1286:, foreign gun makers were encouraged to establish foundries, which were even able to export to neighbouring countries. For example, some of the firearms found in Malacca when the Portuguese took it in 1511 came from gun foundries in Lower Burma. Royal artisans produced gunpowder and matchlocks throughout the Toungoo period. Guns were also secured from China and various Tai-Shan realms. By the 17th century, mainland Southeast Asia was "fairly awash with guns of every kind". In some late 16th century campaigns, as high as 20–33 percent of the troops were equipped with muskets. In 1635, 14 to 18 percent of Burma's royal troops used firearms. Expanding maritime trade after mid-18th century, a coincident increase in the quality of European handguns, and the frequency of warfare all contributed to increased integration of firearms. By 1824, on the eve of First Anglo-Burmese War, anywhere from 29 to 89 percent of Konbaung field armies were equipped with guns, with 60 percent a reasonable average.
1336:
foreign Asians to produce guns locally that were on par with those manufactured in Europe or
European foundries in Asia. The Burmese like other Southeast Asians were dependent on the goodwill of the Europeans for the supply of their guns. The Europeans for their part were loath to provide the Southeast Asians with the means to challenge them. As a result, early Konbaung kings continually sought reliable European arms but rarely received them in quantity they wanted. Or sometimes, they could not pay for them. In the 1780s, the Chinese trade embargo of Burmese cotton greatly limited the crown's ability to pay for more advanced foreign firearms. Bodawpaya had to rely on domestic musket production, which could produce only low-tech matchlocks while the rival Siamese were transitioning to more advanced European and American supplied flintlocks. Still, the flintlock slowly began to replace the less efficient and less powerful matchlock in Burma. The army also began to obtain cast-iron cannon.
1355:(1824–1885). The gap was already considerable even on the eve of the first war, in which Burmese defences fared best. The palace arsenal had about 35,000 muskets but they were mostly rejects from French and English arsenals. The gunpowder was of such poor quality that British observers of the era claimed that it would not have been passed in the armies of Indian princes. The British also considered Burmese artillery "a joke". Not only did the skills of Burmese artillery men compare badly to those of the British ones, Burmese cannon technology was several generations behind. In the First Anglo-Burmese War, the Burmese cannon were mostly old ship guns of diverse calibre, and some of them 200 years old. Some of them were so old that they could be fired no often than once in 20 minutes. When they did, they still fired only non-exploding balls whereas the British troops employed exploding
74:
1020:
1103:
963:
1448:
levies were mobilised in times of war, they were required to bring their own gunpowder, flints and provisions. It follows that when these recruits marched off to war with their own gunpowder and flints, they were clearly expected to use the guns that were normally kept under strict guard in a centralized magazine, and released to soldiers only during training or in times of war. Despite the majority of the conscripts not having received any formal training, the
British commanders in the First Anglo-Burmese War observed that the musketry of the Burmese infantrymen under good commanders "was of formidable description".
1693:
population even under
Toungoo and Konbaung empires only about 2 million, continual warfare was made possible only by gaining more territories and people for the next campaign. The strategy proved unsustainable in the long run both with Toungoo dynasty in the 1580s and 1590s and the Konbaung dynasty in the 1770s and 1780s. The long running wars of the 16th and 18th centuries greatly depopulated the Irrawaddy valley, and correspondingly reduced their later kings' ability to project power in lands most conscripts had never even heard of. The populace welcomed breaks from warfare such as during the reign of King
1340:
1537:
1762:
French and
Portuguese, the British had a strong foothold in India which allowed the British to deploy thousands of European and Indian soldiers to reinforce their initial invasion. Some 40,000 to 50,000 British troops were involved during the First War alone. The campaign cost the British five million to 13 million pounds sterling (roughly 18.5 billion to 48 billion in 2006 US dollars), and 15,000 men. For the Burmese, however, it marked the gradual end of the country's independence. Not only did they lose their entire western and southern territories by the
1722:
1185:
53:
1130:
727:
234:
537:) along with their retainers were required to abolish their local forces and instead reside at the capital for long periods. Gentry youths in Upper Burma were required to serve in the military or non-military service of the king either in the corps of royal pages or in the capital defence regiments. At a lower social level, tens of thousands of military and non-military were required to serve capital service rotas lasting from several months to three years.
1811:'s peasant rebellion in 1930–1931. In addition to increasing the resentment of the Burman populace against the British colonial government, the recruitment policies led to tensions between the Burmans and the Karen, Kachin and Chin. The recruitment policies are also said to have rankled deeply in the Burman imagination, "eating away at their sense of pride, and turning the idea of a Burmese army into a central element of the nationalist dream".
1858:
1073:
1215:
394:
922:
1807:, raising a Burman battalion and seven Burman companies which served in Egypt, France and Mesopotamia. But after the war, the Burman troops were gradually discharged—most of the Burman companies were discharged between 1923 and 1925 and the last Burman company in 1929.) The British used Indian and ethnic minority dominated troops to control the colony and suppress ethnic-majority dominated rebellions such as
1177:
routinely report numbers at least an order of magnitude higher but these numbers have been dismissed by historians.) The latter kingdoms (Toungoo and
Konbaung dynasties) with larger populations certainly fielded larger armies. The crown practiced the policy of having conquered lands provide levies to his next war effort. Historian GE Harvey estimates that Bayinnaung likely raised about 70,000 men for his
357:, were formed in the 16th century. Outside the special firearm units, there was no formal training program for the regular conscripts, who were expected to have a basic knowledge of self-defense, and how to operate the musket on their own. As the technological gap between European powers widened in the 18th century, the army was dependent on Europeans' willingness to sell more sophisticated weaponry.
1315:
1259:
951:, the Burmese cavalry dealt the final blow to the British force in the ending stages of the battle when they charged the faltering British Indian regulars. Although they proved themselves well in skirmishes, both the Cassay Horse and other Burmese cavalry units were unable to defeat the heavier British and Indian cavalry in the open field in all the Anglo-Burmese wars.
598:
1774:(1885) lasted less than a month. The entire country was gone. The remnants of the Burmese army put up a brutal guerrilla campaign against the British for the next decade. While the British were never able to establish full control of Upper Burma, they were nevertheless able to control much of the population centers and establish themselves firmly in the country.
1091:), even in the campaigns that required them to cross thick jungles and high mountains. Their dresses were hardly enough to keep the conscripts warm during the army's punishing, many-week-long marches. The palace guards wore more ostentatious uniforms—Bayinnaung's palace guards wore "golden helmets and splendid dresses"—and rode horses and elephants.
1503:
techniques or transform traditional ideas of combat. Rather, the new weapons were used to reinforce traditional ways of fighting with the dominant weaponry still the war elephants, pikes, swords and spears. In contrast to
European-style drill and tactical co-ordination, Burmese field forces generally fought in small groups under individual leaders.
689:), and all must be equipped with weapons including guns and cannon. In the early 17th century, a typical regiment consisting of 1000 men was armed with 10 cannon, 100 guns and 300 bows. Moreover, the camp followers should include expert catchers of wild elephants as well as musicians and astrologers. An infantry unit was generally divided between
1668:
centuries, the army had helped build the largest empire in mainland
Southeast Asia on the back of a series of impressive military victories in the previous 70 years. They then ran into the British in present-day northeast India. The army was defeated in all three Anglo-Burmese wars over a six-decade span (1824–1885).
1121:(sword), but a few had the sword of a European shape with a scabbard of brass or steel." Charney suggests that uniforms were worn only on special occasions as they were provided by the court with a new one being supplied each year. Instead, the soldiers were identified by tattoo marks on the backs of their neck.
1689:. (A similar shift in performance too was seen in Siam. The same Siamese conscript army, having defeated in the two wars in the 1760s by the Burmese, changed its fortunes under good leadership. It stopped the Burmese in the following two decades, and built an empire by swallowing up parts of Laos and Cambodia.)
1704:
Secondly, the army never effectively solved the problems of transporting and feeding large armies, especially for the long-distance campaigns. Badly planned campaigns saw many conscripts perished even before a single shot was fired. Indeed, the ability to get supplies to the front was one of the most
1636:
Firearms became both more common and more closely integrated into strategy from the 16th century onward when the army began to incorporate special units of gunners. Alongside
Portuguese mercenaries, who formed the army's elite musketeer and artillery corps, indigenous infantry and elephant units also
1439:). This system had been in place since Pagan times. In the lowland Irrawaddy valley but also to a lesser extent in the hill regions, all young men were expected to have received a basic level of (religious) education, and secular education (including martial arts) from their local Buddhist monastery.
1245:
but also against Ming China itself. Shan states at the Yunnan border (in particular, Mohnyin and
Mogaung) were the first soon put this military technology to use. Despite their relatively small size, Mogaung in the 14th century and Mohnyin in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, raided much larger
970:
During the 16th century, the
Burmese artillery and musketeer corps were originally made up exclusively of foreign (Portuguese and Muslim) mercenaries. But by the mid-17th century, mercenaries, who had proven politically dangerous as well as expensive, virtually had disappeared in favour of cannoneers
929:
Bayinnaung often used massed cavalry extensively in both field and siege actions. In a battle against the Siamese under Phraya Chakri, Bayinnaung used a small force of Burmese cavalry to force the Siamese garrisons to sally from their stockade allowing the hidden Burmese infantry to cut them off from
588:
villages, particularly those that had descended from European and Muslim corps, specialized in providing more skilled servicemen such as gunners and cannoneers. The selection of conscripts was left to the local headmen. Conscripts could provide a substitute or pay a fee in lieu of service. Conscripts
1519:
visited Burma in the mid-17th century right after the change was instituted, they were amazed that even the major towns except the capital did not have any fortified defences. They found that the Burmese kings distrusted the vassal states, and instead preferred to rely on the country's numerous toll
1511:
The siege warfare was a frequent feature during the small kingdoms period (14th to 16th centuries) when the small kingdoms or even vassal states maintained fortified defenses. By the 1550s, the Portuguese cannon had forced a shift from wood to brick and stone fortifications. Moreover, the Portuguese
1142:
The size of the regular standing army, the Palace Guards and the Capital Defense Corps, was in low thousands only, even in wartime. Even under Bayinnaung, the much celebrated soldier king whose reign was marked by a series of constant military campaigns, the Capital Defense Corps was only about 4000
1030:
The naval arm of the army consisted mainly of river-faring war boats. Its primary missions were to control the Irrawaddy, and to protect the ships carrying the army to the front. The major war boats carried up to 30 musketeers and were armed with 6- or 12-pounder cannon. By the mid-18th century, the
717:
In this period elephants were fitted Howdahs and covered in armor; both made of an iron frame covered with two layers of buffalo hide. Each Howdah carried four gunmen; the gunmen climbed through a rope ladder which was hung on a hook afterwards. Two long spears were hung on the side of the Howdah to
612:
formed the core command of most military operations although more prominent military campaigns would ostensibly be led by a close member of the royalty—at times, the king himself or the king's brother or son, or other times a senior minister of the court. (Although Burmese history is often dominated
1733:
The Royal Burmese Army's performance vis-a-vis European forces grew worse as the technology gap grew wider. The greatest obstacle for the Burmese like with many other Southeast Asian kingdoms facing European powers was the European dominance of the seas. Aside from Arakan and Hanthawady, successive
1632:
Though firearms had been introduced since the late 14th century, they became integrated into strategy only gradually over many centuries. At first, Burmese shared with other Southeast Asians a tendency to regard guns of imposing appearance as a source of spiritual power, regardless of how well they
1447:
Nevertheless, the pwe kyaung system was not sufficient to keep up with advances in military technology. In the 17th century, the army provided training in the use of firearms only to professional gun units. The average soldier was expected to fend for himself. Dutch sources record that when Burmese
1375:
In the 1840s the Burmese began to construct larger European style ships. In 1858 Mindon Min purchased a small two funneled side wheel steamer at Calcutta; this was the first of several British made vessels. By 1866 Mindon Min had a second steamer; both were used to crush a rebellion. By 1875 there
1063:
were used against the British between 1824 and 1825; those were bamboo rafts carrying clay jars filled with cotton and petroleum. Some Fireships were longer than a hundred feet; and divided into many pieces, connected by hinges; when caught on the bow of another ship the current would wrap the raft
701:
The infantry was the backbone of the wartime Burmese army, and was supported by special branches—the elephantry, cavalry, artillery, and naval corps. These special branches were formed by the men from certain hereditary villages that provided the men with specialized skills. In a typical Toungoo or
1761:
history. The Burmese victory at Ramu had for a short moment led to shockwaves throughout British India. The Burmese were generally more successful during inland operations but were completely outmatched against naval support in the Battles of Yangon, Danubyu and Prome. Furthermore, unlike with the
1745:
in 1613, which drove out the Portuguese from Burma for good, came after a month's siege. The technological gap was still small. According to a contemporary account by Salvador Ribeyro, a Spanish captain that served with the Portuguese recounted that the Burmese were armed similarly to the European
1556:
tactics, mainly in times of retreat but also in times of advance. They would burn and destroy everything in sight that could be of use to the enemy, crops and infrastructure (wells, bridges, etc.). At times, the entire region at the border was destroyed and depopulated to create a buffer zone. For
1197:
The main weaponry of the infantry largely consisted of swords, spears and bow and arrows down to the late 19th century although the use of firearms steadily increased starting from the late 14th century. The infantry units were supported by cavalry and elephantry corps. War elephants in particular
1098:
In 1800, Symes noted that Burmese troops wore loose scarlet frocks with conical caps with a plume and drawers reaching below the knees. In the First Anglo-Burmese War, a Western observer at the Burmese capital noted of the army leaving for the front: "each man was attired in a comfortable campaign
1676:
Even without counting its sub-par performance against European powers, the army's performance throughout history was uneven. As the main fighting force consisted of poorly trained conscripts, the performance of the army therefore greatly depended on the leadership of experienced commanders. Under
1367:
instituted a modernisation drive that saw the foundation of a gun and munitions foundry and a small artillery factory. But the drive sputtered after the prince's assassination in 1866. An 1867 trade agreement with the British government permitted the Burmese to import arms, but Britain rebuffed a
1249:
However, this early technological advantage of the Shan states vis-a-vis Ava was gradually neutralized by the continued spread of the firearms. By the mid-16th century, the introduction of better firearms from Europe had reversed the positions, and helped the Toungoo dynasty annex all of the Shan
1692:
Even under good military leadership, the army's continued success was not assured because of its heavy reliance on conscript manpower. This reliance had several major weaknesses. First, the size of population was often too small to support the conqueror kings' wartime ambitions. With the size of
1233:
in the late 14th century. State-of-the-art Chinese military technology reached northern mainland Southeast Asia by way of Chinese traders and renegade soldiers, who despite the Ming government's prohibition, actively smuggled primitive handguns, gunpowder, cannon and rockets. True metal barreled
710:
The main use of war elephants was to charge the enemy, trampling them and breaking their ranks. Although the elephantry units made up only about one percent of the overall strength, they were a major component of Burmese war strategy throughout the imperial era. The army on the march would bring
532:
regiments especially at the border regions—essentially a garrison. The existence of competing armies was a constant source of political instability especially during the 14th to 16th centuries when high kings regularly faced rebellions by their own kinsman viceroys who also wanted to be king. It
448:
The Royal Burmese Army was organized into three general tiers: the Palace Guards, the Ahmudan Regiments, and the field levies. Only the first two were the standing military. They protected the sovereign and the capital region, and formed the nucleus of the armed forces in wartime. The third, the
1335:
By the late 17th century, gunmaking was no longer a relatively simple affair as had been the case with the matchlock but had become an increasingly sophisticated process that required highly skilled individuals and complex machinery. Southeast Asian rulers could no longer depend on Europeans or
616:
Directly below the generals were the local chiefs and their deputies who commanded the regiment commanders. The use of local chiefs was a necessary element of the army's organizational structure especially in Toungoo and Konbaung eras because the army was made up of levies from all parts of the
1667:
The Royal Burmese Army was a major Southeast Asian armed force between the 11th and 13th centuries and between 16th and 19th centuries. It was the premier military force in the 16th century when Toungoo kings built the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. In the 18th and early 19th
1502:
The army's war strategy and fighting tactics generally remained fairly constant throughout the imperial era. The infantry battalions, supported by the cavalry and elephantry, engaged the enemy in the open battlefield. The arrival of European firearms did not lead to any major changes in battle
1301:
However, the quality of domestically produced and Chinese firearms perpetually remained inferior to European ones. The court concentrated on procuring coastal imports, which—given the demands of campaigning and the guns' rapid deterioration in tropical conditions—became an endless task. Thus a
1176:
The maximum size of the army ultimately depended on that of the overall population from which to draw levies. During the Ava period (1364–1555), when the country was divided into several small fiefdoms, each petty state could probably have mobilized 10,000 men at most. (The Burmese chronicles
1712:
Nonetheless, as history clearly shows, the army held more than its own against the armies of the kingdom's neighbors, all of which also faced the same problems to a similar degree. But facing head-on against more technologically advanced European forces would lead to the army's eventual end.
1114:
s and red helmets though regular infantry wore civilian white jackets. A European observer described the Burmese cavalry dressed in "red jackets and trousers, a few wearing a red jerkin over these, and still fewer dressed in the full uniform of the cavalry, shoulder-pieces, gilt helmet, with
1159:
The general strength of the wartime army varied greatly depending on a number of factors: the authority of the king, the population of the territories he controlled, and the season of year. Because most of the conscripts were farmers, most wars were fought during the dry season. The famous
605:
The command structure followed the three-tier organizational structure. The king was the commander-in-chief although in practice most kings appointed a commander-in-chief, usually from the ranks of the royal house or from the top command of the Palace Guards, to lead the campaigns. The
579:
literally means civil service. This required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. The village chiefs responded to requests from their respective mayors who in turn responded to those of governors and
1080:
The most iconic image of the Burmese royal army is the layered wavy collars that extend to the shoulders worn by officers and officials. The formal attire of the field infantry was minimalist. Ordinary foot soldiers were typically dressed only in thick quilted cotton jackets called
1289:
The cannon were also integrated to siege warfare although the Burmese like many other Southeast Asians valued the cannon more for their imposing appearance and sound than actual usefulness. By the mid-18th century, small 3-inch calibre cannon were widely used in the sieges
1463:'s arsenal of cannon remained unused because he lacked skilled cannoneers. Such was the lack of skilled artillery men that the French cannoneers captured by Alaungpaya quickly became the leaders of the Burmese artillery corps in the second half of the 18th century.
756:
From the 17th century onward, cavalry troops made up about 10% of a typical regiment. The men of the cavalry were drawn mainly from hereditary villages in Upper Burma. One of the core areas that provided expert horsemen since the early 14th century was Sagaing. The
1527:
of the 1750s, which featured a series of sieges by both sides. In the 19th century, forts along the Irrawaddy was a major part of Burmese strategy to defend against a potential British invasion. In practice, however, they did little to withstand British firepower.
1302:
principal responsibility of coastal governors was to procure firearms through purchases and levies on incoming ships. Royal agents also purchased guns as far afield as India and Aceh; while diplomatic approaches to Europeans typically focused on this issue. King
1455:. Special branches such as gun and cannon units also received some training. In the 1630s, foreign and indigenous gun regiments not only inhabited the land they had been granted, but that in the outfitting of a unit of 100 gunners, each man was issued a gun and
1782:
After the third and final war, on 1 January 1886, the British formally abolished the millennium old Burmese monarchy and its military arm, the Royal Burmese Army. One month later, in February 1886, the former kingdom was administered as a mere province of the
1050:); a substantial number of war boats was also maintained at the capital. Most vessels were crewed by local levies but a small number of crewmen was recruited from the standing army's ''Marine Regiment''. This unit had a thousand men and was commanded by the
1326:
The quality gap between locally manufactured guns and European arms continued to widen as new rapid advances in technology and mass production in Europe quickly outstripped the pace of developments in Asia. Important developments were the invention of the
947:), was the elite light cavalry unit in the Burmese cavalry corps. The Cassay Horse along with other Burmese cavalry units were reported to play important roles during the First Anglo-Burmese War engaging the British cavalry in various skirmishes. At the
1331:
musket and mass production of cast-iron cannon in Europe. The flintlock was much faster, more reliable and more user-friendly than the unwieldy matchlock, which required one hand to hold the barrel, and another to adjust the match and pull the trigger.
1278:
musket, first invented in Germany in the mid-15th century, arrived to Burma in large quantities starting in the 1530s. Cannon and matchlocks supplied by Portuguese mercenaries proved superior in accuracy, safety, ballistic weight and rapidity of fire.
1198:
were the heavily sought after as they were used to charge the enemy, trampling them and breaking their ranks. Elephantry and cavalry units were used in warfare down to the 19th century. Encounters with Burmese war elephants were recorded by the
540:
The Guard Regiments were notably for including a large number of non-Burmese in their ranks. In the Konbaung era, the interior Palace was guarded by companies of Laotian, Shan and Northern Thai soldiers. They served in a similar function to the
449:
field levies or conscripts, were usually raised just prior to or during wartime, and provided manpower to resist attacks and project power beyond the boundaries of the empire. Most of the field levy served in the infantry but the men for the
1633:
functioned. A motley assortment of local manufactures, Muslim imports, and French and English rejects defied standardized supply or training. In sharp contrast to Europe, cannon were rarely used for frontal assaults on stone fortifications.
1841:
in Burmese in honour of the army of old. But unlike the Royal Burmese Army, in which minorities played a significant role throughout history, the modern Tatmadaw has been heavily dominated by Burmans. The modern Tatmadaw has been fighting
975:
system. However, the men who replaced the mercenaries were themselves descendants of the mercenaries who had settled in their own hereditary villages in Upper Burma where they practiced their own religion and followed their own customs.
1164:
was largely fought during the dry season, and armies went back to till the land during the rainy season. Only a few times in the imperial era was the decision to extend the campaign to the rainy season made, most notables being the
1004:
Regular artillerymen seem to have mostly accompanied standing armies; it is likely most men manning defensive positions were recruited locally. At Rangoon in 1856 prisoners were released to man the guns; which they were chained to.
497:
The Bloodsworns were never a permanent military body and their loyalty was personal to the individual king. Whenever a new king reigns, he would form his own bodyguard of Bloodsworn men, usually from his own retainers or relatives.
628:
commanders routinely led their own regiments throughout the imperial era. Outstanding ethnic commanders also led larger operations and even entire campaigns, especially in Ava and Toungoo periods (14th to 18th centuries). (King
506:
The Guards Division consisted of four brigades, each of which resided in barracks outside the palace, and designated by the location in relation to the place: Front, Rear, Left and Right. The captain of each brigade was called
1038:
and the Mon, from the maritime regions, maintained more seaworthy flotillas than inland riverborne "navy" of the Royal Burmese Army. The Arakanese in particular fielded a formidable seagoing navy that terrorised the coasts of
1350:
By the early 19th century, the Europeans had gained a considerable superiority in arms production and supply in Southeast Asia. The growing gap was highlighted in the progressively worse performance of the army in the three
1766:, a whole generation of men had been wiped out on the battlefield. Although the Burmese royal army was eventually westernized, it never managed to close the gap. After 30 years of growing technology gap, the outcome of
1790:
As a result of their distrust towards the Burmese, the British enforced their rule in the province of Burma mainly with Indian troops later joined by indigenous military units of three select ethnic minorities: the
737:
While not as pronounced as in Europe and other similar cultures, mounted warriors hold an elite position in Burmese society, "because horses and elephants are worthy of kings; they are excellent things, of power."
1803:. The Burmans, "the people who had actually conquered by fire and sword half the Southeast Asian mainland", were not allowed to enter the colonial military service. (The British temporarily lifted the ban during
1459:. Nonetheless, the skills of Burmese artillery men remained poor. In 1661, Dutch observers at the Burmese capital noted that Burma was more in need of expert cannoneers than cannon. They noted that most of King
486:, hence their name. They are generally made up of royal relatives and the most trusted courtiers. The term sometimes refer to the close companions of the King. The most famous example is the ethnic Mon General
1641:
corps, most of whom were descended from the foreign gunners of the previous generations. Late Toungoo and Konbaung tactics reflected the growing availability and effectiveness of firearms in three spheres:
584:, who in turn responded to the high king. The quotas were fixed until the 17th century when restored Toungoo kings instituted variable quotas to take advantage of demographic fluctuations. Some hereditary
1234:
handguns, first developed in 1288, and metal barreled artillery from the first half of 14th century had also spread. During the same period, Chinese and Arab-style firearms were also in use at the coast.
1147:, a British envoy reported a capital garrison of 4000 to 5000. In peacetime, the size was even smaller. In 1795, another British envoy found 2000 troops, including about 700 palace guards, at the capital
1787:. (Burma would become a separate colony only in 1937.) Burmese resistance went on not only in the lowland Irrawaddy valley but also in the surrounding hill regions for another 10 years until 1896.
644:
of the army was the regiment. A 1605 royal order decreed that the fighting forces should be organised as follows: each regiment shall consist of 1000 foot soldiers under 100 company leaders called
1451:
The Palace Guards and the Capital Defense Corps received minimal formal military training. Western observers noted that even the elite Capital Defense Corps in the 19th century were not strong at
749:
class of sorts being the only class of people allowed mobility throughout the kingdom without permission and ranking only below the noble-ministers. The one of the highest military rank is termed
440:
founded the Palace Guards—"two companies inner and outer, and they kept watch in ranks one behind the other". The Palace Guards became the nucleus round which the mass levy assembled in war time.
360:
While the army held more than its own against the armies of the kingdom's neighbors, its performance against more technologically advanced European armies deteriorated over time. It defeated the
1115:
ear-pieces and embroidered jerkin; all had the white saddle-flap and high-peaked pommel and cantle. The men were armed with a spear and a sword each, with the latter being, as a rule, a Burmese
1515:
In the early 17th century, the Restored Toungoo kings required the vassal kings to reside at the capital for long periods, and abolished their militias and their fortified defences. When the
436:, who founded the Pagan Empire, must have had permanent troops on duty in the palace, the first specific mention of a standing military structure in the Burmese chronicles is 1174 when King
528:
village located near the capital or the king's ancestral/appanage region. Prior to the early 17th century, each viceroy also maintained his own smaller version of household guards and
320:
system, which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. The wartime army also consisted of
1241:
in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The Shans had soon learned to replicate Chinese arms and military techniques, and were able to strengthen their position not only against
1110:
Western-influenced uniforms became common after the Second Anglo-Burmese War during the reign of King Mindon. Burmese uniforms in the 1860s consisted of green jackets, red striped
1095:'s cavalry were described to be wearing "curiasses, breastplates, and skirts of mail, as well as lances, swords and gilded shields." Their mounts were "richly caparisoned horses".
1613:
1363:(1852–1853), after which the British had annexed Lower Burma, and held a stranglehold on arm supplies to a landlocked Upper Burma. In response, the Burmese, led by Crown Prince
524:). The men generally were gentry, and selected for their trustworthiness. Servicemen in the Capital Regiments and the Royal Palace Guards were selected from trusted hereditary
494:. Dala describes the men, who had sworn the blood oath as "All , his chosen men, in fact, whether Shans, Mons or Burmans... declared ourselves willing to lay down our lives ."
1487:
was able to enforce regular practice at the central artillery corps in Amapura for 18 months with help from foreign instructors; this regime was discontinued in late 1855
1652:
Particularly in jungle or hill terrain, Burmese infantry learned to use small arms to cover the building of stockades, which were then defended by firepower massed within.
1750:
era, mid-18th century, a small French contingent helped the Hanthawaddy garrison at Syriam hold out for 14 months before finally captured by Alaungpaya's forces in 1756.
1423:
which, in addition to a religious curriculum, taught secular subjects such as astrology, divination, medicine (including surgery and massage), horse and elephant riding,
1818:, which used to be the 20th Burma Rifles of the British Indian Army. (Burmans were not allowed to enlist as officers.) At any rate, few Burmans bothered to join. Before
983:) had a permanent strength between 500 and 800 men. Including an elephant battery, buffalo batteries, and lighter guns carried by men. These were under command of the
1681:
raids that terrorised northwest Burma between the 1720s and 1750s. Under good leadership, the same peasant army not only defeated Manipur (1758) but also defeated
780:, was maintained up till the fall of Burmese monarchy. The formation of the regiment consisted of nine squadrons, from each named after the hereditary village.
1031:
navy had acquired a few seafaring ships, manned by European and foreign sailors, that were used to transport the troops in Siamese and Arakanese campaigns.
1394:
The army maintained a limited regular training regiment for its Palace Guards and Capital Defense Corps but no formal training program for its conscripts.
432:. The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. Although historians believe that earlier kings like
346:
in the late 14th century, became integrated into strategy only gradually over many centuries. The first special musket and artillery units, equipped with
1822:
began, the British Burma Army consisted of Karen (27.8%), Chin (22.6%), Kachin (22.9%), and Burman 12.3%, without counting their British officer corps.
372:. On 1 January 1886, the millennium-old Burmese monarchy and its military arm, the Royal Burmese Armed Forces, were formally abolished by the British.
368:
intrusions in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively but the army could not stop the advance of the British in the 19th century, losing all three
1646:
In controlling the Irrawaddy, teak war-boats carrying up to 30 musketeers and armed with 6- or 12-pounder cannon dominated more conventional craft;
613:
by the portrayals of warrior kings' battlefield exploits, the high royalty's leadership on the battlefield was largely symbolic in most cases.)
1709:
in which each side's sphere of influence was largely determined by the distance and the number of days supplies could be shipped to the front.
1306:(r. 1782–1819) obliged Burmese merchants plying the Irrawaddy to supply specified quantities of foreign guns and powder in lieu of cash taxes.
1584:
The army also used scorched earth tactics as a means to intimidate the enemy and to secure easier future victories. The ruthless sacks of
930:
the stockades. The cavalry unit returned to the battle with the rest of its unit then charged the Siamese routing them towards Ayutthaya.
1577:(Taungoo). Likewise, the Burmese had left the entire Chiang Mai region depopulated and its infrastructure destroyed in the wake of their
1203:
714:
During the 19th century elephants were still used to carry armed men and artillery; one elephant could carry a battery of eight pieces
134:
1376:
were three such ''king's ships''. These boats were crewed by men from the marine regiment and used as merchant vessels in peace time.
1734:
Burmese kingdoms had only riverine navies. Those navies could not challenge European ships and navies carrying troops and supplies.
1746:
defenders in terms of small arms. The only technological superiority that the Iberian accounts claim was only their ships. In the
312:
The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger
1682:
1621:
1609:
1605:
1578:
1545:
1178:
1170:
2915:
2870:
2834:
2745:
2257:
2224:
2192:
2107:
2978:
2892:
382:
251:
247:
2053:
1649:
During urban sieges, cannon mounted atop wooden platforms cleared defenders from the walls and shielded infantry attacks
17:
2959:
2937:
2798:
2723:
2704:
2685:
2666:
1686:
1512:
guns may have encouraged a new emphasis on inflicting casualties, rather than or in addition to taking prisoners.
1379:
By 1885 there were 11 such ships; including an ocean steamer; 2 gunboats with 8 guns each and 8 smaller steamers.
1019:
305:
in chronological order. The army was one of the major armed forces of Southeast Asia until it was defeated by the
2983:
381:
is still the official name for today's armed forces as well in the Burmese names of their opponents such as the
1637:
began using guns. By the mid-17th century, expensive foreign mercenaries had been replaced by local hereditary
634:
487:
361:
1102:
637:
was an ethnic Mon while many Shan sawbwas led multi-regiment armies throughout Toungoo and Konbaung eras.)
150:
1833:
in the 1940s in turn alarmed the ethnic minorities, especially the Karen. Since independence in 1948, the
2844:
1871:
142:
2827:
Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland
1843:
702:
Konbaung formation, a 1000-strong infantry regiment was supported by 100 horses and 10 war elephants.
2988:
1662:
365:
2649:
1895:
See (Maha Yazawin 2006: 26), (Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 236), (Hmannan Vol. 2 2012: 2) for example.
1767:
1706:
1524:
1516:
1360:
465:
corps were drawn from specific hereditary villages that specialized in respective military skills.
146:
1771:
1754:
1490:
A French advisor later attempt to reintroduce artillery practice; but this was forbidden by king
1344:
1237:
The lack of firearms was a major factor in the army's lackluster performance against the smaller
1166:
1144:
412:
circa mid-9th century. The earliest recorded history was the foundation of the fortified city of
2249:
545:
of European monarchs in the 17th and 18th century. Burmese of European descendants known as the
1339:
2134:
Documents Illustrative of the Burmese War with an Introductory Sketch of the Events of the War
962:
933:
Later in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Burmese cavalry was divided into the Bama, Shan and
2138:
1814:
On 1 April 1937, when Burma was made a separate colony, the Burmans were allowed to join the
1419:) monastic school system at the local level for the conscripts' basic martial know-how. The
2908:
Historical dictionary of Burma (Myanmar), vol. 59 of Asian/Oceanian historical dictionaries
2880:
1834:
1267:
966:
A 19th-century Konbaung pennant of a Burmese artillery unit made up of European descendants
219:
8:
1830:
1283:
1161:
294:
138:
2555:
Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance
772:; lit. "Thousand-strong Regiment of Sagaing") cavalry regiment, founded in 1318 by King
753:(literally cavalry prince) or perhaps better translates as knight commander in English.
2925:
2637:
2242:
1876:
1352:
425:
369:
282:
158:
78:
1721:
1536:
1475:
attempted to encourage it in 1824. Other attempts were made in the 1830s under kings
2955:
2933:
2911:
2866:
2830:
2794:
2741:
2719:
2700:
2681:
2662:
2253:
2220:
2188:
2132:
2113:
2103:
1763:
1616:
in 1757 secured the subsequent tribute missions of Chiang Mai, Martaban and Tavoy to
1386:
had acquired a ''Mitraileuse'' of unknown type, with a limited amount of ammunition.
1271:
934:
347:
2947:
2822:
2778:
1601:
1541:
1523:
Despite the royal prohibition, the fortifications returned to the scene during the
1415:
1356:
1295:
1129:
768:
685:
670:
655:
571:
520:
302:
277:
268:
255:
241:
211:
207:
154:
73:
1770:(1852) was never in doubt. Lower Burma was lost. Another three decades later, the
2897:
1826:
1741:
era, the Burmese had difficulties facing European armies. The Burmese victory at
1624:
has been in a major sore point in the Burmese-Thai relations to the present day.
1480:
1452:
1184:
777:
546:
429:
421:
298:
2853:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2nd printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
2817:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing.
954:
The royal court continued to retain a significant cavalry force into the 1870s.
385:
which name is pronounced Pyithu Karkweyay Tatmadaw (ပြည်သူ့ကာကွယ်ရေးတပ်မတော်).
2952:
The Cambridge History of South-East Asia, Volume 1, Part 2 from c. 1500 to 1800
1863:
1553:
1520:
stations and watchtowers from where messengers could be rushed to the capital.
1484:
1364:
1035:
948:
589:
often had to be driven into battle, and the rate of desertion was always high.
306:
290:
52:
1188:
Royal Burmese Army in Western uniforms and equipment from a Burmese manuscript
2972:
2858:
2733:
2117:
1796:
1758:
1040:
641:
483:
437:
409:
402:
286:
203:
195:
179:
1592:
in 1542 served to secure the fealty of Lower Burma to the upstart regime of
1072:
726:
2849:
2813:
1819:
1792:
1593:
1566:
1472:
1230:
1222:
1199:
1092:
1014:
542:
398:
343:
321:
313:
215:
1804:
1800:
1784:
1270:
first arrived at the shores of Burma in the early 16th century by way of
1242:
1238:
1218:
1117:
618:
187:
478:
The King and the royal family's personal protection are under the Royal
285:
from the 9th to 19th centuries. It refers to the military forces of the
1617:
1597:
1558:
1491:
1383:
1076:
Royal Burmese Army's soldiers and commanders in their mission to France
1024:
630:
625:
491:
450:
199:
183:
175:
2901:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3. Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar.
1282:
Firearms became a pillar of the new imperial order. Starting with the
2773:
2678:
Seventeenth-century Burma and the Dutch East India Company, 1634–1680
1747:
1738:
1698:
1328:
1319:
1303:
1275:
1181:
while early Konbaung kings likely raised armies of 40,000 to 60,000.
1148:
1060:
458:
433:
350:
329:
191:
2891:
408:
The Royal Burmese Army had its origins in the military of the early
1808:
1726:
1585:
1476:
1471:
The Burmese artillery usually did not practice regularly; although
1214:
533:
changed in 1635 when all appanage-holders (viceroys, governors and
393:
377:
921:
1678:
1574:
1562:
1460:
1424:
1402:
To train the conscripts, the army relied on the non-state funded
773:
454:
339:
325:
1099:
jacket of black cloth, thickly wadded and quilted with cotton".
2808:
1742:
1694:
1432:
1404:
1309:
1046:
Communities on the Irrawady were obliged to provide war boats (
746:
621:
581:
534:
354:
1314:
1589:
1369:
417:
413:
1608:. When the Siamese changed their mind in 1568, the city was
1258:
990:
Batteries usually had ten guns each and were commanded by a
2755:
Hardiman, John Percy (1901). Sir James George Scott (ed.).
1570:
1561:
depopulated and destroyed the infrastructure of the entire
1291:
597:
462:
333:
2766:
History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824
2040:, and Burney 1840: 171–181 on Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769)
1133:
Army mobilisation per campaign, Toungoo Empire (1530–1599)
925:
A Manipuri Cassay horseman in the service of Konbaung army
2910:. Vol. 59 (Illustrated ed.). Sacredcrow Press.
2557:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 27.
482:(သွေးသောက်) or Bloodsworn Guards, who were sworn under a
1677:
poor leadership, the army could not even stop frequent
1506:
575:) system, which had been in place since the Pagan era.
2217:
Armies of the Nineteenth Century: Burma and Indo-China
2185:
Armies of the Nineteenth Century: Burma and Indo-China
1343:
British soldiers dismantling Burmese cannon after the
1229:
The introduction of firearms first came to Burma from
1990:. Michigan: University of Michigan. pp. 105–136.
1106:
Westernised Burmese troops in British style red coats
607:
508:
2757:
Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States, Part 2
2697:
Splendour in wood: the Buddhist monasteries of Burma
1853:
745:(မြင်းစီး lit. Horse rider or Cavalier) served as a
2847:(2012) . Myint Swe; Kyaw Win; Thein Hlaing (eds.).
2097:
1757:(1824–1826), the longest and most expensive war in
560:Service to the army was organized according to the
316:-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the
2784:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.
2777:
2759:. Vol. 3. Yangon: Government printing, Burma.
2241:
2713:
2289:. Calcutta: Foreign Department Press. p. 12.
2248:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.
2970:
2954:(reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2576:Myint-U 2006: 113 and Hall 1960: Chapter XII, 43
1825:The emergence of a nationalist anti-colonialist
2740:(3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library.
2632:. Vol. 9. Canton: Printed for Proprietors.
2570:
2399:
2137:. Calcutta: Government Gazette Press. pp.
1253:
549:are noted to serve in these regiments as well.
2863:The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma
2680:(illustrated ed.). Singapore: NUS Press.
1359:. The gap only widened even further after the
2489:See Phayre and Harvey on aforementioned wars.
1844:one of the world's longest running civil wars
1409:
1086:
979:During the 19th century the artillery corps (
942:
908:
894:
880:
866:
852:
838:
824:
810:
796:
762:
679:
664:
649:
565:
514:
40:
2287:Narrative of the Mission to Mandalay in 1867
1729:on 28 November 1885, Third Anglo-Burmese War
1552:A major strategy of the army was the use of
1310:Widening technology gap with European powers
309:over a six-decade span in the 19th century.
2365:
2363:
2323:
1209:
2930:Burma/Myanmar: what everyone needs to know
2843:
2718:(illustrated ed.). Psychology Press.
2593:
2591:
2447:
2413:
2411:
2405:Liberman 2003: 164 and Htin Aung 1967: 198
2339:
2337:
2335:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2026:
1927:
1925:
1716:
1671:
1656:
51:
2924:
2821:
2772:
2694:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2316:
2314:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1753:The Burmese put up the best fight in the
1531:
971:and matchlockmen in the Burmese military
552:
468:
2788:
2754:
2630:Four Years' War between Burmah and China
2390:
2372:
2360:
2019:
2017:
2015:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1720:
1535:
1338:
1313:
1257:
1213:
1183:
1128:
1101:
1071:
1018:
961:
920:
725:
596:
392:
2946:
2905:
2857:
2656:
2588:
2579:
2528:
2519:
2510:
2492:
2483:
2474:
2456:
2438:
2429:
2420:
2408:
2381:
2332:
2302:
2293:
2266:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2145:
2079:
1922:
998:Battery subdivisions were commanded by
601:Konbaung era army command in procession
252:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
14:
2971:
2879:
2763:
2627:
2609:
2600:
2561:
2537:
2501:
2465:
2346:
2311:
2284:
2130:
2064:
2003:
1994:
1985:
1934:
1908:
1612:. Two hundred years later, the army's
1192:
2887:(1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta.
2793:. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis.
2280:
2278:
2239:
2214:
2182:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2093:
2091:
2048:
2046:
2012:
1952:
1707:Burma's centuries long wars with Siam
1414:
767:
693:or shields, musketeers and spearmen.
684:
669:
654:
633:'s best and most relied upon general
570:
519:
428:raids of the 830s that destroyed the
276:
2893:Royal Historical Commission of Burma
2807:
2732:
2675:
2552:
2201:
2084:. Bangkok: Siam Society. p. 34.
1981:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1507:Siege warfare and fortified defences
1397:
1043:during the 15th and 17th centuries.
994:assisted by an assistant called the
2768:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
2032:See formulaic reporting throughout
1600:'s army of a sack of their capital
711:expert catchers of wild elephants.
696:
24:
2714:Hack, Karl; Tobias Rettig (2006).
2628:Burney, Col. Henry (August 1840).
2275:
2165:
2100:Southeast Asian warfare, 1300-1900
2088:
2043:
1627:
1054:whose his second commando was the
733:, equestrian sport for the royalty
659:), 10 battalion commanders called
25:
3000:
2716:Colonial armies in Southeast Asia
2659:Southeast Asian Warfare 1300–1900
2219:. Foundry Books. pp. 30–33.
2187:. Foundry Books. pp. 25–30.
2082:The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya
1970:
1725:The arrival of British forces in
1143:strong. In 1826, right after the
1856:
1494:who was disturbed by the noise.
1442:
1137:
232:
72:
2621:
2546:
2233:
2124:
2073:
1697:(r. 1629–1648) or that of King
1171:Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)
1154:
443:
281:) were the armed forces of the
2881:Phayre, Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P.
2829:. Cambridge University Press.
2131:Wilson, Horace Hayman (1827).
2102:. Leiden: Brill. p. 187.
1889:
1466:
13:
1:
2865:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
2789:Johnston, William M. (2000).
2240:Pinto, Fernao Mendes (1989).
1988:The Burmese Polity, 1752-1819
1902:
1687:much larger China (1765–1769)
1622:brutal 1767 sack of Ayutthaya
1262:Early German matchlock musket
705:
2657:Charney, Michael W. (1994).
2453:Hall 1960: Chapter XIV, p. 6
2098:Charney, Michael W. (2004).
1483:. In the 1850s Crown Prince
1254:Arrival of European firearms
957:
7:
2979:Military history of Myanmar
2932:. Oxford University Press.
2906:Seekins, Donald M. (2006).
2791:Encyclopedia of monasticism
2244:The Travels of Mendes Pinto
1872:Military history of Myanmar
1849:
1497:
1389:
1250:states for the first time.
1202:in their late 13th century
1124:
608:
509:
490:, who was a thwei-thauk of
10:
3005:
2695:Fraser-Lu, Sylvia (2001).
1777:
1660:
1596:of Toungoo. Threatened by
1368:Burmese request to import
1179:1568–1569 invasion of Siam
1012:
987:a senior palace official.
721:
592:
474:Royal Bloodsworn Bodyguard
388:
27:849–1885 military of Burma
2080:Cushman, Richard (2000).
2054:"Imperio de los Birmanes"
1663:Military history of Burma
1410:
1246:Upper Burma for decades.
1087:
1067:
943:
909:
895:
881:
867:
853:
839:
825:
811:
797:
769:[zəɡáɪɴtʰàʊɴɵɪ́ɴ]
763:
680:
674:) and 1 commander called
665:
650:
566:
515:
272:
169:
164:
130:
122:
114:
106:
84:
67:
59:
50:
41:
39:
34:
1986:Koenig, William (1990).
1882:
1768:Second Anglo-Burmese War
1606:duly surrendered in 1564
1361:Second Anglo-Burmese War
1210:Introduction of firearms
342:, first introduced from
151:Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War
126:70,000 men at its height
2329:Lieberman 2003: 152–153
2285:Fytche, Albert (1868).
2162:Lieberman 2003: 164–167
2000:Lieberman 2003: 192–193
1919:Lieberman 2003: 154–156
1772:Third Anglo-Burmese War
1755:First Anglo-Burmese War
1717:Against European powers
1672:Against Asian neighbors
1657:Battlefield performance
1610:brutally sacked in 1569
1579:1775–1776 war with Siam
1573:(Inwa) and his capital
1557:example, in 1527, King
1345:Third Anglo-Burmese War
1167:First Anglo-Burmese War
1145:First Anglo-Burmese War
1008:
143:Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War
2984:Disbanded armed forces
2764:Harvey, G. E. (1925).
2553:Adas, Michael (1989).
1730:
1683:arch-rival Siam (1767)
1620:'s court. Indeed, the
1549:
1532:Scorched earth tactics
1457:all necessary supplies
1347:
1323:
1263:
1226:
1189:
1134:
1107:
1077:
1027:
967:
926:
734:
602:
502:Palace Guard Regiments
469:Royal Household Guards
422:Upper Irrawaddy valley
420:, who had entered the
416:(Bagan) in 849 by the
405:
383:People's Defence Force
240:This article contains
88:Royal Bloodsworn Guard
2676:Dijk, Wil O. (2006).
2606:Hack, Retig 2006: 186
2525:Harvey 1925: 246, 262
2516:Myint-U 2006: 107–127
1831:Burman-dominated army
1724:
1705:important factors in
1546:1767 sack of the city
1539:
1342:
1317:
1266:Western firearms and
1261:
1217:
1187:
1132:
1105:
1075:
1023:Konbaung-era Burmese
1022:
965:
924:
729:
600:
396:
2823:Lieberman, Victor B.
2534:Harvey 1925: 272–273
2480:Harvey 1925: 124–125
2417:Harvey 1925: 340–341
2299:Harvey 1925: 333–336
2215:Heath, Ian (2003) .
2183:Heath, Ian (2003) .
2038:Alaungpaya Ayedawbon
1949:Harvey 1925: 323–324
1835:Myanmar Armed Forces
1268:early modern warfare
937:cavalry. The Meitei
220:Myawaddy Mingyi U Sa
147:Burmese–Siamese wars
2926:Steinberg, David I.
2585:Htin Aung 1967: 334
2567:Myint-U 2006: 94–97
2444:Htin Aung 1967: 213
2369:Tarling 2000: 41–42
2343:Lieberman 2003: 152
2308:Lieberman 2003: 146
2009:Lieberman 2003: 185
1931:Tarling 2000: 35–44
1837:, still called the
1614:brutal sack of Pegu
1544:as a result of the
1416:[pwɛ́dʑáʊɴ]
1318:Early 19th century
1284:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
1223:Mongol Yuan dynasty
1193:Military technology
764:စစ်ကိုင်း ထောင်သင်း
295:Hanthawaddy Kingdom
2780:A History of Burma
2615:Steinberg 2009: 29
2471:Fraser-Lu 2001: 41
2462:Johnston 2000: 228
1877:History of Myanmar
1816:British Burma Army
1731:
1550:
1353:Anglo-Burmese Wars
1348:
1324:
1264:
1227:
1204:invasions of Burma
1190:
1135:
1108:
1078:
1028:
968:
927:
882:မြင်းသည်ကြီး မြင်း
759:Sagaing Htaungthin
735:
718:be used in melee
603:
572:[ʔəm̥ṵdáɴ]
406:
401:in the service of
370:Anglo-Burmese Wars
278:[taʔmədɔ̀]
265:Royal Armed Forces
159:Anglo-Burmese Wars
100:Infantry Regiments
35:Royal Armed Forces
18:Royal Burmese Army
2948:Tarling, Nicholas
2917:978-0-8108-5476-5
2872:978-0-374-16342-6
2836:978-0-521-80496-7
2747:978-1-4067-3503-1
2661:. Leiden: Brill.
2597:Myint-U 2006: 195
2507:Liberman 2003: 32
2498:Seekins 2006: 441
2435:Myint-U 2006: 118
2272:Myint-U 2006: 111
2259:978-0-226-66951-9
2226:978-1-90154-306-3
2194:978-1-90154-306-3
2109:978-1-4294-5269-4
2070:Hardiman 1901: 67
2060:. 30 August 1863.
1764:Treaty of Yandabo
1569:corridor between
1525:Burmese civil war
1398:Pwe-kyaung system
1274:mercenaries. The
919:
918:
910:စောပွတ်အိုး မြင်း
840:လက်ရွေးကြီး မြင်း
521:[wɪ́ɴm̥ú]
375:The Burmese name
248:rendering support
225:
224:
98:Cavalry Regiments
92:Ahmudan Regiments
16:(Redirected from
2996:
2989:Burmese monarchy
2965:
2943:
2921:
2902:
2888:
2885:History of Burma
2876:
2854:
2840:
2818:
2804:
2785:
2783:
2774:Htin Aung, Maung
2769:
2760:
2751:
2729:
2710:
2691:
2672:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2641:
2633:
2616:
2613:
2607:
2604:
2598:
2595:
2586:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2550:
2544:
2543:Myint-U 2006: 79
2541:
2535:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2517:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2487:
2481:
2478:
2472:
2469:
2463:
2460:
2454:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2427:
2426:Phayre 1883: 258
2424:
2418:
2415:
2406:
2403:
2397:
2396:Tarling 2000: 36
2394:
2388:
2387:Harvey 1925: 242
2385:
2379:
2378:Tarling 2000: 49
2376:
2370:
2367:
2358:
2357:Dijk 2006: 34–35
2355:
2344:
2341:
2330:
2327:
2321:
2318:
2309:
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2297:
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2231:
2230:
2212:
2199:
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2163:
2160:
2143:
2142:
2128:
2122:
2121:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2058:EL Mundo Militar
2050:
2041:
2030:
2024:
2023:Dijk 2006: 35–37
2021:
2010:
2007:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1983:
1968:
1967:Dijk 2006: 37–38
1965:
1950:
1947:
1932:
1929:
1920:
1917:
1896:
1893:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1859:
1701:(r. 1776–1782).
1418:
1413:
1412:
1357:Congreve rockets
1162:Forty Years' War
1090:
1089:
946:
945:
912:
911:
898:
897:
884:
883:
878:Myinthegyi Myin
870:
869:
868:ကြောင်သင်း မြင်း
864:Kyaungthin Myin
856:
855:
854:လက်ရွေးငယ် မြင်း
850:Letywaynge Myin
842:
841:
836:Letywaygyi Myin
828:
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656:[ʔətɕaʔ]
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611:
574:
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568:
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397:Pagan commander
303:Konbaung dynasty
283:Burmese monarchy
280:
274:
254: instead of
236:
235:
212:Maha Thiha Thura
208:Pierre de Milard
155:Sino-Burmese War
139:Forty Years' War
135:Mongol invasions
96:Elephantry Corps
79:Kingdom of Burma
77:
76:
55:
44:
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32:
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21:
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686:[ʔəkɛ́]
640:The main field
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424:along with the
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1864:Myanmar portal
1851:
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1759:British Indian
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1661:Main article:
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1626:
1604:, the Siamese
1554:scorched earth
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1034:Note that the
1013:Main article:
1010:
1007:
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956:
949:Battle of Ramu
917:
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906:Sawputoh Myin
903:
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826:ယူတော်မူ မြင်း
819:
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804:
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791:
790:
787:
751:myinhmu mintha
723:
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557:
556:service system
551:
470:
467:
445:
442:
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291:Kingdom of Ava
256:Burmese script
250:, you may see
242:Burmese script
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2320:Dijk 2006: 33
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1138:Standing army
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1041:Bay of Bengal
1037:
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1000:Thwethaukgyis
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936:
931:
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904:
900:
896:ခက်လုံး မြင်း
892:Hketlon Myin
891:
890:
886:
877:
876:
872:
863:
862:
858:
849:
848:
844:
835:
834:
830:
822:Yudawmu Myin
821:
820:
816:
812:ပြင်စည် မြင်း
807:
806:
802:
794:Tamakha Myin
793:
792:
788:
786:Cavalry name
785:
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719:
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624:(chiefs) and
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438:Narapatisithu
435:
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411:
410:Pagan Kingdom
404:
403:Narapatisithu
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287:Pagan Kingdom
284:
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266:
257:
253:
249:
245:
243:
227:Military unit
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
204:Maha Nawrahta
201:
197:
196:Saw Lagun Ein
193:
189:
185:
181:
180:Minye Kyawswa
177:
174:
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163:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
133:
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117:
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109:
105:
87:
83:
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70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
49:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2951:
2929:
2907:
2896:
2884:
2862:
2850:Yazawin Thit
2848:
2826:
2814:Maha Yazawin
2812:
2790:
2779:
2765:
2756:
2737:
2734:Hall, D.G.E.
2715:
2696:
2677:
2658:
2629:
2622:Bibliography
2611:
2602:
2581:
2572:
2563:
2554:
2548:
2539:
2530:
2521:
2512:
2503:
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2485:
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2467:
2458:
2449:
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2383:
2374:
2325:
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2235:
2216:
2184:
2133:
2126:
2099:
2081:
2075:
2066:
2057:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2005:
1996:
1987:
1891:
1846:ever since.
1838:
1824:
1820:World War II
1815:
1813:
1789:
1781:
1752:
1737:Even in the
1736:
1732:
1711:
1703:
1691:
1675:
1666:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1594:Tabinshwehti
1588:in 1541 and
1583:
1567:Taungdwingyi
1551:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1501:
1489:
1473:Maha Bandula
1470:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1436:
1433:self defence
1428:
1420:
1403:
1401:
1393:
1381:
1378:
1374:
1349:
1334:
1325:
1300:
1288:
1281:
1265:
1248:
1236:
1228:
1196:
1175:
1158:
1155:Wartime army
1141:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1097:
1093:Tabinshwehti
1082:
1079:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1045:
1033:
1029:
1015:Myanmar Navy
1003:
999:
996:Amyauk Saye.
995:
991:
989:
984:
981:Mingy Amyauk
980:
978:
972:
969:
953:
939:Cassay Horse
938:
932:
928:
808:Pyinsi Myin
798:တမာခါး မြင်း
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216:Maha Bandula
29:
2646:|work=
1805:World War I
1785:British Raj
1685:as well as
1548:by the army
1421:pwe-kyaungs
1372:from them.
1239:Shan states
1225:(1271–1368)
1219:Hand cannon
1064:around it.
944:ကသည်း မြင်း
635:Binnya Dala
488:Binnya Dala
188:Binnya Dala
131:Engagements
2973:Categories
2845:Maha Sithu
1903:References
1618:Alaungpaya
1598:Bayinnaung
1559:Mingyi Nyo
1492:Mindon Min
1481:Tharrawady
1411:ပွဲကျောင်း
1405:pwe-kyaung
1272:Portuguese
1231:Ming China
1056:Hlethin Bo
1025:Man-of-war
985:Amyauk Wun
706:Elephantry
631:Bayinnaung
492:Bayinnaung
484:blood oath
451:elephantry
362:Portuguese
351:matchlocks
348:Portuguese
322:elephantry
200:Alaungpaya
184:Bayinnaung
176:Kyansittha
172:commanders
165:Commanders
110:Army, Navy
2895:(2003) .
2811:(2006) .
2648:ignored (
2638:cite book
2118:191929011
1748:flintlock
1739:matchlock
1602:Ayutthaya
1542:Ayutthaya
1540:Ruins at
1467:Artillery
1329:flintlock
1320:Flintlock
1304:Bodawpaya
1296:Ayutthaya
1276:matchlock
1221:from the
1149:Amarapura
1061:Fireships
1052:Hpaungwun
1036:Arakanese
992:Amyauk Bo
958:Artillery
789:Strength
580:viceroys/
459:artillery
434:Anawrahta
330:artillery
314:conscript
192:Smim Payu
2950:(2000).
2928:(2009).
2883:(1883).
2861:(2006).
2825:(2003).
2776:(1967).
2736:(1960).
1850:See also
1839:Tatmadaw
1829:-backed
1809:Saya San
1799:and the
1727:Mandalay
1679:Manipuri
1586:Martaban
1498:Strategy
1477:Bagyidaw
1390:Training
1382:By 1885
1169:and the
1125:Strength
1088:တိုက်ပုံ
747:knightly
617:empire.
567:အမှုထမ်း
547:Bayingyi
516:ဝင်းမှူး
399:Aung Zwa
378:Tatmadaw
340:Firearms
301:and the
273:တပ်မတော်
63:849–1885
46:Tatmadaw
42:တပ်မတော်
2809:Kala, U
1778:The end
1639:ahmudan
1575:Toungoo
1563:Kyaukse
1485:Kanaung
1429:lethwei
1365:Kanaung
1200:Mongols
1083:taikpon
1048:Tait He
973:ahmudan
778:Sagaing
774:Saw Yun
722:Cavalry
622:sawbwas
609:winhmus
593:Command
586:ahmudan
582:sawbwas
577:Ahmudan
562:ahmudan
554:Ahmudan
535:sawbwas
530:ahmudan
526:ahmudan
455:cavalry
426:Nanzhao
389:Origins
336:units.
326:cavalry
318:ahmudan
307:British
269:Burmese
170:Notable
68:Country
2958:
2936:
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2106:
1797:Kachin
1795:, the
1743:Syriam
1695:Thalun
1437:thaing
1431:) and
1425:boxing
1384:Thibaw
1370:rifles
1322:musket
1068:Attire
935:Meitei
743:Myinsi
510:winhmu
418:Mranma
366:French
355:cannon
297:, the
293:, the
289:, the
85:Branch
60:Active
2738:Burma
1883:Notes
1827:Japan
1793:Karen
1699:Singu
1590:Prome
1453:drill
691:daing
666:အဆော်
661:ahsaw
651:အကြပ်
646:akyat
463:naval
414:Pagan
344:China
334:naval
2956:ISBN
2934:ISBN
2912:ISBN
2867:ISBN
2831:ISBN
2795:ISBN
2742:ISBN
2720:ISBN
2701:ISBN
2682:ISBN
2663:ISBN
2650:help
2254:ISBN
2221:ISBN
2189:ISBN
2114:OCLC
2104:ISBN
1801:Chin
1479:and
1294:and
1292:Pegu
1112:paso
1009:Navy
845:150
831:150
817:150
803:150
741:The
619:Shan
461:and
364:and
353:and
332:and
263:The
123:Size
115:Role
107:Type
102:Navy
2250:317
1571:Ava
1461:Pye
1243:Ava
1118:dha
915:30
901:30
887:50
873:50
859:70
776:of
681:အကဲ
676:ake
626:Mon
275:,
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2640:}}
2636:{{
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2014:^
1972:^
1954:^
1936:^
1924:^
1910:^
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218:,
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