816:. Measurements generally have a small amount of error, and repeated measurements of the same item will generally result in slight differences in readings. These differences can be analyzed, and follow certain known mathematical and statistical properties. Should a set of data appear to be too faithful to the hypothesis, i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct.
522:
conflicts of interest. Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material. Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct. The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of the authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies.
235:– willful or negligent failure to appropriately credit other or prior discoverers, so as to give an improper impression of priority. This is also known as, "citation amnesia", the "disregard syndrome" and "bibliographic negligence". Arguably, this is the most common type of scientific misconduct. Sometimes it is difficult to guess whether authors intentionally ignored a highly relevant cite or lacked knowledge of the prior work. Discovery credit can also be inadvertently reassigned from the original discoverer to a better-known researcher. This is a special case of the
531:
suspicion, the more likely it is that conflicts of interest will compromise the investigation. In many countries (with the notable exception of the United States) acquisition of funds on the basis of fraudulent data is not a legal offence and there is consequently no regulator to oversee investigations into alleged research misconduct. Universities therefore have few incentives to investigate allegations in a robust manner, or act on the findings of such investigations if they vindicate the allegation.
5409:
4915:
4890:
498:(where there is stated authorship in the absence of involvement, also known as gift authorship) and ghost authorship (where the real author is not listed as an author) are commonly regarded as forms of research misconduct. In some cases coauthors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by a commercial sponsor. Examples include the case of
182:. That means that even if a scientist does falsify data, they can expect to get away with it – or at least claim innocence if their results conflict with others in the same field. There are few strongly backed systems to investigate possible violations, attempt to press charges, or punish deliberate misconduct. It is relatively easy to cheat although difficult to know exactly how many scientists fabricate data.
31:
4079:
129:, indicate some form of scientific misconduct. However the ORI will only investigate allegations of impropriety where research was funded by federal grants. They routinely monitor such research publications for red flags and their investigation is subject to a statute of limitations. Other private organizations like the Committee of Medical Journal Editors (COJE) can only police their own members.
278:- phenomenon where authorship is given to someone who has not made any substantial contribution. This can done by senior researchers who muscle their way onto the papers of inexperienced junior researchers as well as others that stack authorship in an effort to guarantee publication. This is much harder to prove due to a lack of consistency in defining "authorship" or "substantial contribution".
679:, the mother of the patients in the paper, was arrested, indicted and convicted on five counts of second-degree murder for the smothering deaths of her five children. While that in itself was bad enough, the paper, presumably written as an attempt to save infants' lives, ironically was ultimately used as a defense by parents suspected in multiple deaths of their own children in cases of
294:
authors. A rarer case of scientific misconduct is editorial misconduct, where an editor does not declare conflicts of interest, creates pseudonyms to review papers, gives strongly worded editorial decisions to support reviews suggesting to add excessive citations to their own unrelated works or to add themselves as a co-author or their name to the title of the manuscript.
621:, which published 24 of Fujii's papers, has accepted that its handling of the issue was inadequate. Following publication of a letter to the editor from Kranke and colleagues in April 2000, along with a non-specific response from Dr. Fujii, there was no follow-up on the allegation of data manipulation and no request for an institutional review of Dr. Fujii's research.
626:
2012 Shafer led a group of editors to write a joint statement, in the form of an ultimatum made available to the public, to a large number of academic institutions where Fujii had been employed, offering these institutions the chance to attest to the integrity of the bulk of the allegedly fraudulent papers.
614:
focussed attention on the role that journals play in perpetuating scientific fraud as well as how they can deal with it. In the Boldt case, the editors-in-chief of 18 specialist journals (generally anaesthesia and intensive care) made a joint statement regarding 88 published clinical trials conducted
577:
The COPE guidelines state that journal editors should consider retracting a publication if they have clear evidence that the findings are unreliable, either as a result of misconduct (e.g. data fabrication) or honest error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error). Retraction is also appropriate in
521:
Authors are expected to keep all study data for later examination even after publication. The failure to keep data may be regarded as misconduct. Some scientific journals require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors might have commercial or non-commercial
594:
Evidence emerged in 2012 that journals learning of cases where there is strong evidence of possible misconduct, with issues potentially affecting a large portion of the findings, frequently fail to issue an expression of concern or correspond with the host institution so that an investigation can be
2058:
de La
Blanchardière A, Barde F, Peiffer-Smadja N, Maisonneuve H (June 2021). "Revues prédatrices: une vraie menace pour la recherche médicale. 2 Evaluer leurs conséquences et engager une riposte" [Predatory journals: A real threat for medical research. 2 Assess their consequences and initiate a
625:
went on to publish 11 additional manuscripts by Dr. Fujii following the 2000 allegations of research fraud, with Editor Steven Shafer stating in March 2012 that subsequent submissions to the
Journal by Dr. Fujii should not have been published without first vetting the allegations of fraud. In April
589:
Journal editors should consider issuing a correction if a small portion of an otherwise reliable publication proves to be misleading (especially because of honest error), or the author / contributor list is incorrect (i.e. a deserving author has been omitted or somebody who does not meet authorship
585:
if they receive inconclusive evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors, there is evidence that the findings are unreliable but the authors' institution will not investigate the case, they believe that an investigation into alleged misconduct related to the publication either has
556:
Some academics believe that scientific colleagues who suspect scientific misconduct should consider taking informal action themselves, or reporting their concerns. This question is of great importance since much research suggests that it is very difficult for people to act or come forward when they
534:
Well publicised cases illustrate the potential role that senior academics in research institutions play in concealing scientific misconduct. A King's
College (London) internal investigation showed research findings from one of their researchers to be 'at best unreliable, and in many cases spurious'
188:
In many scientific fields, the most lucrative options for professionals are often selling opinions. Corporations can pay experts to support products directly or indirectly via conferences. Psychologists can make money by repeatedly acting as an expert witness in custody proceedings for the same law
230:
is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit. One form is the appropriation of the ideas and results of others, and publishing as to make it appear the author had performed all the work under which the data was obtained. A subset is
293:
of a researcher's work and their reputation in the scientific community, similar to excessive self-citation. Reviewers are expected to be impartial and assess the quality of their work. They are expected to declare a conflict of interest to the editors if they are colleagues or competitors of the
695:
The potentially severe consequences for individuals who are found to have engaged in misconduct also reflect on the institutions that host or employ them and also on the participants in any peer review process that has allowed the publication of questionable research. This means that a range of
639:
The consequences of scientific fraud vary based on the severity of the fraud, the level of notice it receives, and how long it goes undetected. For cases of fabricated evidence, the consequences can be wide-ranging, with others working to confirm (or refute) the false finding, or with research
113:
The consequences of scientific misconduct can be damaging for perpetrators and journal audience and for any individual who exposes it. In addition there are public health implications attached to the promotion of medical or other interventions based on false or fabricated research findings.
530:
In general, defining whether an individual is guilty of misconduct requires a detailed investigation by the individual's employing academic institution. Such investigations require detailed and rigorous processes and can be extremely costly. Furthermore, the more senior the individual under
457:
This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues. The result of this approach is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage. Ultimately,
2226:
Kim, M. S.; Kondo, T.; Takada, I.; Youn, M. Y.; Yamamoto, Y.; Takahashi, S.; Matsumoto, T.; Fujiyama, S.; Shirode, Y.; Yamaoka, I.; Kitagawa, H.; Takeyama, K. I.; Shibuya, H.; Ohtake, F.; Kato, S. (2009). "DNA demethylation in hormone-induced transcriptional derepression".
217:
is making up results and recording or reporting them. This is sometimes referred to as "drylabbing". A more minor form of fabrication is where references are included to give arguments the appearance of widespread acceptance, but are actually fake, or do not support the
644:
fraud is a case in point: The significance of the bona-fide fossils that were being found was muted for decades because they disagreed with
Piltdown Man and the preconceived notions that those faked fossils supported. In addition, the prominent paleontologist
649:
spent time at
Piltdown each year until he died, trying to find more Piltdown Man remains. The misdirection of resources kept others from taking the real fossils more seriously and delayed the reaching of a correct understanding of human evolution. (The
661:, the misconduct occurred in reports of trials of treatment to prevent death and myocardial infarction in patients undergoing operations. The trial reports were relied upon to issue guidelines that applied for many years across North America and Europe.
338:, have instituted similar tests and require authors to minimize and specify the extent of photo manipulation when a manuscript is submitted for publication. However, there is little evidence to indicate that such tests are applied rigorously. One
732:, focuses on the requirements for providing information and data to the NRC. The intent of 10 CFR 50.5 is to deter and penalize intentional wrongdoing (i.e., violations). 10 CFR 50.9 is crucial in maintaining transparency and reliability in the
664:
In the case of Dr Alfred
Steinschneider, two decades and tens of millions of research dollars were lost trying to find the elusive link between infant sleep apnea, which Steinschneider said he had observed and recorded in his laboratory, and
311:
Sneaked references – the act of subtly embedding references that are not present in a manuscript in the metadata of this accepted manuscript without the original authors being capable of noticing or correcting such modifications.
828:
suggest, "Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such a policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct."
793:, also created in Dr. Garner's laboratory. The creation of DĂ©jĂ vu and the subsequent classification of several hundred articles contained therein have ignited much discussion in the scientific community concerning issues such as
700:, find themselves open to retaliation by a number of different means. These negative consequences for exposers of misconduct have driven the development of whistle blowers charters – designed to protect those who raise concerns (
736:
industry, which effectively emphasizes honesty and integrity in maintaining the safety and security of nuclear operations. Providing false or misleading information or data to the NRC is therefore a violation of 10 CFR 50.9.
542:, but an external committee was then organised which dismissed the allegation, and the NCCS issued a memorandum exonerating the authors of all charges of misconduct. Undeterred by the NCCS exoneration, the relevant journal (
108:
Swedish definition: "Intention distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other
253:
explicitly ask authors not to do this. It is referred to as "salami" (i.e. many identical slices) in the jargon of medical journal editors. According to some editors this includes publishing the same article in a different
487:
Simultaneous submission of scientific findings to more than one journal or duplicate publication of findings is usually regarded as misconduct, under what is known as the
Ingelfinger rule, named after the editor of
345:
Although the type of manipulation that is allowed can depend greatly on the type of experiment that is presented and also differ from one journal to another, in general the following manipulations are not allowed:
321:
Compared to other forms of scientific misconduct, image fraud (manipulation of images to distort their meaning) is of particular interest since it can frequently be detected by external parties. In 2006, the
1211:
Nylenna, M.; Andersen, D.; Dahlquist, G.; Sarvas, M.; Aakvaag, A. (1999). "Handling of scientific dishonesty in the Nordic countries. National
Committees on Scientific Dishonesty in the Nordic Countries".
2424:
Minasny, Budiman; Fiantis, Dian; Mulyanto, Budi; Sulaeman, Yiyi; Widyatmanti, Wirastuti (2020-08-15). "Global soil science research collaboration in the 21st century: Time to end helicopter research".
506:, the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce, (Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception) – and the coauthors with
443:) and the careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance
1837:
Bates, T.; Anić, A.; Marusić, M.; Marusić, A. (2004). "Authorship
Criteria and Disclosure of Contributions: Comparison of 3 General Medical Journals with Different Author Contribution Forms".
789:, an open-access database containing several thousand instances of duplicate publication. All of the entries in the database were discovered through the use of text data mining algorithm
654:, which should have been the death knell for the view that the human brain evolved first, was instead treated very critically because of its disagreement with the Piltdown Man evidence.)
3763:
1175:
1168:
242:
Plagiarism-fabrication – the act of taking an unrelated figure from an unrelated publication and reproducing it exactly in a new publication, claiming that it represents new data.
3244:
439:
resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as
224:
is manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
724:
regulations, addresses the prohibition of certain activities by individual involved in NRC-licensed activities. 10 CFR 50.5 is designed to ensure the safety and integrity of
967:(DORA), from San Francisco, gathered many institutions, publishers, and individuals committing to improving the metrics used to assess research and to stop focusing on the
408:, frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study, is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a
1763:
782:
4117:
2150:
Brown, C. (2005) Overcoming
Barriers to Use of Promising Research Among Elite Middle East Policy Groups, Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, Select Press.
1713:
569:
Journals are responsible for safeguarding the research record and hence have a critical role in dealing with suspected misconduct. This is recognised by the
4089:
3174:"Dealing with – or Reporting – 'Unacceptable' Behavior – with additional thoughts about the 'Bystander Effect'"
268:– the phenomenon where someone other than the named author(s) makes a major contribution. Typically, this is done to mask contributions from authors with a
4923:
586:
not been, or would not be, fair and impartial or conclusive, or an investigation is underway but a judgement will not be available for a considerable time.
538:
In a more recent case an internal investigation at the National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune determined that there was evidence of misconduct by
484:
All authors of a scientific publication are expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted to academic journals for publication.
1046:
2916:
105:
Danish definition: "Intention or gross negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist"
2971:
1463:
1066:
4933:
4928:
2843:
2570:
964:
3217:
2328:
923:, was discovered to have fabricated data in dozens of studies on human behaviour. He has been called "the biggest con man in academic science".
599:
to be published despite clear evidence of image fraud. Subsequent retraction of the paper required the actions of an independent whistleblower.
3794:
696:
actors in any case may have a motivation to suppress any evidence or suggestion of misconduct. Persons who expose such cases, commonly called
1081:
304:
The peer-review process can have limitations when considering research outside the conventional scientific paradigm: social factors such as "
3200:
1614:
4110:
1255:
1006:
2395:
2160:
Besançon, L.; Cabanac, G.; Labbé, C.; Magazinov, A. (2024). "Sneaked references: Fabricated reference metadata distort citation counts".
2287:
756:
of licenses or certifications, thereby barring individuals or entities from participating in any NRC-licensed activities in the future.
557:
see unacceptable behavior, unless they have help from their organizations. A "User-friendly Guide," and the existence of a confidential
3944:"Retraction—Hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine with or without a macrolide for treatment of COVID-19: a multinational registry analysis"
3720:
1161:
1146:
1051:
1021:
122:
4250:
1372:
160:, and a good reputation relies largely on the publication of high-profile scientific papers. Hence, there is a strong imperative to "
2924:"Independent Committee of Inquiry into the publication of articles in the British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (1994–1995)"
2785:
Stefanoudis, Paris V.; Licuanan, Wilfredo Y.; Morrison, Tiffany H.; Talma, Sheena; Veitayaki, Joeli; Woodall, Lucy C. (2021-02-22).
4918:
4103:
3314:
860:
4083:
3767:
2517:
1294:
851:, estimate that at least 100,000 retractions should occur every year, with only about one in five being due to "honest error".
3854:
3514:
Steinschneider, A (2013-03-25). "Prolonged apnea and the sudden infant death syndrome: clinical and laboratory observations".
3333:
535:
but the college took no action, such as retracting relevant published research or preventing further episodes from occurring.
3875:
2304:
1445:
904:
The claims in Wakefield's paper were widely reported, leading to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland and
1767:
1189:
573:(COPE) which has issued clear guidelines on the form (e.g. retraction) that concerns over the research record should take.
5262:
4611:
4325:
938:
489:
3674:
Long TC; Errami M; George AC; Sun Z; Garner HR (2009-03-06). "Scientific Integrity: Responding to Possible Plagiarism".
4875:
4046:
3895:"Retraction: Cardiovascular Disease, Drug Therapy, and Mortality in Covid-19. N Engl J Med. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2007621"
3498:
1131:
1717:
1399:
Morreim, E H; Winer, Jeffrey C (2023). "Guest authorship as research misconduct: definitions and possible solutions".
330:
in papers that were being considered for publication. This was in response to the increased usage of programs such as
4320:
4313:
4296:
4175:
4165:
4147:
1368:
4547:
2909:
1872:
Bhopal, R.; Rankin, J.; McColl, E.; Thomas, L.; Kaner, E.; Stacy, R.; Pearson, P.; Vernon, B.; Rodgers, H. (1997).
4039:
The Icepick Surgeon: Murder, Fraud, Sabotage, Piracy, and Other Dastardly Deeds Perpetrated in the Name of Science
1675:
797:, journal standards, and intellectual copyright. Studies on this database have been published in journals such as
4968:
4656:
1577:
1041:
1001:
905:
669:(SIDS), of which he stated it was a precursor. The cover was blown in 1994, 22 years after Steinschneider's 1972
570:
544:
3395:"Perioperative beta blockade: guidelines do not reflect the problems with the evidence from the DECREASE trials"
2472:"Neo-colonial science by the most industrialised upon the least developed countries in peer-reviewed publishing"
680:
5433:
5041:
4126:
4065:
1281:
It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock ... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet.
1141:
729:
717:
342:
paper published in 2009 has subsequently been reported to contain around 20 separate instances of image fraud.
3586:
3557:
2736:
1182:
721:
427:
Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as
417:
416:
and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the
2305:"Shigeaki Kato (the University of Tokyo): DNA demethylation in hormone-induced transcriptional derepression"
249:
of the same content with different titles or in different journals is sometimes also considered misconduct;
4843:
4673:
4601:
4301:
4230:
1016:
813:
666:
126:
2975:
1520:"How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Survey Data"
1460:
950:, a company owned by Desai. The dataset was exposed as a fabrication, and the papers were soon retracted.
4056:
3273:"Reported data on granisetron and postoperative nausea and vomiting by Fujii et al. Are incredibly nice!"
1608:
561:
may help people who are uncertain about what to do, or afraid of bad consequences for their speaking up.
452:
199:
1964:"Reviewer-coerced citation: case report, update on journal policy and suggestions for future prevention"
4651:
2708:
884:
769:
With the advancement of the internet, there are now several tools available to aid in the detection of
236:
3441:
510:
at Bell Laboratories. More recent cases include that of Charles Nemeroff, then the editor-in-chief of
4901:
4858:
4853:
4828:
4743:
4733:
4728:
3197:
2835:
2104:"Wilfully submitting to and publishing in predatory journals – a covert form of research misconduct?"
1106:
909:
741:
617:
421:
364:
any change that conceals information, even when it is considered to be non-specific, which includes:
3801:
2546:
4738:
4641:
4288:
4235:
3893:
Mehra, Mandeep R.; Desai, Sapan S.; Kuy, SreyRam; Henry, Timothy D.; Patel, Amit N. (4 June 2020).
3827:
1061:
880:
558:
175:
3795:"Dr. Andrew Jeremy Wakefield: Determination on Serious Professional Misconduct (SPM) and Sanction"
3738:
2370:
1630:
Shapiro, M.F. (1992). "Data audit by a regulatory agency: Its effect and implication for others".
170:
In many scientific fields, results are often difficult to reproduce accurately, being obscured by
4758:
4586:
4537:
1612:
1480:
888:
335:
3245:"Major fraud probe of Japanese anesthesiologist Yoshitaka Fujii may challenge retraction record"
1319:
1266:
5402:
5206:
5103:
4768:
4753:
4713:
4485:
4308:
3120:
Gerald Koocher & Patricia Keith-Spiegel (22 July 2010). "Peers Nip Misconduct in the Bud".
2760:
986:
887:. In 2010 he was found guilty of dishonesty in his research and banned from medicine by the UK
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without Ethics Committee approval. In the Fujii case, involving nearly 200 papers, the journal
436:
145:, there are motivators for scientists to commit misconduct, which are briefly summarised here.
115:
2197:
379:
showing only a very small part of the photograph so that additional information is not visible
334:
by scientists, which facilitate photo manipulation. Since then more publishers, including the
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4865:
4833:
4808:
4693:
4646:
4542:
4520:
4495:
4435:
4422:
4395:
4260:
4225:
4182:
1435:
1076:
1036:
968:
646:
582:
459:
282:
203:
85:
77:
3442:"Prolonged apnea and the sudden infant death syndrome: clinical and laboratory observations"
687:
paper was cited in 404 papers in the interim and is still listed on Pubmed without comment.
470:
of the findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.
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4780:
4723:
4626:
4606:
4564:
4480:
4475:
4450:
4375:
4142:
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and (with Joan Sieber) Responding to Research Wrongdoing: A User Friendly Guide, July 2010.
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8:
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20:
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2836:"The Ingelfinger Rule: Franz Ingelfinger at The New England Journal of Medicine 1967–77"
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2028:
1535:
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5108:
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4688:
4490:
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Jargin SV. Misconduct in Medical Research and Practice. Nova Science Publishers, 2020.
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The vast majority of cases of scientific misconduct may not be reported. The number of
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but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the
409:
327:
301:, knowingly or unknowingly, was discussed as a form of potential scientific misconduct.
250:
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Science is still a very strongly career-driven discipline. Scientists depend on a good
3959:
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2669:
2652:
2612:
2595:
1225:
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which rely on local communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents
383:
Image manipulations are typically done on visually repetitive images such as those of
5197:
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4889:
4870:
4505:
4440:
4410:
4042:
3973:
3924:
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2449:
2322:
2279:
2252:
2133:
2088:
2076:
2040:
1993:
1944:
1903:
1874:"The vexed question of authorship: Views of researchers in a British medical faculty"
1854:
1819:
1647:
1559:
1441:
1416:
1369:"Consequences of Whistleblowing for the Whistleblower in Misconduct in Science Cases"
1354:
1342:
1229:
1136:
1071:
805:
703:
358:
298:
286:
161:
65:
3705:
3426:
3350:
Vogel, G. (30 January 2014). "Suspect Drug Research Blamed for Massive Death Toll".
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1979:
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Dahdouh-Guebas, Farid; Ahimbisibwe, J.; Van Moll, Rita; Koedam, Nico (2003-03-01).
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2012:
1983:
1975:
1934:
1893:
1885:
1846:
1809:
1801:
1639:
1549:
1539:
1492:
1408:
1334:
1221:
1156:
1151:
1026:
866:
847:
799:
733:
725:
46:
16:
Violation of codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in scientific research
5267:
5211:
5201:
5149:
5139:
5076:
5056:
4838:
4683:
4661:
4430:
4345:
4330:
4095:
3371:
3337:
3318:
3249:
3222:
3204:
2072:
2057:
1618:
1544:
1467:
1116:
1111:
1091:
1056:
916:
611:
607:
499:
331:
138:
69:
2946:
164:". This may motivate desperate (or fame-hungry) scientists to fabricate results.
5412:
5340:
5298:
5272:
5226:
5093:
5061:
5046:
5036:
4954:
4896:
4848:
4803:
4596:
4532:
4445:
4405:
4245:
4205:
2342:
2202:
2036:
1412:
777:
within biomedical literature. One tool developed in 2006 by researchers in Dr.
745:
658:
428:
384:
101:
provides the following sample definitions, reproduced in The COPE report 1999:
3038:
2884:
2803:
2786:
2487:
1889:
1643:
5427:
5330:
5303:
5282:
5216:
5144:
5081:
4992:
4708:
4678:
4616:
4417:
4365:
4360:
4270:
4055:
Patricia Keith-Spiegel, Joan Sieber, and Gerald P. Koocher (November, 2010).
2812:
2678:
2621:
2495:
2453:
2193:
1420:
778:
697:
603:
503:
290:
24:
4092:(PDF) (for routine use during manuscript submission to a scientific journal)
4066:
https://novapublishers.com/shop/misconduct-in-medical-research-and-practice/
3689:
2119:
1923:"Do medical journals provide clear and consistent guidelines on authorship?"
1805:
1338:
930:
and his coauthors published two papers, in the prestigious medical journals
5362:
5192:
5170:
5118:
5098:
5031:
4668:
4527:
4465:
4200:
3977:
3928:
3772:
3759:
3697:
3652:
3418:
3394:
3379:
3298:
3149:
3105:
3056:
2820:
2686:
2629:
2283:
2256:
2137:
2080:
2044:
1997:
1948:
1858:
1823:
1651:
1563:
1346:
1233:
897:
842:
786:
641:
448:
54:
35:
3535:
3527:
3467:
3459:
2902:
2778:
2471:
1907:
1850:
718:
Title 10 Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 50.5, Deliberate Misconduct
5384:
5320:
5313:
5308:
5246:
5066:
5016:
4703:
4400:
4370:
4355:
4220:
4215:
3910:
2923:
1096:
947:
927:
876:
676:
651:
539:
444:
265:
3734:
2275:
2248:
1790:"The White Bull effect: Abusive coauthorship and publication parasitism"
1504:
740:
Violation of any of these rules can lead to severe penalties, including
5367:
5277:
5221:
5177:
5123:
5026:
5007:
4636:
4631:
4576:
4240:
4210:
4192:
2469:
2015:; Iwasa, Yoh (March 2020). "JTB Editorial Malpractice: A Case Report".
1962:
Wren, Jonathan D; Valencia, Alfonso; Kelso, Janet (15 September 2019).
1086:
1011:
932:
892:
871:
770:
753:
371:
354:
305:
207:
153:
93:
81:
5241:
3410:
2510:
2179:
1584:
367:
changing brightness and contrast to leave only the most intense signal
5051:
4813:
4280:
4255:
4134:
1496:
1320:"SOCIOLOGY: Scientific Misconduct: Do the Punishments Fit the Crime?"
991:
946:
pandemic. The papers were based on a very large dataset published by
825:
3855:"Report: Dutch 'Lord of the Data' Forged Dozens of Studies (UPDATE)"
3643:
3616:
3141:
3119:
3096:
3071:
420:
found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about
121:
Three percent of the 3,475 research institutions that report to the
5086:
3565:
2997:
2170:
943:
710:
432:
350:
splicing together different images to represent a single experiment
3942:
Mehra, Mandeep R; Ruschitzka, Frank; Patel, Amit N (5 June 2020).
3594:
3218:"Shikeagi Kato, who resigned post in March, retracts Nature paper"
2396:"Why Are Gamers So Much Better Than Scientists at Catching Fraud?"
1176:
EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles
578:
cases of redundant publication, plagiarism and unethical research.
5379:
5325:
4946:
4157:
2162:
Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology
1703:
Emmeche, slide 3, who refers to the phenomenon as Dulbecco's law.
790:
640:
agendas being distorted to address the fraudulent evidence. The
596:
515:
412:, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the
157:
142:
73:
57:
2784:
1169:
Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science
812:
Other tools which may be used to detect fraudulent data include
308:" can interfere with open and fair deliberation of new research.
4790:
4078:
2419:
2417:
2415:
1738:
794:
690:
50:
30:
3768:"There's far more scientific fraud than anyone wants to admit"
2423:
1210:
4978:
3673:
3488:
2159:
285:
process by a reviewer or editor with a conflict of interest.
171:
2412:
5357:
5335:
3991:
2867:"Lessons from the Pearce affair: handling scientific fraud"
413:
179:
99:
Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries
34:
A reconstruction of the skull purportedly belonging to the
2730:
2728:
2701:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2465:
2463:
1766:. The World Association of Medical Editors. Archived from
1716:. The World Association of Medical Editors. Archived from
730:
10 CFR Part 50.9, Completeness and Accuracy of Information
2972:"Actonel Case Media Reports - Scientific Misconduct Wiki"
2871:
783:
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas
4058:
Responding to Research Wrongdoing: A User Friendly Guide
3271:
Kranke, P.; Apfel, C. C.; Roewer, N.; Fujii, Y. (2000).
1871:
629:
261:
Other types of research misconduct are also recognized:
2725:
2587:
2534:
2460:
1836:
1440:. New Delhi: Friends Publications (India). p. 90.
1437:
Introduction of Research Methods and Publication Ethics
3800:. General Medical Council. 24 May 2010. Archived from
3270:
2571:"Scientists Say It's Time To End 'Parachute Research'"
2010:
1434:
Singh, Dr. Yatendra Kumar; Kumar Dubey, Bipin (2021).
908:. Promotion of the claimed link continues to fuel the
525:
1295:"What are the consequences of scientific misconduct?"
3941:
2941:
2939:
2198:"It May Look Authentic; Here's How to Tell It Isn't"
23:. For unscientific claims presented as science, see
2653:"Parasitic and parachute research in global health"
2518:"Q&A: Parachute Science in Coral Reef Research"
1371:. Research Triangle Institute. 1995. Archived from
4125:
3892:
3433:
3181:Journal of the International Ombudsman Association
3172:Rowe, Mary; Wilcox, Linda; Gadlin, Howard (2009).
2225:
1764:"Publication Ethics Policies for Medical Journals"
1714:"Publication Ethics Policies for Medical Journals"
1047:International Committee of Medical Journal Editors
4021:"An old and a recent example of scientific fraud"
3614:
3587:"Deja vu: Medline duplicate publication database"
3558:"DĂ©jĂ vu: Medline duplicate publication database"
2936:
1961:
1461:Part III. Department of Health and Human Services
1067:List of experimental errors and frauds in physics
551:
326:gained publicity for instituting tests to detect
5425:
3439:
3171:
1433:
548:) withdrew the paper based on its own analysis.
514:, and a well-documented case involving the drug
281:Scientific misconduct can also occur during the
2998:"Did a British university sell out to P&G?"
958:
3935:
3852:
3513:
3393:Cole, G. D.; Francis, D. P. (29 August 2014).
2596:"Closing the door on parachutes and parasites"
764:
38:, a long-lasting case of scientific misconduct
4962:
4111:
3873:
3758:
3072:"Indian scientists battle journal retraction"
3023:"Institutional corruption in medicine (2002)"
2192:
1082:List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
564:
3020:
2095:
2051:
1398:
1007:Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
691:Consequences for those who expose misconduct
479:
424:did not include a local research co-author.
202:defines three types of research misconduct:
114:Scientific misconduct can result in loss of
19:For dishonesty in educational settings, see
3886:
3392:
2327:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2101:
1623:
634:
581:Journal editors should consider issuing an
4969:
4955:
4118:
4104:
3482:
2947:"Journal editor quits in conflict scandal"
2860:
2858:
1479:Goodstein, David (January–February 2002).
1317:
1162:United States Office of Research Integrity
1147:Scientific plagiarism in the United States
1052:Japanese scientific misconduct allegations
1022:Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty
595:undertaken. In one case, Nature allowed a
123:US Department of Health and Human Services
45:is the violation of the standard codes of
4018:
3967:
3918:
3642:
3288:
3095:
3069:
3046:
2995:
2892:
2802:
2668:
2611:
2169:
2127:
1987:
1938:
1897:
1813:
1553:
1543:
1518:Fanelli, D. (2009). Tregenza, Tom (ed.).
1478:
869:published a fraudulent research paper in
675:paper claiming such an association, when
4036:
3825:
3489:Talan, Jamie; Firstman, Richard (1997).
2594:Health, The Lancet Global (2018-06-01).
1673:
722:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
289:citation can also inflate the perceived
29:
3165:
2855:
2787:"Turning the tide of parachute science"
2393:
2302:
2221:
2219:
1629:
1517:
861:List of scientific misconduct incidents
711:Regulatory Violations and Consequences
447:—and critics call for the end of these
5426:
3874:Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit (2013-04-26).
2761:"The Traces of Colonialism in Science"
2593:
2547:"The Problem With 'Parachute Science'"
1394:
1392:
390:
4950:
4099:
2765:Observatory of Educational Innovation
2650:
1920:
1674:Garfield, Eugene (January 21, 2002).
854:
630:Consequences of scientific misconduct
316:
2864:
2343:"Restrictions of Image Manipulation"
2216:
2102:Yeo-Teh NS, Tang BL (October 2021).
1787:
1190:The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science
4612:Digital media use and mental health
4326:Sociology of the history of science
3899:The New England Journal of Medicine
3853:Gretchen Vogel (October 31, 2011).
3721:"Ethics: Increasing accountability"
3718:
2833:
2737:"The Problem of 'Colonial Science'"
1389:
1318:Redman, B. K.; Merz, J. F. (2008).
1292:
939:The New England Journal of Medicine
526:Research institution responsibility
490:The New England Journal of Medicine
474:
458:especially for fields dealing with
13:
4976:
4012:
3615:Errami M; Garner HR (2008-01-23).
3070:Jayaraman, K. S. (June 14, 2007).
1578:"New Research Misconduct Policies"
965:Declaration on Research Assessment
14:
5445:
4321:Sociology of scientific ignorance
4166:History and philosophy of science
4148:Economics of scientific knowledge
4071:
3440:Steinschneider A (October 1972).
2309:Katolab-imagefraud.blogspot.co.uk
832:
5408:
5407:
4914:
4913:
4888:
4077:
3349:
3290:10.1213/00000539-200004000-00053
1254:
845:and Adam Marcus, co-founders of
396:This section is an excerpt from
3984:
3867:
3846:
3826:Goldacre, B. (30 August 2008).
3819:
3787:
3752:
3712:
3667:
3608:
3579:
3550:
3507:
3386:
3343:
3324:
3305:
3264:
3237:
3210:
3191:
3112:
3063:
3014:
2989:
2964:
2827:
2753:
2734:
2644:
2563:
2387:
2363:
2335:
2296:
2186:
2153:
2144:
2004:
1955:
1914:
1865:
1830:
1781:
1756:
1731:
1706:
1697:
1667:
1658:
1601:
1570:
1511:
1042:Hippocratic Oath for scientists
1002:Committee on Publication Ethics
819:
571:Committee on Publication Ethics
545:Journal of Biological Chemistry
156:to receive ongoing support and
4127:Science and technology studies
2996:Dickerson, John (2005-12-22).
2446:10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114299
2394:Ritchie, Stuart (2021-07-02).
2017:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1472:
1454:
1427:
1361:
1311:
1286:
1248:
1204:
1142:Scientific plagiarism in India
906:outbreaks of mumps and measles
891:following an investigation by
841:in 2022 was nearly 5,500, but
759:
552:Scientific peer responsibility
492:1967–1977, Franz Ingelfinger.
1:
4041:. Little, Brown and Company.
3960:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31324-6
2670:10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30315-2
2613:10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30239-0
1980:10.1093/bioinformatics/btz071
1226:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07133-5
1197:
1183:Straight and Crooked Thinking
418:Hungarian Academy of Sciences
132:
118:in the integrity of science.
4674:Normalization process theory
4231:Philosophy of social science
4090:Publication ethics checklist
3372:10.1126/science.343.6170.473
2073:10.1016/j.revmed.2021.03.327
1545:10.1371/journal.pone.0005738
1017:Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
959:Changing research assessment
953:
752:. It can also result in the
681:MĂĽnchausen syndrome by proxy
667:sudden infant death syndrome
590:criteria has been included).
127:Office of Research Integrity
7:
2651:Smith, James (2018-08-01).
1676:"Demand Citation Vigilance"
1401:BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine
974:
875:claiming links between the
765:Exposure of fraudulent data
361:of only a part of the image
200:National Science Foundation
10:
5450:
4297:construction of technology
3493:. New York: Bantam Books.
3312:Fujii Statement of Concern
2037:10.1016/j.jtbi.2020.110171
1632:Accountability in Research
1413:10.1136/bmjebm-2021-111826
919:, a highly regarded Dutch
885:inflammatory bowel disease
858:
702:for more details refer to
623:Anesthesia & Analgesia
618:Anesthesia & Analgesia
565:Responsibility of journals
395:
18:
5398:
5291:
5255:
5158:
5132:
4985:
4884:
4829:Politicization of science
4789:
4575:
4344:
4279:
4191:
4156:
4133:
3617:"A tale of two citations"
3039:10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1232
2885:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1547
2865:Lock, S (June 17, 1995).
2804:10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.029
1890:10.1136/bmj.314.7086.1009
1794:Journal of Medical Ethics
1644:10.1080/08989629208573818
1107:Politicization of science
910:anti-vaccination movement
480:Authorship responsibility
422:least-developed countries
404:Neo-colonial research or
4236:Philosophy of technology
3331:Fujii Join EIC Statement
3277:Anesthesia and Analgesia
2657:The Lancet Global Health
2600:The Lancet Global Health
1062:List of cognitive biases
635:Consequences for science
559:organizational ombudsman
193:
3876:"The Mind of a Con Man"
3690:10.1126/science.1167408
3027:British Medical Journal
2522:The Scientist Magazine®
2488:10.1023/A:1022374703178
2120:10.11613/BM.2021.030201
1806:10.1136/jme.2004.010553
1481:"Scientific misconduct"
1339:10.1126/science.1158052
1293:Xie, Yun (2008-08-12).
1265:: 11–18. Archived from
889:General Medical Council
512:Neuropsychopharmacology
441:funded research centers
437:Scientific publications
387:and microscope images.
336:Nature Publishing Group
324:Journal of Cell Biology
178:, and other extraneous
4309:Sociology of knowledge
3992:"Read the Declaration"
3491:The death of innocents
2834:Toy, Jennifer (2002).
2303:11jigen (2012-01-15).
987:Archaeological forgery
449:extractivist practices
53:in the publication of
39:
5434:Scientific misconduct
5042:Intellectual property
4876:Transition management
4866:Technology assessment
4834:Regulation of science
4809:Evidence-based policy
4694:Sociotechnical system
4543:Traditional knowledge
4423:Psychology of science
4396:Mapping controversies
4302:shaping of technology
4261:Social constructivism
4226:Philosophy of science
4183:History of technology
4084:Scientific misconduct
3528:10.1542/peds.50.4.646
3460:10.1542/peds.50.4.646
3198:Retraction Guidelines
3021:Wilmshurst P (2002).
2910:registration required
2713:TheFreeDictionary.com
2709:"Helicopter Research"
2270:(Retracted, see
1851:10.1001/jama.292.1.86
1583:. NSF. Archived from
1077:List of memory biases
1037:Fabrication (science)
969:journal impact factor
781:'s laboratory at the
647:Arthur Smith Woodward
583:expression of concern
502:who co-authored with
245:Self-plagiarism – or
206:, falsification, and
60:. It is violation of
43:Scientific misconduct
33:
4781:Women in engineering
4627:Financial technology
4607:Digital anthropology
4376:Criticism of science
4289:Actor–network theory
4251:Religion and science
4143:Economics of science
4086:at Wikimedia Commons
3911:10.1056/NEJMc2021225
2371:"Editorial Policies"
2108:Biochem Med (Zagreb)
1788:Kwok, L. S. (2005).
1263:The COPE Report 1999
1102:Pathological science
997:Bullying in academia
775:multiple publication
750:criminal prosecution
657:In the case of Prof
468:institutionalization
464:conservation biology
453:decolonize knowledge
406:neo-colonial science
398:Neo-colonial science
270:conflict of interest
247:multiple publication
62:scientific integrity
4622:Engineering studies
4592:Cyborg anthropology
4381:Demarcation problem
4266:Social epistemology
3735:10.1038/nature05007
3719:Lee, Kirby (2006).
3684:(5919): 1293–1294.
3635:2008Natur.451..397E
3364:2014Sci...343..473V
3134:2010Natur.466..438K
3088:2007Natur.447..764J
3033:(7374): 1232–1235.
2741:Scientific American
2438:2020Geode.373k4299M
2276:10.1038/nature11164
2249:10.1038/nature08456
2241:2009Natur.461.1007K
2235:(7266): 1007–1012.
2029:2020JThBi.48810171C
1884:(7086): 1009–1012.
1536:2009PLoSO...4.5738F
1256:"Coping with fraud"
1127:Research paper mill
982:Academic dishonesty
921:social psychologist
839:article retractions
391:Helicopter research
374:to hide information
251:scientific journals
233:citation plagiarism
167:Ease of fabrication
76:, including in the
64:: violation of the
58:scientific research
21:Academic dishonesty
5390:White-collar crime
5256:Government-related
4902:History of science
4819:Funding of science
4689:Skunkworks project
4386:Double hermeneutic
4171:History of science
3880:The New York Times
3766:(August 9, 2023).
3405:(aug29 8): g5210.
3336:2016-03-04 at the
3317:2016-03-04 at the
3203:2020-03-26 at the
2879:(6994): 1547–148.
1921:Wager, E. (2007).
1617:2008-10-23 at the
1466:2021-10-22 at the
1122:Research integrity
1032:Engineering ethics
855:Some notable cases
410:developing country
328:photo manipulation
317:Photo manipulation
40:
5421:
5420:
5159:Financial-related
4944:
4943:
4871:Technology policy
4602:Dematerialization
4411:black swan events
4082:Media related to
4037:Sam Kean (2021).
3629:(7177): 397–399.
3591:dejavu.vbi.vt.edu
3562:dejavu.vbi.vt.edu
3411:10.1136/bmj.g5210
3358:(6170): 473–474.
3128:(7305): 438–440.
2180:10.1002/asi.24896
2013:Kirschner, Denise
1974:(18): 3217–3218.
1447:978-93-90649-38-9
1137:Scientific method
1072:List of fallacies
704:retaliation (law)
508:Jan Hendrik Schön
299:predatory journal
162:publish or perish
66:scientific method
47:scholarly conduct
5441:
5411:
5410:
4986:Business-related
4971:
4964:
4957:
4948:
4947:
4917:
4916:
4892:
4844:Right to science
4824:Horizon scanning
4799:Academic freedom
4699:Technical change
4560:Women in science
4555:Unity of science
4336:Strong programme
4120:
4113:
4106:
4097:
4096:
4081:
4052:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4006:
4005:
4003:
4002:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3971:
3939:
3933:
3932:
3922:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3871:
3865:
3864:
3850:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3807:on 9 August 2011
3806:
3799:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3737:. Archived from
3716:
3710:
3709:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3646:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3602:
3593:. Archived from
3583:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3564:. Archived from
3554:
3548:
3547:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3347:
3341:
3328:
3322:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3292:
3283:(4): 1004–1007.
3268:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3258:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3214:
3208:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3178:
3169:
3163:
3161:
3116:
3110:
3109:
3099:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3018:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2974:. Archived from
2968:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2957:
2943:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2906:
2896:
2862:
2853:
2852:
2840:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2806:
2797:(4): R184–R185.
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2747:
2732:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2719:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2672:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2615:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2581:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2557:
2543:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2467:
2458:
2457:
2421:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2358:
2356:
2347:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2326:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2289:Retraction Watch
2268:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2173:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2131:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2011:Chaplain, Mark;
2008:
2002:
2001:
1991:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1901:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1817:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1726:
1725:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1671:
1665:
1664:Emmeche, slide 5
1662:
1656:
1655:
1627:
1621:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1589:
1582:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1547:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1497:10.2307/40252116
1476:
1470:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1324:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1306:
1305:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1271:
1260:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1208:
1157:Source criticism
1152:Sham peer review
1027:Data fabrication
963:Since 2012, the
867:Andrew Wakefield
848:Retraction Watch
809:, among others.
795:ethical behavior
496:Guest authorship
475:Responsibilities
297:Publishing in a
287:Reviewer-coerced
276:Guest authorship
51:ethical behavior
5449:
5448:
5444:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5439:
5438:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5417:
5394:
5351:honest services
5287:
5251:
5154:
5128:
4981:
4975:
4945:
4940:
4880:
4839:Research ethics
4785:
4684:Reverse salient
4578:
4571:
4347:
4340:
4331:Sociotechnology
4275:
4187:
4152:
4129:
4124:
4074:
4049:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4019:Claus Emmeche.
4015:
4013:Further reading
4010:
4009:
4000:
3998:
3990:
3989:
3985:
3954:(10240): 1820.
3940:
3936:
3891:
3887:
3872:
3868:
3851:
3847:
3837:
3835:
3824:
3820:
3810:
3808:
3804:
3797:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3778:
3776:
3757:
3753:
3744:
3742:
3717:
3713:
3672:
3668:
3644:10.1038/451397a
3613:
3609:
3600:
3598:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3571:
3569:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3512:
3508:
3501:
3487:
3483:
3438:
3434:
3391:
3387:
3348:
3344:
3338:Wayback Machine
3329:
3325:
3319:Wayback Machine
3310:
3306:
3269:
3265:
3256:
3254:
3250:RetractionWatch
3243:
3242:
3238:
3229:
3227:
3223:RetractionWatch
3216:
3215:
3211:
3205:Wayback Machine
3196:
3192:
3176:
3170:
3166:
3142:10.1038/466438a
3117:
3113:
3097:10.1038/447764a
3068:
3064:
3019:
3015:
3006:
3004:
2994:
2990:
2981:
2979:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2955:
2953:
2945:
2944:
2937:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2907:
2863:
2856:
2838:
2832:
2828:
2791:Current Biology
2783:
2779:
2770:
2768:
2759:
2758:
2754:
2745:
2743:
2733:
2726:
2717:
2715:
2707:
2706:
2702:
2649:
2645:
2592:
2588:
2579:
2577:
2569:
2568:
2564:
2555:
2553:
2545:
2544:
2535:
2526:
2524:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2468:
2461:
2422:
2413:
2404:
2402:
2392:
2388:
2379:
2377:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2352:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2320:
2319:
2313:
2311:
2301:
2297:
2269:
2224:
2217:
2208:
2206:
2191:
2187:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2100:
2096:
2061:Rev Med Interne
2059:response].
2056:
2052:
2009:
2005:
1960:
1956:
1919:
1915:
1870:
1866:
1835:
1831:
1786:
1782:
1773:
1771:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1745:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1723:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1689:
1687:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1628:
1624:
1619:Wayback Machine
1606:
1602:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1516:
1512:
1477:
1473:
1468:Wayback Machine
1459:
1455:
1448:
1432:
1428:
1397:
1390:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1322:
1316:
1312:
1303:
1301:
1291:
1287:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1220:(9172): 57–61.
1209:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1117:Research ethics
1112:Reproducibility
1092:Mertonian norms
1057:Laurie Glimcher
977:
961:
956:
942:, early in the
917:Diederik Stapel
863:
857:
835:
822:
767:
762:
715:
693:
637:
632:
612:anaesthesiology
608:Yoshitaka Fujii
567:
554:
528:
500:Gerald Schatten
482:
477:
472:
471:
401:
393:
332:Adobe Photoshop
319:
291:citation impact
260:
196:
149:Career pressure
139:David Goodstein
135:
70:research ethics
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5447:
5437:
5436:
5419:
5418:
5416:
5415:
5405:
5399:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5365:
5355:
5354:
5353:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5317:
5316:
5309:Counterfeiting
5306:
5301:
5295:
5293:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5259:
5257:
5253:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5174:
5173:
5162:
5160:
5156:
5155:
5153:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5136:
5134:
5133:Family-related
5130:
5129:
5127:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5090:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5012:Pharmaceutical
5005:
5000:
4995:
4989:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4974:
4973:
4966:
4959:
4951:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4938:
4937:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4879:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4849:Science policy
4846:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4804:Digital divide
4801:
4795:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4720:Technological
4718:
4717:
4716:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4665:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4597:Design studies
4594:
4589:
4583:
4581:
4573:
4572:
4570:
4569:
4568:
4567:
4557:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4540:
4535:
4533:Scientometrics
4530:
4525:
4524:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4470:
4469:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4406:Paradigm shift
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4317:
4316:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4291:
4285:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4246:Postpositivism
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4206:Antipositivism
4203:
4197:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4185:
4180:
4179:
4178:
4176:and technology
4168:
4162:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4123:
4122:
4115:
4108:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4087:
4073:
4072:External links
4070:
4069:
4068:
4062:
4053:
4048:978-0316496506
4047:
4034:
4014:
4011:
4008:
4007:
3983:
3934:
3885:
3866:
3845:
3828:"The MMR hoax"
3818:
3786:
3751:
3711:
3666:
3607:
3578:
3549:
3522:(4): 646–654.
3506:
3500:978-0553100136
3499:
3481:
3454:(4): 646–654.
3432:
3385:
3342:
3323:
3304:
3263:
3236:
3209:
3190:
3164:
3111:
3062:
3013:
2988:
2963:
2935:
2915:
2854:
2844:Science Editor
2826:
2777:
2767:. 20 July 2020
2752:
2735:Vos, Asha de.
2724:
2700:
2643:
2586:
2562:
2551:Science Friday
2533:
2509:
2482:(3): 329–343.
2476:Scientometrics
2459:
2411:
2386:
2362:
2334:
2295:
2215:
2203:New York Times
2196:(2006-01-24).
2185:
2152:
2143:
2114:(3): 395–402.
2094:
2067:(6): 427–433.
2050:
2003:
1968:Bioinformatics
1954:
1913:
1864:
1829:
1800:(9): 554–556.
1780:
1755:
1739:"ICMJE – Home"
1730:
1705:
1696:
1666:
1657:
1638:(3): 219–229.
1622:
1600:
1569:
1510:
1471:
1453:
1446:
1426:
1388:
1360:
1310:
1285:
1247:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1179:
1172:
1165:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
978:
976:
973:
960:
957:
955:
952:
895:of the London
859:Main article:
856:
853:
834:
833:Underreporting
831:
824:Kirby Lee and
821:
818:
814:error analysis
766:
763:
761:
758:
714:
709:
698:whistleblowers
692:
689:
659:Don Poldermans
636:
633:
631:
628:
592:
591:
587:
579:
566:
563:
553:
550:
527:
524:
481:
478:
476:
473:
402:
394:
392:
389:
381:
380:
377:
376:
375:
368:
362:
351:
318:
315:
314:
313:
309:
302:
295:
279:
273:
258:
257:
256:
255:
243:
237:Matthew effect
225:
219:
195:
192:
191:
190:
186:
183:
168:
165:
150:
134:
131:
111:
110:
106:
88:of research.
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5446:
5435:
5432:
5431:
5429:
5414:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5400:
5397:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5359:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5348:
5347:
5346:Mail and wire
5344:
5342:
5341:Impersonation
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5331:Fraud factory
5329:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5315:
5312:
5311:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5260:
5258:
5254:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5242:Shill bidding
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5157:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5135:
5131:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5114:Telemarketing
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5082:Ghost network
5080:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5037:Impersonation
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4972:
4967:
4965:
4960:
4958:
4953:
4952:
4949:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4921:
4920:
4912:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4891:
4887:
4886:
4883:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4788:
4782:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4715:
4712:
4711:
4710:
4709:Technoscience
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4679:Media studies
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4617:Early adopter
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4587:Co-production
4585:
4584:
4582:
4580:
4574:
4566:
4563:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4436:communication
4434:
4432:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4418:Pseudoscience
4416:
4412:
4409:
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4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
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4366:Boundary-work
4364:
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4361:Bibliometrics
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4272:
4271:Transhumanism
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3803:
3796:
3790:
3775:
3774:
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3761:
3760:Oransky, Ivan
3755:
3741:on 2012-09-12
3740:
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3654:
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3632:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3611:
3597:on 2014-07-22
3596:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3568:on 2015-04-25
3567:
3563:
3559:
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3408:
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3296:
3291:
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3199:
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3159:
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3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3115:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3082:(7146): 764.
3081:
3077:
3073:
3066:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3017:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2978:on 2009-02-02
2977:
2973:
2967:
2952:
2951:The Scientist
2948:
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2900:
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2861:
2859:
2851:(6): 195–198.
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2199:
2195:
2194:Nicholas Wade
2189:
2181:
2177:
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2167:
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2156:
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2139:
2135:
2130:
2125:
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2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
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2086:
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2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2063:(in French).
2062:
2054:
2046:
2042:
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2034:
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2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1995:
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1825:
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1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1784:
1770:on 2009-07-31
1769:
1765:
1759:
1744:
1743:www.icmje.org
1740:
1734:
1720:on 2009-07-31
1719:
1715:
1709:
1700:
1685:
1681:
1680:The Scientist
1677:
1670:
1661:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1590:on 2012-09-10
1586:
1579:
1573:
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1556:
1551:
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1438:
1430:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1395:
1393:
1378:on 2017-08-24
1374:
1370:
1364:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1333:(5890): 775.
1332:
1328:
1321:
1314:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1282:
1272:on 2007-09-28
1268:
1264:
1257:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
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1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
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1103:
1100:
1098:
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1088:
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1083:
1080:
1078:
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1023:
1020:
1018:
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1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
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988:
985:
983:
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979:
972:
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966:
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935:
934:
929:
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907:
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899:
894:
890:
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882:
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868:
862:
852:
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849:
844:
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830:
827:
817:
815:
810:
808:
807:
802:
801:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
779:Harold Garner
776:
772:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
738:
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731:
727:
723:
719:
713:
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688:
686:
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668:
662:
660:
655:
653:
648:
643:
627:
624:
620:
619:
613:
609:
605:
604:Joachim Boldt
602:The cases of
600:
598:
588:
584:
580:
576:
575:
574:
572:
562:
560:
549:
547:
546:
541:
536:
532:
523:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:Hwang Woo-Suk
501:
497:
493:
491:
485:
469:
465:
461:
460:global issues
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
399:
388:
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369:
366:
365:
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360:
356:
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343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
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307:
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296:
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288:
284:
280:
277:
274:
271:
267:
264:
263:
262:
252:
248:
244:
241:
240:
238:
234:
229:
226:
223:
222:Falsification
220:
216:
213:
212:
211:
209:
205:
201:
187:
185:Monetary Gain
184:
181:
177:
173:
169:
166:
163:
159:
155:
151:
148:
147:
146:
144:
140:
137:According to
130:
128:
124:
119:
117:
107:
104:
103:
102:
100:
96:
95:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
32:
26:
25:Pseudoscience
22:
5374:
5171:lottery scam
5104:Tech support
5094:Racketeering
4924:Associations
4759:criticism of
4669:Leapfrogging
4652:linear model
4538:Team science
4528:Scientocracy
4510:
4451:Neo-colonial
4201:Anthropocene
4057:
4038:
4027:. Retrieved
4024:(PowerPoint)
3999:. Retrieved
3995:
3986:
3951:
3947:
3937:
3905:(26): 2582.
3902:
3898:
3888:
3879:
3869:
3858:
3848:
3836:. Retrieved
3832:The Guardian
3831:
3821:
3809:. Retrieved
3802:the original
3789:
3777:. Retrieved
3773:The Guardian
3771:
3764:Marcus, Adam
3754:
3743:. Retrieved
3739:the original
3724:
3714:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3626:
3620:
3610:
3599:. Retrieved
3595:the original
3590:
3581:
3570:. Retrieved
3566:the original
3561:
3552:
3519:
3515:
3509:
3490:
3484:
3451:
3445:
3435:
3402:
3398:
3388:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3326:
3307:
3280:
3276:
3266:
3255:. Retrieved
3253:. 2012-03-08
3248:
3239:
3228:. Retrieved
3226:. 2012-06-13
3221:
3212:
3193:
3184:
3180:
3167:
3125:
3121:
3114:
3079:
3075:
3065:
3030:
3026:
3016:
3005:. Retrieved
3001:
2991:
2980:. Retrieved
2976:the original
2966:
2954:. Retrieved
2950:
2927:. Retrieved
2918:
2876:
2870:
2848:
2842:
2829:
2794:
2790:
2780:
2769:. Retrieved
2764:
2755:
2744:. Retrieved
2740:
2716:. Retrieved
2712:
2703:
2660:
2656:
2646:
2603:
2599:
2589:
2578:. Retrieved
2574:
2565:
2554:. Retrieved
2550:
2525:. Retrieved
2521:
2512:
2479:
2475:
2429:
2425:
2403:. Retrieved
2400:The Atlantic
2399:
2389:
2378:. Retrieved
2374:
2365:
2353:. Retrieved
2349:
2337:
2312:. Retrieved
2308:
2298:
2288:
2286:,
2232:
2228:
2207:. Retrieved
2201:
2188:
2161:
2155:
2146:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2020:
2016:
2006:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1930:
1926:
1916:
1881:
1877:
1867:
1845:(1): 86–88.
1842:
1838:
1832:
1797:
1793:
1783:
1772:. Retrieved
1768:the original
1758:
1746:. Retrieved
1742:
1733:
1722:. Retrieved
1718:the original
1708:
1699:
1688:. Retrieved
1683:
1679:
1669:
1660:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1603:
1592:. Retrieved
1585:the original
1572:
1530:(5): e5738.
1527:
1523:
1513:
1491:(1): 28–31.
1488:
1484:
1474:
1456:
1436:
1429:
1404:
1400:
1380:. Retrieved
1373:the original
1363:
1330:
1326:
1313:
1302:. Retrieved
1299:Ars Technica
1298:
1288:
1280:
1274:. Retrieved
1267:the original
1262:
1250:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1188:
1181:
1174:
1167:
962:
937:
931:
925:
914:
903:
898:Sunday Times
896:
870:
864:
846:
843:Ivan Oransky
836:
823:
820:Data sharing
811:
804:
798:
768:
739:
728:operations.
716:
712:
701:
694:
684:
670:
663:
656:
642:Piltdown Man
638:
622:
616:
601:
593:
568:
555:
543:
537:
533:
529:
520:
511:
494:
486:
483:
451:in order to
426:
403:
382:
344:
339:
323:
320:
275:
266:Ghostwriting
259:
232:
227:
221:
214:
197:
136:
120:
116:public trust
112:
98:
92:
90:
55:professional
42:
41:
36:Piltdown Man
5321:Faked death
5314:Superdollar
5292:Other types
5232:Overpayment
5198:Credit card
5166:Advance-fee
5072:Health care
4769:theories of
4754:and society
4750:Technology
4744:transitions
4734:determinism
4729:convergence
4704:Technocracy
4486:controversy
4472:Scientific
4456:post-normal
4401:Metascience
4371:Consilience
4356:Antiscience
4221:Neo-Luddism
4216:Fuzzy logic
3187:(1): 52–64.
2663:(8): e838.
2606:(6): e593.
2375:rupress.org
1097:Metascience
948:Surgisphere
928:Sapan Desai
877:MMR vaccine
760:Data issues
742:termination
683:. The 1972
677:Waneta Hoyt
652:Taung Child
597:corrigendum
540:Gopal Kundu
445:colonialism
372:clone tools
283:peer-review
215:Fabrication
204:fabrication
5375:Scientific
5237:Securities
5222:Mismarking
5188:Chargeback
5183:Bankruptcy
5022:Employment
5003:Disability
4907:Technology
4859:science of
4854:history of
4739:revolution
4647:disruptive
4637:Innovation
4632:Hype cycle
4577:Technology
4548:ecological
4521:skepticism
4511:misconduct
4496:enterprise
4314:scientific
4241:Positivism
4211:Empiricism
4193:Philosophy
4029:2007-05-18
4001:2022-06-07
3948:The Lancet
3779:August 12,
3745:2010-08-16
3601:2013-08-04
3572:2013-08-04
3516:Pediatrics
3447:Pediatrics
3257:2013-08-04
3230:2013-03-01
3007:2013-08-04
2982:2008-03-22
2929:2011-08-26
2771:2021-03-24
2746:2021-03-24
2718:2021-03-24
2580:2021-03-24
2556:2021-03-24
2527:2021-03-24
2432:: 114299.
2405:2021-07-19
2380:2024-04-22
2314:2013-08-04
2209:2010-04-01
2171:2310.02192
2023:: 110171.
1774:2009-07-30
1724:2009-07-30
1690:2009-07-30
1594:2013-03-01
1407:(1): 1–4.
1382:2012-05-24
1304:2013-03-01
1276:2006-09-02
1198:References
1132:Retraction
1087:Lysenkoism
1012:Cyril Burt
933:The Lancet
893:Brian Deer
872:The Lancet
771:plagiarism
754:revocation
685:Pediatrics
672:Pediatrics
355:brightness
306:groupthink
228:Plagiarism
208:plagiarism
154:reputation
133:Motivation
97:review on
5268:Electoral
5212:Insurance
5150:Paternity
5140:Fertility
5077:fertility
5057:Long firm
4977:Types of
4814:Factor 10
4642:diffusion
4481:consensus
4476:community
4441:education
4281:Sociology
4256:Scientism
4135:Economics
3838:30 August
3811:10 August
2813:0960-9822
2679:2214-109X
2622:2214-109X
2496:1588-2861
2454:0016-7061
2355:April 22,
2089:241560050
1933:(3): 16.
1927:MedGenMed
1611:Part 689
1421:2515-446X
1355:206512870
992:Bioethics
954:Solutions
826:Lisa Bero
353:changing
254:language.
218:argument.
198:The U.S.
176:artifacts
86:reporting
5428:Category
5413:Category
5299:Affinity
5273:Medicare
5227:Mortgage
5145:Marriage
5109:Slamming
5087:quackery
5062:Odometer
5047:Internet
4998:Cramming
4934:Scholars
4929:Journals
4919:Category
4893:Portals
4774:transfer
4764:dynamics
4714:feminist
4516:priority
4501:literacy
4461:rhetoric
4427:Science
4391:Logology
3978:32511943
3929:32501665
3834:. London
3706:28467385
3698:19265004
3653:18216832
3427:13845087
3419:25172044
3380:24482457
3334:Archived
3315:Archived
3299:10735823
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