Schizotypy - Knowledge

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for processing chaotic and noisy data, where patterns and relationships exist but can only be detected if minor inconsistencies are ignored (i.e., focusing on the 'big picture'). Andersen suggests that a tradeoff exists in predictive processing, where giving higher weight to prediction errors prevents the detection of false patterns (i.e. apophenia) at the cost of being unable to detect higher level patterns, and giving lower weight to prediction errors allows for the detection of higher level patterns at the cost of occasionally detecting patterns that don't exist, as in delusions and hallucinations that occur in schizotypy. This model explains features of schizotypy and previous models of schizotypy, such as the hyper-mentalizing model originally proposed by Abu-Akel (1999), hyper-associative cognition, the hyper-imagination model by Crespi (2016), antagonomia (acting in ways directly opposing societal values) and idiosyncratic worldviews, attentional differences such as latent inhibition, hyper-openness, increased exploratory behavior, and enhanced cognitive abilities in insight problem solving, creativity, and global processing.

543:, life history and mating strategies, "mentalistic" or creative cognition and "mechanistic" cognition, and predictive processing. In agreement with this, schizotypy (particularly positive, impulsive, and disorganized schizotypy) shows a negative association with autistic traits when controlling for social difficulty, which has been well replicated across different countries, scales, methods, and independent research teams, and a diametric autism-schizotypy continuum factor emerges through factor analysis. Notably, some studies find a direct negative association with positive schizotypy and autistic traits even when social difficulty is not controlled for. 810:

information into an attractive or aversive entity, i.e. a salient event. Symptoms of schizophrenia and schizotypy may arise out of ‘the aberrant assignment of salience to external objects and internal representations’; and antipsychotic medications may reduce positive symptoms by attenuating aberrant motivational salience, via blockade of the Dopamine D2 receptors (Kapur, 2003). There is no evidence however on a link between attentional irregularities and enhanced stimulus salience in schizotypy.

445:. Unusual experience in combination with positive affectivity also appears to predict religiosity/spirituality. One study found that a moderate level of unusual experiences predicted increased religiosity, but a high level of unusual experiences predicted lower religiosity, and that impulsive non-conformity was associated with lower religiosity, as well as lower values of tradition and conformity. The introvertive anhedonia factor has been linked to high neuroticism and low 696:, which entails the psychological processes that supersede habitual inclinations with novel responses and behaviors to fulfill important goals. In particular, when schizotypy is elevated, the ability to filter out task-irrelevant stimuli may be impaired. That is, participants who score highly on schizotypy tend to fail to ignore a previously preexposed, non-reinforced stimulus as compared to a non-preexposed, novel and potentially important event. 481:

personality type in the MBTI model. Intuition is conceptually similar to the Big Five "openness to experience" trait which is thought to be increased in schizotypy, thinking represents the tendency to prefer objectivity and evidence in making decisions and forming beliefs and is conceptually similar to the lower level "intellect" factor of openness in the Big Five, and prospecting is conceptually similar to low conscientiousness in the Big Five.

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social-cognitive dysfunction which occur in both autism and schizotypy. Researchers have suggested that high comorbidity between diagnosed ASD and schizophrenia are highly unreliable and misleading due to a severe inadequacy of the DSM and diagnostic interviews for differential diagnosis. Studies which show apparent overlap between the causes of autism and the causes of schizotypy also have significant methodological issues.

305: 397: 623:, or a reduced ability to experience pleasure, is a feature of full-blown schizophrenia that was commented on by both Kraepelin and Bleuler. However, they regarded it as just one among a number of features that tended to characterise the ‘deterioration’, as they saw it, of the schizophrenic's emotional life. In other words, it was an effect, rather than a cause, of the disease process. 680:

report what it was, may nevertheless identify more quickly than usual another animal word on the next trial. Evans found that high schizotypes showed a greater priming effect than controls in such a situation. She argued that this could be accounted for by a relative weakness of inhibitory mechanisms in the

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can be aroused from their apparent stupor by the administration of sedative rather than stimulant drugs. They wrote: 'The psychic state in catatonic schizophrenia can be described as one of great excitement (i.e., hyperalertness) The inhibition of activity apparently does not alter the inner seething

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Schizotypy shows positive associations with overall psychopathy, however when considering the primary and secondary factors of psychopathy, schizotypy is associated with lower primary psychopathy (also called fearless dominance) and higher secondary psychopathy (also called self-centered impulsivity,

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as a "schizotypal personality style" and research has found that this specific combination of traits is associated with a "high risk" of schizotypy. Low cooperativeness and self-directedness combined with high self-transcendence may result in openness to odd or unusual ideas and behaviours associated

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In support of this view McCreery points to the high correlation that has been found to exist between scores on the Chapmans' Perceptual Aberration scale, which measures proneness to perceptual anomalies such as hallucinations, and the Chapmans' Hypomania scale, which measures a tendency to episodes

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One study examined the relationship between the dimensional MBTI scales, and found that schizotypy was associated with a tendency toward introversion, intuition (as opposed to sensing), thinking (as opposed to feeling), and prospecting (as opposed to judging), which can be represented by the "INTP"

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The dimensional approach, influenced by personality theory, argues that full blown psychotic illness is just the most extreme end of the schizotypy spectrum and there is a natural continuum between people with low and high levels of schizotypy. This model is most closely associated with the work of

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and Meehl, according to both of whom schizotypal symptoms merely represent less explicitly expressed manifestations of the underlying disease process which is schizophrenia. Rado proposed the term 'schizotype' to describe the person whose genetic make-up gave him or her a lifelong predisposition to

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Andersen (2022) put forth a model of schizotypy based on the predictive processing framework, where lower importance is attributed to sensory prediction errors for updating beliefs in individuals with high schizotypy. Essentially, this means that schizotypy is a cognitive-perceptual specialization

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Zhang, Rui-ting; Zhou, Han-yu; Wang, Yong-ming; Yang, Zhuo-ya; Wang, Yi; So, Suzanne H.; Chiu, Chui-De; Leung, Patrick W.L.; Cheung, Eric F.C.; Chan, Raymond C.K. (August 2019). "Network analysis of schizotypal personality traits and their association with other subclinical psychiatric features".

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On this latest Claridge model, schizotypy is regarded as a dimension of personality, normally distributed throughout the population, as in the Eysenck model. However, schizophrenia itself is regarded as a breakdown process, quite distinct from the continuously distributed trait of schizotypy, and

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Kapur (2003) proposed that a hyperdopaminergic state, at a "brain" level of description, leads to an aberrant assignment of salience to the elements of one's experience, at a "mind" level. Dopamine mediates the conversion of the neural representation of an external stimulus from a neutral bit of

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activation without conscious identification (SAWCI) is said to be displayed when a person shows a priming effect from the processing of consciously undetectable words. For example, a person who has just been shown the word ‘giraffe’, but at a speed at which he or she was not able consciously to

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and related disorders may involve increased or dysregulated oxytocin, and relatively decreased testosterone, leading to "hyper-developed" social cognition, although Crespi's model of schizotypy has been criticized. Evidence for oxytocin's role in schizotypy includes genes associated with higher

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On the first score he commented: 'If one observes the relatives of our patients, one often finds in them peculiarities which are qualitatively identical with those of the patients themselves, so that the disease appears to be only a quantitative increase of the anomalies seen in the parents and

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is "the ability of a preceding stimulus to inhibit the response to a subsequent stimulus." Individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia or schizotypy exhibit “reduced or abolished NP , especially in the presence of positive symptomatology, acute psychosis, high severity of symptoms, and/or lack of

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Some researchers have interpreted these findings as indicating that autistic and schizotypal traits are both overlapping and diametrical in different aspects, with autistic social difficulties and negative schizotypal symptoms being a shared dimension, and positive, disorganized, and impulsive

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However, several researchers have suggested that positive correlations between schizotypy and autism are not necessarily evidence of overlap, but rather are due to a lack of specificity of measurements for autistic and schizotypal traits, and the confounding variable of social difficulties and

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Schizotypy shows positive associations with traits that are associated with fast life history strategies, including increased sociosexuality (characterized by increased effort for short term sexual relationships, lower effort for long term sexual relationships, increased total amount of sexual

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reversed this way of thinking, and ascribed anhedonia a causal role. He considered that the crucial neural deficit in the schizotype was an ‘integrative pleasure deficiency’, i.e. an innate deficiency in the ability to experience pleasure. Meehl took on this view, and attempted to relate this

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and artistic achievement. Jackson proposed the concept of 'benign schizotypy' in relation to certain classes of religious experience, which he suggested might be regarded as a form of problem-solving and therefore of adaptive value. The link between positive schizotypy and certain facets of

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and a sense of deviance and enlightenment (idionomia), which may be mistaken for narcissism) and borderline personality traits are positively associated with schizotypy as well hypomanic personality traits. Schizotypy also shows positive relationships with schizoid, paranoid, and avoidant

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Baryshnikov, I; Suvisaari, J; Aaltonen, K; Koivisto, M; Naatanen, P; Karpov, B; Melartin, T; Oksanen, J; Suominen, K; Heikkinen, M; Paunio, T; Joffe, G; Isometsa, E (March 2016). "Self-reported symptoms of schizotypal and borderline personality disorder in patients with mood disorders".

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creativity is consistent with the notion of a "healthy schizotypy", which may account for the persistence of schizophrenia-related genes in the population despite their many dysfunctional aspects. The extent of schizotypy can be measured using certain diagnostic tests, such as the

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similarities between Stage 1 sleep and psychosis, which include hallucinations, delusions, and flattened or inappropriate affect (emotions). On this model, high schizotypes and schizophrenics are people who are liable to what Oswald calls 'micro-sleeps', or intrusions of Stage 1

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tend to find positive correlations, most strongly with negative schizotypy, to a lesser extent disorganized schizotypy, and weak, absent, or negative correlations with positive schizotypy. Diagnosed schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) also overlap statistically.

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personality traits, and a negative relationship with obsessive-compulsive personality traits (particularly with disorganized schizotypy). In contrast to obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder shows a positive relationship with schizotypy.

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oxytocin levels being associated with higher levels of positive schizotypy, blood oxytocin levels positively associated with schizotypy in females, ratio of genes associated with low testosterone and high oxytocin positively associated with schizotypy and negatively with

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Zhou, Han-yu; Yang, Han-xue; Gong, Jing-bo; Cheung, Eric F.C.; Gooding, Diane C.; Park, Sohee; Chan, Raymond C.K. (October 2019). "Revisiting the overlap between autistic and schizotypal traits in the non-clinical population using meta-analysis and network analysis".

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The quasi-dimensional model may be traced back to Bleuler (the inventor of the term 'schizophrenia'), who commented on two types of continuity between normality and psychosis: that between the schizophrenic and his or her relatives, and that between the patient's

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Although aiming to reflect some of the features present in diagnosable mental illness, schizotypy does not necessarily imply that someone who is more schizotypal than someone else is more ill. For example, certain aspects of schizotypy may be beneficial. Both the

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has been associated with high levels of positive schizotypy, i.e. increased reports of hallucination-like experiences, delusional ideation, and perceptual aberrations. However, decreased performance was associated with negative schizotypy, such as anhedonia.

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Various writers, including Kelley and Coursey and L.J. and J.P. Chapman suggest that anhedonia, if present as a pre-existent trait in a person, may act as a potentiating factor, whereas a high capacity for hedonic enjoyment might act as a protecting one.

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A failure of homeostasis in the central nervous system could lead to episodes of hyper-arousal. Oswald has pointed out that extreme stress and hyper-arousal can lead to sleep as a provoked reaction. McCreery has suggested that this could account for the

159:: A tendency to introverted, emotionally flat and asocial behaviour, associated with a deficiency in the ability to feel pleasure from social and physical stimulation. This factor is also often referred to as "negative schizotypy" and "schizoidia" 195:

However, the exact nature of the relationship between schizotypy and diagnosable psychotic illness is still controversial. One of the key concerns that researchers have had is that questionnaire-based measures of schizotypy, when analysed using

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Stanghellini, Giovanni; Ballerini, Massimo (2011). "What Is It like to Be a Person with Schizophrenia in the Social World? A First-Person Perspective Study on Schizophrenic Dissociality – Part 2: Methodological Issues and Empirical Findings".

46:. The continuum of personality proposed in schizotypy is in contrast to a categorical view of psychosis, wherein psychosis is considered a particular (usually pathological) state of mind, which the person either has or does not have. 2458: 421:

The model is characterised as fully dimensional because, not only is the personality trait of schizotypy continuously graded, but the independent continuum of the breakdown processes is also graded rather than categorical.

108:, who sought to understand unusual variations in thought and behaviour in terms of personality theory. Eysenck conceptualised cognitive and behavioral variations as all together forming a single personality trait, 211:

vulnerability to psychosis, although this may remain dormant and never express itself, unless triggered by appropriate environmental events or conditions (such as certain doses of drugs or high levels of stress).

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Questionnaire research on schizotypy in normal subjects is ambiguous with regard to the causal role, if any, of anhedonia. Nettle and McCreery and Claridge found that high schizotypes as measured by factor 1

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Tsakanikos, E., & Reed, P. (2003). Visuo-spatial processing and dimensions of schizotypy: figure-ground segregation as a function of psychotic-like features. Personality and Individual Differences, 35,

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The quasi-dimensional model is so called because the only dimension it postulates is that of gradations of severity or explicitness in relation to the symptoms of a disease process: namely schizophrenia.

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Claridge, G.S. and Clark, K.H. (1982). Covariation between two flash threshold and skin conductance level in first breakdown schizophrenics: Relationships in drug free patients and effects of treatment.

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Support for the dimensional model comes from the fact that high-scorers on measures of schizotypy may meet, or partially fulfill, the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia spectrum disorders, such as

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with distorted perceptions of reality. On the other hand, high levels of cooperativeness and self-directedness may protect against the schizotypal tendencies associated with high self-transcendence.

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in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia. The work of Claridge suggested that this personality trait was more complex than had been previously thought and could be broken down into four factors.

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There is evidence that schizotypy correlates with differentially enhanced and impaired aspects of cognitive function. These findings include schizotypy being positively associated with enhanced

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Parvais, Rizwan; Vindbjerg, Erik; Crespi, Bernard; Happe, Francesca; Schalbroeck, Rik; Al-Sayegh, Zainab; Danielsen, Ida-Marie; Tonge, Bruce; Videbech, Poul; Abu-Akel, Ahmad (March 2023).

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Lang, Andras; Birkas, Bela; Laszlo, Martin; Nagy, Tunde; Kallai, Janos (December 2018). "Schizotypal Traits and the Dark Triad From an Ecological Perspective: A Nonclinical Sample Study".

2618:"Protocol for the development and testing of the schiZotypy Autism Questionnaire (ZAQ) in adults: a new screening tool to discriminate autism spectrum disorder from schizotypal disorder" 4360:^ Beech, A.R. and Claridge, G.S. (1987). Individual differences in negative priming: Relations with schizotypal personality traits. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 78, 349-356. 1272:

Schuurmans-Stekhoven, James Benjamin (2013). "Is God's call more than audible? A preliminary exploration using a two-dimensional model of theistic/Spiritual beliefs and experiences".

291:. Similarly, when analyzed, schizotypy traits often break down into similar groups as do symptoms from schizophrenia (although they are typically present in much less intense forms). 425:

The fully dimensional approach argues that full blown psychosis is not just high schizotypy, but must involve other factors that make it qualitatively different and pathological.

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Russell-Smith, Suzanna; Maybery, Murray; Bayliss, Donna (August 2010). "Are the autism and positive schizotypy spectra diametrically opposed in local versus global processing?".

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Kemp, Kathryn; Kaczorowski, Jessica; Burgin, Christopher; Raulin, Michael; Lynam, Donald; Sleep, Chelsea; Miller, Joshua; Barrantes-Vidal, Neus; Kwapil, Thomas (December 2022).

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Claridge, G., McCreery, C., Mason, O., Bentall, R., Boyle, G., Slade, P., & Popplewell, D. (1996). The factor structure of 'schizotypal' traits: A large replication study.

200:, do not suggest that schizotypy is a unified, homogeneous concept. The three main approaches have been labelled as 'quasi-dimensional', 'dimensional' and 'fully dimensional'. 453:. It has been argued that these findings provide evidence for a fully dimensional model of schizotypy and that there is a continuum between normal personality and schizotypy. 272:

Hans Eysenck, who regarded the person exhibiting the full-blown manifestations of psychosis as simply someone occupying the extreme upper end of his 'psychoticism' dimension.

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Hudson, Matthew; Santavirta, Severi; Putkinen, Vesa; Seppälä, Kerttu; Sun, Lihua; Karjalainen, Tomi; Karlsson, Henry K.; Hirvonen, Jussi; Nummenmaa, Lauri (26 March 2022),

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On the second point, Bleuler discusses in a number of places whether peculiarities displayed by the patient before admission to hospital should be regarded as premonitory

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Jonason, Peter; Zeigler-Hill, Virgil; Hashmani, Talia (2018). "Love, Sex, and Personality Pathology: A Life History View of Personality Pathologies and Sociosexuality".

2383:"Relationships between autistic-like and schizotypy traits: An analysis using the Autism Spectrum Quotient and Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences" 4135:

De Dreu, Carsten; Baas, Matthijs; Roskes, Marieke; Sligte, Daniel; Ebstein, Richard; Chew, Soo; Jiang, Yushi; Mayseless, Naama; Shamay-Tsoory, Simone (August 2014).

464:, a trait associated with openness to "spiritual" ideas and experiences, has moderate positive associations with schizotypy, particularly with unusual experiences. 93:, believing instead that psychosis was simply an extreme expression of thoughts and behaviours that could be present to varying degrees throughout the population. 893: – personality disorder that involves a need for social isolation, anxiety in social situations, odd behavior and thinking, and often unconventional beliefs 795:

It is argued that such a view would be consistent with the model that suggests schizophrenics and high schizotypes are people with a tendency to hyper-arousal.

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Gray, Nicola; Fernandez, Michelle; Williams, Jayne; Ruddle, Roy; Snowden, Robert (September 2002). "Which schizotypal dimensions abolish latent inhibition?".

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Laidlaw, Tannis M.; Dwivedi, Prabudha; Naito, Akira; Gruzelier, John H. (2005). "Low self-directedness (TCI), mood, schizotypy and hypnotic susceptibility".

75: 1533:"Autistic-like and schizotypal traits in a life history perspective: diametrical associations with impulsivity, sensation seeking, and sociosexual behavior" 2181:

Kraus, Michael; Rapisarda, Attilio; Lam, Max; Thong, Jamie; Lee, Jimmy; Subramaniam, Mythily; Collinson, Simon; Chong, Siow; Keefe, Richard (August 2016).

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Asai, Tomohisa; Sugimori, Eriko; Bando, Naoko; Tanno, Yoshihiko (2011). "The hierarchic structure in schizotypy and the five-factor model of personality".

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over local processing, lower latent inhibition, attention & memory deficits, enhanced creativity & imagination, and enhanced associative thinking.

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See, for example, Claridge, G. and Beech, T. (1995). Fully and quasi-dimensional constructions of schizotypy. In Raine, A., Lencz, T., and Mednick, S.A.,

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Tsakanikos, E. & Reed, P. (2005). Dimensional approaches to experimental psychopathology: shift learning and schizotypic traits in college students.

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Despite these observations of continuity Bleuler himself remained an advocate of the disease model of schizophrenia. To this end he invoked a concept of

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For a discussion of these three variant models, see McCreery, C. and Claridge, G. (2002). Healthy schizotypy: the case of out-of-the-body experiences.

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Bentall, R.P., Claridge, G. and Slade, P.D. (1989). The multi dimensional nature of schizotypal traits: a factor analytic study with normal subjects.

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Claridge suggested that one consequence of a weakness of inhibitory mechanisms in high schizotypes and schizophrenics might be a relative failure of

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Schmidt-Hansen, Mia; Killcross, A; Honey, R (January 2009). "Latent inhibition, learned irrelevance, and schizotypy: assessing their relationship".

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Meehl et al. 1964 first coined the term 'schizotypy,' and through examination of unusual experiences in the general population and clustering of

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Tsakanikos, E. (2004). Latent inhibition, visual pop-out and schizotypy: is disruption of latent inhibition due to enhanced stimulus salience?

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In the clinical field there is also the paradoxical finding of Stevens and Darbyshire, that schizophrenic patients exhibiting the symptom of

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Kapur, S. (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia.

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Stevens, J.M. and Darbyshire, A.J. (1958). Shifts along the alert-repose continuum during remission of catatonic 'stupor' with amobarbitol.

1881:"Association of positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy with cluster a, borderline, and avoidant personality disorders and traits" 1044:^ Tsakanikos, E. & Claridge, G. (2005). More words, less words: Verbal fluency as a function of 'positive' and 'negative' schizotypy. 4445:

Claridge, G.S., Robinson, D.L. and Birchall, P.M.A. (1985). Psychophysiological evidence of `psychoticism' in schizophrenics' relatives.

3123:"Methodological issues in social cognition research in autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia spectrum disorder: a systematic review" 1375:

Danelluzo, E.; Stratta, P.; Rossi, A. (Jan–Feb 2005). "The contribution of temperament and character to schizotypy multidimensionality".

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Nenadic, Igor; Meller, Tina; Evermann, Ulrika; Schmitt, Simon; Pfarr, Julia-Katharina; Abu-Akel, Ahmad; Grezellschak, Sarah (May 2021).

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Nilsson, Maria; Arnfred, Sidse; Carlsson, Jessica; Nylander, Lena; Pedersen, Lennart; Lykke Mortensen, Erik; Handest, Peter (May 2019).

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as compared with the left in high schizotypes attempting to induce a hallucinatory episode in the laboratory. This suggested a relative

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Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P., Kwapil, T.R, Eckblad, M., & Zinser, M.C. (1994). Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later.

2947:"Childhood schizotypal features vs. high-functioning autism spectrum disorder: Developmental overlaps and phenomenological differences" 2598: 3760:

Shrira, A. & Tsakanikos, E. (2009). Latent inhibition as a function of schizotypal symptoms: evidence for a bi-directional model.

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of heightened arousal. This correlation is found despite the fact that there is no overlap of item content between the two scales.

1980:"Do the traits of autism-spectrum overlap with those of schizophrenia or obsessive-compulsive disorder in the general population?" 3421:"Antivax attitude in the general population along the autism-schizophrenia continuum and the impact of socio-demographic factors" 2417:"Validation of the French Autism Spectrum Quotient Scale and its relationships with schizotypy and Eysenckian personality traits" 433:

Many research studies have examined the relationship between schizotypy and various standard models of personality, such as the

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Claridge calls the latest version of his model 'the fully dimensional approach'. However, it might also be characterised as the

1016: 3317: 2851: 2524: 3475:"Subclinical schizotypal vs. autistic traits show overlapping and diametrically opposed facets in a non-clinical population" 38:

characteristics and experiences, ranging from normal dissociative, imaginative states to extreme states of mind related to

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or disinhibition). Narcissism is negatively associated with schizotypy, (though persons high in schizotypy may experience

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forming a second, graded continuum, ranging from schizotypal personality disorder to full-blown schizophrenic psychosis.

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McCreery, C., and Claridge, G. (1996). ‘A study of hallucination in normal subjects – II. Electrophysiological data’.

4018:"Sex-specific associations between plasma oxytocin levels and schizotypal personality features in healthy individuals" 2993: 4605: 334: 1831:"Association of Positive, Negative, and Disorganized Schizotypy Dimensions with Affective Symptoms and Experiences" 890: 288: 20: 355: 4630: 2054:"Poorer Integration of Local Orientation Information Occurs in Students With High Schizotypal Personality Traits" 1199:

Liddle, P.F. (1987). The symptoms of chronic schizophrenia: A re-examination of the positive negative dichotomy.

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McCreery, C. (1997). Hallucinations and arousability: pointers to a theory of psychosis. In Claridge, G. (ed.):

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all the symptoms and all the combinations of symptoms which are present in the manifest types of the disease.'

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Tsakanikos, E. & Claridge, G. (2005). Less words, more words: psychometric schizotypy and verbal fluency.

3647: 646:) scored lower than controls on the introverted anhedonia factor, as if they were particularly enjoying life. 449:. The cognitive disorganisation factor as well as the impulsive non-conformity factor have been linked to low 1060:"The Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences (O-LIFE): Further description and extended norms" 284: 362: 3975: 3626:

Neural responses to biological motion distinguish autistic and schizotypal traits in the general population

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Borsboom, Denny; Cramer, Angelique; Schmittmann, Verena; Epskamp, Sacha; Waldorp, Lourens (November 2011).

4056: 3936: 3806: 3775: 3665: 3474: 3278: 2946: 2720: 2416: 1979: 1532: 165:: The disposition to unstable mood and behaviour particularly with regard to rules and social conventions. 62:

and classification of different forms of psychotic illness. Particularly, he made the distinction between

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Eckblad, M. and Chapman, L.J. (1986). Development and validation of a scale for hypomanic personality.

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Tseng, Hsiu; Chi, Mei; Lee, Lan-Ting; Tsai, Hsin; Lee, I; Chen, Kao; Yang, Yen; Chen, Po (April 2014).

837: 772: 536: 344: 140:). This factor is also often referred to as "positive schizotypy" and "cognitive-perceptual" schizotypy 4017: 707:

Many studies have also shown that individuals who exhibit schizotypy features demonstrate deficits in

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and post-morbid personalities (i.e. their personality before and after the onset of overt psychosis).

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Del Giudice, Marco (2014). "A Tower Unto Heaven: Toward an Expanded Framework for Psychopathology".

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Coolidge, Frederick L.; Segal, Daniel L.; Hook, Julie; Yamazaki, T. G.; Ellett, Julie (2001-04-05).

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McCreery, C. and Claridge, G. (2002). Healthy schizotypy: the case of out-of-the-body experiences.

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Nettle, D. (2006). Schizotypy and mental health amongst poets, visual artist, and mathematicians.

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Crespi, Bernard; Leach, Emma; Dinsdale, Natalie; Mokkonen, Mikael; Hurd, Peter (February 2016).

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Del Giudice, Marco; Klimczuk, Amanda; Traficonte, Daniel; Maestripieri, Dario (September 2014).

4620: 3666:"Apophenia, theory of mind and schizotypy: Perceiving meaning and intentionality in randomness" 2721:"Identity Disturbance, Feelings of Emptiness, and the Boundaries of the Schizophrenia Spectrum" 2516: 881: 442: 35: 4520:

Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P. and Raulin, M.L. (1978). Body image aberration in schizophrenia.

1309:"Centrality of Religiosity, Schizotypy, and Human Values: The Impact of Religious Affiliation" 1031:

Jackson, M. (1997). Benign schizotypy? The case of religious experience. In G. Claridge, ed.,

2534: 1412:"Temperament and character as schizophrenia-related endophenotypes in non-psychotic siblings" 1316: 1461:"An empirical investigation of Jung's psychological types and personality disorder features" 743:

Claridge and co-workers have found various types of abnormal co-variation between different

3948: 3373: 2832:"The Evolutionary Etiologies of Autism Spectrum and Psychotic Affective Spectrum Disorders" 2781: 2279:

Crespi, Bernard; Leach, Emma; Dinsdale, Natalie; Mokkonen, Mikael; Hurd, Peter (May 2016).

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Kwapil, Thomas; Clark, Haley; Rbeiz, Katrina; Kemp, Kathryn; Barramtes-Vidal, Neu (2022).

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Eysenck, H.J. (1960). Classification and the problems of diagnosis. In H.J. Eysenck, ed.,

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Dinsdale, Natalie; Hurd, Peter; Wakabayashi, Akio; Elliot, Mick; Crespi, Bernard (2013).

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approach, as it incorporates elements of both the disease model and the dimensional one.

3952: 3447: 3420: 3377: 3155: 3122: 2994:"Self-Disorders in Asperger Syndrome Compared to Schizotypal Disorder: A Clinical Study" 2873:

The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine

2868: 2785: 2671: 2644: 2617: 2459:"How is quantification of social deficits useful for studying autism and schizophrenia?" 2183:"Disrupted latent inhibition in individuals at ultra high-risk for developing psychosis" 1548: 369: 169: 4625: 4161: 4136: 4112: 4087: 3998: 3960: 3917: 3862: 3837: 3740: 3693: 3606: 3554: 3502: 3396: 3361: 3342: 3220: 3168: 3098: 3073: 3018: 2974: 2927: 2804: 2769: 2745: 2693: 2486: 2358: 2333: 2311: 2256: 2231: 2207: 2182: 2163: 2080: 2053: 2034: 1955: 1908: 1861: 1811: 1752: 1664: 1616: 1589: 1570: 1556: 1510: 1436: 1411: 1289: 1254: 1095: 605: 461: 208: 31: 3776:"From madness to genius: The Openness/Intellect trait domain as a paradoxical simplex" 1829:

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Claridge, G.S. and Birchall, P.M.A. (1978). Bishop, Eysenck, Block and psychoticism.

4317: 4309: 4166: 4117: 4103: 4037: 4033: 3909: 3867: 3732: 3685: 3610: 3598: 3590: 3558: 3546: 3538: 3506: 3494: 3452: 3401: 3346: 3334: 3312: 3259: 3212: 3204: 3172: 3160: 3142: 3103: 3023: 2978: 2966: 2931: 2847: 2831: 2809: 2750: 2649: 2520: 2490: 2478: 2436: 2382: 2363: 2303: 2261: 2212: 2155: 2120: 2085: 2026: 1959: 1947: 1912: 1900: 1853: 1803: 1757: 1705: 1656: 1621: 1502: 1460: 1441: 1392: 1308: 1293: 1246: 1087: 1079: 804: 601: 508: 473: 450: 434: 59: 4002: 3921: 3744: 3728: 3224: 2432: 2315: 2299: 2167: 2038: 1865: 1684:"Measuring delusional ideation: the 21-item Peters et al. Delusions Inventory (PDI)" 1668: 1574: 1514: 1410:

Smith, Matthew J.; Cloninger, C.R.; Harms, M.P.; Csernansky, J.G. (September 2008).

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See, for example, Eysenck, H.J. (1992). The Definition and Meaning of Psychoticism.

330: 4299: 4288:"The negative priming paradigm: An update and implications for selective attention" 4156: 4148: 4107: 4099: 4068: 4029: 3990: 3956: 3901: 3857: 3849: 3818: 3787: 3724: 3713:"Imagination in human social cognition, autism, and psychotic-affective conditions" 3697: 3677: 3629: 3582: 3530: 3486: 3442: 3432: 3391: 3381: 3326: 3290: 3251: 3196: 3150: 3134: 3093: 3085: 3054: 3013: 3005: 2958: 2917: 2909: 2880: 2839: 2799: 2789: 2740: 2732: 2681: 2639: 2629: 2579: 2512: 2470: 2428: 2394: 2353: 2345: 2295: 2281:"Imagination in human social cognition, autism, and psychotic-affective conditions" 2251: 2243: 2202: 2194: 2147: 2112: 2075: 2065: 2018: 1991: 1939: 1892: 1849: 1845: 1815: 1793: 1785: 1747: 1739: 1695: 1648: 1611: 1601: 1560: 1552: 1494: 1431: 1423: 1384: 1357: 1281: 1242: 1238: 1071: 1013: 946:. Translated by J. Zinkin. New York: International Universities Press, Inc. (1950). 780:

phenomena into waking consciousness, on account of their tendency to high arousal.

681: 663: 146:: A tendency for thoughts to become derailed, disorganised or tangential (see also 67: 63: 3994: 3937:"Testing the imprinted brain: parent-of-origin effects on empathy and systemizing" 1498: 863: – personality pattern typified by aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility 4509: 3681: 3586: 3490: 3386: 2962: 2913: 2843: 2794: 1789: 1427: 1075: 1020: 899: 762:

of arousal between the two hemispheres in such people as compared with controls.

520: 469: 428: 197: 105: 3362:"How Are Autism and Schizotypy Related? Evidence from a Non-Clinical Population" 3279:"Schizotypy and mental health amongst poets, visual artists, and mathematicians" 3042: 2508: 2052:

Panton, Kirsten; Badcock, Johanna; Dickinson, J; Badcock, David (October 2018).

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Kelley, M.P. and Coursey, R.D. (1992). Factor structure of schizotypy scales.

3791: 3633: 3534: 3330: 3294: 3255: 3138: 2474: 2151: 2022: 845: – Perception of meaningful patterns or images in random or vague stimuli 4614: 4313: 3648:"How is creativity differentially related to autism spectrum and schizotypy?" 3594: 3542: 3208: 3146: 2230:

Ettinger, Ulrich; Mohr, Christine; Gooding, Diane; Cohen, Alex (March 2015).

2070: 1682:

Peters, Emmanuelle; Joseph, Stephen; Day, Samantha; Garety, Philippa (2004).

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McCreery, C. (2008). Dreams and psychosis: a new look at an old hypothesis.

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in the central nervous system. It was proposed that this could lead to both

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Konstantin, Grace E.; Nordgaard, Julie; Henriksen, Mads Gram (2023-05-10).

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McCreery and Claridge found evidence of a relative activation of the right

584: 446: 110: 101: 97: 4152: 2885: 2869:"Crisis in Psychiatric Diagnosis? Epistemological Humility in the DSM Era" 1928:"Association of Multidimensional Schizotypy with PID-5 Domains and Facets" 926:

DSM IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition

579:

There is some evidence to suggest that abnormalities in the regulation of

4137:"Oxytonergic circuitry sustains and enables creative cognition in humans" 2583: 1590:"Relationships between dimensional factors of psychopathy and schizotypy" 1530: 724: 626: 438: 255: 136:, magical or superstitious belief and interpretation of events (see also 3774:

DeYoung, Colin; Grazioplene, Rachael; Peterson, Jordan (February 2012).

2922: 1798: 1565: 4286:

Frings, Christian; Schneider, Katja Kerstin; Fox, Elaine (2015-12-01).

3179: 1978:

Wakabayashi, Akio; Baron-Cohen, Simon; Ashwin, Chris (September 2011).

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if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and

184: 129: 71: 4196:

Rado, S. (1953). Dynamics and classification of disordered behaviour.

3905: 3664:

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884: – Mental disorder that encompasses a range of similar conditions 735:

and dissociation of arousal in different parts of the nervous system.

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variables in schizotypes, including between measures of cortical and

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place schizotypy and autistic traits at opposite poles of a continuum

222: 204: 170:

The relationship between schizotypy, mental health and mental illness

155: 150:). This factor is also often referred to as "disorganized schizotypy" 39: 3805:

Andersen, Brett; Al-Shawaf, Laith; Bearden, Rachel (November 2021).

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Each approach is sometimes used to imply that schizotypy reflects a

3463: 3301: 3240:"Psychosis and autism as diametrical disorders of the social brain" 2673:

Psychiatry made easy: operation(al)ism and some of its consequences

2497: 2405: 1966: 728: 676: 631: 593: 580: 547:

schizotypy as a dimension that is diametrically opposed to autism.

468:

described the specific combination of high self-transcendence, low

137: 90: 16:

Concept of personality states ranging from imaginative to psychotic

822: – Tendency to perceive connections between unrelated things 732: 118: 2767: 2232:"Cognition and Brain Function in Schizotypy: A Selective Review" 587:

are related to schizotypy. Crespi (2015) provides evidence that

254:

Later advocates of the quasi-dimensional view of schizotypy are

96:

The concept of psychosis as a spectrum was further developed by

3807:"Positive schizotypy predicts migration intentions and desires" 3623: 3419:

Luca, Tarasi; Borgomaneri, Sara; Romei, Vincenzo (April 2023).

86: 4262: 3074:"Differential diagnosis and current polythetic classification" 2991: 1828: 429:

Relationship to other personality traits and sociodemographics

3359: 3043:"Adults with Asperger disorder misdiagnosed as schizophrenic" 2051: 1374: 777: 437:. Research has linked the unusual experiences factor to high 4209:

Meehl, P.E. (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia.

4187:. Translated by R.M. Barclay. Edinburgh: Livingston, (1919). 3617: 3472: 3120: 2415:

Sierro, Guillaume; Rossier, Jerome; Mohr, Christine (2016).

2137: 1977: 1347: 738: 70:

and non-psychotic states. Modern diagnostic systems used in

3710: 2615: 2380: 2278: 2102: 2008: 1925: 1484: 1169:

Meehl, P.E. (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia.

3773: 1307:

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2381:

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1458: 3976:"Inclusive fitness theory for the evolution of religion" 3804: 2229: 4394:

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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2599:"A Call for New Measures of Asperger's and Schizotypy" 2180: 1885:

Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment

1228: 634:

system in the brain, which is implicated in the human

612:, which are also strongly associated with schizotypy. 4085: 3185: 1725: 1681: 692:

Schizotypy symptoms have been related to deficits in

596:

traits, oxytocin levels being associated with higher

555: 485:

partners, and lower sexual disgust) and impulsivity.

85:

did not believe there was a clear separation between

3887:"Oxytocin, testosterone, and human social cognition" 3418: 1878: 1638: 1526: 1524: 1271: 904:

Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

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(1992). 2838:. pp. 299–327. 2680:. pp. 190–212. 2584:10.1075/pc.7.2.02abu 2344:(Suppl 2): S436-43. 2242:(Suppl 2): S417-26. 1139:Bleuler, E. (1911). 942:Bleuler, E. (1911). 267:Dimensional approach 245:latent schizophrenia 4471:Oswald, I. (1962). 4421:Psychiatry Research 4409:. Oxford: Pergamon. 4153:10.1093/scan/nst094 3953:2012EHumB..33..402R 3378:2013PLoSO...863316D 2886:10.1093/jmp/jhaa026 2786:2011PLoSO...627407B 2603:Scientific American 1838:Psychiatry Research 1778:European Psychiatry 1549:2014EHumB..35..415D 1231:Psychiatry Research 756:cerebral hemisphere 745:psychophysiological 694:executive functions 496:grandiose delusions 177:unusual experiences 126:Unusual experiences 4508:2019-02-04 at the 4267:dictionary.apa.org 3894:Biological Reviews 1897:10.1037/per0000488 1286:10.1111/ajpy.12015 1019:2019-10-14 at the 928:. Washington: APA. 675:The phenomenon of 606:divergent thinking 503:Cognitive function 462:Self-transcendence 3906:10.1111/brv.12175 3676:(10): 1316–1325. 3201:10.1159/000322638 3090:10.1002/wps.20239 2853:978-3-319-29714-9 2526:978-0-19-024684-6 805:Aberrant salience 682:semantic networks 602:global processing 509:global processing 474:self-directedness 451:conscientiousness 435:five factor model 404: 403: 380: 60:medical diagnosis 4638: 4585: 4584:, 37, 1347-1358. 4578: 4572: 4565: 4559: 4552: 4546: 4535: 4529: 4518: 4512: 4495: 4489: 4482: 4476: 4469: 4463: 4456: 4450: 4443: 4437: 4430: 4424: 4416: 4410: 4403: 4397: 4390: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4373:, 37, 1717-1726. 4367: 4361: 4358: 4352: 4345: 4339: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4307: 4298:(6): 1577–1597. 4283: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4273: 4259: 4253: 4246: 4240: 4233: 4227: 4220: 4214: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4188: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3983:Animal Behaviour 3980: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3891: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3865: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3771: 3765: 3758: 3749: 3748: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3643: 3637: 3636: 3621: 3615: 3614: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3470: 3461: 3460: 3450: 3440: 3416: 3410: 3409: 3399: 3389: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3325:(6): 1653–1672. 3308: 3299: 3298: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3235: 3229: 3228: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3158: 3118: 3112: 3111: 3101: 3078:World Psychiatry 3069: 3063: 3062: 3038: 3032: 3031: 3021: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2925: 2908:(3–4): 394–413. 2897: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2864: 2858: 2857: 2827: 2818: 2817: 2807: 2797: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2748: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2703: 2699: 2697: 2689: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2647: 2637: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2597:Kaufman, Scott. 2594: 2588: 2587: 2563: 2552: 2551: 2545: 2540: 2538: 2530: 2504: 2495: 2494: 2454: 2445: 2444: 2412: 2403: 2402: 2378: 2372: 2371: 2361: 2329: 2320: 2319: 2285: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2259: 2227: 2221: 2220: 2210: 2178: 2172: 2171: 2135: 2129: 2128: 2111:(Pt 3): 271–84. 2100: 2094: 2093: 2083: 2073: 2049: 2043: 2042: 2006: 2000: 1999: 1975: 1964: 1963: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1876: 1870: 1869: 1835: 1826: 1820: 1819: 1801: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1755: 1723: 1714: 1713: 1703: 1694:(4): 1005–1022. 1679: 1673: 1672: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1619: 1609: 1585: 1579: 1578: 1568: 1528: 1519: 1518: 1482: 1476: 1475: 1473: 1472: 1467:. pp. 33–36 1456: 1450: 1449: 1439: 1422:(1–3): 198–205. 1407: 1401: 1400: 1372: 1366: 1365: 1345: 1334: 1333: 1327: 1322: 1320: 1312: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1226: 1217: 1210: 1204: 1197: 1191: 1184: 1178: 1167: 1161: 1150: 1144: 1137: 1128: 1121: 1115: 1114: 1112: 1111: 1055: 1049: 1042: 1036: 1029: 1023: 1002: 993: 982: 973: 966: 960: 953: 947: 940: 929: 922: 908: 905: 896: 887: 866: 773:phenomenological 664:Negative priming 659:Negative priming 399: 398: 390: 387: 381: 379: 338: 307: 306: 299: 64:dementia praecox 4646: 4645: 4641: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4611: 4610: 4593: 4591:Further reading 4588: 4579: 4575: 4566: 4562: 4553: 4549: 4536: 4532: 4519: 4515: 4510:Wayback Machine 4496: 4492: 4483: 4479: 4470: 4466: 4457: 4453: 4444: 4440: 4431: 4427: 4417: 4413: 4404: 4400: 4391: 4387: 4381: 4377: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4346: 4342: 4333: 4329: 4284: 4280: 4271: 4269: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4252:, 103, 171 183. 4247: 4243: 4234: 4230: 4221: 4217: 4208: 4204: 4200:, 110, 406 416. 4195: 4191: 4182: 4178: 4133: 4129: 4084: 4080: 4053: 4049: 4014: 4010: 3978: 3972: 3968: 3933: 3929: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3834: 3830: 3803: 3799: 3772: 3768: 3759: 3752: 3709: 3705: 3662: 3658: 3650: 3644: 3640: 3622: 3618: 3570: 3566: 3518: 3514: 3471: 3464: 3417: 3413: 3358: 3354: 3309: 3302: 3275: 3271: 3236: 3232: 3189:Psychopathology 3184: 3180: 3119: 3115: 3070: 3066: 3039: 3035: 2990: 2986: 2943: 2939: 2898: 2894: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2828: 2821: 2766: 2762: 2717: 2713: 2701: 2700: 2691: 2690: 2665: 2661: 2614: 2610: 2595: 2591: 2564: 2555: 2543: 2541: 2532: 2531: 2527: 2505: 2498: 2455: 2448: 2413: 2406: 2379: 2375: 2330: 2323: 2283: 2277: 2273: 2228: 2224: 2179: 2175: 2136: 2132: 2101: 2097: 2050: 2046: 2007: 2003: 1976: 1967: 1924: 1920: 1877: 1873: 1833: 1827: 1823: 1773: 1769: 1724: 1717: 1680: 1676: 1647:(6): 996–1012. 1637: 1633: 1586: 1582: 1529: 1522: 1483: 1479: 1470: 1468: 1457: 1453: 1408: 1404: 1373: 1369: 1346: 1337: 1325: 1323: 1314: 1313: 1305: 1301: 1270: 1266: 1227: 1220: 1211: 1207: 1203:, 151, 145 151. 1198: 1194: 1185: 1181: 1168: 1164: 1151: 1147: 1138: 1131: 1122: 1118: 1109: 1107: 1056: 1052: 1043: 1039: 1030: 1026: 1021:Wayback Machine 1003: 996: 983: 976: 967: 963: 954: 950: 941: 932: 923: 919: 915: 906: 903: 902: – concept 900:Transliminality 894: 885: 864: 816: 807: 801: 768: 741: 721: 690: 673: 661: 656: 618: 577: 572: 563: 558: 553: 521:autistic traits 517: 505: 491: 470:cooperativeness 431: 400: 396: 391: 385: 382: 339: 328: 324:primary sources 308: 304: 297: 269: 259:schizophrenia. 240:to develop it. 218: 198:factor analysis 172: 106:Gordon Claridge 52: 26:In psychology, 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4644: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4609: 4608: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4586: 4573: 4560: 4547: 4530: 4513: 4490: 4477: 4464: 4462:, 21, 749-758. 4451: 4438: 4436:, 87, 664 668. 4425: 4411: 4398: 4396:, 36, 300-312. 4385: 4375: 4362: 4353: 4351:, 39, 705-713. 4340: 4327: 4278: 4254: 4241: 4239:, 13, 723-731. 4228: 4226:, 32, 141-154. 4215: 4202: 4189: 4176: 4147:(8): 1159–65. 4127: 4098:(3): 165–170. 4078: 4047: 4008: 3966: 3947:(4): 402–410. 3927: 3900:(2): 390–408. 3877: 3828: 3797: 3766: 3764:, 47, 922-927. 3750: 3703: 3656: 3638: 3616: 3564: 3512: 3462: 3411: 3352: 3300: 3289:(6): 876–890. 3269: 3230: 3178: 3113: 3084:(3): 284–287. 3064: 3053:(2): 221–225. 3033: 2984: 2937: 2892: 2879:(6): 581–597. 2859: 2852: 2819: 2780:(11): e27407. 2760: 2711: 2659: 2622:BMC Psychiatry 2608: 2589: 2578:(2): 247–282. 2553: 2544:|journal= 2525: 2496: 2469:(3): 523–525. 2446: 2404: 2393:(2): 128–132. 2373: 2321: 2271: 2222: 2173: 2130: 2095: 2044: 2001: 1990:(2): 717–725. 1965: 1938:(6): 680–700. 1918: 1891:(2): 182–191. 1871: 1821: 1767: 1715: 1674: 1631: 1580: 1543:(5): 415–424. 1520: 1493:(2): 239–248. 1477: 1451: 1402: 1367: 1335: 1326:|journal= 1299: 1280:(3): 146–155. 1264: 1237:(1–2): 78–83. 1218: 1205: 1192: 1179: 1162: 1145: 1129: 1127:, 32, 141-154. 1116: 1070:(2): 203–211. 1050: 1037: 1024: 994: 974: 972:, 28, 363-375. 961: 959:, 13, 757-785. 948: 930: 916: 914: 911: 910: 909: 897: 888: 879: 873: 867: 858: 852: 846: 840: 835: 829: 823: 815: 812: 803:Main article: 800: 797: 767: 764: 740: 737: 720: 717: 713:working memory 701:verbal fluency 689: 686: 672: 669: 660: 657: 655: 652: 617: 614: 598:social anxiety 576: 573: 571: 568: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 541:theory of mind 535:of schizotypy 516: 513: 504: 501: 490: 487: 430: 427: 402: 401: 394: 392: 311: 309: 302: 296: 293: 268: 265: 238:predisposition 217: 214: 171: 168: 167: 166: 160: 151: 141: 134:hallucinations 56:Emil Kraepelin 51: 48: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4643: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4621:Schizophrenia 4619: 4618: 4616: 4607: 4606:0-19-852353-X 4603: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4583: 4577: 4570: 4564: 4558:, 20, 99-107. 4557: 4551: 4544: 4540: 4534: 4527: 4523: 4517: 4511: 4507: 4504: 4503:McCreery 2008 4500: 4494: 4487: 4481: 4474: 4468: 4461: 4455: 4448: 4442: 4435: 4429: 4423:, 6, 371 380. 4422: 4415: 4408: 4402: 4395: 4389: 4379: 4372: 4366: 4357: 4350: 4344: 4337: 4331: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4282: 4268: 4264: 4258: 4251: 4245: 4238: 4232: 4225: 4219: 4212: 4206: 4199: 4193: 4186: 4180: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4082: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4012: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3888: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3816: 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589:schizophrenia 586: 582: 567: 548: 544: 542: 538: 534: 529: 525: 522: 512: 510: 500: 497: 486: 482: 478: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 426: 423: 419: 415: 413: 409: 393: 389: 378: 375: 371: 368: 364: 361: 357: 354: 350: 347: – 346: 342: 341:Find sources: 336: 332: 326: 325: 321: 317: 312:This section 310: 301: 300: 292: 290: 286: 282: 278: 277:schizophrenia 273: 264: 260: 257: 252: 250: 246: 241: 239: 235: 230: 226: 224: 213: 210: 206: 201: 199: 193: 191: 186: 182: 178: 164: 161: 158: 157: 152: 149: 145: 142: 139: 135: 131: 127: 124: 123: 122: 120: 115: 113: 112: 107: 103: 99: 98:psychologists 94: 92: 88: 84: 83:Eugen Bleuler 79: 77: 74:(such as the 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 47: 45: 44:schizophrenia 42:, especially 41: 37: 33: 29: 22: 4597: 4581: 4576: 4571:,160, 13–23. 4568: 4563: 4555: 4550: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4525: 4521: 4516: 4498: 4493: 4485: 4480: 4472: 4467: 4459: 4454: 4446: 4441: 4433: 4428: 4420: 4414: 4406: 4401: 4393: 4388: 4378: 4370: 4365: 4356: 4348: 4343: 4335: 4330: 4295: 4291: 4281: 4270:. Retrieved 4266: 4257: 4249: 4244: 4236: 4231: 4223: 4218: 4213:17, 827 838. 4210: 4205: 4197: 4192: 4184: 4179: 4144: 4140: 4130: 4095: 4091: 4081: 4064: 4060: 4050: 4025: 4021: 4011: 3986: 3982: 3969: 3944: 3940: 3930: 3897: 3893: 3880: 3845: 3841: 3831: 3814: 3810: 3800: 3783: 3779: 3769: 3761: 3720: 3716: 3706: 3673: 3669: 3659: 3641: 3625: 3619: 3578: 3574: 3567: 3526: 3522: 3515: 3482: 3478: 3428: 3424: 3414: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3322: 3321:(Preprint). 3316: 3286: 3282: 3272: 3247: 3243: 3233: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3130: 3126: 3116: 3081: 3077: 3067: 3050: 3046: 3036: 3001: 2997: 2987: 2954: 2950: 2940: 2923:2318/1852747 2905: 2901: 2895: 2876: 2872: 2862: 2835: 2777: 2773: 2763: 2728: 2724: 2714: 2672: 2662: 2625: 2621: 2611: 2602: 2592: 2575: 2571: 2535:cite journal 2466: 2462: 2424: 2420: 2390: 2386: 2376: 2341: 2337: 2291: 2287: 2274: 2239: 2235: 2225: 2190: 2186: 2176: 2146:(1): 11–29. 2143: 2139: 2133: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2061: 2057: 2047: 2014: 2010: 2004: 1987: 1983: 1935: 1931: 1921: 1888: 1884: 1874: 1841: 1837: 1824: 1799:10138/223888 1781: 1777: 1770: 1735: 1731: 1691: 1687: 1677: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1597: 1593: 1583: 1566:2318/1852742 1540: 1536: 1490: 1486: 1480: 1469:. 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