Retina - Knowledge

6802: 1878:, located on the blind spot or optic disk. This organ is extremely rich in blood vessels and is thought to supply nutrition and oxygen to the bird retina by diffusion through the vitreous body. The pecten is highly rich in alkaline phosphatase activity and polarized cells in its bridge portion – both befitting its secretory role. Pecten cells are packed with dark melanin granules, which have been theorized to keep this organ warm with the absorption of stray light falling on the pecten. This is considered to enhance metabolic rate of the pecten, thereby exporting more nutritive molecules to meet the stringent energy requirements of the retina during long periods of exposure to light. 2827: 2568:, showing that the therapy was both safe and effective. There were no serious adverse events, and patients in all three studies showed improvement in their visual function as measured by a number of methods. The methods used varied among the three trials, but included both functional methods such as visual acuity and functional mobility as well as objective measures that are less susceptible to bias, such as the pupil's ability to respond to light and improvements on functional MRI. Improvements were sustained over the long-term, with patients continuing to do well after more than 1.5 years. 7644: 1824: 2815: 591: 2839: 6801: 1901:

are obtained from the DRIVE dataset. In addition, the classes of vessels of the DRIVE dataset have also been identified, and an automated method for accurate extraction of these bifurcations is also available. Changes in retinal blood circulation are seen with aging and exposure to air pollution, and may indicate cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. Determining the equivalent width of arterioles and venules near the optic disc is also a widely used technique to identify cardiovascular risks.

935: 943: 1717: 2258: 553: 513:(RPE). Although their photoreceptors contain a protein, retinochrome, that recycles retinal and replicates one of the functions of the vertebrate RPE, cephalopod photoreceptors are likely not maintained as well as in vertebrates, and that as a result, the useful lifetime of photoreceptors in invertebrates is much shorter than in vertebrates. Having easily replaced stalk eyes (some lobsters) or retinae (some spiders, such as 1753: 1677: 524:, but have evolved separately. From an evolutionary perspective, a more complex structure such as the inverted retina can generally come about as a consequence of two alternate processes - an advantageous "good" compromise between competing functional limitations, or as a historical maladaptive relic of the convoluted path of organ evolution and transformation. Vision is an important adaptation in higher vertebrates. 927: 2632:), rAAV-mediated expression of PEDF, angiostatin, and the soluble VEGF receptor sFlt-1, which are all antiangiogenic proteins, have been shown to reduce aberrant vessel formation in animal models. Since specific gene therapies cannot readily be used to treat a significant fraction of patients with retinal dystrophy, there is a major interest in developing a more generally applicable survival factor therapy. 2406:. The neural retina occasionally detaches from the pigment epithelium. In some instances, the cause of such detachment is injury to the eyeball that allows fluid or blood to collect between the neural retina and the pigment epithelium. Detachment is occasionally caused by contracture of fine collagenous fibrils in the vitreous humor, which pull areas of the retina toward the interior of the globe. 2858: 887:, is reached, which is the thickest portion of the retina. The macula has a yellow pigmentation, from screening pigments, and is known as the macula lutea. The area directly surrounding the fovea has the highest density of rods converging on single bipolar cells. Since its cones have a much lesser convergence of signals, the fovea allows for the sharpest vision the eye can attain. 582: 53: 2414:: Night blindness occurs in any person with severe vitamin A deficiency. The reason for this is that without vitamin A, the amounts of retinal and rhodopsin that can be formed are severely depressed. This condition is called night blindness because the amount of light available at night is too little to permit adequate vision in vitamin A–deficient persons. 1985:(CNGs). Thus the cell is hyperpolarised. The amount of neurotransmitter released is reduced in bright light and increases as light levels fall. The actual photopigment is bleached away in bright light and only replaced as a chemical process, so in a transition from bright light to darkness the eye can take up to thirty minutes to reach full sensitivity. 545: 699:– single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells (with extrusions not shown in diagram). This layer is closest to the choroid, and provides nourishment and supportive functions to the neural retina, The black pigment melanin in the pigment layer prevents light reflection throughout the globe of the eyeball; this is extremely important for clear vision. 2139:

multiplied by the +1 weight factor. The surrounding photoreceptors are the "nearest neighbors" to the centre and are multiplied by the −1/8 value. The sum of all nine of these elements is finally calculated. This summation is repeated for every photoreceptor in the image by shifting left to the end of a row and then down to the next line.

1950:, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic colour vision. However, some animals have four spectral subtypes, e.g. the trout adds an ultraviolet subgroup to short, medium, and long subtypes that are similar to humans. Some fish are sensitive to the polarization of light as well. 2545:(rAAV) vectors possess a number of features that render them ideally suited for retinal gene therapy, including a lack of pathogenicity, minimal immunogenicity, and the ability to transduce postmitotic cells in a stable and efficient manner. rAAV vectors are increasingly utilized for their ability to mediate efficient transduction of 2233: 573:(purple layer), then to the optic nerve fibres. The signals are processed in these layers. First, the signals start as raw outputs of points in the rod and cone cells. Then, the nerve layers identify simple shapes, such as bright points surrounded by dark points, edges, and movement. (Based on a drawing by 2138:

that implements edge detection. This matrix is the computer equivalent to the centre–surround structure. In this example, each box (element) within this matrix would be connected to one photoreceptor. The photoreceptor in the centre is the current receptor being processed. The centre photoreceptor is

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and for early detection of the onset of disease. The mapping of vascular bifurcations is one of the basic steps in biometric identification. Results of such analyses of retinal blood vessel structure can be evaluated against the ground truth data of vascular bifurcations of retinal fundus images that

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When light strikes 11-cis-retinal (in the disks in the rods and cones), 11-cis-retinal changes to all-trans-retinal which then triggers changes in the opsins. Now, the outer segments do not regenerate the retinal back into the cis- form once it has been changed by light. Instead the retinal is pumped

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Rods, cones, and nerve layers in the retina: The front (anterior) of the eye is on the left. Light (from the left) passes through several transparent nerve layers to reach the rods and cones (far right). Chemical changes in the rods and cones send a signal back to the nerves. The signal goes first to

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have the ability to modulate neuronal growth during development to maintain existing cells and to allow recovery of injured neuronal populations in the eye. AAV encoding neurotrophic factors such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family members and GDNF either protected photoreceptors from apoptosis

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algorithms. Beyond this simple difference, ganglion cells are also differentiated by chromatic sensitivity and the type of spatial summation. Cells showing linear spatial summation are termed X cells (also called parvocellular, P, or midget ganglion cells), and those showing non-linear summation are

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of the cell. The receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells comprise a central, approximately circular area, where light has one effect on the firing of the cell, and an annular surround, where light has the opposite effect. In ON cells, an increment in light intensity in the centre of the receptive

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separate the subretinal space from the blood supply, thus protecting it from microbes and most immune-mediated damage, and enhancing its potential to respond to vector-mediated therapies. The highly compartmentalized anatomy of the eye facilitates accurate delivery of therapeutic vector suspensions

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and concludes with production of the Muller glia. Although each cell type differentiates from the RPCs in a sequential order, there is considerable overlap in the timing of when individual cell types differentiate. The cues that determine a RPC daughter cell fate are coded by multiple transcription

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antennae, wings, and legs. The optic vesicle gives rise to three structures: the neural retina, the retinal pigmented epithelium, and the optic stalk. The neural retina contains the retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) that give rise to the seven cell types of the retina. Differentiation begins with the

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possess one fovea, as opposed to certain bird species, such as hawks, that are bifoviate, and dogs and cats, that possess no fovea, but a central band known as the visual streak. Around the fovea extends the central retina for about 6 mm and then the peripheral retina. The farthest edge of the

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The response of cones to various wavelengths of light is called their spectral sensitivity. In normal human vision, the spectral sensitivity of a cone falls into one of three subtypes, often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone

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The energy requirements of the retina are even greater than that of the brain. This is due to the additional energy needed to continuously renew the photoreceptor outer segments, of which 10% are shed daily. Energy demands are greatest during dark adaptation when its sensitivity is most enhanced.

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1:posterior segment 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:Schlemm's canal 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscule 15:inferior rectus muscule 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and

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algorithms used by computer programmers to extract or enhance the edges in a digital photograph. Thus, the retina performs operations on the image-representing impulses to enhance the edges of objects within its visual field. For example, in a picture of a dog, a cat and a car, it is the edges of

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Although the inverted retina of vertebrates appears counter-intuitive, it is necessary for the proper functioning of the retina. The photoreceptor layer must be embedded in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which performs at least seven vital functions, one of the most obvious being to supply

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These centre–surround structures are not physical apparent, in the sense that one cannot see them by staining samples of tissue and examining the retina's anatomy. The centre–surround structures are logical (i.e., mathematically abstract) in the sense that they depend on the connection strengths

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A recent study on the evolutionary purpose for the inverted retina structure from the APS (American Physical Society) says that "The directional of glial cells helps increase the clarity of human vision. But we also noticed something rather curious: the colours that best passed through the glial

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The central retina predominantly contains cones, while the peripheral retina predominantly contains rods. In total, the retina has about seven million cones and a hundred million rods. At the centre of the macula is the foveal pit where the cones are narrow and long, and arranged in a hexagonal

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A third view of the "inverted" vertebrate eye is that it combines two benefits - the maintenance of the photoreceptors mentioned above, and the reduction in light intensity necessary to avoid blinding the photoreceptors, which are based on the extremely sensitive eyes of the ancestors of modern

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in the sense that the light-sensing cells are in the back of the retina, so that light has to pass through layers of neurons and capillaries before it reaches the photosensitive sections of the rods and cones. The ganglion cells, whose axons form the optic nerve, are at the front of the retina;

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to the brain, and the blood vessels that supply the retina. The ganglion cells lie innermost in the eye while the photoreceptive cells lie beyond. Because of this counter-intuitive arrangement, light must first pass through and around the ganglion cells and through the thickness of the retina,

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Further computer simulations showed that green and red are concentrated five to ten times more by the glial cells, and into their respective cones, than blue light. Instead, excess blue light gets scattered to the surrounding rods. This optimization is such that color vision during the day is

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expression in the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), photoreceptors, or ganglion cells for long periods of time after a single treatment. In addition, the eye and the visual system can be routinely and easily monitored for visual function and retinal structural changes after injections with

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The total sum of this matrix is zero, if all the inputs from the nine photoreceptors are of the same value. The zero result indicates the image was uniform (non-changing) within this small patch. Negative or positive sums mean the image was varying (changing) within this small patch of nine

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In adult humans, the entire retina is about 72% of a sphere about 22 mm in diameter. The entire retina contains about 7 million cones and 75 to 150 million rods. The optic disc, a part of the retina sometimes called "the blind spot" because it lacks photoreceptors, is located at the

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The bird retina is devoid of blood vessels, perhaps to give unobscured passage of light for forming images, thus giving better resolution. It is, therefore, a considered view that the bird retina depends for nutrition and oxygen supply on a specialized organ, called the "pecten" or

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out to the surrounding RPE where it is regenerated and transported back into the outer segments of the photoreceptors. This recycling function of the RPE protects the photoreceptors against photo-oxidative damage and allows the photoreceptor cells to have decades-long useful lives.

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Bartsch, U.; Oriyakhel, W.; Kenna, P. F.; Linke, S.; Richard, G.; Petrowitz, B.; Humphries, P.; Farrar, G. J.; Ader, M. (2008). "Retinal cells integrate into the outer nuclear layer and differentiate into mature photoreceptors after subretinal transplantation into adult mice".

2705:, the theory that sight occurs from rays emitted by the eyes. However, Ibn Al-Haytham decided that the retina could not be responsible for the beginnings of vision because the image formed on it was inverted. Instead he decided it must begin at the surface of the lens. 2127:

these objects that contain the most information. In order for higher functions in the brain (or in a computer for that matter) to extract and classify objects such as a dog and a cat, the retina is the first step to separating out the various objects within the scene.

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There are two types of centre–surround structures in the retina – on-centres and off-centres. On-centres have a positively weighted centre and a negatively weighted surround. Off-centres are just the opposite. Positive weighting is more commonly known as

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could be transplanted successfully in the mouse retina if donor cells were at a critical developmental stage. Recently Ader and colleagues in Dublin showed, using the electron microscope, that transplanted photoreceptors formed synaptic connections.

2056:), about 10% of axons in the optic nerve are devoted to the fovea. The resolution limit of the fovea has been determined to be around 10,000 points. The information capacity is estimated at 500,000 bits per second (for more information on bits, see 2471:

is a non-invasive method to examine the small arteries and veins in the retina which allows to draw conclusions about the morphology and the function of small vessels elsewhere in the human body. It has been established as a predictor of

883:, the most dense, in contradistinction to the much fatter cones located more peripherally in the retina. At the foveal pit, the other retinal layers are displaced, before building up along the foveal slope until the rim of the fovea, or 5065:

Chapman, N.; Dell'omo, G.; Sartini, M. S.; Witt, N.; Hughes, A.; Thom, S.; Pedrinelli, R. (1 August 2002). "Peripheral vascular disease is associated with abnormal arteriolar diameter relationships at bifurcations in the human retina".

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Wong TY, Knudtson MD, Klein R, Klein BE, Meuer SM, Hubbard LD (2004). "Computer assisted measurement of retinal vessel diameters in the Beaver Dam Eye Study: methodology, correlation between eyes, and effect of refractive errors".

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The above example is called "balanced". The term balanced means that the sum of the negative weights is equal to the sum of the positive weights so that they cancel out perfectly. Retinal ganglion cells are almost never perfectly

1930:). The rod responses are saturated at daylight levels and do not contribute to pattern vision. However, rods do respond to dim light and mediate lower-resolution, monochromatic vision under very low levels of illumination (called 2082:

When the retina sends neural impulses representing an image to the brain, it spatially encodes (compresses) those impulses to fit the limited capacity of the optic nerve. Compression is necessary because there are 100 times more

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has been used to image individual rods and cones in the living human retina, and a company based in Scotland has engineered technology that allows physicians to observe the complete retina without any discomfort to patients.

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can allow one area of the retina to control another (e.g. one stimulus inhibiting another). This inhibition is key to lessening the sum of messages sent to the higher regions of the brain. In some lower vertebrates (e.g. the

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Y cells (also called magnocellular, M, or parasol retinal ganglion cells), although the correspondence between X and Y cells (in the cat retina) and P and M cells (in the primate retina) is not as simple as it once seemed.

2008:, which modify the synaptic signal before it reaches the ganglion cells, the neural signals being intermixed and combined. Of the retina's nerve cells, only the retinal ganglion cells and few amacrine cells create 6838:

veins 18:optic disc 19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea 27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina

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Although there are more than 130 million retinal receptors, there are only approximately 1.2 million fibres (axons) in the optic nerve. So, a large amount of pre-processing is performed within the retina. The

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bifurcates and supplies the retina via two distinct vascular networks: the choroidal network, which supplies the choroid and the outer retina, and the retinal network, which supplies the retina's inner layer.

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worked out the optics of the eye and decided that the retina must be where sight begins. He left it up to other scientists to reconcile the inverted retinal image with our perception of the world as upright.

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In addition, the retina has been described as a "window" into the brain and body, given that abnormalities detected through an examination of the retina can discover both neurological and systemic diseases.

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The retina is stratified into distinct layers, each containing specific cell types or cellular compartments that have metabolisms with different nutritional requirements. To satisfy these requirements, the

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In addition to guiding cell fate determination, cues exist in the retina to determine the dorsal-ventral (D-V) and nasal-temporal (N-T) axes. The D-V axis is established by a ventral to dorsal gradient of

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Illustration of the distribution of cone cells in the fovea of an individual with normal colour vision (left), and a colourblind (protanopic) retina. The center of the fovea holds very few blue-sensitive

1938:. At mesopic light levels, both the rods and cones are actively contributing pattern information. What contribution the rod information makes to pattern vision under these circumstances is unclear. 2654:, an "artificial retina" is under development: an implant which will bypass the photoreceptors of the retina and stimulate the attached nerve cells directly, with signals from a digital camera. 2909: 2213:

The retina performs all these calculations in parallel while the computer operates on each pixel one at a time. The retina performs no repeated summations and shifting as would a computer.

1946:. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour, but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this 911:), control of messages is "centrifugal" – that is, one layer can control another, or higher regions of the brain can drive the retinal nerve cells, but in primates, this does not occur. 391:. Rods function mainly in dim light and provide monochromatic vision. Cones function in well-lit conditions and are responsible for the perception of colour through the use of a range of 898:

is not direct. Since about 150 million receptors and only 1 million optic nerve fibres exist, convergence and thus mixing of signals must occur. Moreover, the horizontal action of the

2838: 2246:). The exact function of the LGN is unknown at this time. The output of the LGN is then sent to the back of the brain. Specifically, the output of the LGN "radiates" out to the V1 5109:

Patton, N.; Aslam, T.; MacGillivray, T.; Deary, I.; Dhillon, B.; Eikelboom, R.; Yogesan, K.; Constable, I. (2006). "Retinal image analysis: Concepts, applications and potential".

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proteins. The role of Pax6 in eye development was elegantly demonstrated by Walter Gehring and colleagues, who showed that ectopic expression of Pax6 can lead to eye formation on

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holds promise as a potential avenue to cure a wide range of retinal diseases. This involves using a non-infectious virus to shuttle a gene into a part of the retina. Recombinant

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The bifurcations and other physical characteristics of the inner retinal vascular network are known to vary among individuals, and these individual variances have been used for

1401: 1300: 2036:, the retina is vertically divided in two, a temporal (nearer to the temple) half and a nasal (nearer to the nose) half. The axons from the nasal half cross the brain at the 2799:

game where players trace neurons in the retina. The goals of the EyeWire project are to identify specific cell types within the known broad classes of retinal cells, and to

664:– projections of rods and cones ending in the rod spherule and cone pedicle, respectively, these make synapses with dendrites of bipolar cells and horizontal cells. In the 5752:"Treatment of Leber Congenital Amaurosis Due to RPE65Mutations by Ocular Subretinal Injection of Adeno-Associated Virus Gene Vector: Short-Term Results of a Phase I Trial" 2580:

to specific tissues under direct visualization using microsurgical techniques. In the sheltered environment of the retina, AAV vectors are able to maintain high levels of

1590: 747: 2878: 2533: 1923:. The excitation is processed by the neural system and various parts of the brain working in parallel to form a representation of the external environment in the brain. 1919:

The retina translates an optical image into neural impulses starting with the patterned excitation of the colour-sensitive pigments of its rods and cones, the retina's

1663:. Additional gradients are formed within the retina. This spatial distribution may aid in proper targeting of RGC axons that function to establish the retinotopic map. 520:

The cephalopod retina does not originate as an outgrowth of the brain, as the vertebrate one does. This difference suggests that vertebrate and cephalopod eyes are not

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Once the image is spatially encoded by the centre–surround structures, the signal is sent out along the optic nerve (via the axons of the ganglion cells) through the

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Light striking the retina initiates a cascade of chemical and electrical events that ultimately trigger nerve impulses that are sent to various visual centres of the

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den Hollander, Anneke I.; Roepman, Ronald; Koenekoop, Robert K.; Cremers, Frans P.M. (2008). "Leber congenital amaurosis: Genes, proteins and disease mechanisms".

4932:"Air Pollution and the microvasculature: a crosssectional assessment of in vivo retinal images in the population based multiethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA)" 1241: 6821: 1446: 266: 3354:

Drazen, J. C.; Yeh, J.; Friedman, J.; Condon, N. (June 2011). "Metabolism and enzyme activities of hagfish from shallow and deep water of the Pacific Ocean".

6214: 3440: 781:, where the optic-nerve fibres leave the eye. It appears as an oval white area of 3 mm. Temporal (in the direction of the temples) to this disc is the 6818: 6153: 2826: 7081: 2500: 1573: 396: 6819: 6183: 1292: 1019: 6824: 5434:

Dinculescu Astra; Glushakova Lyudmyla; Seok-Hong Min; Hauswirth William W (2005). "Adeno-associated virus-vectored gene therapy for retinal disease".

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cells were green to red, which the eye needs most for daytime vision. The eye usually receives too much blue—and thus has fewer blue-sensitive cones.

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retina, the photoreceptors are in front, with processing neurons and capillaries behind them. Because of this, cephalopods do not have a blind spot.

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Yu, DY; Yu, PK; Cringle, SJ; Kang, MH; Su, EN (May 2014). "Functional and morphological characteristics of the retinal and choroidal vasculature".

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Bringmann A, Syrbe S, Görner K, Kacza J, Francke M, Wiedemann P, Reichenbach A (2018). "The primate fovea: Structure, function and development".

1981:. This in turn causes the Ga-subunit of the protein to activate a phosphodiesterase (PDE6), which degrades cGMP, resulting in the closing of Na+ 502:, is avascular (does not have blood vessels), and has minimal neural tissue in front of the photoreceptors, thereby minimizing light scattering. 6820: 2451:

measure the retina's electrical activity, which is affected by certain diseases. A relatively new technology, now becoming widely available, is

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Sabra, A. I. (Ed.). (1011–1021/1989). The optics of Ibn Al-Haytham: Books I-III: On direct vision (A. I. Sabra, Trans.). The Warburg Institute.

789:, a pit that is responsible for sharp central vision, but is actually less sensitive to light because of its lack of rods. Human and non-human 6805: 4838:

Qureshi, T. A.; Habib, M.; Hunter, A.; Al-Diri, B. (June 2013). "A manually-labeled, artery/Vein classified benchmark for the DRIVE dataset".

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field causes the firing rate to increase. In OFF cells, it makes it decrease. In a linear model, this response profile is well described by a

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two-dimensional image of the visual world on the retina, which then processes that image within the retina and sends nerve impulses along the

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subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of

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Halder, G; Callaerts, P; Gehring, WJ (24 March 1995). "Induction of ectopic eyes by targeted expression of the eyeless gene in Drosophila".

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This strategy is effective against a number of retinal diseases that have been studied, including neovascular diseases that are features of

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from the retina, this is the space created between the posterior cortical vitreous face and the internal limiting membrane of the retina.

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does occur. Some vertebrates, including humans, have an area of the central retina adapted for high-acuity vision. This area, termed the

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therefore, the optic nerve must cross through the retina en route to the brain. No photoreceptors are in this region, giving rise to the

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published numerous experiments demonstrating that sight occurs from light reflecting from objects into the eye. This is consistent with

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Letelier J, Bovolenta P, Martínez-Morales JR (2017). "The pigmented epithelium, a bright partner against photoreceptor degeneration".

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In the photoreceptors, exposure to light hyperpolarizes the membrane in a series of graded shifts. The outer cell segment contains a

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between bipolar and ganglion cells. It is believed that the connection strength between cells is caused by the number and types of

6816: 4562: 4067: 3994: 3356: 3770:"Cellular Characterization of OCT and Outer Retinal Bands Using Specific Immunohistochemistry Markers and Clinical Implications" 757:

Additional structures, not directly associated with vision, are found as outgrowths of the retina in some vertebrate groups. In

6809: 693:– inner segments and outer segments of rods and cones, the outer segments contain a highly specialized light-sensing apparatus. 6828: 6827: 5474:

Cideciyan A. V.; Hauswirth W. W.; Aleman T. S.; Kaushal S.; Schwartz S. B.; Boye S. L.; Windsor E. A. M.; et al. (2009).

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Qureshi, T. A.; Hunter, A.; Al-Diri, B. (June 2014). "A Bayesian Framework for the Local Configuration of Retinal Junctions".

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in front of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the

6681: 6607: 6470: 5229: 4906: 4855: 4755: 4346: 3769: 3730: 3705: 2948: 2788: 2743: 2647: 6808: 4805: 3857:(2014). "Proposed Lexicon for Anatomic Landmarks in Normal Posterior Segment Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography". 2383: 6807: 5683:

Bainbridge J. W. B.; Smith A. J.; Barker S. S.; Robbie S.; Henderson R.; Balaggan K.; Viswanathan A.; et al. (2008).

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Franze K, Grosche J, Skatchkov SN, Schinkinger S, Foja C, Schild D, Uckermann O, Travis K, Reichenbach A, Guck J (2007).

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describes a group of diseases characterized by loss of central vision because of death or impairment of the cells in the

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showing the blood vessels in a normal human retina. Veins are darker and slightly wider than corresponding arteries. The

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Ashtari M.; Cyckowski L. L.; Monroe J. F.; Marshall K. A.; Chung D. C.; Auricchio A.; Simonelli F.; et al. (2011).

5476:"Human RPE65 gene therapy for Leber congenital amaurosis: persistence of early visual improvements and safety at 1 year" 4778: 1763: 379:

and is supported by an outer layer of pigmented epithelial cells. The primary light-sensing cells in the retina are the

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Hauswirth W. W.; Aleman T. S.; Kaushal S.; Cideciyan A. V.; Schwartz S. B.; Wang L.; Conlon T. J.; et al. (2008).

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Cepko, Connie (September 2014). "Intrinsically different retinal progenitor cells produce specific types of progeny".

3084: 2095:", which is carried out by the "centre–surround structures", which are implemented by the bipolar and ganglion cells. 1926:

The cones respond to bright light and mediate high-resolution colour vision during daylight illumination (also called

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and seems to have, according to a study published in 2019, potential in the early detection of Alzheimer's disease.

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Simonelli F.; Maguire A. M.; Testa F.; Pierce E. A.; Mingozzi F.; Bennicelli J. L.; Rossi S.; et al. (2010).

5377:"Functional and morphological changes of the retinal vessels in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment" 3437: 2427:

A number of different instruments are available for the diagnosis of diseases and disorders affecting the retina.

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Maguire A. M.; Simonelli F.; Pierce E. A.; Pugh E. N.; Mingozzi F.; Bennicelli J.; Banfi S.; et al. (2008).

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Sherman, J (June 2009). "Photoreceptor integrity line joins the nerve fiber layer as key to clinical diagnosis".

2976:"Sensory Reception: Human Vision: Structure and function of the Human Eye" vol. 27, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1987 2565: 17: 5634:

Maguire A. M.; High K. A.; Auricchio A.; Wright J. F.; Pierce E. A.; Testa F.; Mingozzi F.; et al. (2009).

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is a group of genetic diseases that affect the retina and cause the loss of night vision and peripheral vision.

1958: 845: 4290:"Single-cell transcriptional logic of cell-fate specification and axon guidance in early-born retinal neurons" 2616:. Since the regulation of vascularization in the mature retina involves a balance between endogenous positive 2268:

There are many inherited and acquired diseases or disorders that may affect the retina. Some of them include:

6604:, edited by William Krause, Dept. Pathology and Anatomical science, University of Missouri School of Medicine 3328: 2651: 2395: 1031: 441:, the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain, specifically the embryonic 422:. Neural signals from the rods and cones undergo processing by other neurons, whose output takes the form of 261: 6830: 6511:"The Retinome – Defining a reference transcriptome of the adult mammalian retina/retinal pigment epithelium" 3961:

Turgut, Burak; University, Fırat; Medicine, School of; Ophthalmology, Department of; Elazig; Turkey (2017).

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Zone at the outer choroid with a marked change in texture, in which large circular or ovoid profiles abut a

7759: 7272: 7240: 7077: 6237: 4733:

Azzopardi G.; Petkov N. (2011). "Detection of Retinal Vascular Bifurcations by Trainable V4-Like Filters".

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produces the most accurate information. Despite occupying about 0.01% of the visual field (less than 2° of

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The unique architecture of the retina and its relatively immune-privileged environment help this process.

825:(including its capillary vessels, not shown) before reaching the rods and cones. Light is absorbed by the 624:– contains nuclei of ganglion cells, the axons of which become the optic nerve fibres, and some displaced 7225: 7194: 7186: 6866: 2379: 2183:

The above matrix is only an approximation to what really happens inside the retina. The differences are:

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bodies (a thin layer of Müller cell footplates exists between this layer and the inner limiting membrane)

400: 6366: 6175: 6100: 395:, as well as high-acuity vision used for tasks such as reading. A third type of light-sensing cell, the 7964: 7924: 7376: 7021: 7011: 6832: 6340: 4559:"Diagrammatic representation of disc shedding and phagosome retrieval into the pigment epithelial cell" 3963:"Past and Present Terminology for the Retinal and Choroidal Structures in Optical Coherence Tomography" 2750: 2613: 2546: 2315: 2243: 1774: 1519: 1508: 1490: 1480: 1452: 1285: 1054: 826: 696: 684: 594:

Distribution of rods and cones along a line passing through the fovea and the blind spot of a human eye

510: 6813: 4983:"Retinal Microvascular Responses to Short-Term Changes in Particulate Air Pollution in Healthy Adults" 4734: 2844:

Illustration of image as 'seen' by the retina independent of optic nerve and striate cortex processing

1861:

The choroid supplies about 75% of these nutrients to the retina and the retinal vasculature only 25%.

1561:

Thick layer of round or ovalshaped hyperreflective profiles, with hyporeflective cores in mid-choroid

7874: 7573: 7403: 6674: 6623: 4470:"Watching the human retina breath in real time and the slowing of mitochondrial respiration with age" 2768: 2203: 6831: 6432:

Rodieck RW (1965). "Quantitative analysis of cat retinal ganglion cell response to visual stimuli".

5704: 4889: 2717: 2104: 2100: 574: 7916: 7687: 7679: 6834: 6703: 5433: 3697: 2702: 2350: 225: 6812: 3465: 2994: 7752: 7458: 7016: 6972: 6396: 4783: 2772: 2468: 2041: 2021: 1690: 743: 731: 690: 602: 454: 35: 7543: 4250:

Hatakeyama, J; Kageyama, R (February 2004). "Retinal cell fate determination and bHLH factors".

1578:

Thick layer of oval-shaped hyperreflective profiles, with hyporeflective cores in outer choroid

7959: 7934: 7883: 7783: 7493: 7156: 7049: 6780: 5699: 4884: 3928:

Hildebrand, Göran Darius; Fielder, Alistair R. (2011). "Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina".

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The vertebrate retina has 10 distinct layers. From closest to farthest from the vitreous body:

562: 446: 408: 273: 249: 237: 201: 6810: 6637: 687:– layer that separates the inner segment portions of the photoreceptors from their cell nuclei 7332: 7137: 7061: 6999: 6987: 6942: 5330: 4664: 2919: 2754: 2576: 2557:. Each cell type can be specifically targeted by choosing the appropriate combination of AAV 2510: 2247: 1997: 1961:(cGMP) keep the Na+ channel open, and thus in the resting state the cell is depolarised. The 1728: 1635: 1330: 1205: 1133: 923:(OCT), 18 layers can be identified in the retina. The layers and anatomical correlation are: 895: 864: 860: 852: 818: 708: 703:

These layers can be grouped into four main processing stages—photoreception; transmission to

661: 638: 630: 615: 570: 438: 427: 7453: 6642: 5301: 4981:

Louwies, Tijs; Panis, Luc Int; Kicinski, Michal; Boever, Patrick De; Nawrot, Tim S. (2013).

4013: 3689: 7713: 7578: 7553: 7518: 7322: 6667: 6573: 6252: 5390: 4481: 4288:

Lo Giudice, Quentin; Leleu, Marion; La Manno, Gioele; Fabre, Pierre J. (1 September 2019).

4165: 3404: 3156: 2889: 2633: 2609: 2593:

auto-fluorescence (FAF), dark-adapted visual thresholds, vascular diameters, pupillometry,

2586: 2354: 2319: 2278: 2272: 2131: 903: 720: 625: 566: 52: 3392: 2291:(CORD) describes a number of diseases where vision loss is caused by deterioration of the 1655:, whereas the N-T axis is coordinated by expression of the forkhead transcription factors 449:(CNS) and is actually brain tissue. It is the only part of the CNS that can be visualized 8: 7623: 7483: 7478: 7443: 7347: 7053: 7004: 6992: 6982: 6937: 6871: 6785: 6732: 6116: 3690: 2776: 2698: 2594: 2550: 2444: 1947: 1934:). The illumination in most office settings falls between these two levels and is called 1523: 1267: 1219: 1176: 1165: 1140: 1105: 868: 739: 704: 678: 652: 644: 634: 621: 558: 476: 7633: 6659: 6577: 6421: 6256: 5801:"The human visual cortex responds to gene therapy-mediated recovery of retinal function" 5394: 4510: 4485: 4469: 4169: 3408: 3160: 1823: 798:. The distance from one ora to the other (or macula), the most sensitive area along the 7643: 7513: 7488: 7468: 7317: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7037: 6876: 6760: 6727: 6617: 6286: 6067: 6034: 5963: 5920: 5825: 5800: 5776: 5751: 5660: 5635: 5608: 5581: 5554: 5529: 5500: 5475: 5411: 5381: 5376: 5352: 5325: 5279: 5254: 5134: 5007: 4982: 4958: 4931: 4912: 4861: 4811: 4710: 4685: 4558: 4395: 4232: 4133: 4108: 4082: 3670: 3622: 3597: 3556: 3529: 3505: 3480: 3305: 3272: 3253: 3179: 3144: 3057: 3022: 2432: 2402: 2390: 2311: 2303: 2288: 2253:

Simplified signal flow: Photoreceptors → Bipolar → Ganglion → Chiasm → LGN → V1 cortex

2084: 2057: 1920: 1556: 1424: 1418: 1407: 1376: 1323: 1274: 1247: 1215: 521: 506: 380: 7664: 6633:

Jeremy Nathans's Seminars: "The Vertebrate Retina: Structure, Function, and Evolution"

6632: 6541: 6510: 5651: 5343: 5270: 5043: 5030:

Tso, Mark O.M.; Jampol, Lee M. (1982). "Pathophysiology of Hypertensive Retinopathy".

4840:

Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems

3357:

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology

7811: 7718: 7538: 7473: 7357: 7073: 6977: 6894: 6765: 6691: 6546: 6497: 6466: 6449: 6445: 6322: 6278: 6120: 6072: 6054: 6015: 6007: 5955: 5951: 5912: 5871: 5830: 5781: 5725: 5665: 5613: 5559: 5505: 5451: 5416: 5357: 5284: 5235: 5225: 5203: 5193: 5170: 5126: 5122: 5091: 5083: 5047: 5012: 4963: 4902: 4851: 4751: 4715: 4648: 4628: 4605: 4601: 4515: 4497: 4387: 4383: 4352: 4342: 4319: 4311: 4267: 4224: 4216: 4181: 4138: 4048: 3941: 3907: 3897: 3874: 3854: 3802: 3726: 3701: 3662: 3627: 3561: 3530:"Photoreceptor signaling: supporting vision across a wide range of light intensities" 3510: 3496: 3420: 3373: 3310: 3292: 3245: 3241: 3184: 3092: 3062: 3044: 2944: 2375: 2346: 1844: 1827: 1082: 611: 357: 353: 5967: 5749: 5473: 4916: 4585: 4399: 4236: 2191:

The table is square while the centre–surround structures in the retina are circular.

1613:

Retinal development begins with the establishment of the eye fields mediated by the

867:. In the outer neuropil layer, the rods and cones connect to the vertically running 509:

to the eyes of many vertebrates. Squid eyes do not have an analog of the vertebrate

7728: 7598: 7568: 7558: 7523: 7399: 7342: 7280: 7117: 6770: 6722: 6581: 6536: 6526: 6489: 6441: 6314: 6290: 6268: 6260: 6112: 6062: 6046: 5997: 5947: 5924: 5902: 5861: 5820: 5812: 5798: 5771: 5763: 5717: 5709: 5682: 5655: 5647: 5603: 5595: 5549: 5541: 5495: 5487: 5443: 5406: 5398: 5347: 5339: 5274: 5266: 5162: 5138: 5118: 5075: 5039: 5002: 4994: 4953: 4943: 4894: 4865: 4843: 4743: 4705: 4697: 4640: 4597: 4505: 4489: 4379: 4301: 4259: 4208: 4173: 4128: 4120: 4040: 3974: 3933: 3866: 3792: 3784: 3674: 3654: 3617: 3609: 3551: 3541: 3500: 3492: 3416: 3412: 3365: 3300: 3284: 3257: 3237: 3207: 3174: 3164: 3052: 3034: 2883: 2643: 2564:

Several clinical trials have already reported positive results using rAAV to treat

2040:

to join with axons from the temporal half of the other eye before passing into the

2009: 1943: 1910: 1538: 1223: 837: 590: 495: 423: 404: 376: 325: 321: 156: 122: 116: 83: 6654: 6493: 3891: 3658: 1252:(obliquely orientated fibres; not present in mid-peripheral or peripheral retina) 7733: 7613: 7608: 7593: 7508: 7428: 7255: 7214: 7210: 7132: 5986:"Recombinant AAV-mediated gene transfer to the retina: gene therapy perspectives" 5907: 5890: 5308: 5166: 4948: 4816: 4747: 4263: 3870: 3788: 3444: 2863: 2796: 2784: 2764: 2709: 2679: 2436: 2410: 2217: 2210:. (The computer pixel is basically the equivalent of a biological photoreceptor.) 2069: 2049: 2016: 2001: 1931: 1927: 805:

In section, the retina is no more than 0.5 mm thick. It has three layers of

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Although the overlying neural tissue is partly transparent, and the accompanying

457:. The retina is the part of the body with the greatest continuous energy demand. 453:. Like most of the brain, the retina is isolated from the vascular system by the 230: 77: 6480:

Wässle H, Boycott BB (1991). "Functional architecture of the mammalian retina".

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In the retinal ganglion cells there are two types of response, depending on the

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oxygen and other necessary nutrients needed for the photoreceptors to function.

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Time-Domain OCT of the macular area of a retina at 800 nm, axial resolution 3 μm

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is a vascular structure of complex shape that projects from the retina into the

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Kaynezhad, Pardis; Tachtsidis, Ilias; Sivaprasad, Sobha; Jeffery, Glen (2023).

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Receptive field, for figures and more information on centre–surround structures

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is a central tract of many axons of ganglion cells connecting primarily to the

648: 341: 295: 31: 6601: 6586: 6559: 4930:

Adar SD, Klein R, Klein BE, Szpiro AA, Cotch MF, Wong TY, et al. (2010).

4847: 4779:"Retinal fundus images – Ground truth of vascular bifurcations and crossovers" 3039: 2803:

between neurons in the retina, which will help to determine how vision works.

2349:

can cause damage to the tiny blood vessels that supply the retina, leading to

2318:. There are several modern treatment methods for fixing a retinal detachment: 1186: 1061: 934: 356:. The retina serves a function which is in many ways analogous to that of the 7953: 7891: 7862: 7503: 7448: 7285: 7220: 7057: 6518: 6058: 6011: 5850:"Immune response following intraocular delivery of recombinant viral vectors" 5527: 5207: 5087: 4501: 4356: 4315: 4220: 3911: 3296: 3048: 2894: 2800: 2739: 2228:

Here is an example of an input image and how edge detection would modify it.

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proteins, with subsequent development of the optic vesicles regulated by the

1111: 1088: 1027: 995: 491: 349: 254: 189: 5447: 5239: 4177: 3546: 3169: 950:

From innermost to outermost, the layers identifiable by OCT are as follows:

7906: 7838: 7528: 7498: 7368: 7245: 7069: 6904: 6886: 6564: 6550: 6531: 6326: 6282: 6076: 6019: 5959: 5916: 5875: 5834: 5785: 5729: 5685:"Effect of gene therapy on visual function in Leber's congenital amaurosis" 5669: 5617: 5563: 5509: 5455: 5420: 5361: 5288: 5174: 5130: 5095: 5016: 4967: 4533: 4519: 4391: 4323: 4271: 4228: 4142: 4052: 3878: 3806: 3666: 3631: 3565: 3514: 3424: 3377: 3249: 3188: 3096: 3066: 2899: 2625: 2590: 2538: 2496: 2342: 2307: 2239: 2053: 1993: 1954: 1897: 1887: 1875: 1835: 1380: 1345: 1340: 965: 769:; it supplies oxygen and nutrients to the eye, and may also aid in vision. 762: 735: 442: 361: 184: 6501: 6453: 6124: 6002: 5985: 5866: 5849: 5713: 5599: 5051: 4898: 4719: 4652: 4609: 4185: 2394:

is a white appearance of the retina, and can occur by lipid deposition in

2224:

play a significant role in this process, but that is not represented here.

1988:

When thus excited by light, the photoceptor sends a proportional response

301: 7896: 7848: 7796: 7548: 7337: 7206: 7163: 7101: 7065: 6649: 6273: 5767: 5491: 5326:"Retinal Vessel Calibers in Predicting Long-Term Cardiovascular Outcomes" 4701: 4586:"Effect of dark and light adaptation on the retina and pecten of chicken" 3314: 3288: 2731: 2670:

identified the retina from dissections of cadaver eyes. He called it the

2650:, The University of Southern California, RWTH Aachen University, and the 2492:

The following are commonly modalities of management for retinal disease:

2327: 2195: 2112: 1696: 1095: 841: 795: 727: 606: 419: 345: 6264: 5721: 5545: 5224:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Mosby. 2006. pp. 2013–2015. 4998: 3720: 1716: 7821: 7671: 7588: 7533: 7418: 7151: 6909: 5582:"Safety and efficacy of gene transfer for Leber's congenital amaurosis" 4742:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6854. pp. 451–459. 4461: 4306: 4289: 3797: 3768:

Cuenca, Nicolás; Ortuño-Lizarán, Isabel; Pinilla, Isabel (March 2018).

2910:

List of xanthoma variants associated with hyperlipoproteinemia subtypes

2758: 2667: 2464: 2335: 1891: 1831: 1630: 942: 778: 751: 487: 480: 333: 5079: 4644: 2257: 1410:

which bridge the inner and outer segments of the photoreceptor cells.

279: 7833: 7806: 7695: 7433: 7127: 7122: 7041: 6695: 5816: 5187: 3960: 3023:"A Metabolic Landscape for Maintaining Retina Integrity and Function" 2914: 2581: 2456: 2314:

is used to describe a separation of the neurosensory retina from the

2292: 2135: 2060:) without colour or around 600,000 bits per second including colour. 1978: 1970: 1335: 884: 647:– contains the nuclei and surrounding cell bodies (perikarya) of the 388: 58: 6236:

MacLaren, RE; Pearson, RA; MacNeil, A; et al. (November 2006).

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The centre–surround structures are mathematically equivalent to the

1881: 914: 7855: 7828: 7791: 7723: 7423: 7045: 2558: 2460: 2296: 2232: 1644: 1211: 1180: 1144: 856: 715:; and transmission along the optic nerve. At each synaptic stage, 505:

The cephalopods have a non-inverted retina, which is comparable in

384: 337: 4686:"On connecting large vessels to small – the meaning of murray law" 3202:

Baker, Oliver (23 April 2010). "Focus: Eye Cells as Light Pipes".

2074: 7744: 7297: 7198: 7142: 6858: 6613: 5888: 3852: 3644: 3145:"Muller cells are living optical fibers in the vertebrate retina" 3142: 2792: 2720:

published the first major characterization of retinal neurons in

2116: 1989: 1974: 1966: 830: 810: 790: 770: 552: 3894:

Spectral domain optical coherence tomography in macular diseases

926: 859:, where synaptic contacts are made. The neuropil layers are the 7658: 7202: 6742: 6714: 6238:"Retinal repair by transplantation of photoreceptor precursors" 4881:

2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition

3892:

Meyer, Carsten H.; Saxena, Sandeep; Sadda, Srinivas R. (2017).

2364: 2282: 1962: 908: 782: 665: 372: 365: 196: 150: 5064: 3725:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. p. 465. 3481:"Molecular basis for photoreceptor outer segment architecture" 2484:

Treatment depends upon the nature of the disease or disorder.

581: 494:

channels to transport photons directly to the photoreceptors,

137: 7801: 6932: 4155: 3577: 3575: 2987:"Penn Researchers Calculate How Much the Eye Tells the Brain" 2832:

Another view of the eye and the structures of the eye labeled

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Boston, Marco A. Bonini Filho, MD, and Andre J. Witkin, MD.

2646:

of retinas has been attempted, but without much success. At

61:

cross-sectional view; eyes vary significantly among animals.

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Webvision: The neural organization of the vertebrate retina

6508: 4341:(3rd ed.). St. Louis: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. 3853:

Staurenghi, Giovanni; Sadda, Srinivas; Chakravarthy, Usha;

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Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina

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Adeno associated virus and gene therapy of the human retina

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noninvasive advanced technology, such as visual acuities,

2455:(OCT). This non-invasive technique allows one to obtain a 544: 6689: 6426:

Histologie du Système Nerveux de l'Homme et des Vertébrés

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Virginia–Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine

3227: 2663: 2518:

Modification of systemic risk factors for retinal disease

2371: 329: 177: 98: 3923: 3921: 2757:

of human retinas is 8.75 megabits per second, whereas a

536:

enhanced, while night-time vision suffers very little".

4012:

Sherman, Jerome; Epshtein, Daniel (15 September 2012).

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Krause's Essential Human Histology for Medical Students

894:

of sorts, transmission from receptors, to bipolars, to

6645: – Histology Learning System at Boston University 6392: 6235: 5891:"Versatility of AAV vectors for retinal gene transfer" 5151: 3598:"The retinal pigment epithelium in health and disease" 3478: 465: 6608:

Eye, Brain, and Vision – online book – by David Hubel

4806:"DRIVE: Digital Retinal Images for Vessel Extraction" 4732: 4583: 4249: 3918: 2761:'s retinal transfer rate is 875 kilobits per second. 2435:

have long been used to examine the retina. Recently,

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may contain excessive or inappropriate references to

1543:

Thin layer of moderate reflectivity in inner choroid

738:(the rear of the forebrain). It also projects to the 159: 101: 6509:

Schulz HL, Goetz T, Kaschkoetoe J, Weber BH (2004).

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Clinical anatomy and physiology of the visual system

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came to refer to a layer around the brain; the term

2306:, the retina detaches from the back of the eyeball. 2032:

In the transfer of visual signals to the brain, the

134: 128: 95: 89: 4068:"Outer Retinal Layers as Predictors of Vision Loss" 3995:"Outer Retinal Layers as Predictors of Vision Loss" 3721:Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). 3021:Viegas, Filipe O.; Neuhauss, Stephan C. F. (2021). 1522:mitochondria zone + Junction between the RPE & 750:. It passes through the other layers, creating the 528:hagfish (fish that live in very deep, dark water). 125: 86: 6612:Kolb, H., Fernandez, E., & Nelson, R. (2003). 5188:Chen, Janglin; Cranton, Wayne; Fihn, Mark (2016). 2678:, from its resemblance to a casting net. The term 6460: 5523: 5521: 5519: 5469: 5467: 5465: 3927: 3756: 3595: 3393:"Retinal Glial Cells Enhance Human Vision Acuity" 3016: 3014: 3012: 2674:layer, from its resemblance to a spider web, and 1882:Biometric identification and diagnosis of disease 915:Layers imagable with optical coherence tomography 7951: 3932:. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 39–65. 3687: 2522: 1977:. This causes the receptor to activate multiple 371:The neural retina consists of several layers of 6804: 6616:. Salt Lake City, Utah: John Moran Eye Center, 5676: 5629: 5627: 5575: 5573: 5324:Seidelmann, SB; et al. (1 November 2016). 4369: 4106: 4011: 3270: 3223: 3221: 855:layer and the rods and cones are two layers of 6138: 5979: 5977: 5743: 5516: 5462: 5253:Frith, Peggy; Mehta, Arpan R (November 2021). 3696:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 3527: 3020: 3009: 2487: 2459:volumetric or high resolution cross-sectional 2000:. The photoreceptors are also cross-linked by 7760: 7384: 6675: 6479: 5931: 5192:(2nd ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. 4726: 3744: 3742: 3271:Sperling, L.; Hubbard, R. (1 February 1975). 2746:for their scientific research on the retina. 2628:, such as pigment epithelium-derived factor ( 2206:that is essentially constant from each input 938:Spectral-Domain OCT macula cross-section scan 773:have a similar, but much simpler, structure. 445:; thus, the retina is considered part of the 7398: 6039:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 5889:Curace Enrico M.; Auricchio Alberto (2008). 5792: 5624: 5570: 5375:Querques, G; et al. (11 January 2019). 4669:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 ( 4252:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 4087:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3479:Goldberg AF, Moritz OL, Williams DS (2016). 3391:Labin, A. M.; Ribak, E. N. (16 April 2010). 3218: 2561:, promoter, and intraocular injection site. 5974: 5058: 4872: 4831: 4626: 3136: 2463:of the fine structures of the retina, with 1705:Learn how and when to remove these messages 1597:homogenous region of variable reflectivity 7767: 7753: 7391: 7377: 6682: 6668: 6628:United States National Library of Medicine 6431: 5323: 5252: 4629:"Structure and function of vulture pecten" 4113:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 4102: 4100: 4098: 3739: 3390: 2310:is an outdated treatment method. The term 2256: 2231: 1461:Previously: "cone outer segment tips line" 51: 30:For the electronics screen trademark, see 6585: 6540: 6530: 6272: 6101:"Kepler's Discovery of the Retinal Image" 6066: 6001: 5906: 5865: 5847: 5824: 5775: 5703: 5659: 5607: 5553: 5499: 5410: 5351: 5278: 5029: 5006: 4957: 4947: 4888: 4709: 4677: 4509: 4336: 4305: 4132: 3978: 3796: 3621: 3555: 3545: 3504: 3304: 3178: 3168: 3056: 3038: 1811:Learn how and when to remove this message 1793:Learn how and when to remove this message 1455:cells which encase part of the cone OSs. 711:, which also contain photoreceptors, the 6465:. Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates. 5374: 5102: 4736:Computer Analysis of Images and Patterns 4107:Heavner, W; Pevny, L (1 December 2012). 2943:. Boca Raton, FL: Universal Publishers. 2886:– "the father of modern retinal surgery" 2263: 2119:between the bipolar and ganglion cells. 2078:On-centres and off-centres of the retina 2073: 1822: 941: 933: 925: 589: 580: 551: 543: 6557: 6146:"Santiago Ramón y Cajal – Biographical" 6098: 5983: 5255:"The retina as a window into the brain" 4974: 4683: 4419:. Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences. 4095: 4030: 1957:. Inside the cell the normal levels of 14: 7952: 6032: 5214: 4565:from the original on 21 September 2012 3848: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3692:The Synaptic Organization of the Brain 3596:Sparrow JR, Hicks D, Hamel CP (2010). 3335:from the original on 12 September 2017 3078: 3076: 2753:study calculated that the approximate 1855: 1067:(unclear if it can be observed on OCT) 7748: 7372: 6663: 5805:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 5190:Handbook of visual display technology 4283: 4281: 4198: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3201: 2744:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1773:by removing references to unreliable 1431:, the molecule that absorbs photons. 6117:10.1001/archopht.1973.01000040061014 5940:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 5739:from the original on 11 August 2017. 5111:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 4616:from the original on 9 October 2014. 4534:"LIGHT-INDUCED DAMAGE to the RETINA" 4423:from the original on 5 December 2017 4372:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 3082: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2806: 2384:sudden acquired retinal degeneration 1983:cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels 1777:where they are used inappropriately. 1746: 1711: 1670: 407:and reflexive responses such as the 6156:from the original on 6 October 2015 5692:The New England Journal of Medicine 5587:The New England Journal of Medicine 4767:from the original on 9 August 2017. 4441: 4109:"Eye development and retinogenesis" 3073: 3027:Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience 2063: 691:Inner segment / outer segment layer 633:– contains the synapse between the 466:Inverted versus non-inverted retina 24: 7774: 6800: 6415: 6399:from the original on 24 April 2012 6204: 4659:from the original on 14 July 2015. 4627:Bawa, S.R.; YashRoy, R.C. (1974). 4278: 4065: 3813: 3714: 2622:vascular endothelial growth factor 1402:Photoreceptor integrity line (PIL) 605:– basement membrane elaborated by 25: 7976: 6595: 6186:from the original on 30 June 2017 5344:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.023425 4987:Environmental Health Perspectives 3277:The Journal of General Physiology 2957: 2938: 2820:The structures of the eye labeled 1969:bound to the receptor protein to 1686:This article has multiple issues. 1425:photoreceptor outer segments (OS) 1419:Photoreceptor outer segments (OS) 539: 340:. The optics of the eye create a 7642: 6217:from the original on 31 May 2015 6207:"Calculating the speed of sight" 5952:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2008.05.003 5123:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2005.07.001 4584:Bawa S.R.; YashRoy R.C. (1972). 4444:"The retinal pigment epithelium" 4412: 4384:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.02.001 3497:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2016.05.003 3242:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.03.006 3116: 2856: 2837: 2825: 2813: 2775:in London, in 2006, showed that 2767:& Pearson and colleagues at 2606:age-related macular degeneration 2202:. Computers operate on a single 1751: 1715: 1675: 1458:Poorly distinguishable from RPE. 1427:which contain disks filled with 1377:photoreceptor inner segment (IS) 1324:photoreceptor inner segment (IS) 871:, and the horizontally oriented 734:, a visual relay station in the 155: 121: 82: 6638:Retina – Cell Centered Database 6385: 6359: 6333: 6297: 6229: 6198: 6168: 6092: 6083: 6026: 5882: 5841: 5427: 5368: 5317: 5295: 5246: 5181: 5145: 5023: 4923: 4798: 4771: 4620: 4577: 4551: 4526: 4435: 4406: 4363: 4330: 4243: 4192: 4149: 4059: 4024: 4005: 3987: 3954: 3885: 3681: 3638: 3589: 3528:Arshavsky VY, Burns ME (2012). 3521: 3472: 3450: 3431: 3384: 3347: 3321: 3264: 1694:or discuss these issues on the 1666: 890:Though the rod and cones are a 681:– cell bodies of rods and cones 637:axons and the dendrites of the 3417:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.158102 3195: 3110: 3085:"Simple Anatomy of the Retina" 2993:. 26 July 2006. Archived from 2979: 2932: 2515:Use of nutritional supplements 2134:is at the heart of a computer 1959:cyclic guanosine monophosphate 1639:factor families including the 1608: 959:OCT Layer / Conventional Label 846:blue field entoptic phenomenon 817:. The optic nerve carries the 723:also are laterally connected. 307: 13: 1: 6494:10.1152/physrev.1991.71.2.447 5652:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61836-5 5271:10.1016/S1474-4422(21)00332-X 5044:10.1016/s0161-6420(82)34663-1 4690:Journal of General Physiology 3659:10.1080/01677063.2017.1395876 3206:. Vol. 25, no. 15. 2925: 2652:University of New South Wales 2523:Uncommon treatment modalities 2396:lipoprotein lipase deficiency 2130:As an example, the following 1375:The outermost portion of the 1322:The innermost portion of the 713:photosensitive ganglion cells 668:region, this is known as the 7328:Optical coherence tomography 7082:Photosensitive ganglion cell 6446:10.1016/0042-6989(65)90033-7 6033:Dobson, J. F. (March 1925). 5908:10.1016/j.visres.2007.07.027 5167:10.1016/j.ophtha.2003.09.039 4949:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000372 4748:10.1007/978-3-642-23672-3_55 4602:10.1016/0014-4835(72)90129-7 4264:10.1016/j.semcdb.2003.09.005 3871:10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.02.023 3789:10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.09.016 3149:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 2599:optical coherence tomography 2566:Leber's congenital amaurosis 2479: 2453:optical coherence tomography 2422: 2103:, and negative weighting as 1301:photoreceptor inner segments 1000:Posterior cortical vitreous 921:optical coherence tomography 848:(or Scheerer's phenomenon). 833:(both of which are opaque). 565:(yellow layer), then to the 460: 397:photosensitive ganglion cell 7: 7078:Giant retina ganglion cells 6867:Capillary lamina of choroid 4337:Remington, Lee Ann (2012). 4201:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4125:10.1101/cshperspect.a008391 3938:10.1007/978-3-642-12041-1_2 3329:"How spiders see the world" 2849: 2637:or slowed down cell death. 2488:Common treatment modalities 2380:progressive retinal atrophy 1904: 1868: 1114:bodies (and some displaced 996:Posterior cortical vitreous 875:connect to ganglion cells. 10: 7981: 7022:Retinal pigment epithelium 7012:External limiting membrane 6461:Wandell, Brian A. (1995). 6319:10.1016/j.exer.2008.01.018 6051:10.1177/003591572501801704 6035:"Herophilus of Alexandria" 5403:10.1038/s41598-018-37271-6 4810:Image Sciences Institute, 4494:10.1038/s41598-023-32897-7 4045:10.1016/j.optm.2008.12.006 3980:10.17925/eor.2017.11.01.59 3967:European Ophthalmic Review 3750:Guyton and Hall Physiology 3614:10.2174/156652410793937813 3583:Guyton and Hall Physiology 3370:10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.02.018 3212:10.1103/physrevfocus.25.15 2939:J, Krause William (2005). 2869: 2751:University of Pennsylvania 2693:Between 1011 and 1021 CE, 2657: 2614:retinopathy of prematurity 2597:(ERG), multifocal ERG and 2547:retinal pigment epithelium 2531: 2316:retinal pigment epithelium 2244:lateral geniculate nucleus 2198:traveling down nerve cell 2067: 1908: 1885: 1591:Choroidal-scleral juncture 1286:External limiting membrane 1055:Internal limiting membrane 827:retinal pigment epithelium 748:nucleus of the optic tract 697:Retinal pigment epithelium 685:External limiting membrane 511:retinal pigment epithelium 490:have been shown to act as 418:through the fibres of the 383:, which are of two types: 219:rēte, tunica interna bulbi 29: 7915: 7882: 7875:Peripheral nervous system 7873: 7782: 7706: 7651: 7640: 7411: 7310: 7271: 7185: 7176: 7110: 7030: 6965: 6955: 6918: 6885: 6857: 6845: 6798: 6741: 6713: 6702: 6643:Histology image: 07901loa 6620:. Retrieved 22 July 2014. 6587:10.4249/scholarpedia.3487 6367:"Retina << EyeWire" 6307:Experimental Eye Research 6105:Archives of Ophthalmology 4848:10.1109/cbms.2013.6627847 4647:(inactive 12 June 2024). 4590:Experimental Eye Research 3688:Shepherd, Gordon (2004). 3040:10.3389/fnmol.2021.656000 2769:University College London 2726:The Retina of Vertebrates 2624:(VEGF) and inhibitors of 1996:which in turn signal the 1594: 1577: 1560: 1542: 1503: 1500: 1479: 1476: 1447:Interdigitation zone (IZ) 1438: 1392: 1389: 1384: 1366: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1242:Henle's nerve fiber layer 1236: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1050: 794:retina is defined by the 785:, at whose centre is the 470:The vertebrate retina is 272: 260: 248: 236: 224: 212: 207: 195: 183: 173: 71: 66: 50: 45: 7680:Ascending and Descending 6650:MedlinePlus Encyclopedia 6045:(Sect_Hist_Med): 19–32. 5307:12 February 2012 at the 2351:hypertensive retinopathy 1898:biometric identification 7017:Layer of rods and cones 6973:Inner limiting membrane 6626:NeuroScience 2nd Ed at 6428:, Maloine, Paris, 1911. 6099:Fishman, R. S. (1973). 5448:10.1089/hum.2005.16.649 4784:University of Groningen 4178:10.1126/science.7892602 3999:Review of Ophthalmology 3896:. New Delhi: Springer. 3547:10.1074/jbc.R111.305243 3443:3 December 2013 at the 3397:Physical Review Letters 3170:10.1073/pnas.0611180104 2773:Moorfields Eye Hospital 2722:Retina der Wirbelthiere 2469:Retinal vessel analysis 2042:lateral geniculate body 2022:difference of Gaussians 1094:travelling towards the 1030:has fully or partially 813:, including the unique 802:, is about 32 mm. 744:suprachiasmatic nucleus 732:lateral geniculate body 603:Inner limiting membrane 36:Retina (disambiguation) 7784:Central nervous system 6839: 6558:Dowling, John (2007). 6532:10.1186/1471-2164-5-50 5302:Seeing into the Future 4883:. pp. 3105–3110. 2905:Retinal vein occlusion 2872:anatomical terminology 2787:and his laboratory at 2736:Haldan Keffer Hartline 2718:Santiago Ramón y Cajal 2555:retinal ganglion cells 2543:adeno-associated virus 2474:cardiovascular disease 2332:laser photocoagulation 2079: 1998:retinal ganglion cells 1839: 1764:self-published sources 1636:retinal ganglion cells 1351:(rarely: mitochondria) 947: 946:Macula histology (OCT) 939: 931: 595: 587: 578: 549: 479:. In contrast, in the 447:central nervous system 434:form the optic nerve. 428:retinal ganglion cells 409:pupillary light reflex 300: 274:Anatomical terminology 202:Central retinal artery 34:. For other uses, see 7333:Eye care professional 7138:Foveal avascular zone 7000:Outer plexiform layer 6988:Inner plexiform layer 6943:Iris sphincter muscle 6836: 6624:Retinal layers image. 6463:Foundations of vision 6003:10.1038/sj.gt.3302366 5867:10.1038/sj.gt.3302030 5714:10.1056/NEJMoa0802268 5600:10.1056/NEJMoa0802315 4899:10.1109/cvpr.2014.397 3438:Foundations of Vision 3331:. Australian Museum. 3204:Physical Review Focus 2920:Persistence of vision 2686:came to refer to the 2641:Organ transplantation 2577:blood retinal barrier 2511:Vitreoretinal surgery 2264:Clinical significance 2248:primary visual cortex 2204:floating-point number 2077: 2068:Further information: 2024:and is the basis for 1834:is at right, and the 1826: 1529:Very Hyper-reflective 1497:Very Hyper-reflective 1386:Very Hyper-reflective 1331:endoplasmic reticulum 1206:Outer plexiform layer 1134:Inner plexiform layer 962:Anatomical Correlate 945: 937: 929: 865:inner plexiform layer 861:outer plexiform layer 662:Outer plexiform layer 631:Inner plexiform layer 593: 584: 555: 547: 439:embryonic development 7714:Accidental viewpoint 7353:Physiological Optics 7323:Ocular immune system 7062:Retina ganglion cell 6602:Histology of the Eye 5984:Rolling, F. (2004). 5768:10.1089/hum.2008.107 5492:10.1089/hum.2009.086 5259:The Lancet Neurology 4842:. pp. 485–488. 4702:10.1085/jgp.78.4.431 4633:Cells Tissues Organs 3289:10.1085/jgp.65.2.235 3273:"Squid retinochrome" 3083:Kolb, Helga (1995). 2890:Evolution of the eye 2634:Neurotrophic factors 2610:diabetic retinopathy 2587:contrast sensitivity 2528:Retinal gene therapy 2499:medication, such as 2370:Retinal diseases in 2355:diabetic retinopathy 2320:pneumatic retinopexy 2279:Macular degeneration 2273:Retinitis pigmentosa 320:) is the innermost, 7619:Vertical–horizontal 7177:Anatomical regions 7038:Photoreceptor cells 7005:Outer nuclear layer 6993:Inner nuclear layer 6983:Ganglion cell layer 6938:Iris dilator muscle 6733:Trabecular meshwork 6578:2007SchpJ...2.3487D 6347:on 13 February 2012 6265:10.1038/nature05161 6257:2006Natur.444..203M 5646:(9701): 1597–1605. 5546:10.1038/mt.2009.277 5395:2019NatSR...9...63Q 4999:10.1289/ehp.1205721 4684:Sherman, T (1981). 4486:2023NatSR..13.6445K 4170:1995Sci...267.1788H 4164:(5205): 1788–1792. 4018:Review of Optometry 3723:The Vertebrate Body 3458:"The Retinal Tunic" 3409:2010PhRvL.104o8102L 3161:2007PNAS..104.8287F 2801:map the connections 2777:photoreceptor cells 2699:intromission theory 2595:electroretinography 2551:photoreceptor cells 2194:Neurons operate on 2091:. This is done by " 2085:photoreceptor cells 1948:trichromatic vision 1921:photoreceptor cells 1856:Energy requirements 1838:is near the centre. 1371:Ellipsoid zone (EZ) 1268:Outer nuclear layer 1166:Inner nuclear layer 1106:Ganglion cell layer 800:horizontal meridian 740:superior colliculus 679:Outer nuclear layer 645:Inner nuclear layer 622:Ganglion cell layer 455:blood–brain barrier 399:, is important for 381:photoreceptor cells 7719:Auditory illusions 7514:Impossible trident 6840: 6618:University of Utah 6150:www.nobelprize.org 5848:Bennett J (2003). 5756:Human Gene Therapy 5480:Human Gene Therapy 5436:Human Gene Therapy 5382:Scientific Reports 4812:Utrecht University 4474:Scientific Reports 4307:10.1242/dev.178103 3855:Spaide, Richard F. 3485:Prog Retin Eye Res 3447:, Brian A. Wandell 3230:Prog Retin Eye Res 2870:This article uses 2433:fundus photography 2403:Retinal Detachment 2391:Lipaemia retinalis 2312:retinal detachment 2304:retinal separation 2289:Cone-rod dystrophy 2080: 2058:information theory 1840: 1727:. You can help by 1406:The photoreceptor 1026:In eyes where the 948: 940: 932: 707:; transmission to 641:and amacrine cells 596: 588: 579: 550: 375:interconnected by 7965:Human eye anatomy 7947: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7742: 7741: 7734:Temporal illusion 7729:Tactile illusions 7699:(2015 photograph) 7400:Optical illusions 7366: 7365: 7358:Visual perception 7306: 7305: 7273:Posterior segment 7241:Posterior chamber 7172: 7171: 7074:Bistratified cell 6978:Nerve fiber layer 6951: 6950: 6895:Ciliary processes 6796: 6795: 6521:for eye colour). 6472:978-0-87893-853-7 6251:(7116): 203–207. 6205:Reilly, Michael. 5698:(21): 2231–2239. 5594:(21): 2240–2248. 5534:Molecular Therapy 5338:(18): 1328–1338. 5231:978-0-323-02598-0 5080:10.1042/cs1030111 5038:(10): 1132–1145. 4908:978-1-4799-5118-5 4857:978-1-4799-1053-3 4757:978-3-642-23671-6 4645:10.1159/000144308 4538:photobiology.info 4413:Kiel, Jeffrey W. 4348:978-1-4377-1926-0 4300:(17): dev178103. 4014:"The ABCs of OCT" 3732:978-0-03-910284-5 3707:978-0-19-515956-1 3155:(20): 8287–8292. 2989:(Press release). 2950:978-1-58112-468-2 2807:Additional images 2445:electroretinogram 2376:retinal dysplasia 2347:diabetes mellitus 2177: 2176: 2010:action potentials 1845:ophthalmic artery 1828:Fundus photograph 1821: 1820: 1813: 1803: 1802: 1795: 1745: 1744: 1709: 1606: 1605: 1469:Hyper-reflective 1329:Smooth and rough 1305:Hyper-reflective 1228:Hyper-reflective 1153:Hyper-reflective 1139:Synapses between 1083:Nerve fiber layer 1072:Hyper-reflective 1003:Hyper-reflective 838:white blood cells 809:cells and two of 612:Nerve fibre layer 548:Section of retina 517:) rarely occurs. 424:action potentials 405:circadian rhythms 354:visual perception 288: 287: 283: 16:(Redirected from 7972: 7880: 7879: 7769: 7762: 7755: 7746: 7745: 7646: 7599:Schroeder stairs 7574:Peripheral drift 7569:Penrose triangle 7393: 7386: 7379: 7370: 7369: 7343:Refractive error 7281:Vitreous chamber 7226:Anterior chamber 7187:Anterior segment 7183: 7182: 6963: 6962: 6872:Bruch's membrane 6855: 6854: 6847:Uvea / vascular 6803: 6723:Episcleral layer 6711: 6710: 6684: 6677: 6670: 6661: 6660: 6591: 6589: 6554: 6544: 6534: 6505: 6476: 6457: 6422:S. Ramón y Cajal 6409: 6408: 6406: 6404: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6378: 6373:on 24 March 2012 6369:. Archived from 6363: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6352: 6343:. Archived from 6341:"About: EyeWire" 6337: 6331: 6330: 6301: 6295: 6294: 6276: 6242: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6202: 6196: 6195: 6193: 6191: 6176:"Nobelprize.org" 6172: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6161: 6142: 6136: 6135: 6133: 6131: 6096: 6090: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6070: 6030: 6024: 6023: 6005: 5981: 5972: 5971: 5935: 5929: 5928: 5910: 5886: 5880: 5879: 5869: 5845: 5839: 5838: 5828: 5817:10.1172/JCI57377 5811:(6): 2160–2168. 5796: 5790: 5789: 5779: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5707: 5689: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5663: 5631: 5622: 5621: 5611: 5577: 5568: 5567: 5557: 5525: 5514: 5513: 5503: 5471: 5460: 5459: 5431: 5425: 5424: 5414: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5355: 5321: 5315: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5282: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5161:(6): 1183–1190. 5149: 5143: 5142: 5106: 5100: 5099: 5068:Clinical Science 5062: 5056: 5055: 5027: 5021: 5020: 5010: 4993:(9): 1011–1016. 4978: 4972: 4971: 4961: 4951: 4942:(11): e1000372. 4927: 4921: 4920: 4892: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4835: 4829: 4828: 4826: 4824: 4819:on 6 August 2020 4815:. 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873:horizontal cells 657:horizontal cells 563:horizontal cells 496:light scattering 315: 309: 280:edit on Wikidata 277: 169: 168: 165: 164: 161: 147: 146: 143: 142: 139: 136: 133: 130: 127: 120: 111: 110: 107: 106: 103: 100: 97: 94: 91: 88: 81: 55: 43: 42: 21: 7980: 7979: 7975: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7970: 7969: 7950: 7949: 7948: 7939: 7930:Parasympathetic 7911: 7869: 7778: 7773: 7743: 7738: 7702: 7652:Popular culture 7647: 7638: 7609:Spinning dancer 7429:Ambiguous image 7407: 7397: 7367: 7362: 7302: 7267: 7256:Capsule of lens 7211:Lacrimal system 7178: 7168: 7128:Parafoveal area 7123:Perifoveal area 7106: 7050:Horizontal cell 7026: 6947: 6914: 6881: 6877:Sattler's layer 6848: 6841: 6835: 6792: 6737: 6728:Schlemm's canal 6706: 6698: 6690:Anatomy of the 6688: 6598: 6473: 6440:(11): 583–601. 6418: 6416:Further reading 6413: 6412: 6402: 6400: 6391: 6390: 6386: 6376: 6374: 6365: 6364: 6360: 6350: 6348: 6339: 6338: 6334: 6302: 6298: 6240: 6234: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6203: 6199: 6189: 6187: 6174: 6173: 6169: 6159: 6157: 6144: 6143: 6139: 6129: 6127: 6097: 6093: 6088: 6084: 6031: 6027: 5996:(S1): S26–S32. 5982: 5975: 5936: 5932: 5895:Vision Research 5887: 5883: 5860:(11): 977–982. 5846: 5842: 5797: 5793: 5762:(10): 979–990. 5748: 5744: 5736: 5705:10.1.1.574.4003 5687: 5681: 5677: 5632: 5625: 5578: 5571: 5526: 5517: 5486:(9): 999–1004. 5472: 5463: 5432: 5428: 5373: 5369: 5322: 5318: 5309:Wayback Machine 5300: 5296: 5251: 5247: 5232: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5200: 5186: 5182: 5150: 5146: 5107: 5103: 5063: 5059: 5028: 5024: 4979: 4975: 4928: 4924: 4909: 4890:10.1.1.1026.949 4877: 4873: 4858: 4836: 4832: 4822: 4820: 4804: 4803: 4799: 4789: 4787: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4764: 4758: 4739: 4731: 4727: 4682: 4678: 4662: 4661: 4625: 4621: 4582: 4578: 4568: 4566: 4557: 4556: 4552: 4542: 4540: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4466: 4462: 4452: 4450: 4442:Strauss, Olaf. 4440: 4436: 4426: 4424: 4411: 4407: 4368: 4364: 4349: 4335: 4331: 4286: 4279: 4248: 4244: 4213:10.1038/nrn3767 4197: 4193: 4154: 4150: 4119:(12): a008391. 4105: 4096: 4080: 4079: 4072: 4070: 4064: 4060: 4029: 4025: 4010: 4006: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3959: 3955: 3948: 3926: 3919: 3904: 3890: 3886: 3851: 3814: 3772: 3766: 3757: 3748: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3686: 3682: 3643: 3639: 3594: 3590: 3581: 3580: 3573: 3526: 3522: 3477: 3473: 3468:on 18 May 2007. 3456: 3455: 3451: 3445:Wayback Machine 3436: 3432: 3389: 3385: 3352: 3348: 3338: 3336: 3327: 3326: 3322: 3269: 3265: 3226: 3219: 3200: 3196: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3125: 3115: 3111: 3101: 3099: 3081: 3074: 3019: 3010: 3000: 2998: 2985: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2958: 2951: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2875: 2864:Medicine portal 2862: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2845: 2842: 2833: 2830: 2821: 2818: 2809: 2797:Citizen science 2785:Sebastian Seung 2710:Johannes Kepler 2703:emission theory 2660: 2644:Transplantation 2573:Tight junctions 2536: 2525: 2490: 2482: 2437:adaptive optics 2425: 2411:Night blindness 2334:and pars plana 2266: 2072: 2066: 2017:receptive field 1932:scotopic vision 1928:photopic vision 1917: 1907: 1894: 1884: 1871: 1858: 1817: 1806: 1805: 1804: 1799: 1788: 1782: 1779: 1768: 1756: 1752: 1741: 1735: 1732: 1725:needs expansion 1680: 1676: 1669: 1611: 1557:Sattler's layer 1493:phagosome zone 1318:Myoid zone (MZ) 1039:Hypo-reflective 917: 767:vitreous humour 670:Fiber layer of 614:– axons of the 542: 507:resolving power 500:fovea centralis 468: 463: 322:light-sensitive 310: 284: 158: 154: 149: 124: 115: 114: 113: 85: 76: 75: 62: 39: 28: 27:Part of the eye 23: 22: 18:Retinal disease 15: 12: 11: 5: 7978: 7968: 7967: 7962: 7945: 7944: 7941: 7940: 7938: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7921: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7910: 7909: 7904: 7902:Cranial nerves 7899: 7894: 7888: 7886: 7877: 7871: 7870: 7868: 7867: 7866: 7865: 7860: 7859: 7858: 7853: 7852: 7851: 7846: 7831: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7799: 7794: 7788: 7786: 7780: 7779: 7776:Nervous system 7772: 7771: 7764: 7757: 7749: 7740: 7739: 7737: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7710: 7708: 7704: 7703: 7701: 7700: 7692: 7691:(1961 drawing) 7684: 7683:(1960 drawing) 7676: 7668: 7661: 7655: 7653: 7649: 7648: 7641: 7639: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7604:Shepard tables 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7564:Penrose stairs 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7459:Checker shadow 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7439:Autostereogram 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7415: 7413: 7409: 7408: 7396: 7395: 7388: 7381: 7373: 7364: 7363: 7361: 7360: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7314: 7312: 7308: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7289: 7288: 7277: 7275: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7261:Zonule of Zinn 7258: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7231:Aqueous humour 7228: 7223: 7218: 7191: 7189: 7180: 7174: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7166: 7161: 7160: 7159: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7145: 7140: 7130: 7125: 7114: 7112: 7108: 7107: 7105: 7104: 7034: 7032: 7028: 7027: 7025: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7008: 7007: 7002: 6996: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6969: 6967: 6960: 6953: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6924: 6922: 6916: 6915: 6913: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6900:Ciliary muscle 6897: 6891: 6889: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6863: 6861: 6852: 6843: 6842: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6791: 6790: 6789: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6753: 6747: 6745: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6719: 6717: 6708: 6700: 6699: 6687: 6686: 6679: 6672: 6664: 6658: 6657: 6646: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6621: 6610: 6605: 6597: 6596:External links 6594: 6593: 6592: 6555: 6506: 6488:(2): 447–480. 6477: 6471: 6458: 6429: 6417: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6384: 6358: 6332: 6313:(4): 691–700. 6296: 6228: 6197: 6180:nobelprize.org 6167: 6137: 6091: 6082: 6025: 5973: 5946:(4): 391–419. 5930: 5901:(3): 353–359. 5881: 5840: 5791: 5742: 5675: 5623: 5569: 5540:(3): 643–650. 5515: 5461: 5442:(6): 649–663. 5426: 5367: 5316: 5294: 5245: 5230: 5213: 5198: 5180: 5144: 5101: 5074:(2): 111–116. 5057: 5022: 4973: 4922: 4907: 4871: 4856: 4830: 4797: 4770: 4756: 4725: 4696:(4): 431–453. 4676: 4639:(3): 473–480. 4619: 4576: 4550: 4525: 4460: 4434: 4405: 4362: 4347: 4329: 4277: 4242: 4207:(9): 615–627. 4191: 4148: 4094: 4058: 4039:(6): 277–278. 4023: 4004: 3986: 3953: 3947:978-3642120404 3946: 3917: 3903:978-8132236108 3902: 3884: 3812: 3783:(3): 407–422. 3755: 3752:. p. 609. 3738: 3731: 3713: 3706: 3680: 3653:(4): 203–215. 3637: 3608:(9): 802–823. 3588: 3585:. p. 612. 3571: 3520: 3471: 3449: 3430: 3403:(15): 158102. 3383: 3364:(2): 182–187. 3346: 3320: 3283:(2): 235–251. 3263: 3217: 3194: 3135: 3109: 3072: 3008: 2978: 2956: 2949: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2923: 2922: 2917: 2912: 2907: 2902: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2881: 2868: 2867: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2846: 2843: 2836: 2834: 2831: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2812: 2808: 2805: 2695:Ibn Al-Haytham 2659: 2656: 2618:growth factors 2575:that form the 2532:Main article: 2524: 2521: 2520: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2508: 2505:corticosteroid 2489: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2449:non-invasively 2429:Ophthalmoscopy 2424: 2421: 2416: 2415: 2407: 2399: 2387: 2368: 2367:of the retina. 2361:Retinoblastoma 2358: 2339: 2324:scleral buckle 2300: 2299:in the retina. 2286: 2276: 2265: 2262: 2226: 2225: 2222:amacrine cells 2214: 2211: 2192: 2189: 2175: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2153: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2124:edge detection 2089:ganglion cells 2065: 2062: 2034:visual pathway 2026:edge detection 2006:amacrine cells 1936:mesopic vision 1906: 1903: 1883: 1880: 1870: 1867: 1857: 1854: 1819: 1818: 1801: 1800: 1759: 1757: 1750: 1743: 1742: 1722: 1720: 1710: 1684: 1683: 1681: 1674: 1668: 1665: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1583: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574:Haller's layer 1571: 1567: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1554: 1550: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1505: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1494: 1488: 1478: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1451:Apices of the 1449: 1444: 1440: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1411: 1404: 1398:IS/OS junction 1394: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1383: 1373: 1368: 1364: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1310: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1289: 1283: 1279: 1278: 1271: 1263: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1245: 1238: 1234: 1233: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1209: 1203: 1199: 1198: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1169: 1163: 1159: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149:ganglion cells 1137: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1116:amacrine cells 1109: 1103: 1099: 1098: 1086: 1079: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1058: 1052: 1048: 1047: 1043: 1041: 1036: 1023: 1016: 1010: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1001: 998: 993: 989: 988: 982: 973: 963: 960: 957: 916: 913: 904:amacrine cells 896:ganglion cells 815:ribbon synapse 721:amacrine cells 709:ganglion cells 701: 700: 694: 688: 682: 676: 659: 649:amacrine cells 642: 628: 626:amacrine cells 619: 609: 571:ganglion cells 567:amacrine cells 541: 540:Retinal layers 538: 467: 464: 462: 459: 437:In vertebrate 286: 285: 276: 270: 269: 264: 258: 257: 252: 246: 245: 240: 234: 233: 228: 222: 221: 216: 210: 209: 205: 204: 199: 193: 192: 187: 181: 180: 175: 171: 170: 73: 69: 68: 64: 63: 56: 48: 47: 32:Retina display 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7977: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7960:Visual system 7958: 7957: 7955: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7922: 7920: 7918: 7914: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7892:Sensory nerve 7890: 7889: 7887: 7885: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7872: 7864: 7863:Limbic system 7861: 7857: 7854: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7809: 7808: 7805: 7804: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7770: 7765: 7763: 7758: 7756: 7751: 7750: 7747: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7705: 7698: 7697: 7693: 7690: 7689: 7685: 7682: 7681: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7669: 7667: 7666: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7645: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7494:Fraser spiral 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7416: 7414: 7410: 7405: 7401: 7394: 7389: 7387: 7382: 7380: 7375: 7374: 7371: 7359: 7356: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7348:Accommodation 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7315: 7313: 7309: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7287: 7286:Vitreous body 7284: 7283: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7274: 7270: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7221:Fibrous tunic 7219: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7181: 7175: 7165: 7162: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7150: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7135: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7120: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7109: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7058:Amacrine cell 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7036: 7035: 7033: 7029: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6970: 6968: 6964: 6961: 6958: 6954: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6921: 6917: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6890: 6888: 6884: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6864: 6862: 6860: 6856: 6853: 6850: 6844: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6758: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6744: 6740: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6720: 6718: 6716: 6712: 6709: 6705: 6704:Fibrous tunic 6701: 6697: 6693: 6685: 6680: 6678: 6673: 6671: 6666: 6665: 6662: 6656: 6652: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6625: 6622: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6603: 6600: 6599: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6519:transcriptome 6516: 6512: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6478: 6474: 6468: 6464: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6430: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6398: 6394: 6388: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6346: 6342: 6336: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6300: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6275: 6274:2027.42/62596 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6239: 6232: 6216: 6212: 6211:New Scientist 6208: 6201: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6171: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6086: 6078: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5980: 5978: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5885: 5877: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5795: 5787: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5746: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5686: 5679: 5671: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5630: 5628: 5619: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5524: 5522: 5520: 5511: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5430: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5378: 5371: 5363: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5332: 5327: 5320: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5298: 5290: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5249: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5227: 5223: 5217: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5199:9783319143460 5195: 5191: 5184: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5155:Ophthalmology 5148: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5117:(1): 99–127. 5116: 5112: 5105: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5061: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5032:Ophthalmology 5026: 5018: 5014: 5009: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4926: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4786: 4785: 4780: 4774: 4763: 4759: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4737: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4680: 4672: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4623: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4521: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4464: 4449: 4445: 4438: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4366: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4340: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4282: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4195: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4152: 4144: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4090: 4084: 4069: 4062: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4027: 4019: 4015: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3990: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3949: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3922: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3859:Ophthalmology 3856: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3808: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3777:Ophthalmology 3771: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3709: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3693: 3684: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3584: 3578: 3576: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3516: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3453: 3446: 3442: 3439: 3434: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3358: 3350: 3334: 3330: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3224: 3222: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3124: 3120: 3117:Kolb, Helga. 3113: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3077: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3015: 3013: 2996: 2992: 2991:PENN Medicine 2988: 2982: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2952: 2946: 2942: 2935: 2931: 2921: 2918: 2916: 2913: 2911: 2908: 2906: 2903: 2901: 2898: 2896: 2895:Duplex retina 2893: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2876: 2873: 2865: 2854: 2840: 2835: 2828: 2823: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2804: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2745: 2742:won the 1967 2741: 2740:Ragnar Granit 2737: 2733: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2711: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2578: 2574: 2569: 2567: 2562: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2529: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2485: 2477: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2420: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2393: 2392: 2388: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2287: 2284: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2269: 2261: 2259: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2229: 2223: 2219: 2216:Finally, the 2215: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2096: 2094: 2093:decorrelation 2090: 2086: 2076: 2071: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2038:optic chiasma 2035: 2030: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994:bipolar cells 1991: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1975:trans-retinal 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1916: 1915:Visual acuity 1912: 1902: 1899: 1893: 1889: 1879: 1877: 1866: 1862: 1853: 1849: 1846: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1812: 1797: 1794: 1786: 1776: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1760:This section 1758: 1749: 1748: 1739: 1730: 1726: 1723:This section 1721: 1718: 1714: 1713: 1708: 1706: 1699: 1698: 1693: 1692: 1687: 1682: 1673: 1672: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1506: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1387: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1276: 1275:photoreceptor 1272: 1269: 1266:(Outer half) 1265: 1264: 1253: 1249: 1248:Photoreceptor 1246: 1243: 1240:(Inner half) 1239: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1216:photoreceptor 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1188: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1112:Ganglion cell 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1089:Ganglion cell 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1021: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 991: 990: 987: 983: 981: 978: 974: 972: 971: 967: 964: 961: 958: 955: 954: 951: 944: 936: 928: 924: 922: 912: 910: 905: 901: 897: 893: 888: 886: 882: 876: 874: 870: 869:bipolar cells 866: 862: 858: 854: 853:ganglion-cell 849: 847: 843: 839: 834: 832: 828: 823: 820: 819:ganglion-cell 816: 812: 808: 803: 801: 797: 792: 788: 784: 780: 779:optic papilla 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 755: 754:in primates. 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 724: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 705:bipolar cells 698: 695: 692: 689: 686: 683: 680: 677: 674: 673: 667: 663: 660: 658: 654: 653:bipolar cells 650: 646: 643: 640: 636: 632: 629: 627: 623: 620: 617: 616:ganglion cell 613: 610: 608: 604: 601: 600: 599: 592: 583: 576: 575:Ramón y Cajal 572: 568: 564: 560: 554: 546: 537: 533: 529: 525: 523: 518: 516: 512: 508: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 484: 482: 478: 473: 458: 456: 452: 451:noninvasively 448: 444: 440: 435: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 412: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 350:visual cortex 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 314: 306: 'net'; 305: 304: 303: 297: 293: 281: 275: 271: 268: 265: 263: 259: 256: 253: 251: 247: 244: 241: 239: 235: 232: 229: 227: 223: 220: 217: 215: 211: 206: 203: 200: 198: 194: 191: 190:Visual system 188: 186: 182: 179: 176: 172: 167: 152: 145: 118: 109: 79: 74: 72:Pronunciation 70: 65: 60: 54: 49: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7907:Spinal nerve 7843: 7839:Diencephalon 7694: 7686: 7678: 7670: 7665:Trompe-l'œil 7663: 7529:Lilac chaser 7499:Gravity hill 7352: 7292: 7246:Ciliary body 7086:Diencephalon 7085: 7070:Parasol cell 7054:Bipolar cell 6956: 6905:Pars plicata 6887:Ciliary body 6755: 6648: 6572:(12): 3487. 6569: 6565:Scholarpedia 6563: 6522: 6515:BMC Genomics 6514: 6485: 6482:Physiol. Rev 6481: 6462: 6437: 6433: 6425: 6401:. Retrieved 6387: 6375:. Retrieved 6371:the original 6361: 6349:. Retrieved 6345:the original 6335: 6310: 6306: 6299: 6248: 6244: 6231: 6219:. Retrieved 6210: 6200: 6188:. Retrieved 6179: 6170: 6158:. Retrieved 6149: 6140: 6128:. Retrieved 6111:(1): 59–61. 6108: 6104: 6094: 6085: 6042: 6038: 6028: 5993: 5990:Gene Therapy 5989: 5943: 5939: 5933: 5898: 5894: 5884: 5857: 5854:Gene Therapy 5853: 5843: 5808: 5804: 5794: 5759: 5755: 5745: 5722:10261/271174 5695: 5691: 5678: 5643: 5639: 5591: 5585: 5537: 5533: 5483: 5479: 5439: 5435: 5429: 5386: 5380: 5370: 5335: 5329: 5319: 5314:, March 2007 5311: 5297: 5262: 5258: 5248: 5221: 5216: 5189: 5183: 5158: 5154: 5147: 5114: 5110: 5104: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5035: 5031: 5025: 4990: 4986: 4976: 4939: 4935: 4925: 4880: 4874: 4839: 4833: 4821:. Retrieved 4817:the original 4809: 4800: 4788:. Retrieved 4782: 4773: 4735: 4728: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4665:cite journal 4636: 4632: 4622: 4596:(1): 92–97. 4593: 4589: 4579: 4567:. Retrieved 4553: 4541:. Retrieved 4537: 4528: 4477: 4473: 4463: 4451:. Retrieved 4447: 4437: 4425:. Retrieved 4415: 4408: 4375: 4371: 4365: 4338: 4332: 4297: 4293: 4258:(1): 83–89. 4255: 4251: 4245: 4204: 4200: 4194: 4161: 4157: 4151: 4116: 4112: 4071:. Retrieved 4061: 4036: 4032: 4026: 4017: 4007: 3998: 3989: 3970: 3966: 3956: 3929: 3893: 3887: 3862: 3858: 3780: 3776: 3749: 3722: 3716: 3691: 3683: 3650: 3647:J Neurogenet 3646: 3640: 3605: 3602:Curr Mol Med 3601: 3591: 3582: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3488: 3484: 3474: 3466:the original 3461: 3452: 3433: 3400: 3396: 3386: 3361: 3355: 3349: 3337:. Retrieved 3323: 3280: 3276: 3266: 3233: 3229: 3203: 3197: 3152: 3148: 3138: 3126:. Retrieved 3122: 3112: 3100:. Retrieved 3088: 3030: 3026: 2999:. Retrieved 2995:the original 2981: 2940: 2934: 2900:Retinal scan 2795:, an online 2782: 2763: 2748: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2715: 2707: 2701:and against 2692: 2687: 2683: 2675: 2671: 2661: 2640: 2639: 2626:angiogenesis 2603: 2570: 2563: 2539:Gene therapy 2537: 2527: 2526: 2497:Intravitreal 2491: 2483: 2442: 2426: 2417: 2409: 2401: 2389: 2343:hypertension 2308:Ignipuncture 2267: 2255: 2252: 2242:to the LGN ( 2240:optic chiasm 2237: 2230: 2227: 2196:spike trains 2182: 2178: 2129: 2121: 2113:ion channels 2109: 2097: 2081: 2054:visual angle 2046: 2031: 2014: 1990:synaptically 1987: 1955:photopigment 1952: 1940: 1925: 1918: 1895: 1888:Retinal scan 1876:pecten oculi 1872: 1863: 1859: 1850: 1841: 1836:macula lutea 1807: 1789: 1783:October 2016 1780: 1769:Please help 1761: 1736:October 2016 1733: 1729:adding to it 1724: 1702: 1695: 1689: 1688:Please help 1685: 1667:Blood supply 1649: 1612: 1596: 1528: 1496: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1456: 1385: 1381:mitochondria 1379:packed with 1350: 1346:Microtubules 1341:Golgi bodies 1326:containing: 1297:Müller cells 1277:cell bodies 1251: 1184: 1183:cell bodies 1066: 1065: 1045: 1038: 1025: 1018: 1013: 985: 980:boundaries? 979: 976: 968: 966:Reflectivity 949: 918: 889: 877: 851:Between the 850: 835: 804: 775: 756: 736:diencephalon 725: 702: 669: 635:bipolar cell 607:Müller cells 597: 534: 530: 526: 519: 514: 504: 485: 471: 469: 443:diencephalon 436: 413: 370: 362:image sensor 317: 312: 299: 291: 289: 243:A15.2.04.002 218: 40: 7925:Sympathetic 7897:Motor nerve 7849:Optic nerve 7797:Spinal cord 7675:(1864 book) 7579:Poggendorff 7554:Oppel-Kundt 7549:Necker cube 7544:Müller-Lyer 7519:Irradiation 7338:Eye disease 7318:Keratocytes 7207:Conjunctiva 7164:Ora serrata 7102:Muller glia 7066:Midget cell 6786:Endothelium 6776:Dua's layer 6130:23 February 5331:Circulation 5265:(11): 892. 4543:23 February 4480:(1): 6445. 4294:Development 3798:10045/74474 3534:J Biol Chem 2732:George Wald 2662:Around 300 2447:is used to 2328:cryotherapy 1965:causes the 1645:homeodomain 1609:Development 1187:Müller cell 1096:optic nerve 1062:Müller cell 986:references 984:Additional 977:anatomical 842:capillaries 796:ora serrata 728:optic nerve 492:fibre-optic 488:glial cells 420:optic nerve 401:entrainment 346:optic nerve 334:vertebrates 208:Identifiers 7954:Categories 7822:Cerebellum 7672:Spectropia 7589:Rubin vase 7539:McCollough 7534:Mach bands 7484:Ehrenstein 7479:Ebbinghaus 7444:Barberpole 7419:Afterimage 7179:of the eye 7152:Optic disc 6910:Pars plana 6781:Descemet's 6761:Epithelium 6434:Vision Res 6221:5 December 6190:5 December 6160:20 October 5389:(63): 63. 3339:5 December 3128:11 January 2926:References 2759:guinea pig 2668:Herophilos 2620:, such as 2465:histologic 2336:vitrectomy 2218:horizontal 2105:inhibitory 2101:excitatory 1979:G-proteins 1909:See also: 1892:Biometrics 1886:See also: 1832:optic disc 1771:improve it 1691:improve it 1631:Drosophila 1173:Horizontal 1060:Formed by 900:horizontal 752:optic disc 746:, and the 717:horizontal 522:homologous 481:cephalopod 477:blind spot 352:to create 294:(from 7917:Autonomic 7834:Forebrain 7807:Hindbrain 7724:Illusions 7696:The dress 7688:Waterfall 7489:Flash lag 7469:Cornsweet 7454:Café wall 7434:Ames room 7412:Illusions 7157:Optic cup 7042:Cone cell 6696:human eye 6525:(1): 50. 6517:(about a 6393:"EyeWire" 6059:0035-9157 6012:0969-7128 5700:CiteSeerX 5208:962009228 5088:0143-5221 4885:CiteSeerX 4502:2045-2322 4453:1 January 4448:Webvision 4378:: 53–93. 4357:745905738 4316:0950-1991 4221:1471-003X 4083:cite news 4033:Optometry 3973:(1): 59. 3912:964379175 3491:: 52–81. 3297:0022-1295 3236:: 49–84. 3123:Webvision 3102:1 January 3089:Webvision 3049:1662-5099 2915:Rhodopsin 2791:launched 2783:In 2012, 2755:bandwidth 2749:A recent 2716:In 1894, 2708:In 1604, 2680:arachnoid 2672:arachnoid 2582:transgene 2501:anti-VEGF 2480:Treatment 2467:quality. 2423:Diagnosis 2188:balanced. 2136:algorithm 1971:isomerise 1697:talk page 1647:factors. 1336:Ribosomes 975:Specific 885:parafovea 857:neuropils 461:Structure 336:and some 324:layer of 59:human eye 7856:Cerebrum 7829:Midbrain 7792:Meninges 7474:Delboeuf 7424:Ambigram 7046:Rod cell 6851:(middle) 6766:Bowman's 6560:"Retina" 6551:15283859 6403:27 March 6397:Archived 6377:27 March 6351:26 March 6327:18329018 6283:17093405 6215:Archived 6184:Archived 6154:Archived 6077:19984605 6020:15454954 5968:30202286 5960:18632300 5917:17923143 5876:12756418 5835:21606598 5786:18774912 5734:Archived 5730:18441371 5670:19854499 5618:18441370 5564:19953081 5510:19583479 5456:15960597 5421:30635610 5362:27682886 5305:Archived 5289:34687632 5240:62034580 5175:15177969 5131:16154379 5096:12149100 5017:23777785 4968:21152417 4936:PLOS Med 4917:14654500 4823:20 April 4790:20 April 4762:Archived 4657:Archived 4614:Archived 4569:22 April 4563:Archived 4520:37081065 4511:10119193 4427:17 April 4421:Archived 4400:21312546 4392:24583621 4324:31399471 4272:15036211 4237:15038502 4229:25096185 4143:23071378 4053:19465337 3879:24755005 3807:29037595 3667:29113536 3632:21091424 3566:22074925 3515:27260426 3441:Archived 3425:20482021 3378:21356325 3333:Archived 3250:29609042 3189:17485670 3097:21413391 3067:33935647 3001:22 April 2850:See also 2765:MacLaren 2684:retiform 2676:retiform 2559:serotype 2461:tomogram 2374:include 2117:synapses 1905:Function 1869:In birds 1487:complex 1295:between 1291:Made of 1214:between 1212:Synapses 1181:amacrine 1145:amacrine 1064:endfeet 1032:detached 1028:vitreous 863:and the 811:synapses 791:primates 771:Reptiles 639:ganglion 515:Deinopis 472:inverted 377:synapses 338:molluscs 332:of most 153:retinae 7935:Enteric 7884:Somatic 7812:Medulla 7707:Related 7634:Zöllner 7624:White's 7559:Orbison 7524:Jastrow 7298:Choroid 7199:Eyebrow 7143:Foveola 6959:(inner) 6859:Choroid 6707:(outer) 6694:of the 6574:Bibcode 6502:2006220 6454:5862581 6291:4415311 6253:Bibcode 6125:4567856 6068:2201994 5925:9926758 5826:3104779 5777:2940541 5661:4492302 5609:2829748 5555:2839440 5501:2829287 5412:6329813 5391:Bibcode 5353:5219936 5312:Ingenia 5280:7611980 5139:7434103 5052:7155524 5008:3764070 4959:2994677 4866:7705121 4720:7288393 4711:2228620 4653:4428954 4610:5060117 4482:Bibcode 4416:Anatomy 4186:7892602 4166:Bibcode 4158:Science 4134:3504437 4073:7 April 3675:1351539 3623:4120883 3557:3265842 3506:5112118 3405:Bibcode 3306:2214869 3258:5045660 3180:1895942 3157:Bibcode 3058:8081888 2793:EyeWire 2658:History 2601:(OCT). 2549:(RPE), 2295:and/or 1967:retinal 1775:sources 1485:Bruch's 1220:bipolar 1189:nuclei 1177:bipolar 1141:bipolar 840:in the 831:choroid 829:or the 666:macular 577:, 1911) 559:bipolar 373:neurons 348:to the 342:focused 328:of the 318:retinas 313:retinae 311: 231:D012160 174:Part of 67:Details 7844:Retina 7659:Op art 7614:Ternus 7594:Sander 7509:Hering 7449:Bezold 7293:Retina 7203:Eyelid 7195:Adnexa 7118:Macula 7098:K cell 7094:M cell 7090:P cell 6966:Layers 6957:Retina 6928:Stroma 6771:Stroma 6756:layers 6751:Limbus 6743:Cornea 6715:Sclera 6655:002291 6549: 6542:512282 6539: 6500: 6469: 6452: 6325: 6289: 6281: 6245:Nature 6123: 6075: 6065: 6057: 6018: 6010: 5966: 5958: 5923: 5915: 5874: 5833: 5823: 5784: 5774: 5728: 5702: 5668: 5658: 5640:Lancet 5616: 5606: 5562: 5552: 5508: 5498: 5454: 5419: 5409: 5360: 5350: 5287: 5277: 5238: 5228: 5222:Retina 5206: 5196: 5173: 5137: 5129: 5094: 5086: 5050: 5015: 5005: 4966: 4956: 4915: 4905: 4887: 4864: 4854: 4754: 4718: 4708: 4651: 4608: 4518: 4508: 4500: 4398: 4390: 4355: 4345: 4322: 4314: 4270: 4235: 4227: 4219: 4184: 4141: 4131: 4051: 3944: 3910: 3900: 3877: 3805: 3729: 3704: 3700:–225. 3673: 3665: 3630: 3620: 3564: 3554: 3513: 3503: 3423: 3376: 3315:235007 3313: 3303: 3295: 3256: 3248: 3187: 3177: 3095: 3065: 3055: 3047: 2947: 2738:, and 2688:retina 2591:fundus 2507:agents 2382:, and 2365:cancer 2283:macula 2132:matrix 1963:photon 1464:(COST) 1288:(ELM) 1270:(ONL) 1250:axons 1085:(NFL) 970:on OCT 919:Using 909:pigeon 892:mosaic 881:mosaic 783:macula 763:pecten 761:, the 742:, the 655:, and 586:cones. 430:whose 393:opsins 366:camera 326:tissue 292:retina 197:Artery 185:System 57:Right 46:Retina 7802:Brain 7629:Wundt 7584:Ponzo 7464:Chubb 7311:Other 7215:Orbit 7133:Fovea 7111:Other 7048:) → ( 7031:Cells 6933:Pupil 6849:tunic 6692:globe 6287:S2CID 6241:(PDF) 5964:S2CID 5921:S2CID 5737:(PDF) 5688:(PDF) 5135:S2CID 4913:S2CID 4862:S2CID 4765:(PDF) 4740:(PDF) 4396:S2CID 4233:S2CID 3773:(PDF) 3671:S2CID 3254:S2CID 2363:is a 2341:Both 2293:cones 2208:pixel 2200:axons 2173:-1/8 2162:-1/8 2151:-1/8 2087:than 2050:fovea 1661:FOXG1 1657:FOXD1 1429:opsin 1244:(HL) 1208:(OPL) 1168:(INL) 1136:(IPL) 1108:(GCL) 1092:axons 1057:(ILM) 822:axons 807:nerve 787:fovea 759:birds 672:Henle 432:axons 416:brain 389:cones 364:in a 298: 296:Latin 278:[ 267:58301 214:Latin 7817:Pons 7504:Grid 7404:list 7251:Lens 7236:Iris 7084:) → 7060:) → 7052:) → 6920:Iris 6547:PMID 6498:PMID 6467:ISBN 6450:PMID 6405:2012 6379:2012 6353:2012 6323:PMID 6279:PMID 6223:2017 6192:2017 6162:2015 6132:2023 6121:PMID 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