, consistently built in accordance with the Italian theories of an "ideal town".
5457:
Other notable parts of the Commonwealth, without respect to region or voivodeship divisions, include:
3843:), Germany or Italy. The interiors of upper-class residences, palaces and manors were adorned by wall
3606:
3031:
2010:
The relative peace and inactivity that followed only weakened Poland's reputation on the world stage.
1951:
923:
of nobles was generally voluntary, but state efforts at religious conversion were sometimes resisted.
907:(some 15% of the population). The king and his government were bound by a constitutional statute, the
19058:
19048:
19038:
18927:
18681:
18642:
17837:
17810:
17449:
17326:
17207:
17157:
17035:
16942:
16917:
16679:
16539:
16356:
16310:
16040:
16035:
15888:
15610:
15480:
15251:
14938:
14873:
14863:
14848:
14183:
14130:
14040:
12983:
11903:, Vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 126.
11204:
Dialog. Miesiȩcznik poświȩcony dramaturgii współczesnej, teatralnej, filmowej, radiowej, telewizyjnej
10072:
Polska samorządna; ilustrowane dzieje administracji i samorządu terytorialnego na tle historii Polski
9133:
8591:
The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 4, The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years War, 1609–48/49
7256:
Citizenship and Ethnicity: The Growth and Development of a Democratic Multiethnic Institution (notes)
6662:
5885:
4917:
4370:
3972:
3918:
3545:
3007:
in 1569, which became a checkpoint for merchants travelling to the Crown lands from the Grand Duchy.
2581:
2510:
2298:
2097:
2065:
2057:
1999:
in which Stanisław once more attempted to seize the crown, this time with the support of France. The
1498:
868:
613:
574:
15073:
4944:
4243:
3954:). Conversely, Latin infiltration into Ruthenian Orthodox and Protestant art was also conventional (
3484:(established in 1579) they were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The
2963:. Countless rivers and waterways in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes, including the
2237:("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a
1659:
succeeded him as Władysław IV in 1632 with no major opposition. A skilled tactician, he invested in
18101:
17642:
17598:
16988:
16952:
16932:
16466:
16449:
16361:
15953:
15653:
15397:
15382:
14693:
14673:
14638:
14591:
14545:
13897:
13713:
9966:
7577:
7317:
7103:
6039:
5378:
5326:
5072:
4954:
was converted into a mosque during the Turkish occupation between 1672 and 1699, with the 33-meter
4739:
3976:
3437:
2459:
of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the
2406:
2250:
2216:
2085:
2000:
1538:
1222:
1164:
1116:
1104:
804:
713:
12533:
11021:
9326:
7682:
4746:
regardless of their nationality, with the exception of Jews residing in Lithuania who were called
4373:
replaced Baroque by the second half of the 18th century – the last ruler of the Poland–Lithuania,
4120:" above the cornice on the façade. Cities in northern Poland–Lithuania and in Livonia adopted the
18932:
18590:
18311:
18154:
18122:
18091:
17930:
17900:
17784:
17501:
17167:
17137:
17045:
16922:
16804:
16332:
16303:
16145:
16013:
15724:
15590:
15548:
15521:
15372:
15314:
14571:
14263:
14246:
14236:
14211:
14055:
13781:
12375:
7738:
7487:
7200:, Vol. 1: "The Origins to 1795", Vol. 2: "1795 to the Present". Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6985:
6709:
6657:
5944:
4651:), who were either categorised as merchants, settlers or refugees fleeing religious persecution.
4214:) were extensively decorated with black marble, which became popular after the mid-17th century.
3856:
3743:
3697:
3477:
3182:
2689:
2490:
2165:
2092:, the first Ministry of Education in European history. In 1792, the king ordered the creation of
1825:
1705:
1693:
1688:
1612:
1337:
887:
371:
332:
11532:
10903:
9301:
7750:
1791 document signed by the King Stanislaw August "Zareczenie wzaiemne Oboyga Narodow" pp. 1, 5
5964:
5192:– not officially recognised; used in some foreign relations and by Italian minorities in cities.
5009:
uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to
4419:
2529:
exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not establish a strong and long-lasting
1340:, was proclaimed King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in the first royal election outside
18756:
18585:
18346:
18182:
18132:
17427:
17422:
17366:
17259:
17197:
17013:
16993:
16745:
16629:
16544:
16486:
16413:
16322:
16198:
15648:
15552:
15291:
15206:
15053:
14765:
14698:
14566:
14515:
14447:
14347:
14337:
14135:
14070:
13877:
13806:
13653:
13649:
12741:
7052:
5810:
5687:
5031:
4773:, Polish culture and the Roman Catholic religion where possible. By the late 18th century, the
4032:
4012:
3943:
3557:
3370:
2765:
2568:. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies
2553:
2375:
2161:
2004:
1872:
1838:
1756:
1656:
1546:
1238:
1145:
1057:
171:
13449:. Vol. I: The Making of the Polish–Lithuanian Union, 1385–1569. Oxford University Press.
12726:
12130:
11925:
10424:
Russia's foreign trade and economic expansion in the seventeenth century: windows on the world
8589:
6801:
6722:
6167:
5908:
patronised by the Polish court flourished as the center for amber working in the 17th century.
5115:
4429:
2397:
had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of
2011:
1415:
supported Bathory as he wanted to promote a princely or ducal candidate. He also endorsed the
18836:
18701:
18286:
18149:
18066:
17920:
17724:
17399:
17351:
17182:
17127:
17018:
16634:
16581:
16476:
16408:
16400:
16293:
16276:
15807:
15792:
15782:
15739:
15543:
15516:
15377:
15276:
15256:
15236:
15099:
15063:
15018:
14963:
14755:
14750:
14525:
14472:
14297:
14206:
14175:
14115:
14065:
13847:
13837:
13504:. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought: Fourth Series. Cambridge University Press.
13149:
13143:
11952:
10674:
10449:
10379:
9845:
9234:
9195:
7936:, translated by Walter J. Renfroe, Budapest: Central European University Press, p. 182,
7617:
7551:
6945:
6253:
6083:, a series of elegies upon the death of his beloved daughter, is an acknowledged masterpiece.
5924:
5272:
5119:
5057:
4308:
4179:
4069:
3906:. Folk flower motifs as well as Polish fashion were popularised in the form of a back-draped
3529:
3343:
3213:
3200:
The most prestigious formation of the two respective armes were their 16th- and 17th-century
2680:
regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence and declared the Polish constitution
2156:
2028:
1855:
apparent, and the selection was often the result of hefty bribes directed at corrupt nobles.
1534:
1257:
985:
In the 17th century and later it was also known as the 'Most Serene Commonwealth of Poland' (
856:
14427:
11254:
Obrona Żydów zamieszkałych w krajach polskich od niesłusznych zarzutów i fałszywych oskarzeń
7701:
Polonia sive de situ, populis, moribus, magistratibus et re publica regni Polonici libri duo
3459:
3140:
formation serving the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.
3015:
2834:
2195:
2020:
18891:
18886:
18826:
18761:
18666:
18281:
18234:
18144:
18061:
18035:
17947:
17940:
17910:
17798:
17632:
17615:
17583:
17437:
17301:
17162:
17057:
16998:
16705:
16674:
16649:
16591:
16561:
16513:
16437:
16418:
16237:
16112:
16003:
15968:
15923:
15787:
15734:
15698:
15605:
15526:
15436:
15261:
15180:
15144:
15094:
14953:
14878:
14663:
14540:
14332:
14107:
14085:
14080:
14045:
13987:
13661:
12298:
12288:
11660:
Andrzej Wasko, Sarmatism or the Enlightenment: <space>The Dilemma of Polish Culture,
10376:
Revolt and revolution in early modern Europe: an essay on the history of political violence
9869:
6437:
6060:
5798:
5430:
The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several
5248:
4878:
4854:
4810:
4786:
4754:
4382:
4356:
4199:
4147:
4117:
3907:
3883:
3797:
3723:
3433:
3385:
3351:
3060:
2659:
2622:
2518:
2445:
2425:
2336:
2331:
2264:
2239:
2120:
2053:
2044:
2032:
1924:. The period saw the development of urban planning, street allocation, hospitals, schools (
1909:
1901:
1864:
1744:
became the victims of retaliation massacres instigated by the Cossacks in their dominions.
1732:
1728:
1668:
1664:
1642:
1394:
1375:
1183:
on 14 August 1385. The Act imposed Christianity in Lithuania and transformed Poland into a
958:
The official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (
927:
916:
875:
860:
525:
10280:
9874:
The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present
8164:
7368:
3875:
3455:
3127:
3059:, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a rather slow development of
1987:
1663:, modernised the army and fiercely defended the Commonwealth's eastern borders. Under the
439:
8:
18856:
18786:
18729:
18646:
18472:
18351:
18159:
18086:
18081:
17883:
17869:
17731:
17404:
17394:
17321:
17286:
17192:
17084:
17072:
17052:
17025:
17003:
16895:
16604:
16599:
16571:
16566:
16496:
16471:
15749:
15744:
15683:
15578:
15499:
15286:
15231:
15068:
15058:
15043:
15033:
14998:
14928:
14843:
14813:
14760:
14477:
14231:
14226:
14125:
14120:
13887:
13842:
13801:
13706:
12822:
12206:
10997:
Constitutions, Elections, and Legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: A Guide to Their History
10344:
8622:
8443:
Warrior Kings of Sweden. The Rise of an Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
6610:
6568:
6529:
6500:
6466:
6417:
6412:
5769:
5679:
5655:
5549:
5527:
5199:
5141:
5131:
5045:
4898:
4774:
4762:
4714:
4175:
3537:
3501:
3381:
3236:
2677:
2637:
2604:
2405:) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The
2402:
2212:
2200:
2077:
1856:
1577:
1526:
1494:
1329:
1320:
1061:
967:
912:
825:
548:
493:
303:
198:
16506:
11954:
Commemorating the Polish Renaissance Child: Funeral Monuments and Their European Context
10371:
7676:
6979:
5138:) were widely used in the Grand Duchy and eastern parts of the Crown as spoken language.
4220:
often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals,
3480:
is one of the oldest universities in the world (established in 1364), together with the
3148:
2412:
Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar
1253:, two prominent nobles and military commanders in Lithuania, vocally opposed the union.
19043:
18962:
18866:
18650:
18602:
18597:
18500:
18490:
18447:
18439:
18375:
18334:
18266:
18169:
18114:
18030:
18005:
17983:
17779:
17704:
17533:
17384:
17331:
17291:
16966:
16721:
16664:
16639:
16609:
16232:
15983:
15963:
15841:
15777:
15759:
15636:
15511:
15458:
15414:
15349:
15185:
15008:
15003:
14968:
14948:
14923:
14918:
14913:
14908:
14903:
14888:
14883:
14828:
14735:
14581:
14452:
14342:
14322:
14278:
14221:
14216:
14193:
14160:
14150:
14140:
14022:
12788:
12053:
The origins of the Slavic nations: premodern identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus
11189:"French and English furniture distinctive styles and periods described and illustrated"
10896:
10647:
10287:
10177:
9294:
9191:
6620:
6600:
6519:
6152:
5928:
5858:
portraited with the insignium of his power in the parliament – the Marshal's cane, 1640
5545:
5268:
5236:
5135:
5107:
5041:
4951:
4874:
4865:, in remote and multi-ethnic parts of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of
4386:
4289:
4271:
4203:
4036:
4024:
4016:
3988:
3899:
3879:
3860:
3668:
3636:
3481:
3268:
3197:
never played a major role in the military structure from the mid-17th century onwards.
2926:
2693:
2681:
2451:
This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the ascendance of the szlachta
2421:
2324:
2124:
1974:
1776:
1764:
1736:
1720:
1581:
1569:
1490:
1478:
1371:
1367:
1333:
1137:
1133:
1121:
935:
908:
754:
293:
13301:
12953:
7647:"Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae – definicja, synonimy, przykłady użycia"
5239:, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the
4352:
4344:
4285:
3319:. Often, in wartime, the Sejm would legislate a temporary increase in the size of the
1929:
1398:
233:
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (green) and its vassal states (light green) in 1619
18841:
18816:
18796:
18776:
18766:
18656:
18638:
18607:
18540:
18457:
18431:
18209:
18204:
18192:
18076:
18015:
17995:
17714:
17625:
17468:
17341:
17296:
17251:
17241:
17187:
17172:
17115:
16947:
16912:
16777:
16684:
16654:
16624:
16459:
16020:
15802:
15678:
15485:
15211:
15201:
15164:
15038:
15023:
14898:
14868:
14838:
14833:
14808:
14745:
14740:
14730:
14601:
14550:
14437:
14432:
14155:
13791:
13776:
13566:
13547:
13524:
13505:
13486:
13450:
13431:
13412:
13393:
13280:
13255:
13230:
13227:
Pollution and property: comparing ownership institutions for environmental protection
13205:
13178:
13153:
13122:
13064:
13056:
13024:
12997:
12965:
12940:
12934:
12909:
12884:
12854:
12830:
12771:
12710:
12681:
12654:
12602:
12545:
12520:
12478:
12445:
12407:
12383:
12355:
12331:
12265:
12237:
12166:
12140:
12109:
12057:
12030:
11958:
11931:
11904:
11790:
11725:
11700:
11637:
11604:
11540:
11506:
11472:
11445:
11386:
11330:
11283:
11231:
11160:
11053:
11001:
10907:
10871:
10846:
10809:
10680:
10428:
10348:
10314:
10260:
10233:
10208:
10141:
10076:
9998:
9877:
9825:
9801:
9771:
9744:
9717:
9690:
9660:
9630:
9584:
9544:
9493:
9463:
9430:
9359:
9332:
9305:
9272:
9240:
9199:
9184:
9096:
9071:
9046:
9019:
8963:
8861:
8824:
8728:
8689:
8632:
8595:
8561:
8527:
8493:
8447:
8255:
8196:
8087:
8045:
8013:
7986:
7937:
7910:
7861:
7833:
7767:
7621:
7586:
7555:
7544:
7514:
7450:
7420:
7395:
7348:
7321:
7292:
7260:
7225:
7201:
7111:
7060:
6951:
6898:
6871:
6834:
6752:
6432:
6117:
5948:
5814:
5782:
5447:
5240:
5195:
5014:
4994:
4842:
4655:
4317:
4207:
4048:
3867:
3739:
3660:
3569:
3397:
3389:
3347:
2881:
2782:
2735:
2697:
2484:
2433:
2390:
2128:
1964:
1884:
1880:
1809:
1783:
1697:
1628:
1557:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1315:
1303:
1149:
1129:
1112:
931:
879:
864:
844:
800:
364:
17101:
13118:
13112:
12766:
Ališauskas, V.; L. Jovaiša; M. Paknys; R. Petrauskas; E. Raila; et al. (2001).
10205:
The Lithuanian-Rus'commonwealth, the Polish domination, and the Cossack-Hetman state
7610:
6689:
6239:
5005:, overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism, and several
4713:
A sudden change in the country's demographics occurred in the mid-17th century. The
4322:
4135:
4020:
3755:
3689:
3307:
3272:
1905:
1382:
18831:
18746:
18691:
18661:
18612:
18572:
18555:
18545:
18480:
18452:
18384:
18356:
18301:
18296:
18291:
18110:
17620:
17608:
17269:
17152:
17132:
17040:
16726:
16344:
15943:
15864:
15797:
15665:
15227:
15191:
15109:
14933:
14703:
14648:
14611:
14586:
14576:
14510:
14462:
14392:
14387:
14382:
14377:
14372:
14362:
14357:
14050:
13796:
12183:
11665:
11661:
11085:
8849:
8821:
Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors
8631:. Vol. III: 1400 CE to 1650 CE. Portland: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 194.
7504:
7237:
6713:
6402:
6339:
6209:
5639:
5523:
5344:
5335:
5308:
5244:
5189:
5145:
5123:
5061:
4830:
4803:
4730:
4695:
4663:
4595:
4574:
4534:
4438:
4275:
4255:
4239:
4121:
4073:
4057:
4000:
3996:
3930:
3816:
3678:
The works of many Commonwealth authors are considered classics, including those of
3588:
3296:
3190:
2692:, referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas". Meanwhile,
2456:
2437:
2413:
2093:
1889:
1834:
1795:
1748:
1624:
1585:
1561:
1460:
1424:
360:
100:
13166:
9489:
Diplomats without a Country: Baltic Diplomacy, International Law, and the Cold War
7168:
2311:, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years;
18871:
18846:
18634:
18617:
18462:
18261:
18199:
17905:
17657:
17477:
17389:
17336:
17311:
17306:
15948:
15772:
15104:
14853:
14823:
14818:
14678:
14668:
14633:
14623:
14606:
14442:
14397:
14312:
14030:
14005:
13852:
13645:
13629:
13606:
13018:
12989:
12878:
12573:
12292:
12190:
12173:
12103:
12051:
11575:
11252:
11047:
10840:
10701:
10422:
10254:
10127:
10107:
9852:
9793:
9684:
9680:
9654:
9624:
9406:
9390:
Andrzej Jezierski, Cecylia Leszczyńska, Historia gospodarcza Polski, 2003, s. 68.
9353:
8660:
8626:
8555:
8521:
8441:
8357:
8135:
7980:
7931:
7478:
7440:
7389:
7385:
7342:
7048:
7037:
6892:
6639:
6582:
6548:
6510:
6480:
6407:
6104:(1656), the first description of an ecosystem of the Far East published in Europe
6080:
5802:
5697:
5663:
5629:
5605:
5595:
5575:
5557:
5509:
5487:
5465:
5232:
5173:
5159:
5097:
5085:
5049:
5018:
4974:
4970:
4877:(szlachta), which included Poles, but also many members of non-Polish origin who
4766:
4747:
4659:
4640:
4494:
culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among
4304:
4263:
4211:
4131:
3693:
3679:
3640:
3618:
3614:
3422:
2287:
1896:
1713:
1542:
1522:
1416:
1412:
1360:. Upon ascending the throne, Henry signed the contractual agreement known as the
1288:
1269:
1214:
1204:
1192:
1049:
1041:
1033:
1010:
986:
959:
832:
817:
809:
561:
326:
298:
272:
57:
17212:
5775:
Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth
5385:
The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as
5021:
in the world – by the mid-16th century 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland (
4262:. The magnates throughout Poland competed with the kings. The monumental castle
4116:
rooftiles. The most distinguishable feature of Polish Mannerism are decorative "
3968:
3038:
2807:
2355:
to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;
1747:
The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the
982:). The Latin term was usually employed in international treaties and diplomacy.
18821:
18811:
18806:
18801:
18781:
18771:
18686:
18629:
18522:
18485:
18389:
18324:
18214:
17952:
17915:
17667:
17637:
17578:
17432:
17274:
16937:
15869:
15367:
15246:
15028:
15013:
14978:
14718:
14713:
14596:
14530:
14402:
14060:
14035:
13940:
13857:
13811:
13197:
12908:(in Polish). Wydawnictwo Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. p. 79.
12599:
Poland's last king and English culture: Stanisław August Poniatowski, 1732–1798
12568:
11533:
Feliks Gryglewicz; Romuald Łukaszyk; Wincenty Granat; Zygmunt Sułowski (1973).
10838:
10109:
The role of East-Central Europe in international trade, 16th and 17th centuries
6100:
6015:
5435:
5431:
5167:
5101:
5002:
4998:
4890:
4718:
4679:
4579:
4570:
Demographic history of Poland § Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795)
4553:
4528:
4464:
3735:
3549:
3260:
3205:
3133:
3093:
2968:
2901:
2841:
2557:
2429:
2315:
2279:
2275:
2255:
2181:
2151:
2112:
2108:
1791:
1701:
1684:
1565:
1486:
1390:
1362:
1353:
1345:
1180:
1095:
1018:
998:
992:
975:
939:
883:
840:
836:
821:
740:
72:
16257:
13521:
The Conversion of Lithuania. From Pagan Barbarians to Late Medieval Christians
12328:
The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence
11811:
The new Cambridge modern history: The Counter-Reformation and price revolution
7378:
6096:
4927:
was constructed between 1746 and 1762 following the Act of Unification of the
4490:, alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was an important part of
4311:(Złoczów). 18th-century magnate palaces represents the characteristic type of
4191:
3584:
1615:
diminished the supremacy of the Sultanate and eventually led to the murder of
18977:
18917:
18716:
17751:
17482:
17374:
17030:
14893:
14658:
14653:
14075:
13933:
13892:
13872:
13684:
13671:
13657:
13020:
Historic Power Europe; A Post-Hegelian Interpretation of European Integration
12906:
Nazwy zachodnioeuropejskie w języku polskim a związki Polski z kulturą Europy
12433:
12077:
11896:
10891:
10654:(in Polish). Vol. 2. Polska: Państwowe Wydawn. Naukowe. pp. 306–308
10396:
The Rise and Decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade
10163:
The Rise and Decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth due to Grain Trade
9576:
9143:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 981–982.
9128:
7853:
7735:
The Polish Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1788–1792: A Political History
7696:
7539:
6749:
The Post-Soviet Russian Orthodox Church: Politics, Culture and Greater Russia
6328:
6122:
5778:, which was regarded as one of the most comprehensive guides to the country.
5761:
5709:
5705:
5571:
5439:
5163:
5149:
4814:
4675:
4658:
was much more homogenous; approximately 70% of the population was Polish and
4624:
4008:
4004:
3992:
3984:
3828:
3610:
3596:
3493:
3467:
3201:
3137:
2904:
region. In turn, the Commonwealth imported wine, beer, fruit, exotic spices,
2869:
2861:
2748:
2600:
2542:
2534:
2468:
2441:
2385:), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim.
1649:
1456:
1408:
1160:
1125:
1056:), the latter relatively common in historiography to distinguish it from the
337:
14422:
13637:
13145:
The newly independent states of Eurasia: handbook of former Soviet republics
12673:
11089:
10623:
9132:
8163:. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. 1992. Archived from
3509:
2724:
2049:
1599:(parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century
1517:
and the beginning of the Silver Age. A devout Catholic, he hoped to restore
18876:
18706:
18577:
18495:
17316:
16140:
14983:
14505:
14467:
14367:
13950:
13641:
12294:
Rzeczpospolita w dobie Jana III (Commonwealth during the reign of John III)
12022:
9606:
The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in northeastern Europe, 1558–1721
9426:
Działalność niepodległościowa żołnierzy polskich na Litwie i Wileńszczyźnie
7250:
5758:
5683:
5052:
regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Catholic.
4966:
4886:
4834:
4758:
4670:
around 15%. The average population density per square kilometer was: 24 in
4644:
4378:
4281:
4251:
3925:
became commonplace and Roman Catholic churches in regions with significant
3652:
3541:
3497:
3451:
3426:
2980:
2918:), furniture, fabrics as well as industrial products like steel and tools.
2615:
2538:
2381:
2364:
2359:
2348:
2230:
2208:
2176:
2104:
1921:
1913:
1813:
1752:
1553:
1510:
1436:
920:
895:
394:
13352:
13201:
Traduzioni e circolazione delle idee nella cultura europea tra '500 e '700
13061:
Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940
12765:
12744:
a letter from Wladyslaw Vasa issued in 1639 written in Lithuanian language
11539:. Lublin: Tow. Nauk. Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 1189.
9068:
The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721
7408:
6148:
5852:
4849:
4393:
in Warsaw are part of the neoclassical legacy of the former Commonwealth.
4340:
2700:
used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister
2409:
had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.
1005:), the Commonwealth of the Polish Kingdom, or the Commonwealth of Poland.
867:, whereupon members of domestic noble families or external dynasties were
18861:
18739:
18724:
18696:
18532:
17563:
17279:
16576:
15729:
15622:
15215:
14724:
14520:
14412:
14407:
14327:
13918:
13902:
13502:
Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345
12880:
Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present
11309:
9686:
After the Deluge; Poland–Lithuania and the Second Northern War, 1655–1660
7482:
6213:
6205:
5873:
5535:
5499:
5386:
5276:
5252:
5226:
4881:
in increasing numbers with each following generation. For the non-Polish
4735:
4706:
4667:
4549:
4247:
4125:
3832:
3824:
3672:
3276:
3231:; the regiments were supervised by the king and his family. In 1788, the
3097:
3089:
3075:
3056:
2992:
2976:
2972:
2949:
2905:
2893:
2645:
2626:
2024:
1876:
1530:
1403:
1295:
852:
534:
519:
8855:
7137:"Lietuvos feodalinės visuomenės ir jos valdymo sistemos genezė: 2 dalis"
6042:, proposed a deep programme of reforms of the state, society and church.
5729:
4360:
3294:(national parliament of Poland) legislated in 1562–1563 the creation of
3004:
2892:, were used for the export of live cattle (herds of around 50,000 head)
2076:
was elected monarch with the connivance and support of his former lover
1287:. In fear, the absent nobles promptly returned to the negotiations. The
1209:
1060:. In Lithuania, the state is referred to as 'Republic of Both Nations' (
18624:
18329:
18319:
18254:
17719:
17568:
17553:
17264:
16150:
15362:
14770:
14708:
14627:
13867:
13832:
13141:
13089:
12579:
12437:
11303:
10935:
10450:"Economic Structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800"
10137:
9736:
9328:
Understanding Mass Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives On Access
7040:(p. 115), 1618 languages map (p. 119), 1657–67 losses map (p. 128) and
6656:
This quality of the Commonwealth was recognized by its contemporaries.
5806:
5583:
4616:
4604:
4487:
4259:
4113:
4085:
3987:. Both foreign and domestic composers were active in the Commonwealth.
3926:
3887:
3801:
3648:
3644:
3626:
3592:
3580:
3573:
3525:
3401:
3377:
3232:
3079:
3064:
2960:
2790:
2778:
2460:
2436:
and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with
2417:
2394:
1917:
1768:
1468:
898:
796:
793:
11560:
11382:"Domy pańskie" na Lubelszczyźnie od późnego gotyku do wczesnego baroku
10256:
Inna Rzeczpospolita jest możliwa! Widma przeszłości, wizje przyszłości
9186:
Migrants and citizens: demographic change in the European state system
7860:. Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. pp. 116–117.
6776:
Od Polan mieszkających w lasach – historia Polski – aż do króla Stasia
5840:(Statutes of the Polish Kingdom, Arranged in Alphabetical Order), 1563
4648:
4582:, painter, butcher, musician, tailor, barmaid, pharmacist, shoemaker,
3903:
2389:
The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of
1819:
1474:
1455:, respectively), thus expanding the Commonwealth's influence into the
18671:
17689:
17548:
16189:
15911:
15880:
15129:
15119:
14688:
13995:
13882:
13482:
13274:
12782:
In 1794 Government's declarations were carried out and in Lithuanian.
12231:
10805:
Naczelni wodzowie i wyżsi dowódcy Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na Zachodzie
9450:
8766:] (in Polish). Warsaw: PW "Wiedza Poweszechna". pp. 102–118.
7288:
7075:
According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych:
7005:
According to Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych:
5740:
5613:
5601:
5565:
5421:. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the
5418:
5403:
5299:
4870:
4866:
4632:
4620:
4583:
4578:
Social strata in the Commonwealth's society in 1655. From left: Jew,
4483:
4453:
4433:
4409:
4221:
4154:
and Roman Catholic churches across Poland and Lithuania, notably the
4093:
4077:
4061:
3895:
3855:) imported from Western Europe; the most renowned collection are the
3812:
3561:
3361:
3252:
3104:
to the Commonwealth were incorrectly known as "Polish rugs" (French:
2922:
2889:
2877:
2794:
2786:
2652:
2474:
1851:
1660:
1283:
1229:
Several minor agreements were struck before unification, notably the
18400:
13614:
13326:
12993:
Ethnic identity: problems and prospects for the twenty-first century
10648:
Juliusz Bardach; Zdzisław Kaczmarczyk; Bogusław Leśnodorski (1957).
7283:
J. Smith, David; Pabriks, Artis; Purs, Aldirs; Lane, Thomas (2002).
5999:
Example of the merchant architecture: Konopnica's tenement house in
5984:
5905:
5617:
5495:
5473:
4799:
4726:
4195:
4159:
4053:
3751:
3473:
3154:
2830:
2756:
2744:
2169:
1432:
1420:
245:
18881:
18676:
17493:
15306:
15266:
15149:
15139:
14958:
14457:
13729:
12027:
Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth Century Ukraine
11680:
11310:
Państwowy Instytut Badania Sztuki Ludowej (1974). "Volumes 28–29".
10227:
10050:(in Polish). Vol. 19. Gdańsk: Towarzystwo Naukowe. p. 149
7108:
Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989
5968:
5625:
5587:
5443:
5413:
5208:– not officially recognized; used in some foreign relations and by
5010:
4978:
4935:
4910:
4882:
4691:
4636:
4587:
4503:
4405:
4139:
3844:
3836:
3702:
3656:
3521:
3312:
3240:
3228:
3185:
could not declare war or summon an army without the consent of the
2909:
2849:
2826:
2813:
2715:
Transportation and travel during the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
2663:
2641:
2630:
2525:
When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the
2452:
2352:
2227:
2100:
became the dominant form of architectural and cultural expression.
1616:
1608:
1592:
1349:
1299:
1273:
1242:
1172:
902:
16737:
13388:
Bardach, Juliusz; Lesnodorski, Boguslaw; Pietrzak, Michal (1987).
13277:
Celestial lancets: a history and rationale of acupuncture and moxa
12903:
12768:
Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštijos kultūra. Tyrinėjimai ir vaizdai
12195:
10169:
9567:(Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa
8409:(in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Uniwersytet Warszawski. p. 21
4512:
4080:
were fitted with central Italianate courtyards composed of arched
2607:
and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system.
2398:
1611:
in southeastern Europe, but Sigismund's victory over the Turks at
1560:
in 1609 when that country was plagued by a civil war known as the
1324:
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent in 1619.
18751:
18562:
18249:
18244:
18229:
18224:
17524:
16215:
15337:
15159:
15114:
15089:
14643:
14352:
13970:
13923:
13862:
13786:
13740:
12722:
12542:
The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe
10302:
9929:"Jak powstawała i co zawiera mapa Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodów"
8727:(in Polish). Polska: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. p. 115.
8193:
Elective Monarchy in Transylvania and Poland–Lithuania, 1569–1587
6228:
6190:
5881:
5765:
5721:
5693:
5539:
5505:
5394:
5264:
5260:
5183:
5177:
5006:
4990:
4986:
4955:
4931:
4743:
4687:
4671:
4600:
4518:
4458:
4348:
4312:
4217:
4167:
4097:
3840:
3505:
3393:
3244:
3178:
2996:
2964:
2956:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2885:
2873:
2774:
2569:
2530:
2249:). The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in
2204:
2016:
1782:
In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth,
1772:
1724:
1448:
1440:
1428:
1411:
initially refused to recognise the Transylvanian as their ruler.
1278:
1184:
1176:
1168:
848:
342:
11464:
10808:(in Polish). Polska: Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny. p. 12.
8362:(in Polish). Vol. 3. Kraków: Szujski-Kluczycki. p. 139
7830:
The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526
5451:
5130:
until 1673; used in some foreign relations its dialects (modern
4924:
2487:, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;
1775:; in 1701 the once-insignificant duchy was transformed into the
18239:
17573:
16768:
16378:
15241:
15154:
14417:
14317:
13960:
13816:
13638:
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on BBC Radio 4 "In Our Time"
13588:
12517:
The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772
11847:(in Polish). Polish Sociological Association. 2007. p. 96.
10551:
8489:
Constitutions, Elections, and Legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977
7674:
7375:. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
6171:
6000:
5870:
5794:
5675:
5517:
5477:
5423:
5209:
5205:
4894:
4628:
4612:
4540:
4507:
4326:
4231:
4183:
4151:
4101:
4089:
4081:
3922:
3664:
3565:
3553:
3409:
3316:
3302:
3101:
3068:
3000:
2984:
2822:
2802:
2752:
2368:
2343:
2268:
2185:
1960:
1573:
1452:
1341:
1265:
253:
13622:
12990:
Lola Romanucci-Ross; George A. De Vos; Takeyuki Tsuda (2006).
11441:
The architecture of Poland: a chapter of the European heritage
10105:
6059:, the first Polish newspaper published on the orders of Queen
5271:
considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth, whereas the
5186:– not officially recognised; used by Jews in their daily life.
3003:
become an important site after formation of a customs post at
2556:(1606–1607) marked a substantial increase in the power of the
1370:. The Act stated the fundamental principles of governance and
1357:
17558:
15938:
15357:
13698:
13599:
12623:
12264:. Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas. p. 31.
12101:
10558:. Vol. 3–4. Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne. p. 214
10336:
8916:. Vol. 24, 25. Polska: Zakład Ossolińskich. p. 172.
7933:
Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People
6558:
6490:
5901:
5790:
5786:
5781:
Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of
5713:
5289:
Administrative division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
5091:
4826:
4770:
4545:
4297:
3980:
3870:
and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth gave rise to the term
3707:
3517:
3405:
3022:
2988:
2865:
2845:
2818:
2428:". At a time when most European countries were headed toward
2320:
1799:
1731:. It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the
901:, held legislative power; its lower house was elected by all
813:
347:
277:
19104:
1795 disestablishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
13523:. Vilnius: Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore.
13198:
Girolamo Imbruglia; Rolando Minuti; Luisa Simonutti (2007).
10839:
J. K. Fedorowicz; Maria Bogucka; Henryk Samsonowicz (1982).
10736:
Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak,
10043:
6789:
Lexikon des polnischen Adels im Goldenen Zeitalter 1500–1600
5472:), southern Poland, with two largest cities, its capital at
2591:
adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe.
2274:
The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "
1883:, who in turn voiced their endorsement. Imperial Russia and
1678:
1397:– became the new monarch. The nobles simultaneously elected
15124:
13965:
13955:
13945:
13928:
8945:. Polska: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. pp. 138–143.
5671:
5534:), northwest Grand Duchy, its most Catholic and ethnically
5348:
5153:
4837:, were less optimistic about Poland's religious frivolity.
4683:
4608:
4363:. Lesser nobility resided in country manor houses known as
4138:, completed in 1696, exemplifies the opulence of royal and
3933:
3577:
3418:
3291:
3186:
2991:. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with
2944:
2897:
2844:
by the export of grain (rye), cattle (oxen), furs, timber,
2798:
2424:. Both states were styled "Serenissima Respublica" or the "
2301:
of the king by all nobles wishing to participate, known as
1963:
near the end of the Commonwealth's existence. Paintings by
1741:
1497:– won the election, but his claim was overtly contested by
1464:
1381:
The interregnum concluded on 12 December 1575 when primate
1261:
831:
The Commonwealth was established as a single entity by the
13387:
9903:. Vol. 6. Polska: Fundacja "Polonia Restituta,". 1991
9648:
9646:
9372:
9324:
8926:
8909:
6802:"Poland - Partition, Sovereignty, Revolution | Britannica"
5259:) federation that, at its largest extent, would span from
4725:
The most multicultural and robust city in the country was
3946:
in the predominantly Latin territories of today's Poland (
3750:(Diary of the Chocim War), which was published in 1646 in
3432:
With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to
1541:. As a consequence, he was deposed in Sweden by his uncle
1407:. Báthory's election proved controversial – Lithuania and
19079:
1569 establishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
11880:
11878:
10706:(in Polish). Poznań: Księgarnia Katolicka. pp. 23–25
9457:
9015:
Boże igrzysko. Historia Polski. Od początków do roku 1795
6867:
The Routledge Research Companion to Heritage and Identity
6852:
A history of the great war. Bureau of national literature
6719:"1596 administrative capital, the tiny village of Warsaw"
6388:
History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–1795)
6383:
History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)
6378:
History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)
5180:
used by Jews for religious, scholarly, and legal matters.
4982:
4498:, horseback riding, tradition, provincial quaint life in
4088:, balconies, portals and ornamental balustrades. Ceiling
2880:. The land routes, mostly to the German provinces of the
2857:
2853:
1808:(bulwark of Christianity). During the next 16 years, the
1078:
History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)
835:
on 1 July 1569. The two nations had previously been in a
13430:. Men-At-Arms Series. Vol. 188. Osprey Publishing.
13411:. Men-At-Arms Series. Vol. 184. Osprey Publishing.
12558:
10859:
9481:
9479:
8959:
Słownik władców Polski i pretendentów do tronu polskiego
6829:
Panstwowe Przedsiebiorstwo Wydawnictw Kartograficznych:
4841:"This country became a place of shelter for heretics" –
4112:) were widespread. Rooftops were generally covered with
3412:) communities. In the 18th century, the French Catholic
2805:
and salt. The currency used in Poland–Lithuania was the
2640:" and extended political rights to include not only the
2224:
our state is a republic under the presidency of the King
1564:. In July 1610, the outnumbered Polish force comprising
1256:
A fierce proponent of a single unified Commonwealth was
12095:
11769:
11767:
11419:. Polska: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. p. 119
10842:
A Republic of nobles: studies in Polish history to 1864
10740:(Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe), 1987, p. 229.
10605:
10603:
10288:"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History"
9643:
9355:
Customs and Culture in Poland Under the Last Saxon King
9210:
polish lithuanian commonwealth americas western europe.
8233:
8231:
8229:
8227:
7282:
6897:(in Polish). Wydawn. Prawnicze LexisNexis. p. 13.
2840:
The country played a significant role in the supply of
2833:
had the privilege of minting its own coinage. In 1794,
1032:
Other informal names include the 'Republic of Nobles' (
30:"Poland-Lithuania" redirects here. For other uses, see
11875:
11444:. Kraków: International Cultural Centre. p. 110.
9526:. Pont. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum. p. 154.
9266:
8724:
Dzieje sztuki polskiej: Architektura polska XVII wieku
8327:
8325:
8254:
Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 118.
7079:, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, just over 9 million in 1618.
6505:
Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė
6155:, is sometimes referred to as the "Polish Versailles".
4889:
that followed the adoption of the Polish language and
4705:
Density of urban network of the Commonwealth per each
3921:
adopted elements of the national dress, loanwords and
1309:
1171:, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jogaila was a lifelong
972:
Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė
12962:
Art in Poland, 1572–1764: land of the winged horsemen
12932:
12851:
Land of the Winged Horsemen: Art in Poland, 1572–1764
12442:
The National Question in Europe in Historical Context
11993:
11991:
11630:
11318:
10202:
9476:
9165:
9163:
8144:
8063:
8061:
7192:
7190:
6705:
6703:
4969:
efforts to the eastern territories (nowadays roughly
4857:
in 1573, the first act of religious freedom in Europe
3991:
brought in Italian composers and conductors, such as
3983:(Vilnius). Musical life further flourished under the
3286:
Several years before the Union of Lublin, the Polish
3173:) in the Grand Duchy. The military was headed by the
16171:
2003 Lithuanian European Union membership referendum
12287:
11764:
11207:. Vol. 11. Polska: RSW "Prasa". 1966. p. 6
10600:
9581:
Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters
9429:. Polska: Naukowe Wydawn. Piotrkowskie. p. 23.
8998:
Historia sztuki polskiej w zarysie: Sztuka nowożytna
8406:
Kryzys Oświecenia a początki konserwatyzmu polskiego
8224:
8117:
8115:
7858:
Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East Central Europe
7675:
Antoine-François-Claude Ferrand (1820). "Volume 1".
7414:
5401:, governor). Voivodeships were further divided into
5040:). However, many noble families quickly adopted the
4544:); favoured European Baroque architecture; endorsed
2080:, a German noblewoman who became Empress of Russia.
1841:, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, wearing the
1767:
in 1657, Catholic Poland was forced to renounce its
13600:
Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage
11884:
11869:
11857:
11830:
Contested Spaces of Nobility in Early Modern Europe
11773:
11758:
11747:
11743:
11741:
11722:
Pod wspólnym niebem. Narody dawnej Rzeczypospolitej
11719:
11324:
10392:
10160:
9485:
9232:
8686:
Rapier i koncerz: z dziejów wojen polsko-szwedzkich
8322:
5838:
Statuta Regni Poloniae in ordinem alphabeti digesta
3874:, French for "Polish-styled". With the marriage of
1904:) legacy in both countries. In Poland, he expanded
1820:
Political turmoil and the enlightenment (1697–1771)
1393:– sister of Sigismund Augustus and a member of the
1352:hegemony, ending skirmishes with the French-allied
13275:Gwei-Djen Lu; Joseph Needham; Vivienne Lo (2002).
12872:
12870:
12596:
12259:
11988:
11152:
11071:
11069:
11039:
10895:
10767:
10765:
10763:
10761:
10759:
10757:
10755:
10672:
9714:The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs
9536:
9358:. Central European University Press. p. 262.
9293:
9183:
9160:
9042:Dzieje kultury polskiej. Czasy nowsze do roku 1831
8858:The Essential World History: Volume II: Since 1500
8288:
8286:
8058:
7909:. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Szkolne PWN. p. 141.
7799:
7797:
7795:
7609:
7543:
7187:
6700:
6524:Королівство Польське і Велике князівство Литовське
3866:The economic, cultural and political ties between
2134:
1879:to Catholicism awed the conservative magnates and
782:Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
43:Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
13329:. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 23 September 2009
13175:Encyclopedia of witchcraft: the Western tradition
13172:
12876:
12678:The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact
12380:The Circum-Baltic Languages: Typology and Contact
11329:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 286–287.
11045:
8856:William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel (2006).
8133:
8121:
8112:
7347:. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 158–161.
4594:The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was immensely
3882:in 1725, Polish culture began to flourish at the
3169:), recruited in Poland, and the Lithuanian Army (
18975:
13243:
13142:Stephen K. Batalden, Sandra L. Batalden (1997).
12959:
12539:
11738:
11720:Kopczyński, Michał; Tygielski, Wojciech (2010).
11603:. Polska: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. p. 134.
11156:Fashion world of the 18th and early 19th century
10370:
9922:
9920:
9918:
8846:, Louis Edwin Van Norman, New York: 1907, p. 18.
8343:
8331:
8316:
8304:
8292:
8274:
7285:The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
7222:Living in Translation: Polish Writers in America
6977:
6534:Польскае Каралеўства і Вялікае Княства Літоўскае
6515:Königreich Polen und des Großfürstentums Litauen
5674:of the Commonwealth. It established a colony in
5311:, superimposed on present-day national borders.
4873:; it was a designation largely reserved for the
4377:, greatly admired the classical architecture of
4296:The fascination with the culture and art of the
2829:were widely accepted and exchanged. The city of
13249:
13110:
13043:A. stated, for instance by the preamble of the
12867:
12283:
12281:
11923:
11813:, 1559–1610, 1968, Cambridge University Press,
11131:Arrasy flamandzkie w zamku królewskim na Wawelu
11106:Arrasy flamandzkie w zamku królewskim na Wawelu
11066:
10865:
10752:
10420:
10308:
9768:The Revolutionary Period in Europe 1763 to 1815
8283:
7792:
7766:. Polska: Prószyński i Spółka. pp. 30–32.
7384:
6781:
6685:
6683:
5594:, incorporated into the Crown in 1569 with the
5017:. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest
3675:were persecuted under the Counter Reformation.
3617:) (1698–1760), considered to be the founder of
2222:The political doctrine of the Commonwealth was
1812:would drive the Turks permanently south of the
1378:. The throne was subsequently declared vacant.
13224:
13083:
12255:
12253:
12232:Willfried Spohn, Anna Triandafyllidou (2003).
12182:from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service.
12165:from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service.
12132:A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples
11999:"Memory of the World Register Nomination Form"
11927:A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples
11824:
11822:
10834:
10832:
10340:A history of Eastern Europe: crisis and change
9456:Jan Zamoyski's speech in the Parliament, 1605
8887:. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie. p. 143.
8688:. Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza. pp. 191–200.
8557:Tsars and Imposters. Russia's Time of Troubles
7471:The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis
7391:The Slavs in European History and Civilization
7314:The Polish Renaissance in Its European Context
6984:. Bureau of national literature, inc. p.
6937:
6485:Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie
5636:), the eastern Commonwealth, adjoining Russia;
3279:of mostly noble knights-landholders), and the
3118:Military of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1152:(Hedwig), held claims to the vast dual realm.
964:Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie
51:Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie
19074:States and territories disestablished in 1795
18416:
17509:
16753:
15896:
15322:
13714:
13518:
13037:
12926:
12049:
11950:
11944:
11378:
10993:
10920:
10890:
10175:
9915:
9659:. Manchester University Press. pp. 8–9.
9291:
9181:
9095:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC. p. 694.
8526:. US: Cornell University Press. p. 168.
8275:Besala, Jerzy; Biedrzycka, Agnieszka (2005).
8249:
8220:(in Polish). Warszawa: PWN. pp. 216–217.
8134:Maniecky, Wojciech; Szajnocha, Karol (1869).
8086:. Polska: Księgarnia Akademicka. p. 10.
7982:The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1733–1795
7603:
7601:
7599:
7433:
7025:
7023:
7021:
7019:
7017:
7015:
6943:
6357:
5801:formed part of the southern border, with the
5744:Topographical map of the Commonwealth in 1764
5295:Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
2141:Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1623:, the exhausted Commonwealth army signed the
1572:, which enabled the Poles to take and occupy
1294:Sigismund's death in 1572 was followed by an
1264:) convened on 10 January 1569 in the city of
843:of 1385 and the subsequent marriage of Queen
12278:
11981:Freedom of Conscience and Religion in Poland
11930:. University of Toronto Press. p. 169.
11917:
11696:Unia Europejska a społeczeństwo obywatelskie
11471:(in Polish). Polska: Bis Press. p. 32.
11352:
11000:. University Press of America. p. 125.
10651:Historia państwa i prawa Polski do roku 1795
10475:"Jarmarki w województwie lubelskim w XVI w."
10228:Sven-Olof Lindquist, Birgitta Radhe (1989).
9622:
9400:Russia's Rise as a European Power, 1650–1750
8683:
7243:
7120:Google print p. 11 – constitutional monarchy
6971:
6680:
6495:Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae
5789:. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the
5643:
5212:in their religious matters, they also wrote
2811:(meaning "the golden") and its subunit, the
1641:) who were reluctant to get involved in the
1627:which ceded much of Livonia to Sweden under
980:Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae
196:
66:Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae
49:
16120:Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)
13319:
13229:. Cambridge University Press. p. 106.
13088:(in Polish). Rzeczpospolita. Archived from
12904:Karol Zierhoffer, Zofia Zierhoffer (2000).
12700:
12680:, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001,
12469:
12467:
12465:
12463:
12461:
12382:, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001,
12250:
12153:
12056:. Cambridge University Press. p. 169.
11819:
11465:Zdzisław Klimczuk; Józef Garliński (1996).
10884:
10829:
10786:
10779:
10777:
10730:
10624:"Wolna elekcja i zasady jej funkcjonowania"
9865:
9863:
9861:
9824:, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2002,
9519:
8994:
8492:. University Press of America. p. 89.
6825:
6823:
5757:In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and
5307:with its major subdivisions after the 1618
5282:
5080:(1792) in Hebrew, Polish, German and French
4300:in the late Baroque period is reflected by
3748:Commentariorum chotinensis belli libri tres
1631:. At the same time, the country's powerful
644:1,000,000 km (390,000 sq mi)
169:
160:"If God is with us, then who is against us"
153:
64:
27:1569–1795 bi-confederate monarchy in Europe
19069:States and territories established in 1569
18423:
18409:
17516:
17502:
16760:
16746:
15903:
15889:
15329:
15315:
13721:
13707:
13560:
13425:
13406:
13392:. Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
13254:. Oxford University Press US. p. 13.
12964:. Art Services International. p. 32.
12843:
12793:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
12572:Institute of History (1970). "Volume 22".
12509:
12322:
12320:
12318:
12316:
12314:
12312:
12310:
12308:
11692:
11536:Encyklopedia katolicka: Kinszasa-Krzymuska
11437:
11279:Polska; art, architecture, design 966–1990
11127:
11102:
10724:
10699:
10609:
10480:. Muzeum Pałacu Króla Jana III w Wilanowie
10068:
10047:Seria popularno-naukowa "Pomorze Gdańskie"
9967:"shillings – Polish translation – Linguee"
9953:
9814:
9789:
9787:
9762:
9760:
9652:
9629:. Columbia University Press. p. 188.
9492:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
9378:
8800:
8788:
8776:
8754:
8720:
8279:(in Polish). Vol. XLIII. p. 116.
8277:Stefan Batory: Polski Słownik Biograficzny
8067:
8032:
7978:
7967:
7955:
7904:
7596:
7417:A social and religious history of the Jews
7099:
7097:
7012:
6742:
6740:
6364:
6350:
4611:. There were also considerable numbers of
4182:. Fine examples of decorative Baroque and
3671:took refuge in the Commonwealth, when the
2837:began issuing the first Polish banknotes.
2259:, negotiated at the time of his election.
2233:summed up this doctrine when he said that
2031:. It was also during this period that the
1816:, never again to threaten central Europe.
1124:. The last Polish monarch from the native
227:
13252:The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts
12496:
12494:
12429:
12427:
12425:
12423:
11977:
11498:
11412:
11348:
11346:
11314:. Państwowy Instytut Sztuki. p. 259.
11275:
11186:
10801:
10472:
10332:
10330:
9990:
9610:2000. Especially pp. 9–11, 114, 181, 323.
9543:. Stockholm University. pp. 37, 87.
9269:Nowa encyklopedia powszechna PWN: Sud-żyz
9093:A Global Chronology of Conflict, Vol. Two
9045:. Polska: Wiedza Powszechna. p. 27.
8708:
8621:
8519:
8402:
7880:
7786:
7761:
7503:
7446:Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage
7394:. Rutgers University Press. p. 300.
6768:
6716:, "A Very Short History of Kraków", see:
5374:(Poland proper), colloquially "the Crown"
5251:'s failed attempt to create a Polish-led
4396:
3667:teacher, scientist, educator, and writer
3609:(1631–1700), mathematician and engineer;
3356:
3181:or supreme commander in other countries.
3021:Coat of arms of the Commonwealth on a 15
2921:The agricultural sector was dominated by
2618:and banned the szlachta's confederations;
2038:
1908:and facilitated the refurbishment of the
1761:Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg
1727:in 1648, in what came to be known as the
1679:Deluge, rebellions and Vienna (1648–1696)
1552:Sigismund III then initiated a policy of
1198:
915:by European standards, guaranteed by the
636:815,000 km (315,000 sq mi)
13350:
13302:"Taurus Poniatovii – Poniatowski's bull"
13104:
12829:, University of California Press, 1983,
12475:Culture And Customs of the Baltic States
12458:
12344:
12070:
11832:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2011. p. 233.
11250:
10956:
10950:
10774:
10552:Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne (1989).
10366:
10364:
10123:
10121:
10119:
10101:
10099:
9997:. Polska: Nasza Księgarnia. p. 11.
9858:
9838:
9822:Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great
9703:
9486:Pacy, James S.; James T. McHugh (2001).
9351:
9169:
9127:
9038:
8815:
8813:
8811:
8809:
8473:
8439:
8195:. Oxford (GB): Oxford University Press.
7465:
7463:
7278:
7276:
6820:
6746:
6448:Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth
6443:Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth
5739:
5298:
5071:
4848:
4790:
4700:
4573:
4280:
4130:
4052:
3462:(1750–1812) helped pave the way for the
3360:
2764:
2580:
2501:
2194:
2175:
2155:
2048:
1833:
1692:
1591:
1473:
1319:
1208:
1094:
13519:Rowell, S. C.; Baronas, Darius (2015).
13299:
13204:(in Italian). Bibliopolis. p. 76.
12816:
12801:
12694:
12601:. Oxford University Press. p. 70.
12404:Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe
12305:
12128:
12016:
11957:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 36.
11779:
11568:"Palaces and Castles in a Lion Country"
11109:(in Polish). Polska: Arkady. p. 15
11014:
10743:
10621:
10498:
10106:Zsigmond Pál Pach, Zs. P. Pach (1970).
9926:
9798:Germany from the Earliest Period Vol. 4
9784:
9757:
9608:. Harlow, England; New York: Longman's.
8982:
8938:
8485:
8446:. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers.
8427:
8359:Dzieła Józefa Szujskiego. Dzieje Polski
8355:
8252:The Polish–Lithuanian state, 1386–1795
8237:
8215:
8083:Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów a Ukraina
8005:
7892:
7852:
7815:
7803:
7664:
7571:
7538:
7311:
7214:
7094:
6890:
6737:
6018:armours, first half of the 17th century
5516:), central Poland, with its capital at
4897:), and the more liberal and democratic
4802:was built between 1597 and 1619 by the
4654:Prior to the union with Lithuania, the
4510:-inspired souvenirs or attire for men (
4060:was built between 1580 and 1631 in the
3942:) and the icons resembling effigies of
3470:calls the first of its kind in Europe.
2507:The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power
2455:over other social classes and over the
2294:, a term used from 1573 on), included:
2188:was the highest court of appeal in the
2168:after the capital was transferred from
14:
18976:
15910:
15410:Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
13756:List of current non-sovereign monarchs
13540:The Polish–Lithuanian State, 1386–1795
13499:
13476:
13463:
13447:The Oxford History of Poland–Lithuania
13173:Richard M. Golden (2006). "Volume 4".
13148:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.
13045:Constitution of the Republic of Poland
13016:
12491:
12420:
12396:
12368:
12102:Peter Kardash, Brett Lockwood (1988).
11654:
11596:
11343:
11312:Polska sztuka ludowa (Polish Folk Art)
11191:. Good Press – via Google Books.
11187:Singleton, Esther (12 December 2019).
11075:
10870:. Oxford University Press. p. V.
10337:Robert Bideleux, Ian Jeffries (2007).
10327:
10207:. Philosophical Library. p. 367.
9730:
9597:
9570:
9239:. Bellona Publishing. pp. 64–65.
9221:
9115:
9090:
9011:
8955:
8897:
8880:
8587:
8553:
8106:
8079:
7929:
7641:
7639:
7637:
7607:
7340:
7334:
7134:
6863:
5393:). Each voivodeship was governed by a
5034:, the szlachta were mostly Catholics (
4885:such conversion meant a final step of
4254:and designed by the Italian architect
4150:was marked by construction of several
3425:, antecedents of British and American
2777:workshops and manufactories – notably
1576:for the next two years. The disgraced
1459:. Most importantly, Poland gained the
1431:, blockaded maritime trade to neutral
1090:
18430:
18404:
17497:
16741:
16161:Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania
15884:
15310:
13986:
13702:
13537:
13444:
13381:Bibliography of the history of Poland
12667:
11901:God's Playground. A History of Poland
11828:Matthew P. Romaniello, Charles Lipp.
11683:6 (2591) 10 February 2007 (in Polish)
11257:. Brussels: C. Vanderauwer. p. 7
11230:. London: Routledge. pp. 72–73.
11225:
10902:. Columbia University Press. p.
10898:God's Playground: A History of Poland
10703:Wojsko polskie Kościuszki w roku 1794
10361:
10116:
10096:
10044:Gdańskie Towarzystwo Naukowe (1991).
9679:
9422:
9325:Ted Tapper; David Palfreyman (2005).
9300:. Columbia University Press. p.
9296:God's Playground: 1795 to the present
9065:
8806:
8380:
8186:
8184:
8182:
8140:(in Polish). Ossoliński. p. 504.
7985:. Yale University Press. p. 14.
7827:
7481:(discussion and full online text) of
7460:
7273:
7249:
7198:God's Playground. A History of Poland
7166:
7087:
7085:
6650:
4682:, 12 in Lublin palatinate, 10 in the
3914:) worn by aristocrats at Versailles.
1584:in Russia). The war concluded with a
17523:
15336:
12519:, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
12444:, Cambridge University Press, 1993,
12350:Stephen Barbour, Cathie Carmichael,
11984:. Interpress Publishers. p. 31.
11505:(in Polish). Excalibur. p. 47.
10252:
9741:The Political Writings of John Adams
9583:, Cambridge University Press, 2004,
9557:
9460:Dictionary of Quotations (Classical)
8962:. Polska: Zielona Sowa. p. 30.
8658:
8190:
7449:, Cambridge University Press, 2002,
7145:Ministry of the Interior (Lithuania)
7009:, wydanie X, 1990, p. 16, 990.000 km
6469:until 1572 and between 1791 and 1792
5813:constitutes the last largely intact
3742:) wrote notable diaries. During the
2497:
2207:, which exclusively was the highest
1981:) against Augustus II was formed by
816:were the two co-official languages.
19099:1795 disestablishments in Lithuania
18938:History of the Mediterranean region
16767:
12883:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 42.
12621:
12544:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 115.
12203:"European Jewish Congress – Poland"
11282:. Langewiesche Köster. p. 34.
10792:Bardach et al. (1987), pp. 227–228.
10771:Bardach et al. (1987), pp. 229–230.
10178:"Rzeczpospolita spichlerzem Europy"
8942:Jak w dawnej Polsce królów obierano
8910:Instytut Badań Literackich (1969).
7634:
7616:. Oxford University Press. p.
4381:and promoted it as a symbol of the
3804:(right), both from the 18th century
3195:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy
1830:Personal union of Poland and Saxony
1751:, which was supported by troops of
1719:A major rebellion of self-governed
1310:Apex and the Golden Age (1573–1648)
1027:Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations
24:
17648:Revolution and War of Independence
13751:List of current sovereign monarchs
13563:Historical Dictionary of Lithuania
13390:Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego
13023:. New York: Taylor & Francis.
12352:Language and Nationalism in Europe
10738:Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego
9462:. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 254.
9458:Harbottle Thomas Benfield (2009).
8218:Historia państwa i prawa polskiego
8179:
7082:
6894:Historia ustroju i prawa polskiego
5878:Orthodox Church of the Holy Spirit
5785:, show the Commonwealth as mostly
5446:), became a part of Poland in the
5036:
5023:
4977:), heightening the tensions among
4331:
4226:
3956:
3938:
3710:. Perhaps the most famous are the
3684:
3631:
3601:
3442:
3096:and Western Europe. For instance,
3084:
3051:
2914:
2245:
1637:
876:parliamentary system of government
855:King of Poland. Their descendant,
209:
25:
19165:
18994:Early modern history of Lithuania
16818:Partitions, duchies and kingdoms
15623:Union State of Russia and Belarus
13581:
13084:Grzegorz Górny (23 August 2008).
12624:"Державна архівна служба України"
12354:, Oxford University Press, 2000,
12205:. Eurojewcong.org. Archived from
11677:Dziejochciejstwo, dziejokrętactwo
11416:Sebastiano Serlio a sztuka polska
10679:. Osprey Publishing. p. 11.
10447:
10290:. Britannica.com. 31 January 1910
10232:. Gotlands Fornsal. p. 367.
9603:
9331:. Routledge Falmer. p. 140.
9001:. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie.
8860:. Cengage Learning. p. 336.
8560:. New York: Algora. p. 201.
7681:(in French). Deterville. p.
6193:, Pietro Puttini, built 1675–1704
6174:, Pietro Puttini, built 1674–1712
5983:Silver tankard by Józef Ceypler,
5247:(1863–64) and in the 1920s, with
5198:– officially recognised; used by
3967:built their own opera houses (in
3764:The Progress of the War of Chocim
3534:Crestofle d'Artischau Arciszewski
3524:: a mathematician, physician and
3490:Commission for National Education
3367:Artis Magnæ Artilleriæ pars prima
3177:, a rank equivalent to that of a
3067:in the Commonwealth were held at
2145:
2119:, came too late. The country was
1786:, allied with Holy Roman Emperor
1673:Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua
1387:Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
1249:(Radvila Rudasis) and his cousin
1165:William Habsburg, Duke of Austria
32:Poland-Lithuania (disambiguation)
19094:1795 disestablishments in Poland
19089:1569 establishments in Lithuania
18923:Bibliography of European history
18518:Fall of the Western Roman Empire
17965:Ukraine–European Union relations
17821:Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine
17663:West Ukrainian People's Republic
17203:Upper Silesian Industrial Region
16188:
14269:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
13587:
13341:
13293:
13268:
13191:
13077:
13050:
13010:
12897:
12827:The History of Polish Literature
12810:A History of East Central Europe
12759:
12734:
12707:Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla
12643:
12634:
12615:
12586:
12503:A History of East Central Europe
12122:
11971:
11890:
11863:
11851:
11835:
11803:
11752:
11724:(in Polish). Warszawa: Bellona.
11713:
11686:
11670:
11624:
11590:
11526:
11492:
11458:
11431:
11406:
11372:
11269:
11244:
11219:
11195:
11180:
11153:Orlińska-Mianowska, Ewa (2008).
11146:
11121:
11096:
10987:
10795:
10718:
10693:
10666:
10641:
10615:
10570:
10545:
10527:"Drogi handlowe w dawnej Polsce"
10519:
10492:
10466:
10441:
10311:Lineages of the absolutist state
10246:
10221:
10062:
10037:
10011:
9984:
9959:
9947:
9891:
9716:, Transaction Publishers, 2005,
9673:
9530:
9513:
9416:
9413:, Vol. 36 Issue: 8, August 1986.
9393:
9384:
9345:
9318:
9285:
9260:
9226:
9215:
9155:The Cambridge New Modern History
9147:
9121:
9109:
9084:
9059:
9032:
9005:
8988:
8976:
8949:
8932:
8920:
8903:
8891:
8874:
8844:Poland, the knight among nations
8837:
8523:Poland. The First Thousand Years
8080:Pernal, Andrew Boleslaw (2010).
7259:. Greenwood Press. p. 122.
7173:Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija
6950:. Psychology Press. p. 66.
6423:History of the Germans in Poland
6333:
6322:
6291:
6246:
6221:
6198:
6187:Church of St. Peter and St. Paul
6179:
6160:
6137:
6109:
6088:
6068:
6047:
6028:
6008:
5992:
5976:
5956:
5936:
5927:and Grand Treasurer. Painted by
5913:
5893:
5863:
5845:
5830:
5820:
5652:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
5620:, western part of Royal Prussia;
5582:), at the southern shore of the
5358:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
5076:First anniversary anthem of the
4943:
4909:
4446:
4418:
3787:
3778:
3769:
3746:in 1621 he wrote a diary called
3560:(1600–1651), military engineer,
3384:was known for near-unparalleled
3239:, with seventeen field infantry
3147:
3126:
3030:
3014:
2734:
2723:
2090:Commission of National Education
1950:
1939:
1790:to deal crushing defeats to the
1445:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
1040:) and the 'First Commonwealth' (
1003:Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae
917:Warsaw Confederation Act of 1573
759:
745:
731:
727:Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
706:
692:
155:Si Deus nobiscum quis contra nos
117:
93:
19004:Early modern history of Ukraine
18989:Early modern history of Belarus
18948:History of Western civilization
18551:Christianity in the Middle Ages
16071:Occupation of the Baltic states
16048:1919 Polish coup d'état attempt
13746:Imperial, royal and noble ranks
13565:(2 ed.). Scarecrow Press.
13561:Sužiedėlis, Saulius A. (2011).
13464:Litwin, Henryk (October 2016).
13374:
12996:. Rowman Altamira. p. 84.
12853:, Yale University Press, 1999,
12703:Rytų Lietuva praeityje ir dabar
12649:Piotr Eberhardt, Jan Owsinski,
12330:, Yale University Press, 1994,
11885:Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
11870:Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
11858:Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
11789:, Barron's Educational Series,
11774:Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
11759:Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
11748:Kopczyński & Tygielski 2010
11636:(in Polish). Schr. p. 79.
10959:"Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670)"
10501:"Follow the Ancient Amber Road"
10112:. Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 220.
9846:The Constitution of May 3, 1791
9689:. Cambridge: University Press.
9267:Bartłomiej Kaczorowski (2004).
8927:Instytut Badań Literackich 1969
8794:
8782:
8770:
8748:
8714:
8702:
8677:
8652:
8615:
8581:
8547:
8513:
8479:
8467:
8433:
8421:
8396:
8374:
8349:
8337:
8310:
8298:
8268:
8243:
8209:
8161:Poland – The Historical Setting
8127:
8100:
8073:
8026:
7999:
7972:
7961:
7949:
7923:
7898:
7886:
7874:
7846:
7821:
7809:
7780:
7755:
7744:
7727:
7718:
7712:the therm used for instance in
7706:
7689:
7566:May second oldest constitution.
7527:
7497:
7361:
7305:
7160:
7128:
7069:
6999:
6924:
6911:
6884:
6857:
6833:, wydanie X, 1990, p. 14,
6631:
6540:
6472:
5275:, re-established at the end of
5267:in the south. The contemporary
4563:
4552:sense of unity and of pride in
4436:pose and in a male coat called
4142:residences in the Commonwealth.
4042:
2817:. Foreign coins in the form of
2759:and other towns in the country.
2686:Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin
2576:
2135:State organization and politics
1928:), public parks and libraries (
1875:. The latter's conversion from
1861:François Louis, Prince of Conti
1607:forced Poland to withdraw from
1505:to challenge the new king. His
19019:Political history of Lithuania
18999:Early modern history of Poland
18984:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
18792:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
18735:Christianity in the modern era
18506:Christianity in late antiquity
17747:Annexation of Crimea by Russia
17604:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
15979:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
15405:Belarusian Democratic Republic
15388:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
13728:
13594:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
13544:University of Washington Press
12960:Jan K. Ostrowski, ed. (1999).
12933:Rosemary A. Chorzempa (1993).
12406:, Blackwell Publishing, 1998,
12185:. Retrieved 14 February 2006.
11631:Kazimierz Maliszewski (1990).
10203:Nicholas L. Chirovsky (1984).
10069:Kucharczuk, Katarzyna (2011).
9800:, Kessinger Publishing, 2004,
9770:, Kessinger Publishing, 2005,
9710:William Christian Bullitt, Jr.
9565:Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka
9423:Roman, Wanda Krystyna (2003).
8520:Dabrowski, Patrice M. (2014).
8381:pisze, Przemek (3 July 2013).
6919:Państwo i społeczeństwo 2012/1
6844:
6794:
6563:Res Publica Utriusque Nationis
6460:
6286:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
5494:), west–central Poland around
5318:Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
5305:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
5214:Ruthenian in the Arabic script
4738:extraction. Historically, the
4478:The prevalent ideology of the
4426:The First Lady of the Republic
4029:Stanisław Sylwester Szarzyński
3758:as a basis for his epic poem,
2943:, a large farmstead worked by
2444:and federation, democracy and
1621:Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)
1529:. His intolerance towards the
1048:) or 'First Polish Republic' (
1023:Res Publica Utriusque Nationis
786:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
700:Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
309:
13:
1:
19084:1569 establishments in Poland
18943:History of the European Union
15584:Presidential Security Service
15420:Annexation of Western Belarus
13466:"Central European Superpower"
12580:National Ossoliński Institute
12168:. Retrieved 10 February 2006
11574:. 2 June 2008. Archived from
11379:Rolska-Boruch, Irena (2003).
10934:. 29 May 2003. Archived from
10138:National Ossoliński Institute
9134:"Polish Succession War"
9039:Brückner, Aleksander (1931).
9018:. Polska: Znak. p. 412.
8684:Podhorodecki, Leszek (1985).
8122:Maniecky & Szajnocha 1869
7419:. Columbia University Press.
7415:Salo Wittmayer Baron (1976).
6673:
6553:Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów
6428:History of the Jews in Poland
6393:List of medieval great powers
6056:Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny
6024:Science, art and architecture
5176:– officially recognised; and
4819:Counter-Reformation in Poland
4236:Presidential Palace in Warsaw
3544:, general and admiral of the
3454:(1536–1612). Later, works by
3388:, with peacefully coexisting
2702:Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg
2337:Warsaw Confederation Act 1573
1869:Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria
1845:which he established in 1705.
1568:defeated the Russians at the
1251:Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł
1179:upon marriage by signing the
1015:Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów
463:Grand Chancellor of Lithuania
421:Grand Chancellor of the Crown
129:
105:
19029:Political history of Ukraine
18277:Intangible Cultural Heritage
17695:Eastern Front (World War II)
17680:Ukrainian National Committee
15569:Ministry of Internal Affairs
13761:List of monarchy referendums
13428:Polish Armies (2): 1569–1696
13426:Brzezinski, Richard (1988).
13409:Polish Armies (1): 1569–1696
13407:Brzezinski, Richard (1987).
11693:Paradowski, Ryszard (2005).
11502:Sztuki polskiej drogi dziwne
11325:Paul Robert Magocsi (1996).
10845:. CUP Archive. p. 209.
10393:Krzysztof Olszewski (2007).
10161:Krzysztof Olszewski (2007).
10075:. Carta Blanca. p. 66.
9991:Flisowski, Zbigniew (1985).
9593:Google Print, p. 422 (notes)
9233:Bartłomiej Szyndler (2009).
8662:The History of Modern Europe
8440:Peterson, Gary Dean (2014).
8344:Besala & Biedrzycka 2005
8332:Besala & Biedrzycka 2005
8317:Besala & Biedrzycka 2005
8305:Besala & Biedrzycka 2005
8293:Besala & Biedrzycka 2005
8012:. Polska: Mada. p. 57.
8009:Historia Polski do 2009 roku
7979:Butterwick, Richard (2021).
7832:. I.B. Tauris. p. 170.
7550:. Penguin Classics. p.
7513:. Fred B. Rothman & Co.
5943:Equestrian portrait of King
5752:
5592:Second Peace of Thorn (1466)
5067:
4796:Saints Peter and Paul Church
4375:Stanisław August Poniatowski
4288:designed by Dutch architect
4104:(patterned ceilings; Polish
3952:Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn
3760:Transakcja wojny chocimskiej
3716:Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł
3564:specialist and a founder of
3448:Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki
2673:Stanisław August Poniatowski
2662:(but with a condemnation of
2651:increased the rights of the
2560:, and the transformation of
2416:existed in the contemporary
2164:was the formal residence of
2074:Stanisław August Poniatowski
1997:War of the Polish Succession
1873:Frederick Augustus of Saxony
1605:Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)
784:and also referred to as the
7:
19024:Political history of Poland
19014:Former monarchies of Europe
18902:Russian invasion of Ukraine
18513:Crisis of the Third Century
17653:Ukrainian People's Republic
16984:Central European Initiative
16795:Prehistory and protohistory
15532:Central Election Commission
12676:, Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm,
12597:Richard Butterwick (1998).
12260:Artūras Tereškinas (2005).
12137:University of Toronto Press
11499:Karpowicz, Mariusz (1994).
11385:. Polska: Wydawnictwo KUL.
11134:(in Polish). Polska: Arkady
10700:Stachowicz, Michał (1894).
10676:Polish Armies 1569–1696 (2)
10673:Richard Brzezinski (1988).
10132:) (1991). "Volumes 63–66".
10019:"Pierwsze polskie banknoty"
9935:(in Polish). Marcin Sobiech
9537:Andrej Kotljarchuk (2006).
9271:. Polska: PWN. p. 75.
8659:Dyer, Thomas Henry (1861).
7905:Manikowska, Halina (2005).
6398:Armorial of Polish nobility
6265:
5805:chain the highest, and the
5427:subunit of administration.
5372:Crown of the Polish Kingdom
5148:) and the northern part of
4780:
4049:Baroque in Poland–Lithuania
3496:(1512–1589), historian and
3332:Army of the Duchy of Warsaw
3111:
2123:by the Russian Empire, the
2121:partitioned in three stages
1439:ended in the annexation of
1419:. The wealthy port city of
1247:Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł
1231:Union of Kraków and Vilnius
205:"Rejoice, oh Mother Poland"
10:
19170:
19034:Lithuania–Poland relations
19009:Former countries in Europe
18958:Military history of Europe
18953:Maritime history of Europe
17675:Reichskommissariat Ukraine
16086:by the Soviet Union (1944)
16076:by the Soviet Union (1940)
13378:
13279:. Routledge. p. 284.
13177:. ABC-CLIO. p. 1039.
12877:Joanna B. Michlic (2006).
12725:city, which was sealed by
12570:Polish Academy of Sciences
12236:. Routledge. p. 127.
11844:Polish Sociological Review
11787:World History the Easy Way
11276:Muthesius, Stefan (1994).
11228:The Cut of Women's Clothes
11128:Szablowski, Jerzy (1975).
11103:Szablowski, Jerzy (1975).
11046:Mariusz Karpowicz (1991).
10802:Zwoliński, Stefan (1995).
10499:Billock, Jennifer (2019).
10259:(in Polish). Polska: WAB.
10130:Polish Academy of Sciences
9523:Ecclesiastical Unification
9352:Kitowicz, Jędrzej (2019).
8764:Władysław IV and His Times
8554:Shubin, Daniel H. (2009).
8403:Kizwalter, Tomasz (1987).
7510:Constitutions of the World
7341:Rieber, Alfred J. (2014).
7148:(in Lithuanian). p. 8
7059:, Hippocrene Books, 1987,
6981:A history of the great war
6751:. Routledge. p. 133.
6129:in 1777 to honor the king
5963:Tapestry with the arms of
5853:Grand Marshal of the Crown
5417:. Cities were governed by
5381:, colloquially "Lithuania"
5292:
5286:
5224:
5078:Constitution of 3 May 1791
4843:Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius
4784:
4567:
4403:
4046:
3706:members wrote memoirs and
3623:Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt
3486:Komisja Edukacji Narodowej
3464:Constitution of 3 May 1791
3341:
3337:
3115:
2712:
2708:
2597:Constitution of 3 May 1791
2235:Rex regnat et non-gubernat
2149:
2138:
2042:
1986:Saxe-Polish forces at the
1823:
1805:Antemurale Christianitatis
1682:
1313:
1235:Union of Vilnius and Radom
1202:
1142:personal union with Poland
1075:
1071:
948:United States Constitution
886:, was an early example of
29:
19134:18th century in Lithuania
19129:17th century in Lithuania
19124:16th century in Lithuania
18928:Genetic history of Europe
18910:
18715:
18531:
18471:
18438:
18369:
18310:
18168:
18057:
18048:
17991:
17982:
17891:
17882:
17806:
17797:
17767:
17541:
17532:
17462:
17413:
17365:
17250:
17237:
17228:
17123:
17114:
16974:
16965:
16903:
16894:
16854:
16785:
16776:
16699:
16590:
16535:
16526:
16445:
16436:
16399:
16284:
16275:
16206:
16197:
16186:
16141:Reform Movement (Sąjūdis)
16133:
16061:
15994:
15931:
15922:
15835:
15758:
15720:
15711:
15644:
15635:
15507:
15498:
15444:
15435:
15348:
15173:
15082:
14796:
14559:
14493:
14305:
14296:
14192:
14174:
14106:
14021:
13979:
13911:
13825:
13769:
13736:
13538:Stone, Daniel Z. (2014).
13117:. Lonely Planet. p.
12540:Tomasz Kamusella (2008).
12477:, Greenwood Press, 2006,
12129:Magocsi, Paul R. (2010).
11438:Miłobędzki, Adam (1994).
11413:Kowalczyk, Jerzy (1973).
11251:Lubliner, Ludwig (1858).
10783:Brzezinski (1987), p. 10.
9743:, Regnery Gateway, 2001,
8760:Władysław IV i jego czasy
8721:Miłobędzki, Adam (1980).
8216:Bardach, Juliusz (1987).
8038:Historia Polski 1505–1764
7762:Jasienica, Paweł (1997).
7057:Poland a Historical Atlas
6978:Bertram Benedict (1919).
6891:Bardach, Juliusz (2003).
6850:Bertram Benedict (1919):
6663:The Anatomy of Melancholy
6212:, is a unique example of
5886:Johann Christoph Glaubitz
5235:, established in 1807 by
5220:
4958:being added at that time.
4845:, papal legate to Poland.
4315:suburban residence built
3973:Janusz Skumin Tyszkiewicz
3712:Memoirs of Polish History
3548:army in the war with the
3546:Dutch West Indies Company
3540:) (1592–1656), engineer,
3328:Napoleonic Polish Legions
2666:from the Catholic faith).
1635:was dominated by nobles (
1549:was brutally suppressed.
1525:during the height of the
1499:Maximilian III of Austria
1038:Rzeczpospolita szlachecka
828:was established in 1573.
780:, formally known as the
671:
667:
657:
653:
648:
640:
632:
627:
623:
610:
597:
584:
571:
558:
554:
544:
531:
516:
503:
499:
487:
477:• 1569–1584 (first)
475:
471:
461:
457:
445:
435:• 1569–1576 (first)
433:
429:
419:
415:
401:
389:• 1569–1572 (first)
387:
383:
370:
356:
319:
286:
265:
238:
226:
188:
178:"For faith, law and king"
143:
89:
84:
41:
18107:hybrid variant (2020-22)
17896:Administrative divisions
17599:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
16979:Administrative divisions
16424:Special Operations Force
16289:Administrative divisions
15564:State Security Committee
15512:Administrative divisions
15383:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
13898:Self-proclaimed monarchy
13477:Norkus, Zenonas (2017).
13250:Gordon Campbell (2006).
13111:Sarah Johnstone (2008).
12770:. Vilnius. p. 500.
12701:Zinkevičius, Z. (1993).
12515:Karin Friedrich et al.,
12108:. Fortuna. p. 134.
11978:Piekarski, Adam (1979).
11924:Paul R. Magocsi (2010).
10749:Brzezinski (1988), p. 6.
10421:Jarmo Kotilaine (2005).
10309:PPerry Anderson (1979).
9927:Sobiech, Marcin (2018).
9876:, Routledge (UK), 2001,
9066:Frost, Robert I (2000).
7477:15 December 2007 at the
7318:Indiana University Press
7312:Fiszman, Samuel (1988).
7077:Atlas Historyczny Polski
7047:17 February 2013 at the
7036:17 February 2013 at the
7007:Atlas Historyczny Polski
6831:Atlas Historyczny Polski
6747:Richters, Katja (2012).
6587:Republik beider Nationen
6453:
6040:Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski
5596:Commonwealth's formation
5379:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
5327:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
5283:Administrative divisions
4879:converted to Catholicism
4740:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
4470:Order of the White Eagle
4456:for men; moustache, red
3898:became a centrepiece of
3655:(1603–1675) scholar and
3438:Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski
3365:Multi-stage rocket from
2688:drafted the act for the
2407:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
2217:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
1843:Order of the White Eagle
1655:Sigismund's eldest son,
1509:in 1588 at the hands of
1427:, and, with the help of
1401:as co-regent, who ruled
1302:and established a truly
1223:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
1117:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
1105:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
808:almost 12 million.
805:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
714:Grand Duchy of Lithuania
489:• 1764–1795 (last)
447:• 1793–1795 (last)
403:• 1764–1795 (last)
18:Republic of Both Nations
19154:16th century in Ukraine
19119:16th century in Belarus
19114:18th century in Belarus
19109:17th century in Belarus
19064:History of Transnistria
18933:History of Christianity
17742:2014 pro-Russian unrest
17178:Regional GDP per capita
16156:Act of Re-Establishment
16014:Great Seimas of Vilnius
15689:International sanctions
15373:Principality of Polotsk
14166:Vatican City (Holy See)
13610:(in Polish and English)
13225:Daniel H. Cole (2002).
13017:Barile, Davide (2019).
12575:Acta Poloniae historica
12376:Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm
12189:24 January 2005 at the
12179:Encyclopædia Britannica
12172:1 November 2004 at the
12162:Encyclopædia Britannica
11090:10.1484/J.IKON.5.100699
10868:Linear induction drives
10473:kurkowski, Jan (2010).
10134:Acta Poloniae historica
9851:5 December 2008 at the
9766:Henry Eldridge Bourne,
9726:Google Print, pp. 42–43
9140:Encyclopædia Britannica
9012:Davies, Norman (1992).
8939:Borucki, Marek (1976).
8486:Jędruch, Jacek (1982).
8356:Szujski, Józef (1894).
8157:"The Elective Monarchy"
8006:Borucki, Marek (2009).
7907:Historia dla Maturzysty
7739:Oxford University Press
7608:Davies, Norman (1996).
7488:Economic History Review
7373:Encyclopædia Britannica
7291:. pp. xxiii–xxiv.
6710:Jagiellonian University
6695:Encyclopædia Britannica
6644:I Rzeczpospolita Polska
6573:Abiejų Tautų Respublika
5945:Sigismund III of Poland
5484:Greater Poland Province
5102:genuine spoken language
3857:Jagiellonian tapestries
3738:(1590–1646) (father of
3698:Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz
3607:Adam Adamandy Kochański
3482:Jesuit Academy of Wilno
3478:Jagiellonian University
3041:banknote issued in 1794
2690:Targowica Confederation
2633:branches of government;
2491:constitutional monarchy
2007:succeeding his father.
1826:Enlightenment in Poland
1689:Battle of Vienna (1683)
1163:was betrothed to young
1157:Sigismund of Luxembourg
1066:Abiejų Tautų Respublika
1054:Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita
953:
888:constitutional monarchy
266:Official languages
135: – 1668)
111: – 1668)
19149:18th century in Poland
19144:17th century in Poland
19139:16th century in Poland
18757:Grand Duchy of Tuscany
18347:Immigration to Ukraine
18021:Science and technology
17970:Ukraine–NATO relations
17445:Orders and decorations
16630:Ethnographic Lithuania
16103:Second Soviet republic
15768:Awards and decorations
14448:Islands of Refreshment
13878:Legitimacy (political)
13654:Northumbria University
13650:University of Aberdeen
13500:Rowell, S. C. (2014).
13445:Frost, Robert (2015).
12299:Royal Castle in Warsaw
12159:"Poland, history of",
12105:Ukraine and Ukrainians
12050:Serhii Plokhy (2006).
11951:Jeannie Labno (2011).
11597:Snopek, Jerzy (1999).
11468:Most Holandia – Polska
11052:. Arkady. p. 68.
11022:"Portraits collection"
10994:Jacek Jędruch (1982).
10555:Kwartalnik historyczny
10313:. Verso. p. 285.
10128:Institute of History (
9994:Bastion u wrót Gdańska
9656:Rich noble, poor noble
9292:Norman Davies (2005).
9182:Rey Koslowski (2000).
8588:Cooper, J. P. (1979).
8250:Stone, Daniel (2001).
8191:Roşu, Felicia (2017).
7930:Bojtár, Endre (1999),
7494::1 (March), pp. 18–32.
7135:Gudavičius, Edvardas.
7053:Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski
6944:Piotr Wandycz (2001).
6921:, Krakow, 2012, p. 17.
6864:Howard, Peter (2016).
6595:Republik Polen–Litauen
6591:Republik beider Völker
6036:De republica emendanda
5745:
5701:
5688:Couronian colonization
5667:
5659:
5644:
5633:
5609:
5579:
5561:
5553:
5531:
5513:
5491:
5469:
5462:Lesser Poland Province
5362:
5128:Volhynian voivodeships
5081:
4921:St. George's Cathedral
4858:
4847:
4806:
4710:
4591:
4468:with blue sash of the
4347:, Raczyński Palace in
4293:
4244:Stanisław Koniecpolski
4242:built by Grand Hetman
4143:
4065:
3558:Kazimierz Siemienowicz
3434:political philosophers
3373:
3371:Kazimierz Siemienowicz
3357:Science and literature
3227:were the elite of the
3105:
2884:such as the cities of
2770:
2610:The new constitution:
2592:
2554:Zebrzydowski Rebellion
2514:
2291:
2283:
2219:
2192:
2173:
2162:Royal Castle in Warsaw
2086:Warsaw Corps of Cadets
2069:
2039:Partitions (1772–1795)
1846:
1839:Augustus II the Strong
1709:
1600:
1547:Zebrzydowski rebellion
1482:
1325:
1226:
1199:Union of Lublin (1569)
1108:
1058:Second Polish Republic
1053:
1045:
1037:
1022:
1014:
1002:
990:
979:
971:
963:
930:among its neighbours,
221:
197:
172:Pro Fide, Lege et Rege
170:
154:
65:
50:
18837:Industrial Revolution
17757:2022 Russian invasion
17725:Revolution of Dignity
16041:Polish–Lithuanian War
16036:Lithuanian–Soviet War
15378:Principality of Turov
14259:Saint Kitts and Nevis
13848:Criticism of monarchy
13838:Abolition of monarchy
13685:50.05389°N 19.93472°E
13628:17 April 2021 at the
12742:""Mes Wladislaus..."
12653:, M.E. Sharpe, 2003,
12082:Catholic Encyclopedia
11226:Waugh, Norah (1968).
10427:. Brill. p. 47.
10380:Manchester University
9820:Isabel de Madariaga,
9623:David Sneath (2007).
9153:Lindsey, J. O. (ed).
9091:Tucker, S.C. (2010).
8756:Czapliński, Władysław
7546:The Federalist Papers
7439:Martin Van Gelderen,
7167:Spečiūnas, Vytautas.
6131:Stanisław II Augustus
5921:Stanisław Poniatowski
5793:, was famous for its
5743:
5668:Kurlandia i Semigalia
5302:
5273:Republic of Lithuania
5200:the Armenian minority
5075:
5058:Peace of Jam Zapolski
4999:Greek Catholic Church
4869:than of religion and
4852:
4839:
4794:
4704:
4577:
4568:Further information:
4284:
4266:, built in the style
4234:like the present-day
4180:Kalwaria Zebrzydowska
4164:Corpus Christi Church
4156:Peter and Paul Church
4134:
4056:
4031:, Damian Stachowicz,
3530:Krzysztof Arciszewski
3364:
3344:Renaissance in Poland
3342:Further information:
3290:was reformed, as the
3108:) in Western Europe.
2768:
2713:Further information:
2588:Constitution of 3 May
2584:
2505:
2251:King Henry's Articles
2243:and an elected king (
2198:
2179:
2159:
2052:
1983:Stanisław Leszczyński
1973:At the height of the
1837:
1696:
1595:
1477:
1323:
1258:Sigismund II Augustus
1212:
1098:
869:elected to the throne
857:Sigismund II Augustus
790:First Polish Republic
287:Common languages
220:
18892:European debt crisis
18887:European integration
18827:Age of Enlightenment
18667:Republic of Florence
18128:Freedom of the press
17865:World Heritage Sites
17860:Islands and sandbars
17633:Pereiaslav Agreement
17616:Zaporozhian Cossacks
17584:Principality of Kiev
17357:World Heritage Sites
16645:Monuments of Culture
16562:Ethnographic regions
16316:Constitutional Court
16113:Lithuanian partisans
16031:Wars of Independence
15823:World Heritage Sites
14091:United Arab Emirates
13662:University of Oxford
13652:, Katarzyna Kosior,
13605:24 June 2011 at the
13596:at Wikimedia Commons
13327:"Old City of Zamość"
12939:. Genealogical Pub.
12839:Google Print, p. 108
12663:Google Print, p. 177
12487:Google Print, p. 115
12454:Google Print, p. 295
12289:Aleksander Gieysztor
12029:, SUNY Press, 1983,
11572:www.lvivtoday.com.ua
11327:A history of Ukraine
10975:on September 2, 2009
10588:on February 28, 2003
10578:""Polonaise" carpet"
10505:Smithsonian Magazine
10345:Taylor & Francis
9870:Piotr Stefan Wandycz
9753:Google Print, p. 242
9520:Josef Macha (1974).
9405:5 April 2020 at the
8995:Dobrowolski (1962).
8881:Gintel, Jan (1971).
8823:, SUNY Press, 1998,
8623:Gillespie, Alexander
7741:. 2012. pp. 5, xvii.
6947:The price of freedom
6690:Partitions of Poland
6438:History of Lithuania
6340:Lithuania portal
6258:Stanisław Lubomirski
6061:Marie Louise Gonzaga
5965:Michał Kazimierz Pac
5826:Politics and economy
5799:Carpathian Mountains
5768:, published a Latin
5736:) from 1645 to 1666.
5411:being governed by a
5263:in the north to the
5112:Chancellery Slavonic
5044:religion. After the
4855:Warsaw Confederation
4853:Original act of the
4811:Warsaw Confederation
4787:Warsaw Confederation
4389:and the exterior of
4383:Polish Enlightenment
4343:, Potocki Palace in
4318:entre cour et jardin
4174:and UNESCO-enlisted
4148:Baroque architecture
4146:The introduction of
3965:Stanisław Lubomirski
3884:Palace of Versailles
3724:Jan Chryzostom Pasek
3718:(1595–1656) and the
3352:Polish Enlightenment
2900:and cotton from the
2623:separation of powers
2519:Jagiellonian dynasty
2426:Most Serene Republic
2072:In 1764, aristocrat
2054:Partitions of Poland
2045:Partitions of Poland
2033:Polish Enlightenment
1979:Warsaw Confederation
1865:James Louis Sobieski
1859:heavily invested in
1733:Treaty of Pereyaslav
1729:Khmelnytsky Uprising
1669:Marie Louise Gonzaga
1665:Treaty of Stuhmsdorf
1539:Polish–Swedish union
1533:in Sweden sparked a
1395:Jagiellonian dynasty
1338:Catherine de' Medici
861:Jagiellonian dynasty
849:Jogaila of Lithuania
19054:Former state unions
18857:Revolutions of 1848
18787:Early modern France
18568:Anglo-Saxon England
18473:Classical antiquity
17732:Russo-Ukrainian War
17097:Political prisoners
16125:Government-in-exile
16026:Act of Independence
15427:Republic of Belarus
15287:Trinidad and Tobago
15174:Commonwealth realms
15059:United Baltic Duchy
14202:Antigua and Barbuda
14194:Commonwealth realms
13888:Order of succession
13681: /
13357:www.jewish-guide.pl
12863:Google Print, p. 27
12727:Žygimantas Augustas
12690:Google Print, p. 41
12529:Google Print, p. 88
12416:Google Print, p. 30
12392:Google Print, p. 45
12364:Google Print p. 184
12340:Google Print, p. 48
12209:on 11 December 2008
12039:Google Print, p. 51
11815:Google print p. 377
10582:museu.gulbenkian.pt
10382:Press. p. 151.
10176:Maciej Kobyliński.
9886:Google Print p. 131
9834:Google Print p. 431
9810:Google Print, p. 33
9780:Google Print p. 161
9653:M. L. Bush (1988).
9070:. Harlow: Longman.
8913:Studia staropolskie
8833:Google Print, p. 13
8044:. pp. 92–109.
7828:Engel, Pál (2001).
7733:Richard Buterwick.
7234:Google Print p. 373
7031:1618 population map
6418:Armenians in Poland
6413:Lithuanian nobility
6256:was established by
6236:Jerzy Siemiginowski
6168:Pažaislis Monastery
5923:, Commander of the
5360:, Commonwealth fief
5046:Counter-Reformation
4899:social institutions
4775:Lithuanian language
4763:Counter-Reformation
4755:religious tolerance
4753:Despite guaranteed
4715:Second Northern War
4486:", named after the
4430:Elżbieta Sieniawska
4268:palazzo in fortezza
4210:and Vasa Chapel at
3977:Krzysztof Radziwiłł
3912:robe à la polonaise
3629:and mathematician (
3502:Michael Sendivogius
3386:religious tolerance
3382:Counter-Reformation
3315:) and commanded by
3214:Polish Royal Guards
2678:Catherine the Great
2660:religious tolerance
2638:popular sovereignty
2605:hereditary monarchy
2446:religious tolerance
2265:religious tolerance
2213:Lithuanian nobility
2201:Lithuanian Tribunal
2127:, and the Austrian
2078:Catherine the Great
2012:Aleksander Brückner
1990:in 1702 and at the
1910:Warsaw Royal Castle
1863:, in opposition to
1857:Louis XIV of France
1578:Vasili IV of Russia
1535:war of independence
1527:Counter-Reformation
1503:military expedition
1495:Catherine Jagiellon
1366:and approbated the
1091:Prelude (1370–1569)
1025:) were used in the
913:religious tolerance
874:The Commonwealth's
549:Early modern period
540:Chamber of Deputies
494:Joachim Chreptowicz
199:Gaude Mater Polonia
18963:Crusading movement
18867:Russian Revolution
18702:Hundred Years' War
18598:Maritime republics
18501:Early Christianity
18491:Hellenistic period
18448:Paleolithic Europe
18092:Swine flu pandemic
18026:Telecommunications
17816:Biosphere reserves
17705:Chernobyl disaster
16482:Telecommunications
16146:Singing Revolution
15984:Lithuanian Crusade
15674:Telecommunications
15469:Biosphere Reserves
15415:Western Belorussia
13690:50.05389; 19.93472
13306:www.ianridpath.com
13063:, Palgrave, 1999,
13059:, Vytautas Zalys,
12849:Jan K. Ostrowski,
11359:www.staropolska.pl
11353:Michael J. Mikoś.
10938:on 26 January 2008
10932:www.warsawvoice.pl
10533:. Encyklopedia PWN
10253:Sowa, Jan (2015).
10023:Skarbnica Narodowa
9563:Joanna Olkiewicz,
9192:Cornell University
8985:, pp. 138–143
8819:Aleksander Gella,
8803:, pp. 353–356
8334:, pp. 118–119
8319:, pp. 116–117
8240:, pp. 216–217
8137:Dziennik Literacki
7764:Polska Jagiellonów
7695:the name given by
7583:Waves of Democracy
7169:"Jonas Albrechtas"
7110:, Palgrave, 2002,
6854:, inc. p. 21.
6808:. 7 September 2024
6806:www.britannica.com
6232:Allegory of Spring
6153:Tylman van Gameren
5929:Angelika Kauffmann
5746:
5680:St. Andrews Island
5660:Kuršas ir Žiemgala
5546:Duchy of Samogitia
5480:in the north-east;
5363:
5269:Republic of Poland
5237:Napoleon Bonaparte
5082:
4952:Kamieniec Podolski
4875:landed noble class
4859:
4807:
4711:
4592:
4387:Palace on the Isle
4294:
4290:Tylman van Gameren
4204:St. Casimir Chapel
4190:in Kraków and the
4144:
4066:
4037:Grzegorz Gorczycki
4025:Marcin Mielczewski
3900:Louis XV furniture
3892:lit à la polonaise
3880:Louis XV of France
3861:Wawel Royal Castle
3821:portrety trumienne
3669:John Amos Comenius
3637:Jan Krzysztof Kluk
3398:Orthodox Christian
3374:
3306:tax levied on the
3269:pospolite ruszenie
3243:and eight cavalry
3189:parliament or the
2835:Tadeusz Kościuszko
2771:
2599:, which historian
2593:
2562:szlachta democracy
2515:
2422:Republic of Venice
2325:Henrician Articles
2220:
2199:The Palace of the
2193:
2174:
2125:Kingdom of Prussia
2070:
2021:Heinrich von Brühl
1975:Great Northern War
1926:Collegium Nobilium
1847:
1777:Kingdom of Prussia
1765:Treaty of Bromberg
1721:Ukrainian Cossacks
1710:
1700:, victor over the
1601:
1570:Battle of Klushino
1537:, which ended the
1491:John III of Sweden
1483:
1479:Sigismund III Vasa
1423:(Danzig) staged a
1372:constitutional law
1368:Henrician Articles
1334:Henry II of France
1326:
1227:
1189:perpetuo applicare
1138:Kingdom of Hungary
1109:
944:3 May Constitution
909:Henrician Articles
863:and introduced an
851:, who was crowned
755:Kingdom of Prussia
588:3 May Constitution
222:
125:Royal coat of arms
18971:
18970:
18897:COVID-19 pandemic
18842:French Revolution
18817:Habsburg monarchy
18797:Cossack Hetmanate
18777:Portuguese Empire
18767:Absolute monarchy
18762:Thirty Years' War
18657:Holy Roman Empire
18582:Bulgarian Empire
18541:Early Middle Ages
18458:Bronze Age Europe
18432:History of Europe
18398:
18397:
18365:
18364:
18140:Human trafficking
18098:COVID-19 pandemic
18072:Gender inequality
18044:
18043:
17978:
17977:
17936:Political parties
17926:Foreign relations
17878:
17877:
17793:
17792:
17715:Orange Revolution
17700:Volhynia massacre
17491:
17490:
17458:
17457:
17380:Ethnic minorities
17224:
17223:
17110:
17109:
17063:Political parties
17009:Foreign relations
16961:
16960:
16890:
16889:
16846:Poland since 1989
16735:
16734:
16695:
16694:
16557:Ethnic minorities
16522:
16521:
16432:
16431:
16369:Political parties
16328:Foreign relations
16271:
16270:
16184:
16183:
16021:Amber Declaration
15878:
15877:
15831:
15830:
15707:
15706:
15631:
15630:
15601:Political parties
15539:Foreign relations
15494:
15493:
15304:
15303:
15300:
15299:
14989:Piedmont-Sardinia
14741:Sip Song Chau Tai
14551:Thirteen Colonies
14292:
14291:
13615:Knowledge passage
13592:Media related to
13572:978-0-8108-7536-4
13553:978-0-295-80362-3
13530:978-609-425-152-8
13511:978-1-107-65876-9
13492:978-1-138-28154-7
13456:978-0-19-820869-3
13399:978-83-01-07919-2
13211:978-88-70-88537-8
13128:978-1-74104-481-2
13057:Alfonsas Eidintas
13030:978-1-000-73113-2
12807:Daniel. Z Stone,
12551:978-0-230-55070-4
12500:Daniel. Z Stone,
12402:Glanville Price,
12146:978-1-4426-1021-7
12115:978-0-7316-7503-6
12003:portal.unesco.org
11964:978-0-7546-6825-1
11937:978-1-4426-1021-7
11731:978-83-11-11724-2
11706:978-83-87704-94-0
11679:, Janusz Tazbir,
11610:978-83-01-12917-0
11546:978-83-7306-068-5
11512:978-83-900152-8-6
11478:978-83-901494-2-4
11451:978-83-85739-14-2
11392:978-83-7363-029-1
11289:978-3-7845-7612-1
11166:978-83-87730-72-7
11049:Baroque in Poland
11007:978-08-19-12509-5
10815:978-83-86268-27-6
10686:978-0-85045-744-5
10354:978-0-415-36627-4
10266:978-83-280-2203-4
10082:978-83-7705-120-7
10004:978-83-10-08779-9
9696:978-0-521-54402-3
9636:978-0-231-14054-6
9604:Frost, Robert I.
9550:978-91-89-31563-1
9469:978-1-113-14791-2
9436:978-83-88865-08-4
9365:978-963-386-276-6
9338:978-0-415-35491-2
9311:978-0-231-12819-3
9278:978-83-01-14187-5
9246:978-83-11-11606-1
9205:978-0-8014-3714-4
9102:978-1-85109-667-1
9077:978-0-582-06429-4
9052:978-83-214-0861-3
9025:978-83-7006-384-9
8969:978-83-7220-560-5
8734:978-83-01-01363-9
8638:978-1-5099-1766-2
8628:The Causes of War
8601:978-0-521-29713-4
8567:978-0-87586-687-1
8533:978-1-5017-5740-2
8499:978-0-8191-2509-5
8453:978-1-4766-0411-4
8202:978-0-19-878937-6
8093:978-83-7188-973-8
8019:978-83-89624-59-8
7992:978-0-300-25220-0
7943:978-963-9116-42-9
7773:978-83-8123-881-6
7612:Europe: A History
7520:978-0-8377-0362-6
7505:Blaustein, Albert
6957:978-0-415-25491-5
6932:Europe: A History
6904:978-83-88296-02-4
6877:978-1-317-04323-2
6758:978-1-136-29636-9
6433:History of Poland
6374:
6373:
6329:Poland portal
6118:Taurus Poniatovii
5949:Peter Paul Rubens
5811:Białowieża Forest
5783:Gerardus Mercator
5764:, who studied in
5448:Treaty of Lubowla
5241:November Uprising
5015:Reformed churches
4995:Eastern Orthodoxy
4656:Kingdom of Poland
4391:St. Anne's Church
4292:and built in 1697
4208:Vilnius Cathedral
4070:Italian Mannerism
4033:Mikołaj Zieleński
4013:Bartłomiej Pękiel
3950:) and Lithuania (
3876:Marie Leszczyńska
3754:. It was used by
3744:Khotyn expedition
3740:John III Sobieski
3661:Scottish nobility
3659:, descended from
3570:Johannes Hevelius
3456:Stanisław Staszic
3380:, and during the
3348:Baroque in Poland
3218:Lithuanian Guards
2927:plantation system
2896:, salt, tobacco,
2882:Holy Roman Empire
2783:leather tanneries
2566:magnate oligarchy
2498:Magnate oligarchy
2485:elective monarchy
2434:absolute monarchy
2414:political systems
2332:religious freedom
2190:Kingdom of Poland
2129:Habsburg monarchy
2035:began to sprout.
2001:Pacification Sejm
1992:Battle of Pułtusk
1988:Battle of Kliszów
1965:Bernardo Bellotto
1881:Pope Innocent XII
1810:Great Turkish War
1784:John III Sobieski
1757:George II Rákóczi
1698:John III Sobieski
1643:Thirty Years' War
1629:Gustavus Adolphus
1625:Treaty of Altmark
1545:. In Poland, the
1523:Roman Catholicism
1515:Polish Golden Age
1501:, who launched a
1437:Livonian campaign
1316:Polish Golden Age
1304:elective monarchy
1219:Kingdom of Poland
1195:on 4 March 1386.
1177:adopt Catholicism
1130:Casimir the Great
1113:Kingdom of Poland
1101:Kingdom of Poland
880:elective monarchy
865:elective monarchy
845:Jadwiga of Poland
826:religious freedom
801:Kingdom of Poland
775:
774:
771:
770:
767:
766:
719:
718:
482:Mikołaj Radziwiłł
440:Walenty Dembiński
365:elective monarchy
333:Eastern Orthodoxy
218:
16:(Redirected from
19161:
19059:Duchy of Livonia
19049:Former republics
19039:Christian states
18832:Great Divergence
18747:Age of Discovery
18692:Late Middle Ages
18662:High Middle Ages
18573:Byzantine Empire
18556:Christianization
18546:Migration Period
18481:Classical Greece
18453:Neolithic Europe
18425:
18418:
18411:
18402:
18401:
18378:
18320:Ukrainian people
18055:
18054:
18001:
17989:
17988:
17889:
17888:
17833:Populated places
17804:
17803:
17609:Kiev Voivodeship
17594:Galicia–Volhynia
17539:
17538:
17518:
17511:
17504:
17495:
17494:
17471:
17235:
17234:
17216:
17143:Economic history
17133:Balcerowicz Plan
17121:
17120:
16972:
16971:
16908:Cities and towns
16901:
16900:
16841:Communist Poland
16821:
16813:
16783:
16782:
16762:
16755:
16748:
16739:
16738:
16715:
16708:
16620:Cultural regions
16615:Cultural history
16533:
16532:
16443:
16442:
16384:
16282:
16281:
16204:
16203:
16192:
16053:1926 coup d'état
16009:National Revival
15974:Christianization
15944:Lithuania proper
15929:
15928:
15905:
15898:
15891:
15882:
15881:
15858:
15851:
15844:
15813:National symbols
15773:Belarusian names
15718:
15717:
15669:
15642:
15641:
15505:
15504:
15442:
15441:
15331:
15324:
15317:
15308:
15307:
15228:Irish Free State
14994:Poland–Lithuania
14303:
14302:
14254:Papua New Guinea
13984:
13983:
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13699:
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13133:
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13102:
13101:
13099:
13097:
13086:"Zobaczyć Kresy"
13081:
13075:
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12498:
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12473:Kevin O'Connor,
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11894:
11888:
11887:, pp. 29–38
11882:
11873:
11872:, pp. 25–83
11867:
11861:
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11801:
11799:Google Print, 50
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11735:
11717:
11711:
11710:
11690:
11684:
11674:
11668:
11662:Sarmatian Review
11658:
11652:
11647:
11628:
11622:
11621:
11619:
11617:
11594:
11588:
11587:
11585:
11583:
11578:on 25 April 2020
11564:
11558:
11557:
11555:
11553:
11530:
11524:
11523:
11521:
11519:
11496:
11490:
11489:
11487:
11485:
11462:
11456:
11455:
11435:
11429:
11428:
11426:
11424:
11410:
11404:
11403:
11401:
11399:
11376:
11370:
11369:
11367:
11365:
11350:
11341:
11340:
11322:
11316:
11315:
11307:
11301:
11300:
11298:
11296:
11273:
11267:
11266:
11264:
11262:
11248:
11242:
11241:
11223:
11217:
11216:
11214:
11212:
11199:
11193:
11192:
11184:
11178:
11177:
11175:
11173:
11159:. Polska: Bosz.
11150:
11144:
11143:
11141:
11139:
11125:
11119:
11118:
11116:
11114:
11100:
11094:
11093:
11073:
11064:
11063:
11043:
11037:
11036:
11034:
11032:
11026:muzeum.leszno.pl
11018:
11012:
11011:
10991:
10985:
10984:
10982:
10980:
10974:
10968:. Archived from
10966:www.moravian.org
10963:
10954:
10948:
10947:
10945:
10943:
10924:
10918:
10917:
10901:
10888:
10882:
10881:
10863:
10857:
10856:
10836:
10827:
10826:
10824:
10822:
10799:
10793:
10790:
10784:
10781:
10772:
10769:
10750:
10747:
10741:
10734:
10728:
10727:, pp. 23–25
10722:
10716:
10715:
10713:
10711:
10697:
10691:
10690:
10670:
10664:
10663:
10661:
10659:
10645:
10639:
10638:
10636:
10634:
10628:
10622:Tomaszewska, A.
10619:
10613:
10607:
10598:
10597:
10595:
10593:
10584:. Archived from
10574:
10568:
10567:
10565:
10563:
10549:
10543:
10542:
10540:
10538:
10523:
10517:
10516:
10514:
10512:
10496:
10490:
10489:
10487:
10485:
10470:
10464:
10463:
10461:
10459:
10454:
10445:
10439:
10438:
10418:
10412:
10411:
10409:
10407:
10401:
10390:
10384:
10383:
10372:Yves-Marie Bercé
10368:
10359:
10358:
10334:
10325:
10324:
10306:
10300:
10299:
10297:
10295:
10284:
10278:
10277:
10275:
10273:
10250:
10244:
10243:
10225:
10219:
10218:
10200:
10194:
10193:
10191:
10189:
10173:
10167:
10166:
10158:
10152:
10151:
10125:
10114:
10113:
10103:
10094:
10093:
10091:
10089:
10066:
10060:
10059:
10057:
10055:
10041:
10035:
10034:
10032:
10030:
10015:
10009:
10008:
9988:
9982:
9981:
9979:
9977:
9963:
9957:
9951:
9945:
9944:
9942:
9940:
9924:
9913:
9912:
9910:
9908:
9895:
9889:
9867:
9856:
9842:
9836:
9818:
9812:
9791:
9782:
9764:
9755:
9734:
9728:
9707:
9701:
9700:
9681:Frost, Robert I.
9677:
9671:
9670:
9650:
9641:
9640:
9620:
9611:
9609:
9601:
9595:
9574:
9568:
9561:
9555:
9554:
9534:
9528:
9527:
9517:
9511:
9510:
9508:
9506:
9483:
9474:
9473:
9454:
9448:
9447:
9445:
9443:
9420:
9414:
9409:, Jeremy Black,
9397:
9391:
9388:
9382:
9376:
9370:
9369:
9349:
9343:
9342:
9322:
9316:
9315:
9299:
9289:
9283:
9282:
9264:
9258:
9257:
9255:
9253:
9230:
9224:
9219:
9213:
9212:
9189:
9179:
9173:
9167:
9158:
9151:
9145:
9144:
9136:
9125:
9119:
9113:
9107:
9106:
9088:
9082:
9081:
9063:
9057:
9056:
9036:
9030:
9029:
9009:
9003:
9002:
8992:
8986:
8980:
8974:
8973:
8953:
8947:
8946:
8936:
8930:
8924:
8918:
8917:
8907:
8901:
8895:
8889:
8888:
8878:
8872:
8871:
8853:
8847:
8841:
8835:
8817:
8804:
8798:
8792:
8786:
8780:
8774:
8768:
8767:
8752:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8741:
8718:
8712:
8706:
8700:
8699:
8681:
8675:
8674:
8672:
8670:
8656:
8650:
8649:
8647:
8645:
8619:
8613:
8612:
8610:
8608:
8585:
8579:
8578:
8576:
8574:
8551:
8545:
8544:
8542:
8540:
8517:
8511:
8510:
8508:
8506:
8483:
8477:
8471:
8465:
8464:
8462:
8460:
8437:
8431:
8425:
8419:
8418:
8416:
8414:
8400:
8394:
8393:
8391:
8389:
8378:
8372:
8371:
8369:
8367:
8353:
8347:
8341:
8335:
8329:
8320:
8314:
8308:
8302:
8296:
8290:
8281:
8280:
8272:
8266:
8265:
8247:
8241:
8235:
8222:
8221:
8213:
8207:
8206:
8188:
8177:
8176:
8174:
8172:
8148:
8142:
8141:
8131:
8125:
8119:
8110:
8104:
8098:
8097:
8077:
8071:
8065:
8056:
8055:
8034:Gierowski, Józef
8030:
8024:
8023:
8003:
7997:
7996:
7976:
7970:
7965:
7959:
7958:, pp. 12–14
7953:
7947:
7946:
7927:
7921:
7920:
7902:
7896:
7890:
7884:
7878:
7872:
7871:
7850:
7844:
7843:
7825:
7819:
7813:
7807:
7801:
7790:
7789:, pp. 30–32
7784:
7778:
7777:
7759:
7753:
7748:
7742:
7731:
7725:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7704:
7693:
7687:
7686:
7668:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7657:
7643:
7632:
7631:
7615:
7605:
7594:
7575:
7569:
7568:
7549:
7533:Isaac Kramnick,
7531:
7525:
7524:
7501:
7495:
7467:
7458:
7437:
7431:
7430:
7412:
7406:
7405:
7382:
7376:
7365:
7359:
7358:
7338:
7332:
7331:
7309:
7303:
7302:
7280:
7271:
7270:
7247:
7241:
7238:Sarmatian Review
7224:, Rodopi, 2003,
7220:Halina Stephan,
7218:
7212:
7194:
7185:
7184:
7182:
7180:
7164:
7158:
7157:
7155:
7153:
7141:
7132:
7126:
7101:
7092:
7089:
7080:
7073:
7067:
7027:
7010:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6992:
6975:
6969:
6968:
6966:
6964:
6941:
6935:
6928:
6922:
6917:Zbigniew Pucek:
6915:
6909:
6908:
6888:
6882:
6881:
6861:
6855:
6848:
6842:
6827:
6818:
6817:
6815:
6813:
6798:
6792:
6785:
6779:
6772:
6766:
6765:
6744:
6735:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6725:on 12 March 2009
6721:. Archived from
6714:European studies
6707:
6698:
6687:
6667:
6654:
6648:
6635:
6629:
6544:
6538:
6476:
6470:
6464:
6403:List of szlachta
6366:
6359:
6352:
6338:
6337:
6336:
6327:
6326:
6325:
6295:
6270:
6269:
6254:Łańcut Synagogue
6250:
6225:
6210:Bernardo Morando
6206:Zamość City Hall
6202:
6183:
6164:
6141:
6127:Marcin Poczobutt
6113:
6092:
6072:
6051:
6032:
6012:
5996:
5980:
5967:, Jan Leyniers,
5960:
5940:
5917:
5897:
5867:
5856:Łukasz Opaliński
5849:
5834:
5647:
5640:Duchy of Livonia
5610:Pomorze Gdańskie
5580:Prusy Królewskie
5532:Didžioji Lietuva
5524:Lithuania Proper
5355:
5345:Duchy of Prussia
5342:
5336:Duchy of Livonia
5333:
5324:
5315:
5309:Truce of Deulino
5245:January Uprising
5146:Lithuania Proper
5110:– also known as
5062:Truce of Deulino
5019:Jewish diasporas
4947:
4913:
4696:Kiev Voivodeship
4664:Truce of Deulino
4462:coat, gold-silk
4450:
4422:
4256:Bernardo Morando
4240:Pidhirtsi Castle
4172:Lublin Cathedral
4074:Late Renaissance
4058:Krasiczyn Castle
4001:Asprilio Pacelli
3997:Annibale Stabile
3971:). Others, like
3817:coffin portraits
3791:
3782:
3613:(הבעל שם טוב in
3595:and diplomat in
3591:, cartographer,
3514:Ioannes Broscius
3458:(1755–1826) and
3450:(1530–1607) and
3321:wojsko kwarciane
3297:wojsko kwarciane
3226:
3151:
3130:
3074:Several ancient
3034:
3018:
2738:
2727:
2629:, executive and
2573:military might.
2457:political system
2438:decentralization
2379:(from the Latin
2351:), the right of
2305:(free election);
2117:May Constitution
2094:Virtuti Militari
1954:
1943:
1885:Habsburg Austria
1796:Battle of Vienna
1771:over Protestant
1706:Battle of Vienna
1562:Time of Troubles
1328:On 11 May 1573,
1136:, who ruled the
1046:I Rzeczpospolita
778:Poland–Lithuania
763:
762:
749:
748:
735:
734:
723:
722:
710:
709:
696:
695:
689:
688:
673:
672:
601:Second Partition
452:Antoni Sułkowski
411:
397:
310:§ Languages
258:
250:
231:
219:
202:
175:
157:
136:
134:
131:
121:
112:
110:
107:
97:
76:
68:
61:
53:
39:
38:
21:
19169:
19168:
19164:
19163:
19162:
19160:
19159:
19158:
18974:
18973:
18972:
18967:
18906:
18872:Interwar period
18847:Napoleonic Wars
18711:
18682:Mongol invasion
18635:Crown of Aragon
18527:
18467:
18463:Iron Age Europe
18434:
18429:
18399:
18394:
18381:
18374:
18361:
18306:
18221:Cultural icons
18164:
18040:
18011:Stock exchanges
17999:
17974:
17958:Law enforcement
17874:
17828:Nature reserves
17789:
17763:
17658:Ukrainian State
17589:Mongol invasion
17528:
17522:
17492:
17487:
17474:
17467:
17454:
17409:
17361:
17327:Public holidays
17246:
17220:
17214:
17208:Venture capital
17106:
17036:Law enforcement
16957:
16943:Protected areas
16886:
16850:
16819:
16811:
16772:
16766:
16736:
16731:
16718:
16711:
16704:
16691:
16660:Public holidays
16586:
16518:
16428:
16395:
16382:
16350:Law enforcement
16267:
16193:
16180:
16129:
16081:by Nazi Germany
16063:
16057:
15996:
15990:
15949:Lithuania Minor
15918:
15909:
15879:
15874:
15861:
15854:
15847:
15840:
15827:
15818:Public holidays
15754:
15703:
15667:
15627:
15574:Internal Troops
15559:Law enforcement
15490:
15464:Protected areas
15431:
15344:
15335:
15305:
15296:
15221:princely states
15169:
15105:Kingdom of Fiji
15078:
14824:Austria-Hungary
14792:
14555:
14489:
14288:
14274:Solomon Islands
14188:
14170:
14102:
14017:
13975:
13907:
13853:Democratization
13821:
13765:
13732:
13727:
13689:
13687:
13683:
13680:
13675:
13672:
13670:
13668:
13667:
13646:Robert I. Frost
13632:
13630:Wayback Machine
13617:
13609:
13607:Wayback Machine
13584:
13579:
13573:
13554:
13531:
13512:
13493:
13457:
13438:
13419:
13400:
13383:
13377:
13372:
13371:
13361:
13359:
13346:
13342:
13332:
13330:
13325:
13324:
13320:
13310:
13308:
13298:
13294:
13287:
13273:
13269:
13262:
13248:
13244:
13237:
13223:
13219:
13212:
13196:
13192:
13185:
13171:
13167:
13160:
13140:
13136:
13129:
13109:
13105:
13095:
13093:
13092:on 10 July 2015
13082:
13078:
13055:
13051:
13042:
13038:
13031:
13015:
13011:
13004:
12988:
12984:
12972:
12958:
12954:
12947:
12931:
12927:
12916:
12902:
12898:
12891:
12875:
12868:
12848:
12844:
12821:
12817:
12806:
12802:
12786:
12785:
12778:
12764:
12760:
12750:
12748:
12740:
12739:
12735:
12717:
12699:
12695:
12672:
12668:
12648:
12644:
12639:
12635:
12628:archives.gov.ua
12622:України, ЦДЕА.
12620:
12616:
12609:
12591:
12587:
12563:
12559:
12552:
12538:
12534:
12514:
12510:
12499:
12492:
12472:
12459:
12432:
12421:
12401:
12397:
12373:
12369:
12349:
12345:
12326:Anatol Lieven,
12325:
12306:
12286:
12279:
12272:
12258:
12251:
12244:
12226:
12222:
12212:
12210:
12201:
12200:
12196:
12191:Wayback Machine
12176:and "Ukraine",
12174:Wayback Machine
12158:
12154:
12147:
12139:. p. 190.
12127:
12123:
12116:
12100:
12096:
12086:
12084:
12076:
12075:
12071:
12064:
12048:
12044:
12021:
12017:
12007:
12005:
11997:
11996:
11989:
11976:
11972:
11965:
11949:
11945:
11938:
11922:
11918:
11895:
11891:
11883:
11876:
11868:
11864:
11856:
11852:
11841:
11840:
11836:
11827:
11820:
11809:R. B. Wernham,
11808:
11804:
11784:
11780:
11772:
11765:
11757:
11753:
11746:
11739:
11732:
11718:
11714:
11707:
11691:
11687:
11675:
11671:
11659:
11655:
11644:
11629:
11625:
11615:
11613:
11611:
11595:
11591:
11581:
11579:
11566:
11565:
11561:
11551:
11549:
11547:
11531:
11527:
11517:
11515:
11513:
11497:
11493:
11483:
11481:
11479:
11463:
11459:
11452:
11436:
11432:
11422:
11420:
11411:
11407:
11397:
11395:
11393:
11377:
11373:
11363:
11361:
11351:
11344:
11337:
11323:
11319:
11308:
11304:
11294:
11292:
11290:
11274:
11270:
11260:
11258:
11249:
11245:
11238:
11224:
11220:
11210:
11208:
11201:
11200:
11196:
11185:
11181:
11171:
11169:
11167:
11151:
11147:
11137:
11135:
11126:
11122:
11112:
11110:
11101:
11097:
11074:
11067:
11060:
11044:
11040:
11030:
11028:
11020:
11019:
11015:
11008:
10992:
10988:
10978:
10976:
10972:
10961:
10955:
10951:
10941:
10939:
10926:
10925:
10921:
10914:
10889:
10885:
10878:
10864:
10860:
10853:
10837:
10830:
10820:
10818:
10816:
10800:
10796:
10791:
10787:
10782:
10775:
10770:
10753:
10748:
10744:
10735:
10731:
10725:Stachowicz 1894
10723:
10719:
10709:
10707:
10698:
10694:
10687:
10671:
10667:
10657:
10655:
10646:
10642:
10632:
10630:
10626:
10620:
10616:
10610:Stachowicz 1894
10608:
10601:
10591:
10589:
10576:
10575:
10571:
10561:
10559:
10550:
10546:
10536:
10534:
10525:
10524:
10520:
10510:
10508:
10497:
10493:
10483:
10481:
10471:
10467:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10448:Allen, Robert.
10446:
10442:
10435:
10419:
10415:
10405:
10403:
10399:
10391:
10387:
10369:
10362:
10355:
10347:. p. 189.
10335:
10328:
10321:
10307:
10303:
10293:
10291:
10286:
10285:
10281:
10271:
10269:
10267:
10251:
10247:
10240:
10226:
10222:
10215:
10201:
10197:
10187:
10185:
10174:
10170:
10165:. pp. 6–7.
10159:
10155:
10148:
10126:
10117:
10104:
10097:
10087:
10085:
10083:
10067:
10063:
10053:
10051:
10042:
10038:
10028:
10026:
10017:
10016:
10012:
10005:
9989:
9985:
9975:
9973:
9965:
9964:
9960:
9954:Kucharczuk 2011
9952:
9948:
9938:
9936:
9925:
9916:
9906:
9904:
9897:
9896:
9892:
9868:
9859:
9853:Wayback Machine
9844:Carl L. Bucki,
9843:
9839:
9819:
9815:
9794:Wolfgang Menzel
9792:
9785:
9765:
9758:
9735:
9731:
9708:
9704:
9697:
9678:
9674:
9667:
9651:
9644:
9637:
9621:
9614:
9602:
9598:
9575:
9571:
9562:
9558:
9551:
9535:
9531:
9518:
9514:
9504:
9502:
9500:
9484:
9477:
9470:
9455:
9451:
9441:
9439:
9437:
9421:
9417:
9407:Wayback Machine
9398:
9394:
9389:
9385:
9379:Sužiedėlis 2011
9377:
9373:
9366:
9350:
9346:
9339:
9323:
9319:
9312:
9290:
9286:
9279:
9265:
9261:
9251:
9249:
9247:
9231:
9227:
9220:
9216:
9206:
9194:Press. p.
9180:
9176:
9168:
9161:
9152:
9148:
9126:
9122:
9114:
9110:
9103:
9089:
9085:
9078:
9064:
9060:
9053:
9037:
9033:
9026:
9010:
9006:
8993:
8989:
8981:
8977:
8970:
8956:Spórna (2003).
8954:
8950:
8937:
8933:
8925:
8921:
8908:
8904:
8896:
8892:
8879:
8875:
8868:
8854:
8850:
8842:
8838:
8818:
8807:
8801:Czapliński 1976
8799:
8795:
8789:Czapliński 1976
8787:
8783:
8777:Czapliński 1976
8775:
8771:
8753:
8749:
8739:
8737:
8735:
8719:
8715:
8707:
8703:
8696:
8682:
8678:
8668:
8666:
8657:
8653:
8643:
8641:
8639:
8620:
8616:
8606:
8604:
8602:
8594:. CUP Archive.
8586:
8582:
8572:
8570:
8568:
8552:
8548:
8538:
8536:
8534:
8518:
8514:
8504:
8502:
8500:
8484:
8480:
8472:
8468:
8458:
8456:
8454:
8438:
8434:
8426:
8422:
8412:
8410:
8401:
8397:
8387:
8385:
8379:
8375:
8365:
8363:
8354:
8350:
8342:
8338:
8330:
8323:
8315:
8311:
8303:
8299:
8291:
8284:
8273:
8269:
8262:
8248:
8244:
8236:
8225:
8214:
8210:
8203:
8189:
8180:
8170:
8168:
8167:on June 4, 2011
8155:
8154:
8149:
8145:
8132:
8128:
8120:
8113:
8105:
8101:
8094:
8078:
8074:
8068:Butterwick 2021
8066:
8059:
8052:
8031:
8027:
8020:
8004:
8000:
7993:
7977:
7973:
7968:Butterwick 2021
7966:
7962:
7956:Butterwick 2021
7954:
7950:
7944:
7928:
7924:
7917:
7903:
7899:
7891:
7887:
7879:
7875:
7868:
7851:
7847:
7840:
7826:
7822:
7814:
7810:
7802:
7793:
7785:
7781:
7774:
7760:
7756:
7749:
7745:
7732:
7728:
7723:
7719:
7711:
7707:
7694:
7690:
7673:
7669:
7665:
7655:
7653:
7645:
7644:
7635:
7628:
7606:
7597:
7576:
7572:
7562:
7532:
7528:
7521:
7502:
7498:
7479:Wayback Machine
7468:
7461:
7441:Quentin Skinner
7438:
7434:
7427:
7413:
7409:
7402:
7386:Francis Dvornik
7383:
7379:
7366:
7362:
7355:
7339:
7335:
7328:
7310:
7306:
7299:
7281:
7274:
7267:
7248:
7244:
7236:. Quoting from
7219:
7215:
7196:Norman Davies,
7195:
7188:
7178:
7176:
7175:(in Lithuanian)
7165:
7161:
7151:
7149:
7139:
7133:
7129:
7102:
7095:
7090:
7083:
7074:
7070:
7049:Wayback Machine
7038:Wayback Machine
7028:
7013:
7004:
7000:
6990:
6988:
6976:
6972:
6962:
6960:
6958:
6942:
6938:
6930:Norman Davies,
6929:
6925:
6916:
6912:
6905:
6889:
6885:
6878:
6862:
6858:
6849:
6845:
6828:
6821:
6811:
6809:
6800:
6799:
6795:
6786:
6782:
6778:, Gdansk, 2010.
6774:Janusz Sykała:
6773:
6769:
6759:
6745:
6738:
6728:
6726:
6717:
6708:
6701:
6688:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6670:
6655:
6651:
6636:
6632:
6545:
6541:
6477:
6473:
6465:
6461:
6456:
6408:Polish heraldry
6370:
6334:
6332:
6331:
6323:
6321:
6285:
6279:
6268:
6261:
6251:
6242:
6226:
6217:
6203:
6194:
6184:
6175:
6165:
6156:
6145:Branicki Palace
6142:
6133:
6114:
6105:
6093:
6084:
6081:Jan Kochanowski
6073:
6064:
6052:
6043:
6033:
6019:
6013:
6004:
5997:
5988:
5981:
5972:
5961:
5952:
5941:
5932:
5918:
5909:
5898:
5889:
5868:
5859:
5850:
5841:
5835:
5823:
5815:primeval forest
5755:
5678:in 1637 and on
5590:area since the
5361:
5353:
5351:
5340:
5338:
5331:
5329:
5322:
5320:
5313:
5303:Outline of the
5297:
5291:
5285:
5249:Józef Piłsudski
5243:(1830–31), the
5233:Duchy of Warsaw
5229:
5223:
5070:
5050:Catholic Church
4975:central Ukraine
4963:
4962:
4961:
4960:
4959:
4948:
4940:
4939:
4914:
4789:
4783:
4767:Polish language
4694:, and 3 in the
4572:
4566:
4476:
4475:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4454:Sarmatian style
4451:
4443:
4442:
4423:
4412:
4404:Main articles:
4402:
4357:Kozłówka Palace
4353:Nieborów Palace
4345:Radzyń Podlaski
4337:Branicki Palace
4286:Nieborów Palace
4212:Wawel Cathedral
4108:; from Italian
4051:
4045:
3908:polonaise dress
3808:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3800:(left) and the
3798:Polonaise dress
3794:
3793:
3792:
3784:
3783:
3772:
3694:Ignacy Krasicki
3680:Jan Kochanowski
3619:Hasidic Judaism
3552:for control of
3520:) (1585–1652),
3423:Polish Brethren
3359:
3354:
3340:
3288:obrona potoczna
3281:wojsko zaciężne
3265:obrona potoczna
3220:
3212:), whereas the
3204:in the form of
3162:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3152:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3131:
3120:
3114:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3035:
3027:
3026:
3019:
2955:The owner of a
2763:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2717:
2711:
2621:provided for a
2579:
2558:Polish magnates
2517:The end of the
2500:
2154:
2148:
2143:
2137:
2047:
2041:
2019:. He appointed
1971:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1946:
1945:
1944:
1930:Załuski Library
1920:and the former
1897:House of Wettin
1832:
1824:Main articles:
1822:
1794:. In 1683, the
1714:John II Casimir
1691:
1683:Main articles:
1681:
1543:Charles IX Vasa
1417:Duke of Ferrara
1413:Piotr Zborowski
1399:Stephen Báthory
1330:Henry de Valois
1318:
1312:
1300:Polish nobility
1289:Union of Lublin
1239:Union of Grodno
1215:Union of Lublin
1207:
1205:Union of Lublin
1201:
1193:Wawel Cathedral
1093:
1088:
1076:Main articles:
1074:
956:
841:Krewo Agreement
833:Union of Lublin
760:
746:
732:
707:
693:
660:
619:24 October 1795
616:
614:Third Partition
606:23 January 1793
603:
590:
577:
575:First Partition
564:
562:Union of Lublin
537:
522:
490:
478:
448:
436:
407:
404:
393:
390:
352:
315:
282:
261:
256:
248:
234:
210:
208:
184:
181:
163:
139:
138:
137:
132:
127:
122:
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
80:
79:
70:
55:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19167:
19157:
19156:
19151:
19146:
19141:
19136:
19131:
19126:
19121:
19116:
19111:
19106:
19101:
19096:
19091:
19086:
19081:
19076:
19071:
19066:
19061:
19056:
19051:
19046:
19041:
19036:
19031:
19026:
19021:
19016:
19011:
19006:
19001:
18996:
18991:
18986:
18969:
18968:
18966:
18965:
18960:
18955:
18950:
18945:
18940:
18935:
18930:
18925:
18920:
18914:
18912:
18908:
18907:
18905:
18904:
18899:
18894:
18889:
18884:
18879:
18874:
18869:
18864:
18859:
18854:
18849:
18844:
18839:
18834:
18829:
18824:
18822:Russian Empire
18819:
18814:
18812:British Empire
18809:
18807:Dutch Republic
18804:
18802:Swedish Empire
18799:
18794:
18789:
18784:
18782:Spanish Empire
18779:
18774:
18772:Ottoman Empire
18769:
18764:
18759:
18754:
18749:
18744:
18743:
18742:
18732:
18727:
18721:
18719:
18713:
18712:
18710:
18709:
18704:
18699:
18694:
18689:
18687:Serbian Empire
18684:
18679:
18674:
18669:
18664:
18659:
18654:
18632:
18627:
18622:
18621:
18620:
18615:
18610:
18605:
18595:
18594:
18593:
18588:
18580:
18575:
18570:
18565:
18560:
18559:
18558:
18548:
18543:
18537:
18535:
18529:
18528:
18526:
18525:
18523:Late antiquity
18520:
18515:
18510:
18509:
18508:
18498:
18493:
18488:
18486:Roman Republic
18483:
18477:
18475:
18469:
18468:
18466:
18465:
18460:
18455:
18450:
18444:
18442:
18436:
18435:
18428:
18427:
18420:
18413:
18405:
18396:
18395:
18393:
18392:
18387:
18380:
18379:
18371:
18370:
18367:
18366:
18363:
18362:
18360:
18359:
18354:
18349:
18344:
18343:
18342:
18337:
18332:
18327:
18316:
18314:
18308:
18307:
18305:
18304:
18299:
18294:
18289:
18284:
18279:
18274:
18269:
18264:
18259:
18258:
18257:
18252:
18247:
18242:
18237:
18232:
18227:
18219:
18218:
18217:
18207:
18202:
18197:
18196:
18195:
18190:
18180:
18174:
18172:
18166:
18165:
18163:
18162:
18157:
18152:
18147:
18142:
18137:
18136:
18135:
18130:
18120:
18119:
18118:
18108:
18095:
18089:
18084:
18074:
18069:
18064:
18058:
18052:
18046:
18045:
18042:
18041:
18039:
18038:
18033:
18028:
18023:
18018:
18013:
18008:
18003:
17992:
17986:
17980:
17979:
17976:
17975:
17973:
17972:
17967:
17962:
17961:
17960:
17955:
17945:
17944:
17943:
17938:
17933:
17928:
17918:
17913:
17908:
17903:
17898:
17892:
17886:
17880:
17879:
17876:
17875:
17873:
17872:
17867:
17862:
17857:
17852:
17847:
17842:
17841:
17840:
17830:
17825:
17824:
17823:
17813:
17811:National parks
17807:
17801:
17795:
17794:
17791:
17790:
17788:
17787:
17782:
17777:
17771:
17769:
17765:
17764:
17762:
17761:
17760:
17759:
17754:
17749:
17744:
17739:
17729:
17728:
17727:
17717:
17712:
17707:
17702:
17697:
17692:
17687:
17682:
17677:
17672:
17671:
17670:
17668:Makhnovshchina
17665:
17660:
17655:
17645:
17640:
17638:Russian Empire
17635:
17630:
17629:
17628:
17623:
17613:
17612:
17611:
17601:
17596:
17591:
17586:
17581:
17576:
17571:
17566:
17561:
17556:
17551:
17545:
17543:
17536:
17530:
17529:
17527: articles
17521:
17520:
17513:
17506:
17498:
17489:
17488:
17486:
17485:
17480:
17473:
17472:
17464:
17463:
17460:
17459:
17456:
17455:
17453:
17452:
17447:
17442:
17441:
17440:
17430:
17425:
17419:
17417:
17411:
17410:
17408:
17407:
17402:
17397:
17392:
17387:
17382:
17377:
17371:
17369:
17363:
17362:
17360:
17359:
17354:
17349:
17344:
17339:
17334:
17329:
17324:
17319:
17314:
17309:
17304:
17299:
17294:
17289:
17284:
17283:
17282:
17272:
17267:
17262:
17256:
17254:
17248:
17247:
17245:
17244:
17238:
17232:
17226:
17225:
17222:
17221:
17219:
17218:
17210:
17205:
17200:
17195:
17190:
17185:
17183:Stock exchange
17180:
17175:
17170:
17165:
17160:
17155:
17150:
17145:
17140:
17135:
17130:
17124:
17118:
17112:
17111:
17108:
17107:
17105:
17104:
17102:Visegrád Group
17099:
17094:
17093:
17092:
17085:Prime Minister
17082:
17081:
17080:
17070:
17065:
17060:
17055:
17050:
17049:
17048:
17046:Prison Service
17043:
17033:
17028:
17023:
17022:
17021:
17011:
17006:
17001:
16996:
16991:
16989:Climate change
16986:
16981:
16975:
16969:
16963:
16962:
16959:
16958:
16956:
16955:
16950:
16945:
16940:
16938:Poland A and B
16935:
16933:National parks
16930:
16925:
16920:
16915:
16910:
16904:
16898:
16892:
16891:
16888:
16887:
16885:
16884:
16879:
16874:
16869:
16864:
16858:
16856:
16852:
16851:
16849:
16848:
16843:
16838:
16833:
16831:Interwar years
16828:
16823:
16815:
16807:
16802:
16797:
16791:
16789:
16780:
16774:
16773:
16771: articles
16765:
16764:
16757:
16750:
16742:
16733:
16732:
16730:
16729:
16724:
16717:
16716:
16709:
16701:
16700:
16697:
16696:
16693:
16692:
16690:
16689:
16688:
16687:
16682:
16677:
16667:
16662:
16657:
16652:
16647:
16642:
16637:
16632:
16627:
16622:
16617:
16612:
16607:
16602:
16596:
16594:
16588:
16587:
16585:
16584:
16579:
16574:
16569:
16564:
16559:
16554:
16553:
16552:
16542:
16536:
16530:
16524:
16523:
16520:
16519:
16517:
16516:
16511:
16510:
16509:
16504:
16499:
16494:
16484:
16479:
16474:
16469:
16464:
16463:
16462:
16452:
16446:
16440:
16434:
16433:
16430:
16429:
16427:
16426:
16421:
16416:
16411:
16405:
16403:
16397:
16396:
16394:
16393:
16392:
16391:
16376:
16371:
16366:
16365:
16364:
16354:
16353:
16352:
16342:
16341:
16340:
16338:Prime Minister
16330:
16325:
16320:
16319:
16318:
16308:
16307:
16306:
16301:
16299:municipalities
16296:
16285:
16279:
16273:
16272:
16269:
16268:
16266:
16265:
16260:
16255:
16250:
16248:Regional parks
16245:
16240:
16235:
16230:
16228:Extreme points
16225:
16220:
16219:
16218:
16207:
16201:
16195:
16194:
16187:
16185:
16182:
16181:
16179:
16178:
16173:
16168:
16166:January Events
16163:
16158:
16153:
16148:
16143:
16137:
16135:
16131:
16130:
16128:
16127:
16122:
16117:
16116:
16115:
16105:
16100:
16095:
16090:
16089:
16088:
16083:
16078:
16067:
16065:
16059:
16058:
16056:
16055:
16050:
16045:
16044:
16043:
16038:
16028:
16023:
16018:
16017:
16016:
16006:
16000:
15998:
15992:
15991:
15989:
15988:
15987:
15986:
15981:
15976:
15971:
15966:
15961:
15951:
15946:
15941:
15935:
15933:
15926:
15920:
15919:
15908:
15907:
15900:
15893:
15885:
15876:
15875:
15873:
15872:
15867:
15860:
15859:
15852:
15845:
15837:
15836:
15833:
15832:
15829:
15828:
15826:
15825:
15820:
15815:
15810:
15805:
15800:
15795:
15790:
15785:
15780:
15775:
15770:
15764:
15762:
15756:
15755:
15753:
15752:
15747:
15742:
15737:
15732:
15727:
15721:
15715:
15709:
15708:
15705:
15704:
15702:
15701:
15696:
15694:Stock exchange
15691:
15686:
15681:
15676:
15671:
15663:
15662:
15661:
15651:
15645:
15639:
15633:
15632:
15629:
15628:
15626:
15625:
15620:
15619:
15618:
15611:Prime Minister
15608:
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15474:National parks
15471:
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15454:Extreme points
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15021:
15016:
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14979:Ottoman Empire
14976:
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14961:
14956:
14951:
14946:
14941:
14939:Kartli-Kakheti
14936:
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14348:Central Africa
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14284:United Kingdom
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13941:Prince regnant
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13858:Decolonization
13855:
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13823:
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13812:Personal union
13809:
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13782:Constitutional
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13640:14 Oct. 2021,
13635:
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13597:
13583:
13582:External links
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13379:Main article:
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13351:Polin Travel.
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12823:Czesław Miłosz
12815:
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12709:. p. 70.
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12291:, ed. (1988).
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10986:
10957:Paul Peucker.
10949:
10928:"Setting Sail"
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10182:www.polinow.pl
10168:
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10140:. p. 42.
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9475:
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9392:
9383:
9381:, p. xxv.
9371:
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9277:
9259:
9245:
9236:Racławice 1794
9225:
9214:
9204:
9174:
9159:
9146:
9131:, ed. (1911).
9129:Chisholm, Hugh
9120:
9108:
9101:
9083:
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9051:
9031:
9024:
9004:
8987:
8975:
8968:
8948:
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8919:
8902:
8890:
8884:Wiek XVIII–XIX
8873:
8866:
8848:
8836:
8805:
8793:
8781:
8769:
8747:
8733:
8713:
8709:Gillespie 2017
8701:
8694:
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8018:
7998:
7991:
7971:
7960:
7948:
7942:
7922:
7915:
7897:
7885:
7881:Jasienica 1997
7873:
7866:
7854:Halecki, Oscar
7845:
7838:
7820:
7808:
7791:
7787:Jasienica 1997
7779:
7772:
7754:
7743:
7726:
7717:
7705:
7688:
7663:
7633:
7626:
7595:
7570:
7560:
7540:Madison, James
7526:
7519:
7496:
7459:
7432:
7425:
7407:
7400:
7377:
7360:
7353:
7333:
7326:
7320:. p. 40.
7304:
7297:
7272:
7265:
7242:
7213:
7186:
7159:
7127:
7124:p. 3 – anarchy
7104:George Sanford
7093:
7081:
7068:
7051:(p. 141) from
7011:
6998:
6970:
6956:
6936:
6923:
6910:
6903:
6883:
6876:
6856:
6843:
6819:
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6678:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6669:
6668:
6649:
6647:
6646:
6630:
6628:
6627:
6625:Рѣчъ Посполита
6618:
6615:Рэч Паспалітая
6608:
6598:
6580:
6566:
6556:
6539:
6537:
6536:
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6343:
6342:
6318:
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6305:
6297:
6296:
6288:
6287:
6284:History of the
6281:
6280:
6273:
6267:
6264:
6263:
6262:
6252:
6245:
6243:
6240:Wilanów Palace
6227:
6220:
6218:
6208:, designed by
6204:
6197:
6195:
6185:
6178:
6176:
6166:
6159:
6157:
6151:, designed by
6143:
6136:
6134:
6125:originated by
6115:
6108:
6106:
6101:Flora Sinensis
6094:
6087:
6085:
6075:Title page of
6074:
6067:
6065:
6053:
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5955:
5953:
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5910:
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5892:
5890:
5884:, designed by
5869:
5862:
5860:
5851:
5844:
5842:
5836:
5829:
5827:
5822:
5819:
5803:Tatra Mountain
5754:
5751:
5738:
5737:
5691:
5670:), a northern
5649:
5637:
5623:
5622:
5621:
5569:
5543:
5538:part, capital
5521:
5503:
5481:
5442:(today mostly
5383:
5382:
5375:
5352:
5339:
5330:
5321:
5312:
5287:Main article:
5284:
5281:
5225:Main article:
5222:
5219:
5218:
5217:
5203:
5193:
5187:
5181:
5171:
5168:Greater Poland
5157:
5139:
5105:
5095:
5089:
5069:
5066:
5003:Union of Brest
5001:following the
4950:The church in
4949:
4942:
4941:
4918:Greek-Catholic
4915:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4905:
4904:
4785:Main article:
4782:
4779:
4680:Greater Poland
4660:Roman Catholic
4580:barber surgeon
4565:
4562:
4554:Golden Liberty
4529:pas kontuszowy
4452:
4445:
4444:
4424:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4401:
4395:
4323:Wilanów Palace
4305:Chinese Palace
4136:Wilanów Palace
4084:, colonnades,
4047:Main article:
4044:
4041:
4021:Adam Jarzębski
3894:) draped with
3872:à la polonaise
3796:
3795:
3786:
3785:
3777:
3776:
3775:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3756:Wacław Potocki
3736:Jakub Sobieski
3690:Wacław Potocki
3663:. In 1628 the
3550:Spanish Empire
3390:Roman Catholic
3358:
3355:
3339:
3336:
3300:, named after
3273:levée en masse
3261:Western Europe
3257:wojsko najemne
3206:Winged Hussars
3171:armia litewska
3153:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3134:Winged Hussars
3132:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3116:Main article:
3113:
3110:
3100:imported from
3094:Ottoman Empire
3076:trading routes
3036:
3029:
3028:
3020:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3009:
2902:Greater Poland
2842:Western Europe
2743:
2742:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2710:
2707:
2668:
2667:
2656:
2649:
2634:
2619:
2614:abolished the
2578:
2575:
2511:Royal Election
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2430:centralization
2387:
2386:
2372:
2367:in provincial
2356:
2340:
2335:guaranteed by
2328:
2316:pacta conventa
2312:
2306:
2284:Aurea Libertas
2276:Golden Liberty
2256:pacta conventa
2253:as well as in
2182:Crown Tribunal
2152:Golden Liberty
2150:Main article:
2147:
2146:Golden Liberty
2144:
2136:
2133:
2113:Four-Year Sejm
2109:Russian Empire
2043:Main article:
2040:
2037:
2003:culminated in
1959:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1821:
1818:
1792:Ottoman Empire
1685:Swedish Deluge
1680:
1677:
1671:, daughter of
1566:winged hussars
1556:, and invaded
1487:Sigismund Vasa
1391:Anna Jagiellon
1383:Jakub Uchański
1363:Pacta conventa
1346:Golden Liberty
1314:Main article:
1311:
1308:
1284:in contumaciam
1203:Main article:
1200:
1197:
1181:Union of Krewo
1134:Louis of Anjou
1092:
1089:
1073:
1070:
993:Rzeczpospolita
991:Najjaśniejsza
955:
952:
884:Golden Liberty
847:to Grand Duke
837:personal union
822:state religion
773:
772:
769:
768:
765:
764:
757:
751:
750:
743:
741:Russian Empire
737:
736:
729:
720:
717:
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711:
703:
702:
697:
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684:
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669:
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569:
568:
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559:
556:
555:
552:
551:
546:
545:Historical era
542:
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363:parliamentary
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18924:
18921:
18919:
18918:Art of Europe
18916:
18915:
18913:
18909:
18903:
18900:
18898:
18895:
18893:
18890:
18888:
18885:
18883:
18880:
18878:
18875:
18873:
18870:
18868:
18865:
18863:
18860:
18858:
18855:
18853:
18850:
18848:
18845:
18843:
18840:
18838:
18835:
18833:
18830:
18828:
18825:
18823:
18820:
18818:
18815:
18813:
18810:
18808:
18805:
18803:
18800:
18798:
18795:
18793:
18790:
18788:
18785:
18783:
18780:
18778:
18775:
18773:
18770:
18768:
18765:
18763:
18760:
18758:
18755:
18753:
18750:
18748:
18745:
18741:
18738:
18737:
18736:
18733:
18731:
18728:
18726:
18723:
18722:
18720:
18718:
18717:Modern period
18714:
18708:
18705:
18703:
18700:
18698:
18695:
18693:
18690:
18688:
18685:
18683:
18680:
18678:
18675:
18673:
18670:
18668:
18665:
18663:
18660:
18658:
18655:
18652:
18648:
18644:
18640:
18636:
18633:
18631:
18628:
18626:
18623:
18619:
18616:
18614:
18611:
18609:
18606:
18604:
18601:
18600:
18599:
18596:
18592:
18589:
18587:
18584:
18583:
18581:
18579:
18576:
18574:
18571:
18569:
18566:
18564:
18561:
18557:
18554:
18553:
18552:
18549:
18547:
18544:
18542:
18539:
18538:
18536:
18534:
18530:
18524:
18521:
18519:
18516:
18514:
18511:
18507:
18504:
18503:
18502:
18499:
18497:
18494:
18492:
18489:
18487:
18484:
18482:
18479:
18478:
18476:
18474:
18470:
18464:
18461:
18459:
18456:
18454:
18451:
18449:
18446:
18445:
18443:
18441:
18437:
18433:
18426:
18421:
18419:
18414:
18412:
18407:
18406:
18403:
18391:
18388:
18386:
18383:
18382:
18377:
18373:
18372:
18368:
18358:
18355:
18353:
18350:
18348:
18345:
18341:
18338:
18336:
18333:
18331:
18328:
18326:
18323:
18322:
18321:
18318:
18317:
18315:
18313:
18309:
18303:
18300:
18298:
18295:
18293:
18290:
18288:
18285:
18283:
18280:
18278:
18275:
18273:
18270:
18268:
18265:
18263:
18260:
18256:
18253:
18251:
18248:
18246:
18243:
18241:
18238:
18236:
18233:
18231:
18228:
18226:
18223:
18222:
18220:
18216:
18213:
18212:
18211:
18208:
18206:
18203:
18201:
18198:
18194:
18191:
18189:
18186:
18185:
18184:
18181:
18179:
18176:
18175:
18173:
18171:
18167:
18161:
18158:
18156:
18153:
18151:
18148:
18146:
18143:
18141:
18138:
18134:
18131:
18129:
18126:
18125:
18124:
18121:
18116:
18112:
18109:
18106:
18103:
18099:
18096:
18093:
18090:
18088:
18085:
18083:
18080:
18079:
18078:
18075:
18073:
18070:
18068:
18065:
18063:
18060:
18059:
18056:
18053:
18051:
18047:
18037:
18034:
18032:
18029:
18027:
18024:
18022:
18019:
18017:
18014:
18012:
18009:
18007:
18004:
18002:
17998:
17994:
17993:
17990:
17987:
17985:
17981:
17971:
17968:
17966:
17963:
17959:
17956:
17954:
17951:
17950:
17949:
17946:
17942:
17939:
17937:
17934:
17932:
17929:
17927:
17924:
17923:
17922:
17919:
17917:
17914:
17912:
17909:
17907:
17904:
17902:
17899:
17897:
17894:
17893:
17890:
17887:
17885:
17881:
17871:
17868:
17866:
17863:
17861:
17858:
17856:
17853:
17851:
17848:
17846:
17843:
17839:
17836:
17835:
17834:
17831:
17829:
17826:
17822:
17819:
17818:
17817:
17814:
17812:
17809:
17808:
17805:
17802:
17800:
17796:
17786:
17783:
17781:
17778:
17776:
17773:
17772:
17770:
17766:
17758:
17755:
17753:
17752:War in Donbas
17750:
17748:
17745:
17743:
17740:
17738:
17735:
17734:
17733:
17730:
17726:
17723:
17722:
17721:
17718:
17716:
17713:
17711:
17708:
17706:
17703:
17701:
17698:
17696:
17693:
17691:
17688:
17686:
17685:Ukrainian SSR
17683:
17681:
17678:
17676:
17673:
17669:
17666:
17664:
17661:
17659:
17656:
17654:
17651:
17650:
17649:
17646:
17644:
17641:
17639:
17636:
17634:
17631:
17627:
17624:
17622:
17619:
17618:
17617:
17614:
17610:
17607:
17606:
17605:
17602:
17600:
17597:
17595:
17592:
17590:
17587:
17585:
17582:
17580:
17577:
17575:
17572:
17570:
17567:
17565:
17562:
17560:
17557:
17555:
17552:
17550:
17547:
17546:
17544:
17540:
17537:
17535:
17531:
17526:
17519:
17514:
17512:
17507:
17505:
17500:
17499:
17496:
17484:
17481:
17479:
17476:
17475:
17470:
17466:
17465:
17461:
17451:
17448:
17446:
17443:
17439:
17436:
17435:
17434:
17431:
17429:
17426:
17424:
17421:
17420:
17418:
17416:
17412:
17406:
17403:
17401:
17398:
17396:
17393:
17391:
17388:
17386:
17383:
17381:
17378:
17376:
17373:
17372:
17370:
17368:
17364:
17358:
17355:
17353:
17350:
17348:
17345:
17343:
17340:
17338:
17335:
17333:
17330:
17328:
17325:
17323:
17320:
17318:
17315:
17313:
17310:
17308:
17305:
17303:
17300:
17298:
17295:
17293:
17290:
17288:
17285:
17281:
17278:
17277:
17276:
17273:
17271:
17268:
17266:
17263:
17261:
17258:
17257:
17255:
17253:
17249:
17243:
17240:
17239:
17236:
17233:
17231:
17227:
17217:
17211:
17209:
17206:
17204:
17201:
17199:
17196:
17194:
17191:
17189:
17186:
17184:
17181:
17179:
17176:
17174:
17171:
17169:
17166:
17164:
17163:Merchant Navy
17161:
17159:
17156:
17154:
17151:
17149:
17146:
17144:
17141:
17139:
17136:
17134:
17131:
17129:
17126:
17125:
17122:
17119:
17117:
17113:
17103:
17100:
17098:
17095:
17091:
17088:
17087:
17086:
17083:
17079:
17076:
17075:
17074:
17071:
17069:
17066:
17064:
17061:
17059:
17056:
17054:
17051:
17047:
17044:
17042:
17039:
17038:
17037:
17034:
17032:
17029:
17027:
17024:
17020:
17017:
17016:
17015:
17012:
17010:
17007:
17005:
17002:
17000:
16997:
16995:
16992:
16990:
16987:
16985:
16982:
16980:
16977:
16976:
16973:
16970:
16968:
16964:
16954:
16951:
16949:
16946:
16944:
16941:
16939:
16936:
16934:
16931:
16929:
16926:
16924:
16921:
16919:
16916:
16914:
16911:
16909:
16906:
16905:
16902:
16899:
16897:
16893:
16883:
16880:
16878:
16875:
16873:
16870:
16868:
16865:
16863:
16860:
16859:
16857:
16853:
16847:
16844:
16842:
16839:
16837:
16834:
16832:
16829:
16827:
16824:
16822:
16816:
16814:
16810:Early Modern
16808:
16806:
16803:
16801:
16798:
16796:
16793:
16792:
16790:
16788:
16784:
16781:
16779:
16775:
16770:
16763:
16758:
16756:
16751:
16749:
16744:
16743:
16740:
16728:
16725:
16723:
16720:
16719:
16714:
16710:
16707:
16703:
16702:
16698:
16686:
16683:
16681:
16678:
16676:
16673:
16672:
16671:
16668:
16666:
16663:
16661:
16658:
16656:
16653:
16651:
16648:
16646:
16643:
16641:
16638:
16636:
16633:
16631:
16628:
16626:
16623:
16621:
16618:
16616:
16613:
16611:
16608:
16606:
16603:
16601:
16598:
16597:
16595:
16593:
16589:
16583:
16580:
16578:
16575:
16573:
16570:
16568:
16565:
16563:
16560:
16558:
16555:
16551:
16548:
16547:
16546:
16543:
16541:
16538:
16537:
16534:
16531:
16529:
16525:
16515:
16512:
16508:
16505:
16503:
16500:
16498:
16495:
16493:
16490:
16489:
16488:
16485:
16483:
16480:
16478:
16475:
16473:
16470:
16468:
16465:
16461:
16458:
16457:
16456:
16453:
16451:
16448:
16447:
16444:
16441:
16439:
16435:
16425:
16422:
16420:
16417:
16415:
16412:
16410:
16407:
16406:
16404:
16402:
16398:
16390:
16387:
16386:
16385:
16381:
16377:
16375:
16372:
16370:
16367:
16363:
16360:
16359:
16358:
16355:
16351:
16348:
16347:
16346:
16343:
16339:
16336:
16335:
16334:
16331:
16329:
16326:
16324:
16321:
16317:
16314:
16313:
16312:
16309:
16305:
16302:
16300:
16297:
16295:
16292:
16291:
16290:
16287:
16286:
16283:
16280:
16278:
16274:
16264:
16261:
16259:
16256:
16254:
16251:
16249:
16246:
16244:
16241:
16239:
16236:
16234:
16231:
16229:
16226:
16224:
16221:
16217:
16214:
16213:
16212:
16209:
16208:
16205:
16202:
16200:
16196:
16191:
16177:
16174:
16172:
16169:
16167:
16164:
16162:
16159:
16157:
16154:
16152:
16149:
16147:
16144:
16142:
16139:
16138:
16136:
16132:
16126:
16123:
16121:
16118:
16114:
16111:
16110:
16109:
16108:Guerrilla war
16106:
16104:
16101:
16099:
16096:
16094:
16091:
16087:
16084:
16082:
16079:
16077:
16074:
16073:
16072:
16069:
16068:
16066:
16060:
16054:
16051:
16049:
16046:
16042:
16039:
16037:
16034:
16033:
16032:
16029:
16027:
16024:
16022:
16019:
16015:
16012:
16011:
16010:
16007:
16005:
16002:
16001:
15999:
15993:
15985:
15982:
15980:
15977:
15975:
15972:
15970:
15967:
15965:
15962:
15960:
15957:
15956:
15955:
15952:
15950:
15947:
15945:
15942:
15940:
15937:
15936:
15934:
15930:
15927:
15925:
15921:
15917:
15913:
15906:
15901:
15899:
15894:
15892:
15887:
15886:
15883:
15871:
15868:
15866:
15863:
15862:
15857:
15853:
15850:
15846:
15843:
15839:
15838:
15834:
15824:
15821:
15819:
15816:
15814:
15811:
15809:
15806:
15804:
15801:
15799:
15796:
15794:
15791:
15789:
15786:
15784:
15781:
15779:
15776:
15774:
15771:
15769:
15766:
15765:
15763:
15761:
15757:
15751:
15748:
15746:
15743:
15741:
15738:
15736:
15733:
15731:
15728:
15726:
15723:
15722:
15719:
15716:
15714:
15710:
15700:
15697:
15695:
15692:
15690:
15687:
15685:
15682:
15680:
15677:
15675:
15672:
15670:
15664:
15660:
15657:
15656:
15655:
15652:
15650:
15647:
15646:
15643:
15640:
15638:
15634:
15624:
15621:
15617:
15614:
15613:
15612:
15609:
15607:
15604:
15602:
15599:
15597:
15594:
15592:
15589:
15585:
15582:
15580:
15577:
15575:
15572:
15570:
15567:
15565:
15562:
15561:
15560:
15557:
15554:
15550:
15547:
15545:
15542:
15540:
15537:
15533:
15530:
15529:
15528:
15525:
15523:
15520:
15518:
15515:
15513:
15510:
15509:
15506:
15503:
15501:
15497:
15487:
15484:
15482:
15479:
15475:
15472:
15470:
15467:
15466:
15465:
15462:
15460:
15457:
15455:
15452:
15450:
15447:
15446:
15443:
15440:
15438:
15434:
15428:
15425:
15421:
15418:
15417:
15416:
15413:
15411:
15408:
15406:
15403:
15399:
15398:Russification
15396:
15395:
15394:
15391:
15389:
15386:
15384:
15381:
15379:
15376:
15374:
15371:
15369:
15366:
15364:
15361:
15359:
15356:
15355:
15353:
15351:
15347:
15343:
15339:
15332:
15327:
15325:
15320:
15318:
15313:
15312:
15309:
15293:
15290:
15288:
15285:
15283:
15280:
15278:
15275:
15273:
15270:
15268:
15265:
15263:
15260:
15258:
15255:
15253:
15250:
15248:
15245:
15243:
15240:
15238:
15235:
15233:
15229:
15226:
15223:
15222:
15217:
15213:
15210:
15208:
15205:
15203:
15200:
15198:
15195:
15193:
15190:
15187:
15184:
15182:
15179:
15178:
15176:
15172:
15166:
15163:
15161:
15158:
15156:
15153:
15151:
15148:
15146:
15143:
15141:
15138:
15136:
15133:
15131:
15128:
15126:
15123:
15121:
15118:
15116:
15113:
15111:
15108:
15106:
15103:
15101:
15100:Easter Island
15098:
15096:
15093:
15091:
15088:
15087:
15085:
15081:
15075:
15072:
15070:
15067:
15065:
15062:
15060:
15057:
15055:
15052:
15050:
15047:
15045:
15042:
15040:
15037:
15035:
15032:
15030:
15027:
15025:
15022:
15020:
15017:
15015:
15012:
15010:
15007:
15005:
15002:
15000:
14997:
14995:
14992:
14990:
14987:
14985:
14982:
14980:
14977:
14975:
14972:
14970:
14967:
14965:
14962:
14960:
14957:
14955:
14952:
14950:
14947:
14945:
14942:
14940:
14937:
14935:
14932:
14930:
14927:
14925:
14922:
14920:
14917:
14915:
14912:
14910:
14907:
14905:
14902:
14900:
14897:
14895:
14892:
14890:
14887:
14885:
14882:
14880:
14877:
14875:
14872:
14870:
14867:
14865:
14862:
14860:
14857:
14855:
14852:
14850:
14847:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14835:
14832:
14830:
14827:
14825:
14822:
14820:
14817:
14815:
14812:
14810:
14807:
14805:
14802:
14801:
14799:
14795:
14788:
14787:
14782:
14779:
14777:
14774:
14772:
14769:
14767:
14764:
14762:
14759:
14757:
14754:
14752:
14749:
14747:
14744:
14742:
14739:
14737:
14734:
14732:
14729:
14727:
14726:
14722:
14720:
14717:
14715:
14712:
14710:
14707:
14705:
14702:
14700:
14697:
14695:
14692:
14690:
14687:
14685:
14682:
14680:
14677:
14675:
14672:
14670:
14667:
14665:
14662:
14660:
14657:
14655:
14652:
14650:
14647:
14645:
14642:
14640:
14639:Jabal Shammar
14637:
14635:
14632:
14629:
14625:
14622:
14620:
14619:
14615:
14613:
14610:
14608:
14605:
14603:
14600:
14598:
14595:
14593:
14590:
14588:
14585:
14583:
14580:
14578:
14575:
14573:
14570:
14568:
14565:
14564:
14562:
14558:
14552:
14549:
14547:
14544:
14542:
14539:
14537:
14534:
14532:
14529:
14527:
14524:
14522:
14519:
14517:
14514:
14512:
14509:
14507:
14504:
14502:
14499:
14498:
14496:
14492:
14486:
14485:
14481:
14479:
14476:
14474:
14471:
14469:
14466:
14464:
14461:
14459:
14456:
14454:
14451:
14449:
14446:
14444:
14441:
14439:
14436:
14434:
14431:
14429:
14426:
14424:
14421:
14419:
14416:
14414:
14411:
14409:
14406:
14404:
14401:
14399:
14396:
14394:
14391:
14389:
14386:
14384:
14381:
14379:
14376:
14374:
14371:
14369:
14366:
14364:
14361:
14359:
14356:
14354:
14351:
14349:
14346:
14344:
14341:
14339:
14336:
14334:
14331:
14329:
14326:
14324:
14321:
14319:
14316:
14314:
14311:
14310:
14308:
14304:
14301:
14299:
14295:
14285:
14282:
14280:
14277:
14275:
14272:
14270:
14267:
14265:
14262:
14260:
14257:
14255:
14252:
14248:
14245:
14243:
14240:
14239:
14238:
14235:
14233:
14230:
14228:
14225:
14223:
14220:
14218:
14215:
14213:
14210:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14199:
14197:
14195:
14191:
14185:
14182:
14181:
14179:
14177:
14173:
14167:
14164:
14162:
14159:
14157:
14154:
14152:
14149:
14147:
14144:
14142:
14139:
14137:
14134:
14132:
14131:Liechtenstein
14129:
14127:
14124:
14122:
14119:
14117:
14114:
14113:
14111:
14109:
14105:
14099:
14098:
14094:
14092:
14089:
14087:
14084:
14082:
14079:
14077:
14074:
14072:
14069:
14067:
14064:
14062:
14059:
14057:
14054:
14052:
14049:
14047:
14044:
14042:
14039:
14037:
14034:
14032:
14029:
14028:
14026:
14024:
14020:
14014:
14013:
14009:
14007:
14004:
14002:
13999:
13997:
13994:
13993:
13991:
13989:
13985:
13982:
13978:
13972:
13969:
13967:
13964:
13962:
13959:
13957:
13954:
13952:
13949:
13947:
13944:
13942:
13939:
13935:
13934:Queen regnant
13932:
13931:
13930:
13927:
13925:
13922:
13920:
13917:
13916:
13914:
13910:
13904:
13901:
13899:
13896:
13894:
13893:Republicanism
13891:
13889:
13886:
13884:
13881:
13879:
13876:
13874:
13873:Head of state
13871:
13869:
13866:
13864:
13861:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13849:
13846:
13844:
13841:
13839:
13836:
13834:
13831:
13830:
13828:
13824:
13818:
13815:
13813:
13810:
13808:
13807:Non-sovereign
13805:
13803:
13800:
13798:
13795:
13793:
13790:
13788:
13785:
13783:
13780:
13778:
13775:
13774:
13772:
13768:
13762:
13759:
13757:
13754:
13752:
13749:
13747:
13744:
13742:
13739:
13738:
13735:
13731:
13724:
13719:
13717:
13712:
13710:
13705:
13704:
13701:
13697:
13694:
13663:
13659:
13658:Norman Davies
13655:
13651:
13647:
13643:
13639:
13636:
13631:
13627:
13624:
13621:
13616:
13613:
13608:
13604:
13601:
13598:
13595:
13590:
13586:
13585:
13574:
13568:
13564:
13559:
13555:
13549:
13545:
13541:
13536:
13532:
13526:
13522:
13517:
13513:
13507:
13503:
13498:
13494:
13488:
13484:
13480:
13475:
13471:
13467:
13462:
13458:
13452:
13448:
13443:
13439:
13437:0-85045-744-0
13433:
13429:
13424:
13420:
13418:0-85045-736-X
13414:
13410:
13405:
13401:
13395:
13391:
13386:
13385:
13382:
13358:
13354:
13349:
13344:
13328:
13322:
13307:
13303:
13300:Ian Ridpath.
13296:
13288:
13286:0-7007-1458-8
13282:
13278:
13271:
13263:
13261:0-19-518948-5
13257:
13253:
13246:
13238:
13236:0-521-00109-9
13232:
13228:
13221:
13213:
13207:
13203:
13202:
13194:
13186:
13184:1-57607-243-6
13180:
13176:
13169:
13161:
13159:0-89774-940-5
13155:
13151:
13147:
13146:
13138:
13130:
13124:
13120:
13116:
13115:
13107:
13091:
13087:
13080:
13074:
13070:
13066:
13062:
13058:
13053:
13046:
13040:
13032:
13026:
13022:
13021:
13013:
13005:
13003:0-7591-0973-7
12999:
12995:
12994:
12986:
12979:
12973:
12971:0-88397-131-3
12967:
12963:
12956:
12948:
12946:0-8063-1378-1
12942:
12938:
12937:
12929:
12923:
12917:
12915:83-7063-286-6
12911:
12907:
12900:
12892:
12890:0-8032-3240-3
12886:
12882:
12881:
12873:
12871:
12864:
12860:
12859:0-300-07918-4
12856:
12852:
12846:
12840:
12836:
12835:0-520-04477-0
12832:
12828:
12824:
12819:
12812:
12811:
12804:
12796:
12790:
12783:
12779:
12777:9955-445-26-2
12773:
12769:
12762:
12747:
12745:
12737:
12730:
12728:
12724:
12718:
12716:5-420-01085-2
12712:
12708:
12704:
12697:
12691:
12687:
12686:90-272-3057-9
12683:
12679:
12675:
12670:
12664:
12660:
12659:0-7656-0665-8
12656:
12652:
12646:
12637:
12629:
12625:
12618:
12610:
12608:0-19-820701-8
12604:
12600:
12595:
12589:
12582:. p. 79.
12581:
12578:(in French).
12577:
12576:
12571:
12567:
12561:
12553:
12547:
12543:
12536:
12530:
12526:
12525:0-521-58335-7
12522:
12518:
12512:
12505:
12504:
12497:
12495:
12488:
12484:
12483:0-313-33125-1
12480:
12476:
12470:
12468:
12466:
12464:
12462:
12455:
12451:
12450:0-521-36713-1
12447:
12443:
12439:
12435:
12434:Mikulas Teich
12430:
12428:
12426:
12424:
12417:
12413:
12412:0-631-22039-9
12409:
12405:
12399:
12393:
12389:
12388:90-272-3057-9
12385:
12381:
12377:
12371:
12365:
12361:
12360:0-19-925085-5
12357:
12353:
12347:
12341:
12337:
12336:0-300-06078-5
12333:
12329:
12323:
12321:
12319:
12317:
12315:
12313:
12311:
12309:
12301:. p. 45.
12300:
12296:
12295:
12290:
12284:
12282:
12273:
12271:9955-475-94-3
12267:
12263:
12256:
12254:
12245:
12243:0-415-29667-6
12239:
12235:
12230:
12224:
12208:
12204:
12198:
12192:
12188:
12184:
12181:
12180:
12175:
12171:
12167:
12164:
12163:
12156:
12148:
12142:
12138:
12134:
12133:
12125:
12117:
12111:
12107:
12106:
12098:
12083:
12079:
12073:
12065:
12063:0-521-86403-8
12059:
12055:
12054:
12046:
12040:
12036:
12035:0-87395-654-0
12032:
12028:
12024:
12019:
12004:
12000:
11994:
11992:
11983:
11982:
11974:
11966:
11960:
11956:
11955:
11947:
11939:
11933:
11929:
11928:
11920:
11914:
11910:
11906:
11902:
11898:
11897:Norman Davies
11893:
11886:
11881:
11879:
11871:
11866:
11860:, p. 201
11859:
11854:
11846:
11845:
11838:
11831:
11825:
11823:
11816:
11812:
11806:
11800:
11796:
11795:0-8120-9766-1
11792:
11788:
11782:
11776:, p. 237
11775:
11770:
11768:
11761:, p. 236
11760:
11755:
11749:
11744:
11742:
11733:
11727:
11723:
11716:
11708:
11702:
11698:
11697:
11689:
11682:
11678:
11673:
11667:
11663:
11657:
11650:
11645:
11643:83-231-0239-2
11639:
11635:
11627:
11612:
11606:
11602:
11601:
11593:
11577:
11573:
11569:
11563:
11548:
11542:
11538:
11537:
11529:
11514:
11508:
11504:
11503:
11495:
11480:
11474:
11470:
11469:
11461:
11453:
11447:
11443:
11442:
11434:
11418:
11417:
11409:
11394:
11388:
11384:
11383:
11375:
11360:
11356:
11349:
11347:
11338:
11336:0-8020-7820-6
11332:
11328:
11321:
11313:
11306:
11291:
11285:
11281:
11280:
11272:
11256:
11255:
11247:
11239:
11237:0-87830-026-0
11233:
11229:
11222:
11206:
11205:
11198:
11190:
11183:
11168:
11162:
11158:
11157:
11149:
11133:
11132:
11124:
11108:
11107:
11099:
11091:
11087:
11083:
11079:
11072:
11070:
11061:
11059:83-213-3412-1
11055:
11051:
11050:
11042:
11027:
11023:
11017:
11009:
11003:
10999:
10998:
10990:
10971:
10967:
10960:
10953:
10937:
10933:
10929:
10923:
10915:
10913:0-231-12819-3
10909:
10905:
10900:
10899:
10893:
10892:Norman Davies
10887:
10879:
10877:0-19-859381-3
10873:
10869:
10862:
10854:
10852:0-521-24093-X
10848:
10844:
10843:
10835:
10833:
10817:
10811:
10807:
10806:
10798:
10789:
10780:
10778:
10768:
10766:
10764:
10762:
10760:
10758:
10756:
10746:
10739:
10733:
10726:
10721:
10705:
10704:
10696:
10688:
10682:
10678:
10677:
10669:
10653:
10652:
10644:
10629:. Tomaszewska
10625:
10618:
10612:, p. 279
10611:
10606:
10604:
10587:
10583:
10579:
10573:
10557:
10556:
10548:
10532:
10528:
10522:
10507:. Smithsonian
10506:
10502:
10495:
10479:
10476:
10469:
10451:
10444:
10436:
10434:90-04-13896-X
10430:
10426:
10425:
10417:
10398:
10397:
10389:
10381:
10377:
10373:
10367:
10365:
10356:
10350:
10346:
10342:
10341:
10333:
10331:
10322:
10320:0-86091-710-X
10316:
10312:
10305:
10289:
10283:
10268:
10262:
10258:
10257:
10249:
10241:
10239:91-971048-8-4
10235:
10231:
10224:
10216:
10214:0-8022-2407-5
10210:
10206:
10199:
10183:
10179:
10172:
10164:
10157:
10149:
10147:0-88033-186-0
10143:
10139:
10135:
10131:
10124:
10122:
10120:
10111:
10110:
10102:
10100:
10084:
10078:
10074:
10073:
10065:
10049:
10048:
10040:
10024:
10020:
10014:
10006:
10000:
9996:
9995:
9987:
9972:
9968:
9962:
9955:
9950:
9934:
9930:
9923:
9921:
9919:
9902:
9901:
9900:Niepodległość
9894:
9887:
9883:
9882:0-415-25491-4
9879:
9875:
9871:
9866:
9864:
9862:
9854:
9850:
9847:
9841:
9835:
9831:
9830:1-84212-511-7
9827:
9823:
9817:
9811:
9807:
9806:1-4191-2171-5
9803:
9799:
9795:
9790:
9788:
9781:
9777:
9776:1-4179-3418-2
9773:
9769:
9763:
9761:
9754:
9750:
9749:0-89526-292-4
9746:
9742:
9738:
9733:
9727:
9723:
9722:1-4128-0490-6
9719:
9715:
9711:
9706:
9698:
9692:
9688:
9687:
9682:
9676:
9668:
9666:0-7190-2381-5
9662:
9658:
9657:
9649:
9647:
9638:
9632:
9628:
9627:
9619:
9617:
9607:
9600:
9594:
9590:
9589:0-521-56163-9
9586:
9582:
9578:
9577:Joseph Conrad
9573:
9566:
9560:
9552:
9546:
9542:
9541:
9533:
9525:
9524:
9516:
9501:
9499:0-313-31878-6
9495:
9491:
9490:
9482:
9480:
9471:
9465:
9461:
9453:
9438:
9432:
9428:
9427:
9419:
9412:
9411:History Today
9408:
9404:
9401:
9396:
9387:
9380:
9375:
9367:
9361:
9357:
9356:
9348:
9340:
9334:
9330:
9329:
9321:
9313:
9307:
9303:
9298:
9297:
9288:
9280:
9274:
9270:
9263:
9248:
9242:
9238:
9237:
9229:
9223:
9218:
9211:
9207:
9201:
9197:
9193:
9188:
9187:
9178:
9172:, p. 157
9171:
9170:Brückner 1931
9166:
9164:
9156:
9150:
9142:
9141:
9135:
9130:
9124:
9118:, p. 710
9117:
9112:
9104:
9098:
9094:
9087:
9079:
9073:
9069:
9062:
9054:
9048:
9044:
9043:
9035:
9027:
9021:
9017:
9016:
9008:
9000:
8999:
8991:
8984:
8979:
8971:
8965:
8961:
8960:
8952:
8944:
8943:
8935:
8929:, p. 172
8928:
8923:
8915:
8914:
8906:
8900:, p. 143
8899:
8894:
8886:
8885:
8877:
8869:
8867:0-495-09766-7
8863:
8859:
8852:
8845:
8840:
8834:
8830:
8829:0-88706-833-2
8826:
8822:
8816:
8814:
8812:
8810:
8802:
8797:
8791:, p. 202
8790:
8785:
8779:, p. 170
8778:
8773:
8765:
8761:
8757:
8751:
8736:
8730:
8726:
8725:
8717:
8711:, p. 141
8710:
8705:
8697:
8695:83-05-11452-X
8691:
8687:
8680:
8664:
8663:
8655:
8640:
8634:
8630:
8629:
8624:
8618:
8603:
8597:
8593:
8592:
8584:
8569:
8563:
8559:
8558:
8550:
8535:
8529:
8525:
8524:
8516:
8501:
8495:
8491:
8490:
8482:
8476:, p. 107
8475:
8474:Peterson 2014
8470:
8455:
8449:
8445:
8444:
8436:
8430:, p. 161
8429:
8424:
8408:
8407:
8399:
8384:
8377:
8361:
8360:
8352:
8346:, p. 121
8345:
8340:
8333:
8328:
8326:
8318:
8313:
8307:, p. 117
8306:
8301:
8295:, p. 116
8294:
8289:
8287:
8278:
8271:
8263:
8261:0-295-98093-1
8257:
8253:
8246:
8239:
8234:
8232:
8230:
8228:
8219:
8212:
8204:
8198:
8194:
8187:
8185:
8183:
8166:
8162:
8158:
8153:
8147:
8139:
8138:
8130:
8124:, p. 504
8123:
8118:
8116:
8108:
8103:
8095:
8089:
8085:
8084:
8076:
8069:
8064:
8062:
8053:
8051:83-01-03732-6
8047:
8043:
8039:
8035:
8029:
8021:
8015:
8011:
8010:
8002:
7994:
7988:
7984:
7983:
7975:
7969:
7964:
7957:
7952:
7945:
7939:
7935:
7934:
7926:
7918:
7916:83-7195-853-6
7912:
7908:
7901:
7895:, p. 155
7894:
7889:
7882:
7877:
7869:
7867:0-88033-206-9
7863:
7859:
7855:
7849:
7841:
7839:1-86064-061-3
7835:
7831:
7824:
7817:
7812:
7805:
7800:
7798:
7796:
7788:
7783:
7775:
7769:
7765:
7758:
7752:
7747:
7740:
7736:
7730:
7721:
7715:
7709:
7702:
7698:
7697:Marcin Kromer
7692:
7684:
7680:
7679:
7672:
7667:
7652:
7648:
7642:
7640:
7638:
7629:
7627:0-19-820171-0
7623:
7619:
7614:
7613:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7592:
7591:0-8039-9019-7
7588:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7567:
7563:
7561:0-14-044495-5
7557:
7553:
7548:
7547:
7541:
7536:
7530:
7522:
7516:
7512:
7511:
7506:
7500:
7493:
7490:
7489:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7472:
7466:
7464:
7456:
7455:0-521-80756-5
7452:
7448:
7447:
7442:
7436:
7428:
7426:0-231-08853-1
7422:
7418:
7411:
7403:
7401:0-8135-0799-5
7397:
7393:
7392:
7387:
7381:
7374:
7370:
7364:
7356:
7354:9781107043091
7350:
7346:
7345:
7337:
7329:
7323:
7319:
7315:
7308:
7300:
7294:
7290:
7286:
7279:
7277:
7268:
7266:0-313-30932-9
7262:
7258:
7257:
7252:
7251:Gross, Feliks
7246:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7230:90-420-1016-9
7227:
7223:
7217:
7211:
7210:0-19-925340-4
7207:
7206:0-19-925339-0
7203:
7199:
7193:
7191:
7174:
7170:
7163:
7147:
7146:
7138:
7131:
7125:
7121:
7117:
7116:0-333-77475-2
7113:
7109:
7105:
7100:
7098:
7088:
7086:
7078:
7072:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7050:
7046:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7032:
7026:
7024:
7022:
7020:
7018:
7016:
7008:
7002:
6987:
6983:
6982:
6974:
6959:
6953:
6949:
6948:
6940:
6933:
6927:
6920:
6914:
6906:
6900:
6896:
6895:
6887:
6879:
6873:
6870:. Routledge.
6869:
6868:
6860:
6853:
6847:
6840:
6839:83-7000-016-9
6836:
6832:
6826:
6824:
6807:
6803:
6797:
6790:
6787:Georg Ziaja:
6784:
6777:
6771:
6764:
6760:
6754:
6750:
6743:
6741:
6724:
6720:
6715:
6711:
6706:
6704:
6697:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6684:
6679:
6665:
6664:
6659:
6658:Robert Burton
6653:
6645:
6641:
6638:
6637:
6634:
6626:
6622:
6619:
6616:
6612:
6609:
6606:
6605:Річ Посполита
6602:
6599:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6581:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6554:
6550:
6547:
6546:
6543:
6535:
6531:
6528:
6525:
6521:
6518:
6516:
6512:
6509:
6506:
6502:
6499:
6496:
6492:
6489:
6486:
6482:
6479:
6478:
6475:
6468:
6463:
6459:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6375:
6367:
6362:
6360:
6355:
6353:
6348:
6347:
6345:
6344:
6341:
6330:
6320:
6319:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6300:
6299:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6289:
6283:
6282:
6277:
6272:
6271:
6259:
6255:
6249:
6244:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6230:
6224:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6201:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6182:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6163:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6140:
6135:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6123:constellation
6120:
6119:
6112:
6107:
6103:
6102:
6098:
6097:Michał Boym's
6095:A plate from
6091:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6071:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6057:
6050:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6031:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6017:
6011:
6006:
6002:
5995:
5990:
5986:
5979:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5959:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5939:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5916:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5900:18th century
5896:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5872:
5866:
5861:
5857:
5854:
5848:
5843:
5839:
5833:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5821:Image gallery
5818:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5784:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5762:Martin Kromer
5760:
5750:
5742:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5692:
5689:
5686:in 1651 (see
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5650:
5646:
5641:
5638:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5624:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5600:
5599:
5597:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5572:Royal Prussia
5570:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5547:
5544:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5522:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5504:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5460:
5459:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5440:Upper Hungary
5437:
5436:East European
5433:
5428:
5426:
5425:
5420:
5416:
5415:
5410:
5406:
5405:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5380:
5376:
5373:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5359:
5350:
5346:
5337:
5328:
5319:
5310:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5290:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5228:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5204:
5201:
5197:
5194:
5191:
5188:
5185:
5182:
5179:
5175:
5172:
5169:
5165:
5164:Royal Prussia
5161:
5158:
5155:
5151:
5150:Ducal Prussia
5147:
5143:
5140:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5099:
5096:
5093:
5090:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5079:
5074:
5065:
5063:
5059:
5053:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5026:
5025:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4957:
4953:
4946:
4937:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4919:
4912:
4903:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4844:
4838:
4836:
4835:papal legates
4832:
4828:
4822:
4820:
4816:
4815:Norman Davies
4812:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4788:
4778:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4732:
4728:
4723:
4720:
4716:
4708:
4703:
4699:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4676:Lesser Poland
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4652:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4597:
4596:multicultural
4589:
4585:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4561:
4557:
4555:
4551:
4550:nationalistic
4547:
4543:
4542:
4537:
4536:
4531:
4530:
4525:
4521:
4520:
4515:
4514:
4509:
4506:; championed
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4471:
4467:
4466:
4461:
4460:
4455:
4449:
4441:
4440:
4435:
4432:portrayed in
4431:
4427:
4421:
4411:
4407:
4400:and Sarmatism
4399:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4371:Neoclassicism
4368:
4367:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4303:
4302:Queen Marie's
4299:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4250:, founded by
4249:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4050:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4017:Jacek Różycki
4014:
4010:
4009:Diomedes Cato
4006:
4005:Marco Scacchi
4002:
3998:
3994:
3993:Luca Marenzio
3990:
3989:Sigismund III
3986:
3985:House of Vasa
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3949:
3948:Black Madonna
3945:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3915:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3862:
3859:exhibited at
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3829:Low Countries
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3803:
3799:
3790:
3781:
3770:Art and music
3767:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3639:(1739–1796),
3638:
3634:
3633:
3628:
3625:(1728–1810),
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3611:Baal Shem Tov
3608:
3604:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3587:(1612–1659),
3586:
3582:
3579:
3576:, founder of
3575:
3572:(1611–1687),
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3508:and chemist;
3507:
3504:(1566–1636),
3503:
3499:
3495:
3494:Martin Kromer
3491:
3488:, Polish for
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3469:
3468:Norman Davies
3465:
3461:
3460:Hugo Kołłątaj
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3444:
3440:(1503–1572) (
3439:
3435:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3368:
3363:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3259:), common in
3258:
3254:
3249:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3202:heavy cavalry
3198:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3167:armia koronna
3156:
3150:
3139:
3138:heavy cavalry
3135:
3129:
3119:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3040:
3033:
3024:
3017:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2925:based on the
2924:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2870:Low Countries
2867:
2863:
2862:carminic acid
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2767:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2749:Vistula River
2746:
2737:
2726:
2716:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2674:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2636:established "
2635:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2601:Norman Davies
2598:
2590:
2589:
2583:
2574:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2543:House of Vasa
2540:
2536:
2535:Stefan Batory
2532:
2528:
2523:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2469:confederation
2467:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2442:confederation
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2303:wolna elekcja
2300:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:Złota Wolność
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2098:Neoclassicism
2095:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1977:a coalition (
1976:
1966:
1962:
1953:
1942:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1753:Transylvanian
1750:
1745:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1717:
1715:
1707:
1703:
1702:Ottoman Turks
1699:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1489:– the son of
1488:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1409:Ducal Prussia
1406:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1322:
1317:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:and vowed to
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1161:queen regnant
1159:. The future
1158:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1106:
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929:
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922:
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914:
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905:
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893:
889:
885:
882:, called the
881:
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758:
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609:
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583:
580:5 August 1772
579:
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382:
378:
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349:
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344:
341:
339:
338:Protestantism
336:
334:
331:
328:
325:
324:
322:
318:
311:
307:
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302:
300:
297:
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126:
120:
102:
96:
88:
83:
74:
67:
63:
59:
52:
48:
47:
40:
37:
33:
19:
18877:World War II
18791:
18730:Early modern
18707:Kalmar Union
18578:Papal States
18496:Roman Empire
18312:Demographics
18183:Architecture
18155:Prostitution
18123:Human rights
17996:
17901:Constitution
17775:Christianity
17710:Independence
17603:
17428:Coat of arms
17367:Demographics
17317:Polish names
17287:Folk beliefs
17260:Architecture
17198:Unemployment
17138:Central bank
17014:Human rights
16994:Constitution
16836:World War II
16680:coat of arms
16550:universities
16540:Demographics
16460:Central bank
16379:
16357:Human rights
16311:Constitution
16176:EU accession
15997:independence
15978:
15856:Bibliography
15725:Demographics
15659:Central bank
15549:Human rights
15522:Constitution
15387:
15277:South Africa
15272:Sierra Leone
15219:
15049:Two Sicilies
14993:
14984:Papal States
14784:
14723:
14616:
14482:
14242:Cook Islands
14095:
14081:Saudi Arabia
14010:
13666:
13642:Melvyn Bragg
13562:
13539:
13520:
13501:
13478:
13470:BUM Magazine
13469:
13446:
13427:
13408:
13389:
13375:Bibliography
13360:. Retrieved
13356:
13347:
13343:
13333:15 September
13331:. Retrieved
13321:
13309:. Retrieved
13305:
13295:
13276:
13270:
13251:
13245:
13226:
13220:
13200:
13193:
13174:
13168:
13144:
13137:
13113:
13106:
13094:. Retrieved
13090:the original
13079:
13073:Print, p. 78
13060:
13052:
13039:
13019:
13012:
12992:
12985:
12976:
12961:
12955:
12936:Polish roots
12935:
12928:
12920:
12905:
12899:
12879:
12850:
12845:
12826:
12818:
12808:
12803:
12781:
12767:
12761:
12749:. Retrieved
12743:
12736:
12720:
12702:
12696:
12677:
12669:
12650:
12645:
12636:
12627:
12617:
12598:
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12588:
12574:
12564:
12560:
12541:
12535:
12516:
12511:
12501:
12474:
12441:
12403:
12398:
12379:
12374:Östen Dahl,
12370:
12351:
12346:
12327:
12293:
12261:
12233:
12227:
12223:
12211:. Retrieved
12207:the original
12197:
12177:
12160:
12155:
12131:
12124:
12104:
12097:
12085:. Retrieved
12081:
12072:
12052:
12045:
12026:
12023:Linda Gordon
12018:
12006:. Retrieved
12002:
11980:
11973:
11953:
11946:
11926:
11919:
11900:
11892:
11865:
11853:
11843:
11837:
11829:
11810:
11805:
11786:
11781:
11754:
11721:
11715:
11695:
11688:
11672:
11656:
11648:
11632:
11626:
11614:. Retrieved
11599:
11592:
11580:. Retrieved
11576:the original
11571:
11562:
11550:. Retrieved
11535:
11528:
11516:. Retrieved
11501:
11494:
11482:. Retrieved
11467:
11460:
11440:
11433:
11421:. Retrieved
11415:
11408:
11396:. Retrieved
11381:
11374:
11362:. Retrieved
11358:
11326:
11320:
11311:
11305:
11293:. Retrieved
11278:
11271:
11259:. Retrieved
11253:
11246:
11227:
11221:
11209:. Retrieved
11203:
11197:
11182:
11170:. Retrieved
11155:
11148:
11136:. Retrieved
11130:
11123:
11111:. Retrieved
11105:
11098:
11081:
11077:
11048:
11041:
11029:. Retrieved
11025:
11016:
10996:
10989:
10977:. Retrieved
10970:the original
10965:
10952:
10940:. Retrieved
10936:the original
10931:
10922:
10897:
10886:
10867:
10861:
10841:
10819:. Retrieved
10804:
10797:
10788:
10745:
10737:
10732:
10720:
10708:. Retrieved
10702:
10695:
10675:
10668:
10656:. Retrieved
10650:
10643:
10631:. Retrieved
10617:
10590:. Retrieved
10586:the original
10581:
10572:
10560:. Retrieved
10554:
10547:
10535:. Retrieved
10530:
10521:
10509:. Retrieved
10504:
10494:
10482:. Retrieved
10478:Pasaż Wiedzy
10477:
10468:
10456:. Retrieved
10443:
10423:
10416:
10404:. Retrieved
10395:
10388:
10375:
10339:
10310:
10304:
10292:. Retrieved
10282:
10270:. Retrieved
10255:
10248:
10229:
10223:
10204:
10198:
10186:. Retrieved
10181:
10171:
10162:
10156:
10133:
10108:
10086:. Retrieved
10071:
10064:
10052:. Retrieved
10046:
10039:
10027:. Retrieved
10022:
10013:
9993:
9986:
9974:. Retrieved
9970:
9961:
9956:, p. 64
9949:
9937:. Retrieved
9932:
9905:. Retrieved
9899:
9893:
9873:
9840:
9821:
9816:
9797:
9767:
9740:
9732:
9713:
9705:
9685:
9675:
9655:
9625:
9605:
9599:
9580:
9572:
9564:
9559:
9539:
9532:
9522:
9515:
9503:. Retrieved
9488:
9459:
9452:
9440:. Retrieved
9425:
9418:
9410:
9395:
9386:
9374:
9354:
9347:
9327:
9320:
9295:
9287:
9268:
9262:
9252:26 September
9250:. Retrieved
9235:
9228:
9217:
9209:
9185:
9177:
9154:
9149:
9138:
9123:
9111:
9092:
9086:
9067:
9061:
9041:
9034:
9014:
9007:
8997:
8990:
8983:Borucki 1976
8978:
8958:
8951:
8941:
8934:
8922:
8912:
8905:
8893:
8883:
8876:
8857:
8851:
8839:
8820:
8796:
8784:
8772:
8763:
8759:
8750:
8738:. Retrieved
8723:
8716:
8704:
8685:
8679:
8667:. Retrieved
8661:
8654:
8642:. Retrieved
8627:
8617:
8605:. Retrieved
8590:
8583:
8571:. Retrieved
8556:
8549:
8537:. Retrieved
8522:
8515:
8503:. Retrieved
8488:
8481:
8469:
8457:. Retrieved
8442:
8435:
8428:Szujski 1894
8423:
8411:. Retrieved
8405:
8398:
8386:. Retrieved
8376:
8364:. Retrieved
8358:
8351:
8339:
8312:
8300:
8276:
8270:
8251:
8245:
8238:Bardach 1987
8217:
8211:
8192:
8169:. Retrieved
8165:the original
8160:
8150:
8146:
8136:
8129:
8109:, p. 10
8102:
8082:
8075:
8070:, p. 21
8037:
8028:
8008:
8001:
7981:
7974:
7963:
7951:
7932:
7925:
7906:
7900:
7893:Halecki 1991
7888:
7883:, p. 63
7876:
7857:
7848:
7829:
7823:
7818:, p. 71
7816:Halecki 1991
7811:
7806:, p. 52
7804:Halecki 1991
7782:
7763:
7757:
7746:
7734:
7729:
7720:
7713:
7708:
7700:
7699:in his work
7691:
7677:
7670:
7666:
7654:. Retrieved
7650:
7611:
7582:
7578:John Markoff
7573:
7565:
7545:
7535:Introduction
7534:
7529:
7509:
7499:
7491:
7486:
7444:
7435:
7416:
7410:
7390:
7380:
7372:
7363:
7343:
7336:
7313:
7307:
7284:
7255:
7245:
7221:
7216:
7197:
7177:. Retrieved
7172:
7162:
7150:. Retrieved
7143:
7130:
7107:
7076:
7071:
7056:
7006:
7001:
6989:. Retrieved
6980:
6973:
6961:. Retrieved
6946:
6939:
6931:
6926:
6918:
6913:
6893:
6886:
6866:
6859:
6851:
6846:
6830:
6810:. Retrieved
6805:
6796:
6791:, p. 9.
6788:
6783:
6775:
6770:
6762:
6748:
6727:. Retrieved
6723:the original
6693:
6661:
6652:
6643:
6633:
6624:
6614:
6604:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6577:Žečpospolita
6576:
6572:
6562:
6552:
6542:
6533:
6523:
6514:
6504:
6494:
6484:
6474:
6462:
6231:
6116:
6099:
6076:
6054:
6035:
5925:Royal Guards
5837:
5780:
5774:
5759:cartographer
5756:
5747:
5733:
5725:
5717:
5684:Gambia River
5492:Wielkopolska
5456:
5429:
5422:
5412:
5408:
5402:
5398:
5390:
5387:voivodeships
5384:
5364:
5304:
5256:
5230:
5111:
5054:
5035:
5029:
5022:
4967:colonization
4964:
4887:Polonization
4862:
4860:
4840:
4823:
4808:
4804:Jesuit order
4759:Polonization
4752:
4736:Scandinavian
4724:
4712:
4653:
4593:
4590:and Armenian
4564:Demographics
4558:
4539:
4533:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4502:, peace and
4500:manor houses
4495:
4491:
4479:
4477:
4463:
4457:
4437:
4425:
4397:
4379:Ancient Rome
4364:
4330:
4316:
4295:
4267:
4252:Jan Zamoyski
4225:
4216:
4200:Royal Castle
4188:Saint Anne's
4145:
4109:
4105:
4067:
4043:Architecture
3969:Nowy Wiśnicz
3962:
3955:
3937:
3916:
3911:
3891:
3871:
3865:
3852:
3848:
3820:
3815:period were
3809:
3763:
3759:
3747:
3731:
3727:
3719:
3711:
3701:
3683:
3677:
3653:John Jonston
3649:entomologist
3630:
3600:
3599:'s service (
3597:Ming Dynasty
3542:ethnographer
3533:
3513:
3498:cartographer
3489:
3472:
3452:Piotr Skarga
3441:
3431:
3427:Unitarianism
3378:philosophers
3375:
3366:
3325:
3320:
3301:
3295:
3287:
3285:
3280:
3271:(Polish for
3264:
3256:
3255:formations (
3250:
3209:
3199:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3098:Isfahan rugs
3083:
3078:such as the
3073:
3050:
3047:
2954:
2938:
2920:
2913:
2906:luxury goods
2839:
2812:
2806:
2772:
2669:
2616:liberum veto
2609:
2594:
2587:
2577:Late reforms
2565:
2561:
2551:
2539:Transylvania
2526:
2524:
2516:
2506:
2450:
2411:
2388:
2382:confederatio
2380:
2376:konfederacja
2374:
2365:liberum veto
2360:liberum veto
2358:
2349:insurrection
2342:
2330:
2314:
2302:
2273:
2261:
2254:
2244:
2238:
2234:
2231:Jan Zamoyski
2223:
2221:
2209:appeal court
2166:Polish kings
2105:protectorate
2102:
2082:
2071:
2025:Czartoryskis
2009:
2005:Augustus III
1972:
1922:Saxon Palace
1914:Saxon Garden
1894:
1848:
1814:Danube River
1803:
1781:
1763:. Under the
1746:
1718:
1711:
1654:
1647:
1636:
1602:
1554:expansionism
1551:
1521:and imposed
1511:Jan Zamoyski
1484:
1447:(modern-day
1402:
1380:
1361:
1327:
1293:
1282:
1255:
1228:
1188:
1154:
1110:
1065:
1031:
1007:
984:
957:
928:partitioning
925:
921:Polonization
903:
892:General Sejm
873:
830:
789:
785:
781:
777:
776:
682:Succeeded by
681:
676:
659:• 1582
509:
409:Stanisław II
395:Sigismund II
189:
145:Motto:
144:
101:Royal banner
36:
18862:World War I
18852:Nationalism
18740:Reformation
18725:Renaissance
18697:Black Death
18630:Kievan Rus'
18533:Middle Ages
18325:Rus' people
18188:Kievan Rus'
17579:Kievan Rus'
17564:Early Slavs
17400:Health care
17352:Video games
17292:Folk dances
17128:Agriculture
17068:Politicians
16867:Demographic
16826:World War I
16820:(1795–1918)
16812:(1569–1795)
16800:Middle Ages
16577:Lithuanians
16467:e-Residency
16450:Agriculture
16414:Naval Force
16258:Suwałki Gap
16134:Restoration
16064:occupations
15995:Revival and
15954:Grand Duchy
15730:Belarusians
15649:Agriculture
15368:Kievan Rus'
15216:British Raj
15188:(Sri Lanka)
15074:Württemberg
14786:South Yemen
14674:Maguindanao
14567:Afghanistan
14328:Barotseland
14264:Saint Lucia
14237:New Zealand
14146:Netherlands
13919:Chhatrapati
13903:Sovereignty
13843:Aristocracy
13688: /
13633:(in Polish)
13618:(in Polish)
13362:2 September
12751:3 September
12705:. Vilnius:
12087:3 September
11616:13 February
11552:13 February
11518:13 February
11484:13 February
11423:13 February
11398:13 February
11295:13 February
11261:13 February
11211:13 February
11172:13 February
11138:13 February
11113:13 February
11084:: 233–242.
10821:13 February
10710:14 February
10658:16 February
10633:16 February
10562:16 February
10537:16 February
10511:16 February
10484:16 February
10402:. p. 7
10272:16 February
10188:28 December
10184:(in Polish)
10088:16 February
10054:16 February
10029:16 February
10025:(in Polish)
9971:Linguee.com
9939:16 February
9907:13 February
9505:3 September
9442:13 February
9222:Spórna 2003
9157:, Volume 7.
9116:Tucker 2010
8898:Gintel 1971
8669:20 February
8644:18 February
8539:18 February
8388:16 November
8107:Pernal 2010
7483:Evsey Domar
7179:18 November
7152:18 November
6812:8 September
6729:29 November
6712:Centre for
6214:Renaissance
5987:, 1739–1745
5971:, 1667–1669
5888:, 1753–1756
5874:iconostasis
5817:in Europe.
5772:, entitled
5708:kings were
5500:Warta River
5391:województwa
5277:World War I
5257:Międzymorze
5253:Intermarium
5227:Intermarium
5048:, when the
5032:Reformation
4932:archeparchy
4707:voivodeship
4686:area, 7 in
4222:monasteries
4202:in Warsaw,
4192:Fara Church
4126:Scandinavia
4086:bay windows
3888:Polish beds
3863:in Kraków.
3833:Netherlands
3825:Roman Egypt
3673:Protestants
3589:orientalist
3585:Michał Boym
3308:royal lands
3277:feudal levy
3221: [
3090:Middle East
3065:trade fairs
3057:bourgeoisie
2993:river ports
2950:grain trade
2779:paper mills
2682:Jacobinical
2646:bourgeoisie
2627:legislative
2453:noble class
2418:city-states
1877:Lutheranism
1737:Khmelnytsky
1675:, in 1646.
1531:Protestants
1404:jure uxoris
1296:interregnum
1217:joined the
1120:neighbour,
1086:(1764–1795)
1082:(1648–1764)
853:jure uxoris
818:Catholicism
677:Preceded by
567:1 July 1569
535:Lower house
520:Upper house
504:Legislature
327:Catholicism
257:(1596–1795)
249:(1569–1596)
133: 1587
109: 1605
18978:Categories
18625:Viking Age
18440:Prehistory
18330:Ruthenians
18282:Literature
18255:Vyshyvanka
18150:Minorities
18067:Corruption
18000:(currency)
17921:Government
17916:Parliament
17855:Waterfalls
17720:Euromaidan
17569:East Slavs
17554:Sarmatians
17542:Chronology
17347:Traditions
17297:Literature
17215:(currency)
17058:Parliament
16999:Corruption
16635:Literature
16409:Land Force
16383:parliament
16333:Government
16304:elderships
16151:Baltic Way
16098:Resistance
15793:Literature
15783:Folk dance
15740:Healthcare
15668:(currency)
15596:Parliament
15544:Government
15517:Censorship
15363:Androphagi
15282:Tanganyika
15197:The Gambia
15125:Niuē-Fekai
15064:Yugoslavia
14964:Montenegro
14771:Upper Yafa
14766:Upper Asir
14403:Madagascar
14136:Luxembourg
13868:Government
13833:Abdication
13802:Hereditary
13730:Monarchies
13676:19°56′05″E
13673:50°03′14″N
13096:1 February
13069:0312224583
12674:Östen Dahl
12438:Roy Porter
12229:Protestant
12213:1 February
11913:0199253404
11909:0199253390
11600:Oświecenie
10294:1 February
9737:John Adams
8573:1 February
8505:1 February
8459:14 January
8040:. Warsaw:
7656:27 October
7651:sjp.pwn.pl
7327:0253346274
7298:0415285801
7065:0880293942
6674:References
6611:Belarusian
6569:Lithuanian
6530:Belarusian
6501:Lithuanian
6467:Hereditary
6079:(1580) by
6038:(1554) by
5807:Baltic Sea
5656:Lithuanian
5588:autonomous
5584:Baltic Sea
5550:Lithuanian
5536:Lithuanian
5528:Lithuanian
5470:Małopolska
5419:castellans
5293:See also:
5142:Lithuanian
5132:Belarusian
5030:Until the
4757:, gradual
4729:, a major
4643:, and the
4617:Hungarians
4605:Ruthenians
4488:Sarmatians
4264:Krzyżtopór
4260:ideal city
4114:terracotta
4110:cassettone
3927:Protestant
3902:in French
3896:baldachins
3845:tapestries
3802:Polish bed
3645:agronomist
3641:naturalist
3627:astronomer
3593:naturalist
3581:topography
3574:astronomer
3538:Portuguese
3526:astronomer
3510:Jan Brożek
3402:Protestant
3233:Great Sejm
3080:Amber Road
3061:industries
3025:coin, 1617
2961:Baltic Sea
2910:tapestries
2872:, such as
2795:brickyards
2791:glassworks
2658:preserved
2461:Nihil novi
2395:voivodship
2228:Chancellor
2139:See also:
2029:Radziwiłłs
1918:Saxon Axis
1890:his armies
1769:suzerainty
1633:parliament
1519:absolutism
1469:Baltic Sea
1376:Charles IX
1062:Lithuanian
968:Lithuanian
899:Parliament
871:for life.
839:since the
797:real union
794:federative
649:Population
593:3 May 1791
375:Grand Duke
357:Government
329:(official)
304:Lithuanian
19044:Diarchies
18672:Feudalism
18643:Catalonia
18178:Animation
18145:Languages
18094:(2009-10)
18062:Education
18036:Transport
17948:Judiciary
17941:Elections
17911:President
17850:Mountains
17799:Geography
17690:Holodomor
17626:Hetmanate
17549:Scythians
17405:Languages
17395:Education
17322:Name days
17193:Transport
17073:President
17026:Judiciary
17004:Elections
16928:Mountains
16896:Geography
16650:Mythology
16545:Education
16487:Transport
16419:Air Force
16374:President
16323:Elections
16199:Geography
16093:Holocaust
16004:Press ban
15959:1219–1295
15912:Lithuania
15788:Languages
15735:Education
15699:Transport
15606:President
15579:Militsiya
15527:Elections
15437:Geography
15252:Mauritius
15145:Rarotonga
15130:Nuku Hiva
15120:Mangareva
15095:Bora Bora
14974:Neuchâtel
14944:Lithuania
14849:Catalonia
14736:Sri Lanka
14689:Manchukuo
14664:Kurdistan
14618:Indonesia
14541:Talamanca
14501:Araucanía
14484:and other
14463:Wassoulou
14207:Australia
13883:Oligarchy
13483:Routledge
12789:cite book
12078:"Lemberg"
11355:"Baroque"
8740:8 January
8366:9 January
8036:(1986a).
7593:, p. 121.
7289:Routledge
7029:Based on
6991:13 August
6963:13 August
6660:, in his
6621:Ruthenian
6601:Ukrainian
6520:Ukrainian
6313:1764–1795
6308:1648–1764
6303:1569–1648
6238:, 1680s,
6149:Białystok
5931:in 1786.
5753:Geography
5614:Pomerania
5602:Pomerelia
5586:, was an
5566:Raseiniai
5554:Žemaitija
5409:starostwo
5404:starostwa
5347:, Polish
5136:Ukrainian
5120:Chernihiv
5108:Ruthenian
5068:Languages
4934:with the
4867:ethnicity
4731:Hanseatic
4633:Armenians
4621:Livonians
4584:goldsmith
4484:Sarmatism
4410:Sarmatism
4341:Białystok
4276:Krasiczyn
4176:sanctuary
4122:Hanseatic
4102:coffering
4094:sgraffito
4078:tenements
4062:mannerist
3931:Byzantine
3853:tapiseria
3813:Sarmatian
3657:physician
3562:artillery
3506:alchemist
3253:mercenary
3241:regiments
3237:divisions
3106:Polonaise
2997:granaries
2923:feudalism
2890:Nuremberg
2878:Amsterdam
2827:shillings
2787:ironworks
2653:peasantry
2475:oligarchy
2420:like the
1852:civil war
1788:Leopold I
1661:artillery
1657:Ladislaus
1582:Unity Day
1485:In 1587,
1461:Hanseatic
1385:declared
1332:, son of
1128:dynasty,
896:bicameral
824:, though
663:8,000,000
320:Religion
294:Ruthenian
85:1569–1795
18911:See also
18882:Cold War
18677:Crusades
18647:Valencia
18385:Category
18352:Censuses
18340:Refugees
18335:Diaspora
18272:Holidays
18267:Folklore
18160:Religion
18117:problems
18087:HIV/AIDS
18082:Abortion
17931:Military
17884:Politics
17870:Wildlife
17785:Military
17780:Economic
17768:By topic
17478:Category
17385:Refugees
17332:Religion
17053:Military
16967:Politics
16877:Military
16872:Economic
16862:Cultural
16855:By topic
16805:Monarchs
16787:Timeline
16722:Category
16600:Calendar
16582:Religion
16572:Language
16492:airports
16401:Military
16294:counties
16277:Politics
16062:WWII and
15916:articles
15865:Category
15750:Religion
15745:Language
15684:Industry
15591:Military
15500:Politics
15342:articles
15267:Rhodesia
15262:Pakistan
15181:Barbados
15150:Rimatara
15140:Rapa Iti
15069:Valencia
15044:Tavolara
15034:Scotland
14999:Portugal
14959:Moldavia
14844:Bulgaria
14839:Brittany
14814:Asturias
14694:Mongolia
14684:Maldives
14546:Trinidad
14536:Suriname
14494:Americas
14478:Zimbabwe
14473:Zanzibar
14458:Wituland
14433:Ngazidja
14428:Ndzuwani
14363:Ethiopia
14086:Thailand
14066:Malaysia
14046:Cambodia
13996:Eswatini
13792:Elective
13777:Absolute
13626:Archived
13603:Archived
13353:"Lancut"
13047:of 1997.
12506:, p. 46.
12187:Archived
12170:Archived
12008:2 August
11681:Polityka
11664:XVII:2,
10894:(2005).
10406:22 April
10374:(1987).
9976:27 April
9849:Archived
9683:(2004).
9403:Archived
8758:(1976).
8625:(2017).
8607:11 April
8171:July 15,
7856:(1991).
7585:, 1996,
7542:(1987).
7507:(1993).
7485:(1970).
7475:Archived
7388:(1992).
7253:(1999).
7045:Archived
7042:1717 map
7034:Archived
6276:a series
6274:Part of
6266:See also
6016:Hussars'
5969:Brussels
5904:casket.
5730:Racibórz
5726:Neustadt
5645:Inflanty
5626:Ruthenia
5514:Mazowsze
5498:and the
5454:towns).
5444:Slovakia
5414:starosta
5399:wojewoda
5196:Armenian
5152:(Polish
5116:Bratslav
5042:Reformed
5011:Lutheran
4997:and the
4991:cossacks
4987:Cossacks
4936:Holy See
4781:Religion
4717:and the
4692:Volhynia
4678:, 19 in
4674:, 23 in
4668:burghers
4637:Italians
4588:merchant
4508:oriental
4504:pacifism
4496:szlachta
4492:szlachta
4482:became "
4480:szlachta
4406:Szlachta
4398:Szlachta
4361:Lubartów
4309:Zolochiv
4218:Magnates
4186:include
4098:plafonds
3904:chateaus
3837:Flanders
3703:szlachta
3566:rocketry
3522:polymath
3466:, which
3436:such as
3414:Rulhiere
3330:and the
3313:szlachta
3275: –
3245:brigades
3229:infantry
3183:Monarchs
3112:Military
3005:Augustów
2850:cannabis
2801:, coal,
2664:apostasy
2644:but the
2642:nobility
2631:judicial
2527:szlachta
2391:autonomy
2353:szlachta
2299:election
2269:senators
2211:for the
2027:and the
1708:in 1683.
1617:Osman II
1609:Moldavia
1463:city of
1443:and the
1354:Ottomans
1350:Habsburg
1279:magnates
1274:currency
1243:szlachta
1237:and the
1225:in 1569.
1221:and the
1115:and the
1107:in 1526.
1103:and the
904:szlachta
820:was the
803:and the
792:, was a
508:General
18752:Baroque
18651:Majorca
18563:Francia
18376:Outline
18250:Rushnyk
18245:Pysanka
18230:Borscht
18225:Bandura
18210:Cuisine
18193:Baroque
18170:Culture
18115:suicide
18050:Society
18031:Tourism
18006:Banking
17997:Hryvnia
17984:Economy
17737:Outline
17643:Galicia
17534:History
17525:Ukraine
17469:Outline
17450:Polonia
17415:Symbols
17342:Theatre
17275:Cuisine
17252:Culture
17242:Lawyers
17230:Society
17188:Tourism
17173:Poverty
17158:Exports
17116:Economy
16948:Regions
16918:Islands
16913:Forests
16778:History
16706:Outline
16670:Symbols
16610:Cuisine
16592:Culture
16528:Society
16514:Tourism
16507:seaport
16438:Economy
16389:Speaker
16238:Forests
16223:Climate
16216:capital
15969:Kingdom
15924:History
15842:Outline
15778:Cuisine
15760:Culture
15713:Society
15654:Banking
15637:Economy
15459:Geology
15350:History
15338:Belarus
15257:Nigeria
15232:Ireland
15160:Tahuata
15135:Raiatea
15115:Huahine
15090:Abemama
15083:Oceania
15054:Tuscany
15009:Romania
15004:Prussia
14969:Navarre
14949:Majorca
14929:Ireland
14924:Imereti
14919:Iceland
14914:Hungary
14909:Hanover
14904:Granada
14894:Germany
14889:Georgia
14884:Galicia
14874:Finland
14864:Corsica
14859:Cilicia
14829:Bavaria
14819:Austria
14804:Albania
14776:Vietnam
14719:Sarawak
14709:Qu'aiti
14644:Kathiri
14607:Dapitan
14582:Bukhara
14531:Miskito
14453:Tunisia
14443:Shilluk
14353:Dahomey
14343:Burundi
14333:Bagirmi
14313:Adamawa
14232:Jamaica
14227:Grenada
14212:Bahamas
14176:Oceania
14126:Denmark
14121:Belgium
14116:Andorra
14031:Bahrain
14006:Morocco
14001:Lesotho
13980:Current
13971:Pharaoh
13924:Emperor
13863:Dynasty
13817:Regency
13797:Federal
13787:Diarchy
13741:Monarch
13114:Ukraine
12922:Włoch".
12813:, p. 4.
12723:Vilnius
12594:Polish.
10979:May 18,
10592:May 18,
7703:, 1577.
6692:at the
6260:, 1733.
6229:Plafond
6191:Vilnius
6063:in 1661
5882:Vilnius
5876:in the
5795:steppes
5766:Bologna
5734:Ratibor
5722:Prudnik
5694:Silesia
5682:at the
5616:around
5540:Vilnius
5506:Mazovia
5502:system;
5432:Central
5407:, each
5395:Voivode
5265:Balkans
5261:Finland
5190:Italian
5184:Yiddish
5178:Aramaic
5037:Pic. 13
5024:Pic. 16
5007:Cossack
4971:western
4956:minaret
4891:culture
4831:Jesuits
4748:Litvaks
4744:Litvins
4709:in 1650
4688:Podolia
4672:Mazovia
4649:Olędrzy
4625:Romanis
4601:Germans
4524:sukmana
4519:kontusz
4459:kontusz
4434:Sarmata
4349:Rogalin
4332:Pic. 15
4313:Baroque
4232:palaces
4230:), and
4227:Pic. 14
4206:of the
4168:Nesvizh
4106:kaseton
4090:frescos
4082:loggias
4072:or the
3939:Pic. 13
3923:calques
3841:Belgium
3734:1701).
3720:Memoirs
3708:diaries
3700:. Many
3685:Pic. 10
3632:Pic. 12
3602:Pic. 11
3421:of the
3338:Culture
3317:hetmans
3210:husaria
3179:general
3136:were a
2965:Vistula
2957:folwark
2940:folwark
2935:Slavery
2886:Leipzig
2874:Antwerp
2823:thalers
2775:artisan
2709:Economy
2698:Austria
2694:Prussia
2531:dynasty
2513:of 1573
2393:. Each
2369:sejmiks
2215:in the
2205:Vilnius
2172:in 1596
2107:of the
2017:Dresden
1967:, 1770s
1906:Wilanów
1902:Baroque
1800:Islamic
1773:Prussia
1725:Ukraine
1704:at the
1467:on the
1457:Baltics
1449:Estonia
1441:Livonia
1429:Denmark
1185:diarchy
1169:Jogaila
1150:Jadwiga
1122:Hungary
1072:History
936:Prussia
932:Austria
799:of the
788:or the
612:•
599:•
586:•
573:•
560:•
533:•
518:•
361:Federal
343:Judaism
239:Capital
190:Anthem:
18639:Aragon
18618:Amalfi
18603:Venice
18591:Second
18390:Portal
18240:Kobzar
18205:Cinema
18111:Murder
18077:Health
18016:Energy
17845:Rivers
17838:Cities
17574:Kuyaba
17483:Portal
17423:Anthem
17270:Cinema
17213:Złoty
17168:Mining
17153:Energy
17041:Police
16953:Rivers
16882:Postal
16769:Poland
16727:Portal
16675:anthem
16625:Design
16605:Cinema
16567:Health
16472:Energy
16380:Seimas
16253:Rivers
16211:Cities
15914:
15870:Portal
15803:Cinema
15679:Energy
15666:Ruble
15486:Swamps
15481:Rivers
15449:Cities
15340:
15292:Uganda
15242:Malawi
15207:Guyana
15186:Ceylon
15165:Tahiti
15155:Rurutu
15110:Hawaii
15039:Serbia
15024:Saxony
15014:Russia
14899:Greece
14879:France
14869:Cyprus
14854:Crimea
14834:Bosnia
14809:Aragon
14797:Europe
14761:Taiwan
14731:Sikkim
14714:Ryukyu
14699:Najran
14597:Chehab
14577:Bengal
14526:Mexico
14511:Brazil
14438:Rwanda
14418:Maravi
14318:Ankole
14306:Africa
14298:Former
14279:Tuvalu
14222:Canada
14217:Belize
14161:Sweden
14151:Norway
14141:Monaco
14108:Europe
14061:Kuwait
14056:Jordan
14041:Brunei
14036:Bhutan
13988:Africa
13961:Sultan
13912:Titles
13826:Topics
13569:
13550:
13527:
13508:
13489:
13453:
13434:
13415:
13396:
13311:18 May
13283:
13258:
13233:
13208:
13181:
13156:
13125:
13067:
13027:
13000:
12978:Arabic
12968:
12943:
12912:
12887:
12857:
12833:
12774:
12713:
12684:
12657:
12605:
12548:
12523:
12481:
12448:
12436:&
12410:
12386:
12358:
12334:
12268:
12240:
12143:
12112:
12060:
12033:
11961:
11934:
11907:
11793:
11728:
11703:
11666:online
11640:
11634:mundi"
11607:
11582:19 May
11543:
11509:
11475:
11448:
11389:
11364:13 May
11333:
11286:
11234:
11163:
11056:
11031:18 May
11004:
10942:21 May
10910:
10874:
10849:
10812:
10683:
10431:
10351:
10317:
10263:
10236:
10211:
10144:
10079:
10001:
9880:
9828:
9804:
9774:
9747:
9720:
9693:
9663:
9633:
9587:
9547:
9496:
9466:
9433:
9362:
9335:
9308:
9275:
9243:
9202:
9099:
9074:
9049:
9022:
8966:
8864:
8827:
8731:
8692:
8635:
8598:
8564:
8530:
8496:
8450:
8258:
8199:
8090:
8048:
8016:
7989:
7940:
7913:
7864:
7836:
7770:
7624:
7589:
7558:
7517:
7457:p. 54.
7453:
7423:
7398:
7369:Poland
7351:
7324:
7295:
7263:
7228:
7204:
7114:
7063:
6954:
6901:
6874:
6837:
6755:
6640:Polish
6583:German
6549:Polish
6511:German
6481:Polish
6278:on the
6172:Kaunas
6003:, 1575
6001:Lublin
5985:Kraków
5951:, 1624
5906:Gdańsk
5871:Rococo
5797:. The
5787:plains
5728:) and
5718:Oppeln
5698:Polish
5676:Tobago
5664:Polish
5630:Polish
5618:Gdańsk
5606:Polish
5576:Polish
5558:Polish
5518:Warsaw
5510:Polish
5496:Poznań
5488:Polish
5478:Lublin
5474:Kraków
5466:Polish
5424:ziemia
5356:
5354:
5343:
5341:
5334:
5332:
5325:
5323:
5316:
5314:
5221:Legacy
5210:Tatars
5206:Arabic
5174:Hebrew
5160:German
5098:French
5086:Polish
4979:nobles
4895:Prague
4863:Polish
4861:To be
4800:Kraków
4727:Gdańsk
4719:Deluge
4629:Vlachs
4613:Czechs
4541:szabla
4385:. The
4366:dworek
4327:Warsaw
4298:Orient
4272:Łańcut
4258:as an
4248:Zamość
4196:Poznań
4184:Rococo
4162:, the
4160:Kraków
4152:Jesuit
4118:attics
4064:style.
3957:Pic. 3
3868:France
3849:arrasy
3752:Gdańsk
3696:, and
3615:Hebrew
3554:Brazil
3474:Kraków
3443:Pic. 9
3406:Muslim
3394:Jewish
3350:, and
3303:kwarta
3193:. The
3191:Senate
3175:Hetman
3155:Kraków
3102:Persia
3092:, the
3085:Pic. 4
3069:Lublin
3052:Pic. 7
3001:Grodno
2987:, and
2985:Wieprz
2969:Pilica
2915:Pic. 5
2908:(e.g.
2831:Gdańsk
2819:ducats
2803:copper
2757:Kraków
2753:Warsaw
2745:Gdańsk
2625:among
2570:bribed
2547:Deluge
2509:, the
2403:deputy
2344:rokosz
2288:Polish
2246:Pic. 1
2186:Lublin
2170:Kraków
1961:Warsaw
1749:Deluge
1638:Pic. 2
1613:Khotyn
1574:Moscow
1558:Russia
1507:defeat
1453:Latvia
1433:Elbląg
1425:revolt
1421:Gdańsk
1342:Warsaw
1266:Lublin
1233:, the
1084:, and
1050:Polish
1042:Polish
1034:Polish
1011:Polish
995:Polska
987:Polish
960:Polish
940:Russia
938:, and
894:, the
890:. The
810:Polish
526:Senate
467:
425:
379:
299:German
273:Polish
254:Warsaw
246:Kraków
192:
69:
58:Polish
54:
18608:Genoa
18586:First
18357:Women
18302:Sport
18297:Opera
18292:Music
18287:Media
18262:Dance
18235:Kazka
18102:Delta
17559:Goths
17390:Crime
17375:Poles
17337:Sport
17312:Names
17307:Music
17302:Media
16923:Lakes
16713:Index
16665:Sport
16640:Music
16502:roads
16455:Banks
16263:Towns
16243:Lakes
16233:Flora
15964:Duchy
15939:Balts
15932:Early
15849:Index
15808:Media
15798:Music
15358:Neuri
15247:Malta
15237:Kenya
15212:India
15202:Ghana
15029:Savoy
15019:Samos
14934:Italy
14781:Yemen
14756:Tibet
14751:Syria
14704:Nepal
14679:Mahra
14659:Kumul
14654:Korea
14649:Khiva
14628:Qajar
14612:Hejaz
14602:China
14587:Burma
14516:Haiti
14506:Aztec
14423:Mwali
14413:Maore
14393:Libya
14388:Kongo
14383:Kaffa
14378:Gumma
14373:Gomma
14368:Ghana
14358:Egypt
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