Carbon accounting - Knowledge

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GHG emissions performance over time, and encouraging community action. The protocol focuses on specific emission sources and activities to characterize emissions rather than using a Scope 1, 2 and 3 framework, though the overall coverage is similar. The guidance suggests communities consider the stories they wish to convey about community emissions, and what reporting methods will help tell those stories. Five basic emissions generating activities are emphasized. These are: use of electricity by the community; use of fuel in residential and commercial stationary combustion equipment; on-road passenger and freight motor vehicle travel; use of energy in drinking water and wastewater treatment and distribution; and generation of solid waste by the community. Reporting guidance covers a variety of approaches, and organizations can include one or more of them. These include GHG activities and sources over which a local government has significant influence; GHG activities of community interest; household consumption inventories; and an inventory that incorporates the GHG emissions (and removals) from land use. An independent evaluation of inventories that have been developed using this protocol has questioned whether they capture the full range of Scope 1 sources within their jurisdictions

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estimates for particular categories of upstream and downstream sources that influence Scope 3 estimates. Companies may neglect to include key Scope 3 categories when reporting to organizations such as CDP. As of 2020, only 18% of the constituents of MSCI's global security index reported Scope 3 emissions. There is also evidence that many of the high rate emitters either under-report or do not report at all. Even Scope 3 data from companies that are then analyzed and summarized by third party auditing firms tend to be highly inconsistent. There are also concerns over double counting of Scope 3 emissions as companies work with their value chain partners. Despite the uncertainty of these numbers, Scope 3 estimates are seen by many companies as important for decision making purposes. They are also considered an important tool for investors to better understand climate related risks in their portfolio.

1135:(ICLEI). It requires a community to first identify the inventory boundary, such as an administrative boundary for a city or county. The protocol focuses on six main activity sectors. These are stationary energy; transportation; waste; industrial processes and product use; agriculture, forestry and other land use. Emissions occurring outside the geographic boundary that are a result of a jurisdiction's activities are also included. To distinguish between emissions that occur within a city boundary and outside, the protocol uses the Scope 1, 2 and 3 definitions in GHG Protocol. Communities report emissions by gas, scope, sector and subsector using two options. One is a framework that reflects a more traditional Scope 1, 2, and 3 assessment. Another is more focused on activities taking place within that community, and excludes categories such as waste generated outside of it. 1375:

reporting, studies have shown more of an effect. A recent study of UK reporting requirements showed that they do result in reduced corporate GHG emissions. Analyses of EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program found that when firms are required to disclose their facility level emissions, it can also lead to a reduction in GHG intensity of their operations, though the evidence for reductions in absolute emissions is less clear. One suggestion for the effects of specific GHG reporting requirements is that they inhibit the ability of companies to portray their emissions in a flattering way, and so are forced to actually make changes that lower GHG emissions.

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carbon trading schemes, such as the CDM. Trading participants may be reluctant to purchase credits if the credits are already used by other entities. Double counting of emission reductions could increase the global costs of reducing GHG emissions. It can also make mitigation pledges less comparable. This, in turn, can affect the credibility of the international climate control efforts, and make it more difficult to reach agreements on how to affect the drivers of climate change. Estimating the extent of double counting is difficult. Estimates depend in part on actions taken at various levels to prevent double counting.

42: 8311: 1290:. Projects must meet at least three of those goals, in addition to reducing GHG emissions. Projects must also make a net-positive contribution to the economic, environmental and social welfare of the local population. Program monitoring requirements help determine this. The standard certifies additionality based on an evaluation of financial viability or the institutional barriers that a project faces. In some cases additionality is assumed based on the type of project. There are also screens for double counting. 1299: 1561: 1422:

standards and create more interoperability among them. For example, the International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB) has also been established to develop a global baseline of sustainability standards that it hopes will help harmonize sustainability disclosure requirements. In 2022, the ISSB established a working group to enhance compatibility among various corporate disclosure requirements, including the EU Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive and SEC's 2022 disclosure rule.

1028:(ISO) published ISO 14064 standards for greenhouse gas accounting and verification in 2006. ISO, WRI and WBCSD worked together to ensure consistency amongst the ISO and Greenhouse Gas Protocol standards. ISO 14064 is based on Greenhouse Gas Protocol. Part 1 (ISO 14064-1:2006) specifies principles and requirements for estimating and reporting GHG emissions and removals. Part 3 (ISO 14064-3:2006) provides guidance for conducting and managing the verification of GHG reporting. 1119:

companies within a sector industry or portfolio; reliable, verifiable, and objective; and timely. The metrics and targets portion of the standard requires measurement and disclosure methods based on GHG Protocol. The TCFD's standard specifies that companies should disclose all Scope 1 and 2 emissions regardless of their material impacts on the company. Scope 3 emission reporting is dependent on whether they are "material", but TCFD recommends they be included.

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transactional aspects of carbon credits. The protocol gives general guidance on applying additionality and uncertainty principles, but does not specifically require them. WRI and WBCSD have also developed additional guidance documents for projects in the land use, forestry, and electric grid sectors. GHG Protocol Policy and Action Standard has similar accounting principles, but these are applied to general programs and policies designed to reduce GHGs.

8726: 1196:. They support both compliance type programs as well as voluntary markets. Accounting rules cover areas such as monitoring, reporting, and verification, and are designed to ensure that the emission reduction estimates for a project are accurate. Greenhouse Gas Protocol and ISO have specific protocols to accomplish this. Certification organizations also have program requirements can cover project eligibility, certification, and other aspects. 1575: 8071: 8059: 653: 641: 1487: 1547: 8746: 966:

Standards Board, the Climate Registry, as well as several industry specific organizations. CDP lists an even broader set of acceptable methods for reporting in its guidance. Standards for cities and communities include the Global Protocol for Community Scale Greenhouse Gas Inventories and the ICLEI U.S. Community Protocol. This covers cities and communities in the US.

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factors included in their inventories. This allows them to report lower emissions even while their real electricity consumption stays the same, as the use of a REC does not necessarily mean additional renewable power has been brought to the grid. This lack of "additionality" has led to criticism regarding the use of RECs in Scope 2 emission accounting.

1043:. It was developed by the British Standards Institute and published in 2010. Under PAS 2060 GHG estimates should include 100% of Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions, plus all Scope 3 emissions that contribute more than 1% of the total footprint. Organizations must also develop a Carbon Management Plan which contains a public commitment to 1358:. It aims to make corporate accounting and reporting a business norm, and drive GHG disclosure, insight, and action. In 2021, over 14,000 organizations disclosed their environmental information through CDP. CDP's 2022 questionnaire on transition plans includes specific requirements for describing Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions. 1060:(EPA)’s Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP) requires facility and supplier based reporting for many categories of emissions sources. The program includes guidelines for how emissions are to be estimated and reported. Facilities are required to report (1) combustion emissions resulting from burning fossil fuels or 946:(IPCC). Those most consistently applied include transparency, accuracy, consistency, and completeness. The IPCC principle of comparability, for example amongst organizations, is less widely applied, though techniques to support this goal are mentioned throughout Greenhouse Gas Protocol's corporate standard. 763:, products, cities, and policies". The corporate protocol divides an organization's emissions into three categories. Scope 1 covers direct emissions from an organization's facilities. Scope 2 covers emissions from generating electricity purchased by the organization. Scope 3 covers other indirect emissions. 1455:

For the average company, Scope 3 emissions estimates are significantly higher than the level of direct emissions. NGOs such as SBTI are working to address this. If a company's Scope 3 emissions are more than 40% of their total, that company needs a Scope 3 target to meet SBTi standards. However, only

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This standard provides guidance for quantification, monitoring and reporting of GHG reduction activities or removal enhancements. It includes requirements for planning a GHG project, as well as identifying and selecting GHG sources and sinks. It also covers various aspects of GHG project performance.

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Scope 3 emission sources include emissions from suppliers and product users (also known as the "value chain"). Transportation of goods, and other indirect emissions are also part of this scope. Scope 3 emissions often represent the largest source of corporate greenhouse gas emissions, for example the

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Double counting of GHG emissions or benefits can discredit the information value. Problems created by skewed data collection methods can affect companies, GHG reduction projects, investors, those involved in carbon credits/offsets, and regulatory agencies. It can also distort perceptions of progress

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Many companies may also inaccurately estimate the climate benefits of their products. This can happen by failing to account for a product's full life cycle, using inappropriate comparisons, conflating market size with product use, and cherry picking results to skew a portfolio towards those products

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The Net Zero concept emerged from the Paris Agreement, and has become a feature of both national laws and numerous corporate goals. Race to Zero was developed in 2019 to encourage private companies and sub-national governments to commit to net zero emissions by 2050 at the latest. SBTI created a Net

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United Kingdom (U.K.) has used renewable obligation certificates since 2002 in order to ensure compliance with the U.K. Renewables Obligation. In the European Union, Guarantees of Origin are used to describe this practice. Australia has used RECs since 2001. More recently, India set up a REC market.

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boundaries. Cradle-to-grave includes the emissions and removals generated during the full life of cycle of the product. Cradle-to-gate includes the emissions and removals up to where the product leaves the organization. Gate-to-gate includes the emissions and removals that arise in the supply chain.

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The U.S. Community Protocol (developed by ICLEI–Local Governments for Sustainability USA) is intended to support multiple goals that cities and communities may have in reducing GHG emissions. These include: climate action planning, highlighting climate change accountability and leadership, tracking

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In some cases, companies are working with their suppliers to set goals for measuring and reducing emission. Other efforts include developing supplier codes of conduct for specific business sectors. Companies may also target specific offset projects within their own Scope 3 supply chains. Government

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Data from facility level accounting can improve the overall quality and accuracy of national inventories by providing quality control checks on inventory estimates and through improved emissions factors. This depends in part on what percentage of the sector's emissions the available data covers. In

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Consumption-based methods, such as PAS 2070, provide another perspective on community greenhouse gas emissions. These clarify the difference between GHG emissions from sources within a community boundary, and GHG emissions from goods and services that are used by residents, but produced outside the

860:(SEC) proposed a rule in 2022 to require all public companies, regardless of size, to report Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions. Larger companies would be required to disclose Scope 3 emissions only if they are material to the company, or if the company has set an emissions target that includes Scope 3. 1425:

Although these are all based on the broader elements of the TCFD framework and GHG protocol, they differ in a variety of ways. For example, when the SEC proposal uses the term "material", it is only describing the extent to which reporting on emissions could directly impact a company financially.

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In trading schemes and regulatory/inventory schemes, double counting presents other problems. For Renewable Energy Certificates, double counting can falsely exaggerate claims about using renewable resources. Double counting of emission reductions can also produce disincentives to use international

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There are some confounding factors involved in this research. These include whether or not the studies are done in places where there is emissions trading, such as the EU ETS. Another variable is whether or not the requirements focus on larger companies that emit more GHGs. In addition, firms that

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Renewable Energy Certificates (REC) or Guarantees of Origin (GO) document the fact that one megawatt-hour of electricity is generated and supplied to the electrical grid through the use of renewable energy resources. RECs are now being utilized around the world and are becoming more prevalent. The

1226:, where reductions are claimed by more than one organization. Avoiding overestimation of emission reductions is another consideration. Some protocols and standards look to ensure that projects produce social and environmental co-benefits, in addition to emission reductions from the project itself. 1211:. This depends on whether the project would occur anyway without the funds raised by selling carbon offset credits. For instance, a project would not be considered additional if it is already financially viable due to energy or other cost savings. Similarly, if it would normally be done to meet an 852:

information, including GHG emissions. The UK's Environmental Reporting Guidelines update and clarify requirements in earlier laws that required companies to report information on GHG emissions. In the US the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP) requires facility (as opposed to corporate) based

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Understanding the overall impacts of GHG reporting in reducing an organization's emissions can be difficult. A number of studies have looked at changes in GHG emissions that occur after GHG reporting begins. There is evidence from related programs that self reporting lowers emissions. EPA's Toxic

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With the growth of GHG reporting, more information is now available to provide rankings of GHG emissions from companies and cities. News media have used these rankings to bring attention to those companies. In some instances, such as media coverage of the 2017 "Carbon Majors" report by CDP, this

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As mentioned in the "Frameworks and standards" section, organizations can use a variety of accounting methods and approaches to estimate and report on GHG emissions. Some standards, such as GHG protocol, have been in existence for more than two decades. Yet efforts continue to better align these

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Accurate reporting of Scope 3 emissions is a particular challenge. These emissions can be several times greater than Scope 1 and 2 emissions. In some cases these are reported inconsistently, depending on whom they are reported to. Lack of high-quality data can also affect the accuracy of Scope 3

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The accounting principles in the GHG Protocol for Project Accounting include relevance, completeness, consistency, transparency, accuracy and conservativeness. Like the ISO standard, the protocol's focus is on core accounting principles and impact quantification, rather than the programmatic and

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The ISO 14067 standard builds largely on other existing ISO standards for LCA. Steps include goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, interpretation, and reporting. For ISO 14067, the life cycle stages that need to be studied in the LCA are defined by a variety of system

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Corporations and facilities use a variety of methods to track and report GHG emissions. These include those from Greenhouse Gas Protocol, the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosure, the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board, the Global Reporting Initiative, the Climate Disclosure

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GHG accounting faces a number of challenges and critical assessments. One category involves how best to determine organizational boundaries and identify inputs and outputs most relevant to emissions. Problems also arise with characterizing uncertainty in emission estimates, and identifying what

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In the context of GHG accounting, RECs are often used to adjust estimated Scope 2 emissions. In a typical case, a company would calculate its Scope 2 emissions using its electricity consumption and a grid emissions factor. Companies that purchase RECs can use them to lower the average emissions

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GHG Protocol for Products builds on the framework of requirements in the ISO 14040 and PAS 2050 standards. It is similar to GHG Protocol Scope 3, but focused on life cycle/value chain impacts for a specific product. The same five accounting principles apply as with the Corporate Standard. Steps

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Product accounting methods are part of a broader set of Life Cycle Assessment approaches that include Product Carbon Footprints. These focus on the single issue of climate change. They can be used for either a product or a service. Related standards include ISO 14067, PAS 2050, and GHG Protocol

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goals and claims. SBTi launched a net zero corporate standard in 2021. Companies that pledge to this standard need to have both short term targets as well as targets for 2050. ISO also has a new standard under development, ISO 14068, that supports net zero goals. It is expected to build on the

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VERRA was developed in 2005, and is a widely used voluntary carbon standard. It uses accounting principles based on ISO 14064 Part 2, which are the same as the GHG protocol principles described above. Allowable projects under VERRA include energy, transport, waste, and forestry. There are also

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Recent studies focusing on changes in GHG emissions that result from GHG reporting have shown mixed results. Voluntary carbon reporting itself has often been shown to be ineffective in reducing GHG emissions. However, when looking at the additional impact of programs that require GHG emission

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The Gold Standard was developed in 2003 by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in consultation with an independent Standards Advisory Board. Projects are open to any non-government, community-based organization. Allowable project categories include renewable energy supply, energy efficiency,

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is developing a recommendation that Scope 3 emissions be included as part of all GHG reporting. There are 15 Scope 3 categories. Examples include goods or services an organization purchases, employee commuting, and the use of sold products. Not every category is relevant to all organizations.

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and targets. There are also several principles TCFD emphasizes in its guidance. Disclosures should be representative of relevant information; specific and complete; as well as clear, balanced, and understandable. In addition, estimates also need to be consistent over time; comparable amongst

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In addition to double counting, carbon offsets face a variety of other challenges that affect the quality of the offset. These include additionality, overestimation, and permanence of offsets. News stories in 2021 and 2022 have criticized nature-based carbon offsets, the REDD+ program, and

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equivalent. By comparison, the volume of credits traded on the voluntary carbon market was about 300 megatons as of 2021. Global demand for carbon credits could increase up to 15 times by 2030 and 100 times by 2050. Carbon removal projects such as forestry and

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GHG Protocol is a group of standards that are the most common in GHG accounting. These standards reflect a number of accounting principles, including relevance, completeness, consistency, transparency, and accuracy. The standards divide emissions into three scopes.

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program operates along similar principles. International offset programs also contain requirements for quantifying emission reductions from specific project. The CDM has a detailed set of monitoring, reporting, and verification procedures, as does the

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Product footprint analysis can provide insight into GHG contributions throughout the value chain. On average, 45% of total value chain emissions arise upstream in the supply chain, 23% during the company's direct operations, and 32% downstream.

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in reducing emissions. In corporate accounting, double-counting can reach about 30-40% of emissions in institutional portfolios. However, some accounting methods can still provide organizations with information on how to reduce real emissions.

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Many NGOs have developed programs that both promote GHG accounting and reporting, and help define its features. The Carbon Disclosure project allows a range of protocols for reporting to it. Most companies report GHG emissions to CDP using

990:. These were estimated to represent 75% of all emissions reported to the Carbon Disclosure Project, though that percentage varies widely amongst business sectors. In 2022 about 30% of US companies reported Scope 3 emissions. However, the 6277: 100:

depend on accurate measurement of emissions and emission reductions. These techniques can help to understand the impacts of specific products and services. They do this by quantifying their GHG emissions throughout their lifecycle

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The voluntary market is expected to grow tremendously over the next few decades. To date, the Scope 1-3 emissions of the 54 Global Fortune 500 companies that committed to net zero by 2050 or earlier is about 2.5 gigatons of

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Another trend is an increased convergence between voluntary standards and regulatory requirements. These began with the incorporation of voluntary offsets standards into the California Emission Trading System. More recently, the

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goals of corporations or communities. Many governments around the world require various forms of reporting. There is some evidence that programs that require GHG accounting help to lower emissions. Markets for buying and selling

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monitoring, and traffic counts. Using these data, US cities have been found to often underestimate their emissions. Methods that link emissions data with atmospheric measurements can help improve city inventories.

1204:, Climate Action Reserve and the American Carbon Registry are among the leading certification organizations doing this work. Project developers, brokers, auditors, and buyers are the other main types of participants. 1162:

include setting business goals, defining analysis boundaries, calculating results, analyzing uncertainties, and reporting. Boundaries for final products are required to include the complete cradle-to-grave life cycle.

80:. Organizations will often set an emissions baseline, create targets for reducing emissions, and track progress towards them. The accounting methods enable them to do this in a more consistent and transparent manner. 1047:

along with a reduction strategy. This strategy should include a time scale for achieving neutrality, specific targets for reductions, how those reductions will be achieved and how residual emissions will be offset.

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system where a limit is placed on the right to emit specified pollutants over an area, and companies can trade emission rights within that area. EU ETS is the second largest trading system in the world after the

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certification organizations. The REDD+ program in particular has been criticized as having a poor history of accounting for its results. However, positive aspects of these programs have also been highlighted.

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The CSRD proposal uses a "double materiality" criterion, which takes into consideration impacts on both a company and the public at large. It remains to be seen how these types of issues will be reconciled.

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information materially affects a company's operations, and therefore needs reporting. The use of alternate standards can affect comparability across organizations, as can lack of third party verification.

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are required to report on facility emissions appear to focus on controlling emissions for their affected facilities, but to then transfer emissions to nonreporting facilities that they also control.

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concerns or meet legal requirements. Public rankings of companies, financial due diligence and potential cost savings are other reasons. GHG accounting methods help investors better understand the

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Government procurement requirements have also begun to incorporate GHG reporting requirements. In 2022 both the US and the UK governments issued executive type orders that require this practice.

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to reach net zero goals. Accurate and comprehensive GHG accounting is considered a key element of for Net Zero transition plans, including the use of protocols such as GHG Corporate Standard.

4785: 5080: 797:(TCFD) formed as a follow-up to the Paris Agreement. It established a framework of recommendations on the types of information that companies should disclose to investors, lenders, and 1371:

Release inventory is one such example. It has been shown to have had a significant effect in reducing emissions of chemicals once facilities are required to disclose that information.

801:. More recently, governments such as the EU and US have developed regulations that cover corporate financial disclosure requirements and the use of accounting protocols to meet them. 135:

There are a number of challenges in creating accurate accounts of greenhouse gas emissions. Scope 3 emissions, in particular, can be difficult to estimate. For example, problems with

1431: 1010:. Furthermore, GHG Protocol is currently (as of 2024) updating its corporate standards and guidelines, including the Corporate Standard, Scope 2 Guidance, and the Scope 3 Standard. 139:

and double counting issues can affect the credibility of carbon offset schemes. Accuracy checks on accounting reports from companies and projects are important. Organizations like

5882: 3227:"ISO 14064-1:2006 - Greenhouse gases -- Part 1: Specification with guidance at the organization level for quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and removals" 2207: 6128: 2987: 982:. Scope 2 covers indirect GHG emissions from consumption of purchased electricity, heat, cooling or steam. As of 2010, at least one third of global GHG emissions are Scope 2. 5039:"Environmental Policy, Sustainable Development, Governance Mechanisms and Environmental Performance: Environmental Policy, Corporate Governance and Environmental Performance" 4667: 1127:

The Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Inventories (GPC) is the result of a collaborative effort between the GHG Protocol at World Resources Institute (WRI),

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or a protocol based on it. The Science Based Targets initiative cites Greenhouse Gas Protocol guidance as part of its criteria and recommendations. Similarly, the TCFD cites

825:, shareholder and stakeholder outreach, staff engagement, and energy cost savings. Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is often seen as a standard practice for business. 7771: 1603: 900: 32:

This article is about accounting for greenhouse gases from organizations, communities, companies and mitigation projects. For inventorying GHGs from regions and states, see

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WRI is currently developing a Land Sector and Removals Standard for its corporate reporting guidelines. This will include emissions and removals from land management and

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EPA uses the facility-level and supplier data to help prepare the annual Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, which is submitted to the United Nations.

5600: 3600: 864:(FSA) also issued rules in 2022 that require financial disclosure of climate related information. These may cover around 4,000 companies, including those listed on the 821:

A variety of business incentives drive corporate carbon accounting. These include rankings alongside other companies, managing climate change related risks, investment

7947: 6498: 931: 927: 756: 7615: 7072: 4516: 3039: 1434:(CORSIA) has incorporated guidance from voluntary carbon market standards. It has approved seven such standards as eligible for use by airlines under its program. 759:

in September 2001. It establishes a "comprehensive, global, standardized framework for measuring and managing emissions from private and public sector operations,

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specific methodologies for REDD+ projects. Verra has additional criteria to avoid double counting, as well as requirements for additionality. Negative impacts on

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Project accounting standards and protocols are typically used to ensure the "environmental integrity" of projects designed to reduce GHG emissions and generate

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by publishing point sources of carbon dioxide and methane in near-real-time. Climate Trace has found underreporting of emissions from the oil and gas sector.

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and other industrial GHGs. Monitoring methodologies are more specific than GHG Protocol or ISO 14064, and require the use of continuous monitoring systems,

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Legal requirements provide another type of driver. These are usually created through specific laws on reporting, or within broader environmental programs.

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or regulation, it would not be additional. Various kinds of analyses can help evaluate this aspect of a project, though the results are often subjective.

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Scope 1 covers all direct GHG emissions within a corporate boundary (owned or controlled by a company). It includes fuel combustion, company vehicles and

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Many of today's carbon accounting standards have incorporated principles from the 2006 guidelines for greenhouse gas inventories that were created by the

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Several principles help ensure the environmental integrity of carbon offset projects that rely on this family of standards. One key principle is

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Meinrenken, Christoph J.; Chen, Daniel; Esparza, Ricardo A.; Iyer, Venkat; Paridis, Sally P.; Prasad, Aruna; Whillas, Erika (10 April 2020).

3257:"ISO 14064-3:2006 - Greenhouse gases -- Part 3: Specification with guidance for the validation and verification of greenhouse gas assertions" 1057: 8756: 6956: 2126:

Corporate Greenhouse Gas Emission Reporting: A Stocktaking of Government Schemes", OECD Working Papers on International Investment, 2012/01

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collects data from a large number of publicly available data sources for the United States such as pollution reporting, energy statistics,

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markets also depend on accounting and reporting protocols. In 2015 more than 40 countries had some type of reporting requirement in place.

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of entire nations. They require measurements, calculations and estimates. A variety of standards and guidelines can apply, including the

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Mueller, K. L.; Lauvaux, T.; Gurney, K. R.; Roest, G.; Ghosh, S.; Gourdji, S. M.; Karion, A.; DeCola, P.; Whetstone, J. (20 July 2021).

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These standards typically cover the greenhouse gases first regulated under the Kyoto Protocol. They operate in two distinct manners.

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agencies have developed guidance on how to engage with suppliers, including basic questionnaires about Scope 1, 2 and 3 emissions.

181: 844:. It is intended to make EU countries carbon neutral by 2050. This directive will require many large companies and companies with 697:

Initial efforts to create greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting methods were largely at the national level. In 1995, the United Nations

8470: 7675: 7464: 6622: 1608: 878: 857: 770:(CDP) began in the UK in 2002, and is now a multinational group, with thousands of companies disclosing their GHG emissions. The 512: 4363:"Creative accounting: A critical perspective on the market-based method for reporting purchased electricity (scope 2) emissions" 2939: 8750: 8310: 8192: 8162: 7324: 7287: 7141: 7126: 7035: 6684: 6628: 4707: 1518: 1272: 1201: 887: 322: 3286: 2895: 1947: 1218:

Projects are also judged based on the permanence of reductions over various time horizons. This is important in areas such as

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about a third of suppliers reporting to CDP as part of their Global Supply Chain program describe specific climate targets.

1064:(such as wood or landfill gas); and (2) other emissions from industrial processes, such as chemical reactions from iron and 8005: 6951: 6946: 4647:"CDP reports record number of disclosures and unveils new strategy to help further tackle climate and ecological emergency" 1132: 6225: 6011:

Gurney, Kevin Robert; Liang, Jianming; Roest, Geoffrey; Song, Yang; Mueller, Kimberly; Lauvaux, Thomas (2 February 2021).

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Gurney, Kevin Robert; Liang, Jianming; Roest, Geoffrey; Song, Yang; Mueller, Kimberly; Lauvaux, Thomas (2 February 2021).

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Zero program in 2021 to assist organizations in making this transition. That standard includes restrictions on the use of

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community. These consumption-based estimates can often be much greater than those from sources solely within a community.

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reporting of GHG emissions from large industrial facilities. The program covers a total of 41 industrial categories.

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Downar, Benedikt; Ernstberger, Jürgen; Reichelstein, Stefan; Schwenen, Sebastian; Zaklan, Aleksandar (1 September 2021).

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The CDP (formerly the Carbon Disclosure Project) is an international NGO that helps companies and cities disclose their

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some cases, aggregated facility level data can also be used to update or modify inventory results for certain sectors.

1072:. Categories of suppliers that must report include coal and natural gas, petroleum products, as well as suppliers of CO 670: 342: 159: 2234: 8200: 7842: 7718: 7535: 6728: 5512: 2108: 229: 64:(GHG) an organization emits. It can also be used to track projects or actions to reduce emissions in sectors such as 17: 4728:"Hilcorp Energy, Exxon Mobil and ConocoPhillips release the most greenhouse gasses among U.S. oil and gas companies" 4229:. Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh. pp. 25–26. 2542: 701:

required developed countries to report annually on their emissions from six types of industry. Two years later, the

8215: 8075: 7713: 7693: 7640: 7592: 6644: 6388: 5946:

Gurney, Kevin R.; Liang, Jianming; Patarasuk, Risa; Song, Yang; Huang, Jianhua; Roest, Geoffrey (16 October 2020).

3153:"New ISO 14064 standards provide tools for assessing and supporting greenhouse gas reduction and emissions trading" 3126: 912: 877:

in various countries also play a role in promoting GHG accounting, as do international carbon offset programs. The

771: 657: 6265: 5140: 2748:"The most important GHG accounting concept you may not have heard of: the attributional-consequential distinction" 2311:"Federal Supplier Climate Risks and Resilience Proposed Rule | Office of the Federal Chief Sustainability Officer" 2310: 1310:

In addition to the uses described above, GHG accounting is used in other settings, both regulatory and voluntary.

8792: 8446: 8442: 8424: 8353: 8170: 7832: 7783: 7209: 7171: 7116: 6576: 6368: 808:

companies reported Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions. Globally, over 22,000 companies disclosed data to CDP in 2022.

550: 132:

includes other indirect emissions, such as those from suppliers and from the use of the organization’s products.

84: 6458: 4209:. Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh. p. 28. 8739: 8696: 8691: 8184: 8095: 7900: 7184: 6931: 5713: 5688: 5081:"The Real Effects of Mandatory CSR Disclosure on Emissions: Evidence from the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program" 3013: 2517: 2415:

Innovation Fund (InnovFund) Call for proposals - Annex C: Methodology for calculation of GHG emission avoidance

1999: 595: 5857: 782:(UNGC). Its goal is to establish science-based environmental target setting as a standard corporate practice. 766:

Other initiatives since then have helped promote corporate and community participation in GHG accounting. The

8686: 8300: 8010: 7545: 7077: 4387: 1287: 779: 580: 6478: 3160: 1650:"The Basics of Carbon Markets and Trends: Something to Keep an Eye On | CSANR | Washington State University" 804:

Participation in greenhouse gas accounting and reporting has grown significantly over time. In 2020, 81% of

8782: 8631: 8118: 7993: 7665: 7194: 7189: 7094: 6961: 6518: 6354:(Report). Helsinki: Nordic Initiative for Cooperative Approaches (NICA) and Perspectives Climate Group Gmbh 5574: 4100: 2653:

Rypdahl, Kristin; Paciornik, N.; Eggleston, S.; Goodwin, J.; Irving, W.; Penman, J.; Woodfield, M. (2006).

2103:. USA: World Resources Institute and World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 2004. p. 11. 1223: 49:

into three categories: Scope 1, 2, and 3. Additional downstream Scope 3 sources are shown on WRI’s website.

3195: 2833: 8661: 8554: 8517: 8491: 8394: 7204: 7047: 3805:"Carbon emissions embodied in product value chains and the role of Life Cycle Assessment in curbing them" 1696: 1598: 1478:

are expected to have a larger share of this market in the future, compared to renewable energy projects.

585: 347: 4591: 8601: 8545: 8479: 8379: 8358: 8063: 7827: 7630: 7587: 7360: 7282: 7136: 3040:"ISSB Votes to Include Scope 3 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission Disclosures in Updates to Draft Standards" 1475: 856:

Recent regulations are also coming from agencies that traditionally have had a financial focus. The US

775: 645: 367: 287: 204: 97: 5548: 4566: 8626: 8475: 8339: 7932: 7607: 7582: 7555: 7517: 7434: 7252: 7099: 7052: 6802: 6571: 6566: 6561: 4709:

Benchmarking Methane and Other GHG Emissions Of Oil & Natural Gas Production in the United States

4411: 1623: 1103: 916: 861: 767: 748: 565: 507: 457: 437: 167: 77: 7447: 6427: 6080:"An emerging GHG estimation approach can help cities achieve their climate and sustainability goals" 5601:"ISSB Announces Working Group and Forum to Coordinate with Country-Specific ESG Reporting Standards" 3931: 2208:"Environmental reporting guidelines: including Streamlined Energy and Carbon Reporting requirements" 8656: 8564: 8527: 8496: 8409: 8363: 8166: 8122: 7942: 7937: 7927: 7868: 7708: 7214: 7179: 7062: 6989: 6830: 6659: 6595: 6556: 3571: 1823: 1618: 1588: 1502:

Techniques are being developed to use other emission data sets to validate GHG accounting methods.

1253: 1197: 953:

allocates emissions to specific organizations or products, and measures and tracks them over time.

755:(WBCSD) began work to develop a protocol to support this goal. They published the first version of 555: 462: 414: 332: 186: 109: 46: 33: 8777: 8711: 8701: 8651: 8295: 8290: 8051: 7973: 7883: 7625: 7597: 7277: 6926: 6904: 6511: 4837: 1649: 1260: 874: 834: 392: 144: 4752: 8705: 8676: 8438: 8245: 7650: 7470: 7412: 7329: 7314: 7199: 6835: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 1007: 517: 492: 402: 382: 352: 307: 234: 219: 6332: 5385: 5301: 1890: 8666: 8465: 8384: 8275: 8240: 8039: 7685: 7562: 7370: 6820: 6743: 5831: 1538: 1152: 1115: 798: 633: 452: 407: 224: 108:

These techniques can be used at different scales, from those of companies and cities, to the

5442:

Single-year mitigation targets: Uncharted territory for emissions trading and unit transfers

4890:"Under Pressure? The Link Between Mandatory Climate Reporting and Firms' Carbon Performance" 4220:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; Espelage, Aglaja (2019).

4200:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; Espelage, Aglaja (2019).

3101: 2661: 143:

are now able to check reports against actual emissions via the use of satellite imagery and

8671: 8606: 8180: 7878: 7756: 7417: 6982: 6909: 6091: 6024: 5959: 4625: 4018: 3816: 3750:

Bhatia, Pankaj; Cummis, Cynthia; Draucker, Laura; Rich, David; Lahd, Holly; Brown, Andrea.

3723:

Bhatia, Pankaj; Cummis, Cynthia; Draucker, Laura; Rich, David; Lahd, Holly; Brown, Andrea.

3693:

Bhatia, Pankaj; Cummis, Cynthia; Draucker, Laura; Rich, David; Lahd, Holly; Brown, Andrea.

3663:

Bhatia, Pankaj; Cummis, Cynthia; Draucker, Laura; Rich, David; Lahd, Holly; Brown, Andrea.

3508: 3342: 2337:"Taking account of carbon reduction plans in the procurement of major government contracts" 1726:"The impact of carbon disclosure mandates on emissions and financial operating performance" 1495: 1491: 1355: 865: 733: 497: 397: 337: 8087: 5400: 4491: 1670: 744:. These actions raised awareness about the importance of accurate GHG emission estimates. 8: 8641: 8591: 8550: 8285: 8158: 7895: 7670: 6894: 6889: 5948:"The Vulcan Version 3.0 High-Resolution Fossil Fuel CO 2 Emissions for the United States" 3995: 3256: 3226: 2466: 1613: 841: 729: 705:

defined the greenhouse gases that are the focus of today's accounting methods. These are

610: 575: 570: 282: 6243: 6095: 6028: 5963: 5814:

VALUE CHAIN (SCOPE 3) INTERVENTIONS – GREENHOUSE GAS ACCOUNTING & REPORTING GUIDANCE

5785: 5773: 4996:"Does GRI reporting impact environmental sustainability? A cross-industry analysis of CO 3820: 3512: 2931: 8729: 8501: 8429: 8334: 8280: 7723: 7655: 7572: 7422: 7387: 7344: 7339: 7334: 6899: 6347:

Michaelowa, Axel; Shishlov, Igor; Hoch, Stephan; Bofill, Patricio; et al. (2019).

6300: 6055: 6012: 5988: 5947: 5517: 5245:"Trends Show Companies Are Ready for Scope 3 Reporting with US Climate Disclosure Rule" 5243:

Lloyd, Shannon M.; Hadziosmanovic, Maida; Rahimi, Kian; Bhatia, Pankaj (24 June 2022).

5225: 5058: 5038: 4976: 4030: 3845: 3804: 3552: 3539: 3496: 2777: 2716: 2492:"A Comparison of Carbon Offset Standards - Making Sense of the Voluntary Carbon Market" 1765: 1566: 1443: 1341: 1003: 845: 605: 545: 502: 377: 254: 197: 92: 45:

Depiction of carbon accounting using the WRI-Greenhouse Gas Protocol classification of

6325:

56 UC Davis Law Review, No. 1, UCLA School of Law, Public Law Research Paper No. 22-11

5549:"REDD+ ALERT: Are nature-based carbon offsets part of the climate problem? | Greenbiz" 4249:. Greenhouse Gas Management Institute and Stockholm Environmental Institute. p. 5 4175: 3573:

PAS 2070:2013 - Specification for the assessment of greenhouse gas emissions of a city

2388: 2036:"Emerging EU ESG Requirements: Transatlantic Implications for Multinational Companies" 8725: 8681: 8349: 8319: 8265: 8144: 7957: 7620: 7365: 7131: 6914: 6877: 6618: 6328: 6184:

Broekhoff, Derik; Gillenwater, Michael; Colbert-Sangree, Tani; Cage, Patrick (2019).

6109: 6060: 6042: 5993: 5975: 5522: 5381: 5297: 5229: 5217: 5107:

Climate Change Disclosure in G20 Countries-Stocktaking of corporate reporting schemes

5062: 5019: 4968: 4960: 4921: 4888:

Bauckloh, Tobias; Klein, Christian; Pioch, Thomas; Schiemann, Frank (29 March 2022).

4864:

Climate Change Disclosure in G20 Countries-Stocktaking of corporate reporting schemes

4760: 4413:

EXPLORING LINKAGES BETWEEN NATIONAL AND CORPORATE/FACILITY GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORIES

4392: 4343: 4243:

Frequently Asked Questions:Green Power Purchasing Claims and Greenhouse Gas Accountng

4049: 3932:

A Comparison of Carbon Offset Standards - Making Sense of the Voluntary Carbon Market

3850: 3832: 3580: 3556: 3544: 3526: 2904: 2781: 2769: 2720: 2708: 2182:"SECR explained: Streamlined Energy & Carbon Reporting framework for UK business" 2149:

Climate Change Disclosure in G20 Countries-Stocktaking of corporate reporting schemes

2104: 2007: 1769: 1757: 1263:

in the local community are prohibited. Project monitoring is based on CDM standards.

1212: 1044: 1040: 979: 957:

methods measure the difference from a specific change, like a GHG reduction project.

899:(REDD+) program. As of 2022, similar procedures to document project reductions under 891: 882: 737: 327: 214: 4980: 4811: 2075: 8230: 8000: 7567: 7550: 7491: 7382: 7146: 6860: 6733: 6669: 6304: 6292: 6191:(Report). Stockholm Environment Institute & Greenhouse Gas Management Institute 6099: 6050: 6032: 5983: 5967: 5207: 5050: 5011: 4952: 4911: 4901: 4382: 4374: 4335: 3840: 3824: 3534: 3516: 2759: 2698: 2261:"Deep Dive: GHG Reporting Under the SEC's Proposed Climate-Related Disclosure Rule" 2129: 1747: 1737: 1593: 1061: 600: 372: 244: 102: 69: 5627:"Navigating the ESG landscape: Comparison of the "Big Three" Disclosure Proposals" 2764: 2747: 2703: 2686: 1824:"Al Gore helped launch a global emissions tracker that keeps big polluters honest" 8399: 8329: 8235: 8205: 8154: 8149: 8133: 7952: 7873: 7837: 7766: 7740: 7728: 7645: 7577: 7452: 7309: 6921: 6872: 6850: 6367:

Ranganathan, J.; Corbier, L.; Bhatia, P.; Schmitz, S.; et al. (March 2004).

5372:

Caro, Felipe; Corbett, Charles J.; Tan, Tarkan; Zuidwijk, Rob (12 October 2011).

5288:

Caro, Felipe; Corbett, Charles J.; Tan, Tarkan; Zuidwijk, Rob (12 October 2011).

4838:"Only 100 Corporations Responsible For Most of World's Greenhouse Gas Emissions?" 4753:"Carbon emissions report says 100 companies to blame for 71% of greenhouse gases" 3204: 1921: 1286:

measurements are depth sensitive). The program's focus includes the promotion of

1111: 1106:. TCFD's disclosure standard for companies covers four thematic areas. These are 1081: 999: 840:

The EU's Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) is part of the

786: 447: 442: 432: 302: 6264:

Fong, Wee Kean; Sotos, Mary; Doust, Michael; Schultz, Seth; et al. (2021).

4378: 4339: 3197:

ISO 14064, International Standard for GHG Emissions Inventories and Verification

2128:. OECD Working Papers on International Investment. OECD Publishing. p. 27. 8270: 8125: 7905: 7761: 7703: 7698: 7540: 7429: 7161: 7156: 7151: 6999: 6936: 6674: 6654: 6613: 6534: 6453: 6104: 6079: 6037: 5922:"A New Generation of Satellites Is Helping Authorities Track Methane Emissions" 4268: 3828: 3521: 1742: 1725: 1552: 1507: 1503: 1348: 790: 706: 702: 590: 540: 387: 357: 312: 209: 176: 61: 4906: 4889: 4362: 4323: 3469: 3437: 3410: 1298: 8771: 8616: 7978: 7910: 7635: 7457: 7442: 7377: 7272: 6113: 6046: 5979: 5526: 5264:"Many Companies Inaccurately Estimate the Climate Benefits of Their Products" 5221: 5023: 5015: 4964: 4925: 4764: 4396: 4347: 3836: 3530: 2773: 2712: 2440: 2011: 1761: 1580: 1560: 1514: 1279: 1219: 1208: 1193: 1183: 1179: 1069: 822: 725: 560: 522: 239: 140: 136: 65: 6366: 6155:"Oil and gas greenhouse emissions 'three times higher' than producers claim" 6129:"The entire world's carbon emissions will finally be trackable in real time" 5456:"Carbon offsets used by major airlines based on flawed system, warn experts" 4298:"Renewable Energy Credits Allow Companies to Overstate Emissions Reductions" 2881: 2869: 2857: 2733: 2133: 1809: 8596: 8210: 7863: 7660: 7304: 7294: 6941: 6825: 6738: 6409:

Addressing the risk of double counting emission reductions under the UNFCCC

6320: 6296: 6064: 5997: 5513:"Do Airline Climate Offsets Really Work? Here's the Good News, and the Bad" 5373: 5289: 4995: 4972: 4541: 4150: 3854: 3751: 3724: 3694: 3548: 1442:

There is also an increased focus on aligning GHG accounting standards with

1282:/reforestation, and agriculture (the latter can be difficult - for example 1102:(TCFD) provides information to investors about what companies are doing to 1077: 1036: 987: 741: 480: 297: 88: 73: 41: 6386: 4956: 4151:"carbonfootprint.com - Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) - Carbon Offsetting" 4036: 4024: 1486: 124:

category includes the direct emissions from an organization's facilities.

8220: 8175: 7890: 7407: 7399: 6649: 5971: 4361:

Brander, Matthew; Gillenwater, Michael; Ascui, Francisco (January 2018).

1498:

are free, and can help validate organisations' carbon accounting results.

1283: 1065: 760: 487: 249: 5000:

emissions performance between GRI-reporting and non-reporting companies"

4940: 4916: 4786:"Just 100 companies responsible for 71% of global emissions, study says" 4125: 2000:"The S.E.C. moves closer to enacting a sweeping climate disclosure rule" 1752: 8560: 8344: 7922: 7299: 5212: 5195: 1107: 805: 362: 292: 259: 6278:"Private Standards in the Climate Regime: The Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 6224:

Kizzier, K.; Hanafi, A.; Ogata, C.; Kellyand, A.; et al. (2021).

5440:

Kollmuss, Anja; Lazarus, Michael; Schneider, Lambert (17 March 2014).

3315:"Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program: Emission Calculation Methodologies" 1087: 8646: 8570: 8460: 8455: 8374: 8369: 8250: 6867: 5079:

Yang, Lavender; Muller, Nicholas; Liang, Pierre (16 September 2021).

5054: 1723: 1303: 1019: 117: 6226:

Trends in the Voluntary Carbon Markets: Where We Are and What's Next

4994:

Belkhir, Lotfi; Bernard, Sneha; Abdelgadir, Samih (1 January 2017).

1948:"SBTi Says 80% of Company Climate Commitments are not Science-Based" 8621: 8611: 3779:"ISO 14067 - What is it and why is it useful for carbon footprint?" 2932:"Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3) Accounting and Reporting Standard" 2593: 1922:"CDP reporting: What it is, how it creates value, and how to start" 1238: 4706:

Curry, Tom; Hellgren, Luke; Russell, Pye; Fraioli, Sierra (2022).

3380: 3378: 3376: 2642:. Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures. 2021. P 15. 1974:"Market Developments Around Climate-Related Financial Disclosures" 128:

includes the emissions from energy purchased by the organization.

6845: 6503: 6387:

Rich, D.; Bhatia, P.; Finnegan, J.; Levin, K.; Mitra, A. (2004).

4599:. 1.0. Science Based Targets Initiative. October 2021. p. 29 4074:

Rich, D.; Bhatia, P.; Finnegan, J.; Levin, K.; Mitra, A. (2014).

1805: 1803: 1801: 1574: 1432:

Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation

714: 29:

Processes used to measure emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents

6426: 5819:(Report) (Version 1.1 ed.). Gold Standard. 2021. p. 7. 5749: 5625:

Ohl, Andreas; Horn, Heather; Wieman, Valerie (10 October 2022).

2652: 2617: 8389: 8260: 7858: 5317:"Carbon Compass: Investor guide to carbon footprinting – IIGCC" 5242: 3373: 1039:

is a standard that describes how organizations can demonstrate

774:(SBTi) formed in 2015 as a collaboration between CDP, WRI, the 120:. These usually group the emissions into three categories. The 6473: 6468: 6266:

Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Inventories

6203: 5761: 5737: 5714:"ISO 14068 - Greenhouse Gas Management and Related Activities" 5689:"ISO 14068 - Greenhouse Gas Management and Related Activities" 5194:

Busch, Timo; Johnson, Matthew; Pioch, Thomas (February 2022).

4467:"Net zero: the story of the target that will shape our future" 4440:"Plenary of 2017 International Emissions Inventory Conference" 2962:"Aramco's Net-Zero Plan Will Have Net-Zero Impact Before 2035" 2168:"A Global Look at Mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Programs" 1798: 8537: 7772:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

6855: 6433:(Report). 5.0. Science Based Targets Initiative. October 2021 5786:

EPA Emerging Trends in Supply Chain Emissions Engagement 2018

5774:

EPA Emerging Trends in Supply Chain Emissions Engagement 2018

4409: 4239: 2988:

CDP Technical Note: Relevance of Scope 3 Categories by Sector

1604:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

6349:

Overview and Comparison of Existing Carbon Crediting Cchemes

6013:"Under-reporting of greenhouse gas emissions in U.S. cities" 5483:"The Climate Solution Actually Adding Millions of Tons of CO 4410:

Singh, N.; Damassa, T.; Alarcon-Diaz, S.; Sotos, M. (2014).

4223:

Overview and comparison of existing carbon crediting schemes

4219: 4203:

Overview and comparison of existing carbon crediting schemes

4199: 3497:"Under-reporting of greenhouse gas emissions in U.S. cities" 2666:. International Panel on Climate Change. pp. 1.7 to 1.8 2663:

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

2286:"Japan to require 4,000 companies to disclose climate risks" 2123: 1188:

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

897:

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

848:

listed on EU-regulated markets to disclose a broad array of

8225: 8117: 6463: 5117: 4887: 4705: 4687: 4324:"Redefining RECs—Part 1: Untangling attributes and offsets" 2389:"What is an Emissions Trading Scheme and How Does It Work?" 1416: 6176: 4269:"Renewable Electricity: How do you know you are using it?" 3639:"Product Carbon Footprint standards: which one to choose?" 2788: 2235:"Learn About the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP)" 60:) is a framework of methods to measure and track how much 8522: 7948:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

6186:

Securing Climate Benefit: A Guide to Using Carbon Offsets

6077: 5573:

Myers, J.E.; Parra, M.A.; Bedford, C. (9 November 2021).

3802: 2058: 2056: 1494:, helps detect methane leaks. Data from sources like the 1367:

particular use of disclosure was shown to be misleading.

906: 6369:

GHG Protocol Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard

5945: 5444:(Report). SEI Working Papers. Working Paper No. 2014-01. 5439: 4993: 2518:"Measuring, Reporting and Verifying (MRV) REDD+ results" 1858: 1856: 6263: 5664:"SBTi launches world-first net-zero corporate standard" 4360: 4176:"Depth matters for soil carbon accounting – CarbonPlan" 4073: 3966: 3964: 3930:

Kollmus, Anja; Zink, Helge; Polycarp, Clifford (2008).

3396: 3384: 3367: 1051: 960: 76:, cities and other groups use these techniques to help 5371: 5287: 4240:

Benchimol, A.; Gillenwater, G.; Broekhoff, D. (2022).

3175: 3127:"Standards Update Process: Frequently Asked Questions" 3066:"Technical Guidance for Calculating Scope 3 Emissions" 2053: 1629:

Regulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act

7789:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

6231:(Report). Environmental Defense Fund and ENGIE Impact 5856:

Belletti, Elena; Schelble, Rachel (8 February 2022).

3570:

Wiltshire, Jeremy; Doust, Michael (2013). "Preview".

3014:"Reported Emission Footprints: The Challenge is Real" 1853: 6246:

Emerging Trends in Supply Chain Emissions Engagement

6010: 5631:

The Harvard Law School Forum on Corporate Governance

5085:

The Harvard Law School Forum on Corporate Governance

4076:

Greenhouse Gas Protocol - Policy and Action Standard

3961: 3749: 3722: 3692: 3662: 3494: 3287:"PAS 2060: The ideal standard for carbon neutrality" 2993:(Report). Carbon Disclosure Project. 2022. p. 6 1528: 1481: 1335: 5141:"Scope 3 Carbon Emissions: Seeing the Full Picture" 3929: 2687:"Examining the impact of GHG accounting principles" 2030: 2028: 1490:SeaStar satellite. Similar satellites, such as the 1247: 1122: 1100:

Task Force on Climate Related Financial Disclosures

1094:

Task Force on Climate Related Financial Disclosures

1088:

Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures

921:

Task Force on Climate Related Financial Disclosures

795:

Task Force on Climate Related Financial Disclosures

789:there has been an increased focus on standards for 83:The main reasons for GHG accounting are to address 3636: 3193: 2640:Guidance on Metrics, Targets, and Transition Plans 2166:Singh, Neelam; Longendyke, Lindsey (27 May 2015). 2124:Kauffmann, C; Tébar Less, C; Teichmann, D (2012). 1998:Goldstein, Matthew; Eavis, Peter (21 March 2022). 753:World Business Council for Sustainable Development 6407:Schneider, L.; Kollmuss, A.; Lazarus, M. (2014). 5575:"How Carbon Offsetting Can Build a Forest (SSIR)" 5572: 5374:"Carbon-Optimal and Carbon-Neutral Supply Chains" 5290:"Carbon-Optimal and Carbon-Neutral Supply Chains" 5193: 5170:"The Biggest Polluters Are Hiding in Plain Sight" 5168:Fickling, David; He, Elaine (30 September 2020). 4669:CDP Technical Note: Reporting on Transition Plans 4388:20.500.11820/d8211c17-9a4a-4459-b3fa-35fde7452a71 2882:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Corporate Accounting 2004 2870:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Corporate Accounting 2004 2858:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Corporate Accounting 2004 2734:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Corporate Accounting 2004 2655:"Chapter 1 - Introduction to the 2006 Guidelines" 1810:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Corporate Accounting 2004 1326: 91:of companies they invest in. They also help with 8769: 7989:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5855: 5037:Haque, Faizul; Ntim, Collins G (December 2017). 4939:Fung, Archon; O'rourke, Dara (1 February 2000). 4938: 3602:The Future of Urban Consumption in a 1.5°C World 2025: 1239:GHG Protocol standards for projects and policies 8637:Environmental, social, and corporate governance 5423: 5421: 5196:"Corporate carbon performance data: Quo vadis?" 5078: 4037:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Project Accounting 2004 4025:Greenhouse Gas Protocol Project Accounting 2004 3637:De Schryver, An; Zampori, Luca (January 2022). 3608:. C40 Cities. 2019. fig.3, p.40. Archived from 2165: 1173: 1146: 6454:Business Leadership Criteria on Carbon Pricing 5796: 5794: 5261: 3569: 2441:"Corporate Standard - Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 1997: 1026:International Organization for Standardization 8103: 6724:History of climate change policy and politics 6519: 5624: 2258: 1517:is an independent organization that improves 1450: 1437: 1058:United States Environmental Protection Agency 678: 5952:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 5919: 5418: 5347:"CDP Climate Change 2021 Reporting Guidance" 5163: 5161: 4050:"Project Protocol - Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 2808:"CDP Climate Change 2021 Reporting Guidance" 2568:"CDP Climate Change 2021 Reporting Guidance" 1519:monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) 1447:original net neutrality standard, PAS 2060. 992:International Sustainability Standards Board 828: 6841:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 6206:Engaging the Chain: Driving Speed and Scale 5883:"Carbon credits: Scaling voluntary markets" 5791: 4321: 2684: 1463: 1313: 937: 816: 8110: 8096: 8070: 8058: 7515: 6526: 6512: 5262:Russell, S.; Akopian, Y. (12 March 2019). 5167: 3752:"Product Standard Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 3725:"Product Standard Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 3695:"Product Standard Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 3665:"Product Standard Greenhouse Gas Protocol" 3205:16th Annual Emissions Inventory Conference 969: 685: 671: 652: 640: 7810: 7616:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 6749:United Nations Climate Change conferences 6183: 6103: 6054: 6036: 5987: 5858:"Voluntary carbon markets: here to stay?" 5211: 5158: 5036: 4915: 4905: 4386: 3970: 3955: 3844: 3718: 3716: 3538: 3520: 2763: 2702: 1751: 1741: 944:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 7320:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 5599:LLP, Latham & Watkins (9 May 2022). 4725: 3343:"EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program" 2903:. World Resources Institute. p. 6. 2543:"Article 6 and Voluntary Carbon Markets" 1485: 1417:Standards alignment and interoperability 1297: 1222:. They should also be designed to avoid 934:in its recommended metrics and targets. 40: 8471:Pollutant release and transfer register 7676:National Adaptation Programme of Action 7465:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 6389:The GHG Protocol for Project Accounting 6318: 6177:Other books, reports and journals cited 6126: 5546: 5314: 5123: 4693: 4419:. World Resources Institute. p. 11 2794: 2745: 2685:Gillenwater, Michael (2 January 2022). 2471:Center for Climate and Energy Solutions 2421:. European Commission. 2021. p. 29 2062: 1862: 1784:"Briefing: What are Scope 3 emissions?" 1609:European Union Emissions Trading System 1306:system boundaries for carbon accounting 879:European Union Emissions Trading System 513:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 14: 8770: 7325:Economics of climate change mitigation 7288:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 6801: 6629:Scientific consensus on climate change 6321:"Corporate Greenhouse Gas Disclosures" 6152: 5920:Magazine, Smithsonian; Morrison, Jim. 5829: 5480: 5398: 5134: 5132: 5074: 5072: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4437: 3713: 3579:. 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The 556:Corporate sustainability 463:Sustainability reporting 415:Verified Carbon Standard 333:Environmental accounting 187:Greenhouse gas emissions 34:Greenhouse gas inventory 8712:Supply chain management 8652:Global justice movement 8451:profit-and-loss account 7974:Climate change scenario 7626:Disaster risk reduction 7278:Carbon emission trading 7088:U.S. insurance industry 7058:Civilizational collapse 6905:sea surface temperature 6276:Green, Jessica (2010). 5268:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 4715:. Clean Air Task Force. 4542:"The Net-Zero Standard" 4155:www.carbonfootprint.com 3672:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 3470:"US Community Protocol" 3438:"US Community Protocol" 3411:"US Community Protocol" 3106:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 3073:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 2936:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 2598:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 2134:10.1787/5k97g3x674lq-en 2040:The National Law Review 1261:sustainable development 970:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 932:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 928:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 757:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 427:Frameworks and treaties 114:Greenhouse Gas Protocol 8793:Management cybernetics 8677:SDG Publishers Compact 8439:Environmental conflict 8246:Organizational justice 7967:Research and modelling 7651:Nature-based solutions 7471:Nature-based solutions 7413:Carbon dioxide removal 7330:Fossil fuel divestment 7315:Climate risk insurance 7225:Small island countries 6836:Arctic sea ice decline 6499:Energy and environment 6297:10.2202/1469-3569.1318 4675:. CDP. 2022. p. 6 2838:climate-pact.europa.eu 2315:www.sustainability.gov 1499: 1307: 799:insurance underwriters 518:Nature-based solutions 493:Carbon dioxide removal 383:Public interest design 353:Fossil fuel divestment 308:Climate risk insurance 235:Low-carbon electricity 220:Fossil fuel divestment 50: 8667:Product certification 8466:Life-cycle assessment 8385:Performance indicator 8276:Social responsibility 8241:Organizational ethics 8171:social responsibility 7928:Earth's energy budget 7811:Background and theory 7699:Climate crisis (term) 7371:Fossil fuel phase-out 7265:Economics and finance 7230:by individual country 7172:By country and region 7147:Security and conflict 7142:Psychological impacts 6821:Abrupt climate change 6744:Charles David Keeling 6577:By country and region 6285:Business and Politics 6017:Nature Communications 5958:(19): e2020JD032974. 5668:Science Based Targets 5481:Temple, L.; Song, J. 4957:10.1007/s002679910009 4546:Science Based Targets 4496:Science Based Targets 3501:Nature Communications 2736:, pp. 56, 65, 76 1539:Climate change portal 1489: 1340:Further information: 1301: 1153:Life cycle assessment 1098:Created in 2015, the 453:Social responsibility 225:Fossil fuel phase-out 85:social responsibility 44: 8672:Public participation 8607:Conflict of interest 8197:inequality in the UK 8189:in the United States 8181:Environmental racism 7757:Glasgow Climate Pact 7418:Carbon sequestration 6983:Mass mortality event 5972:10.1029/2020JD032974 5926:Smithsonian Magazine 5487:Into the Atmosphere" 2894:Sotos, Mary (2015). 1496:Copernicus Programme 1356:environmental impact 866:Tokyo Stock Exchange 734:nitrogen trifluoride 498:Carbon sequestration 338:Environmental design 230:Fossil fuel vehicles 78:limit climate change 8783:Types of accounting 8642:Ethical consumerism 8592:Benefit corporation 8484:metrics and indices 8286:Sullivan principles 8201:injustice in Europe 7896:Climate sensitivity 7671:The Adaptation Fund 7127:Infectious diseases 7024:Social and economic 6096:2021ERL....16h4003M 6029:2021NatCo..12..553G 5964:2020JGRD..12532974G 5126:, pp. 460–462. 4696:, pp. 450–452. 4302:Scientific American 4002:. 9 December 2015. 3910:Carbon Offset Guide 3885:Carbon Offset Guide 3821:2020NatSR..10.6184M 3513:2021NatCo..12..553G 3263:. 9 December 2015. 2797:, pp. 425–433. 1697:"Carbon Accounting" 1614:Flexible Mechanisms 986:use of oil sold by 842:European Green Deal 730:sulfur hexafluoride 576:Ethical consumerism 571:Energy conservation 283:Building insulation 8730:Environment portal 8502:Triple bottom line 8430:Emission inventory 8335:Double bottom line 8281:Stakeholder theory 7467:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 7439:Forest management 7423:Direct air capture 7388:Sustainable energy 7345:Net zero emissions 7340:Low-carbon economy 7335:Green Climate Fund 7122:Indigenous peoples 7015:Plant biodiversity 6803:Effects and issues 5518:The New York Times 5213:10.1111/jiec.13008 4812:"A List companies" 3809:Scientific Reports 3643:PRé Sustainability 3207:. Raleigh, NC: EPA 2076:"A List companies" 2004:The New York Times 1786:. 25 February 2019 1567:Environment portal 1500: 1342:Net zero emissions 1308: 1294:Other applications 1158:Product Standard. 980:fugitive emissions 738:hydrofluorocarbons 596:Consumer behaviour 546:Conscious business 503:Direct air capture 378:Low-carbon economy 255:Sustainable energy 51: 8765: 8764: 8682:Social enterprise 8587:Bangladesh Accord 8447:management system 8443:impact assessment 8420:Carbon accounting 8350:Impact assessment 8301:UN Global Compact 8193:in Western Europe 8145:Aarhus Convention 8085: 8084: 8023: 8022: 8019: 8018: 7958:Radiative forcing 7801: 7800: 7797: 7796: 7621:Adaptive capacity 7506: 7505: 7502: 7501: 7366:Energy transition 7242: 7241: 7238: 7237: 6952:Tropical cyclones 6878:Urban heat island 6792: 6791: 6704: 6703: 6700: 6699: 6665:Carbon accounting 6619:Greenhouse effect 6585: 6584: 5889:. 29 January 2021 5401:"Double Counting" 5388:– via SSRN. 5304:– via SSRN. 4471:Climate Home News 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6542: 6528: 6521: 6514: 6505: 6504: 6479:Carbon Reporting 6474:The Carbon Trust 6469:The GHG Protocol 6442: 6440: 6438: 6432: 6423: 6421: 6419: 6413: 6403: 6401: 6399: 6393: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6373: 6363: 6361: 6359: 6353: 6343: 6341: 6339: 6315: 6313: 6311: 6282: 6272: 6270: 6260: 6258: 6256: 6250: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6216: 6210: 6200: 6198: 6196: 6190: 6170: 6169: 6167: 6165: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6124: 6118: 6117: 6107: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6058: 6040: 6008: 6002: 6001: 5991: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5917: 5911: 5905: 5899: 5898: 5896: 5894: 5879: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5868: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5827: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5810: 5804: 5798: 5789: 5788:, pp. 21–22 5783: 5777: 5776:, pp. 17–18 5771: 5765: 5759: 5753: 5747: 5741: 5735: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5596: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5544: 5538: 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1834: 1819: 1813: 1807: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1791: 1780: 1774: 1773: 1755: 1745: 1736:(3): 1137–1175. 1721: 1712: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1693: 1687: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1645: 1594:Carbon footprint 1583: 1578: 1577: 1569: 1564: 1563: 1555: 1550: 1549: 1548: 1541: 1536: 1535: 1534: 1230:ISO 14064 Part 2 742:perfluorocarbons 723: 687: 680: 673: 655: 654: 643: 642: 636: 632: 631: 630: 373:Impact investing 245:Renewable energy 155: 154: 103:carbon footprint 70:renewable energy 21: 8808: 8807: 8803: 8802: 8801: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8768: 8767: 8766: 8761: 8716: 8575: 8532: 8506: 8411: 8404: 8400:Whole-life cost 8330:Corporate crime 8321: 8314: 8305: 8236:Loss and damage 8206:Ethical banking 8150:Climate justice 8137: 8128: 8116: 8086: 8081: 8034: 8032: 8015: 7962: 7953:Orbital forcing 7847: 7812: 7793: 7767:Paris Agreement 7745: 7741:Warming stripes 7680: 7646:Managed retreat 7641:Loss and damage 7602: 7536:Business action 7520: 7498: 7475: 7398: 7392: 7349: 7310:Climate finance 7255: 7234: 7166: 7019: 6995:Extinction risk 6971:Flora and fauna 6966: 6927:Permafrost thaw 6922:Ozone depletion 6851:Extreme weather 6805: 6788: 6715: 6696: 6633: 6598: 6581: 6548: 6537: 6532: 6489:EPA Regulations 6450: 6445: 6436: 6434: 6430: 6417: 6415: 6411: 6397: 6395: 6391: 6377: 6375: 6371: 6357: 6355: 6351: 6337: 6335: 6309: 6307: 6280: 6268: 6254: 6252: 6248: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6214: 6212: 6208: 6194: 6192: 6188: 6179: 6174: 6173: 6163: 6161: 6151: 6147: 6137: 6135: 6125: 6121: 6076: 6072: 6009: 6005: 5944: 5940: 5930: 5928: 5918: 5914: 5906: 5902: 5892: 5890: 5881: 5880: 5876: 5866: 5864: 5854: 5850: 5840: 5838: 5828: 5824: 5816: 5812: 5811: 5807: 5799: 5792: 5784: 5780: 5772: 5768: 5760: 5756: 5748: 5744: 5736: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5712: 5711: 5707: 5697: 5695: 5687: 5686: 5682: 5672: 5670: 5662: 5661: 5657: 5649: 5645: 5635: 5633: 5623: 5619: 5609: 5607: 5597: 5593: 5583: 5581: 5571: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5545: 5541: 5531: 5529: 5509: 5505: 5495: 5493: 5486: 5479: 5475: 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Section C.5.2 5345: 5344: 5340: 5330: 5328: 5313: 5309: 5286: 5282: 5272: 5270: 5260: 5256: 5241: 5237: 5192: 5188: 5178: 5176: 5166: 5159: 5149: 5147: 5137: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5089: 5087: 5077: 5070: 5035: 5031: 4999: 4992: 4988: 4937: 4933: 4886: 4875: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4856: 4846: 4844: 4834: 4830: 4820: 4818: 4810: 4809: 4805: 4795: 4793: 4784: 4783: 4779: 4769: 4767: 4751: 4750: 4746: 4736: 4734: 4724: 4720: 4712: 4704: 4700: 4692: 4688: 4678: 4676: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4628: 4621: 4617: 4616: 4612: 4602: 4600: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4575: 4573: 4565: 4564: 4560: 4550: 4548: 4540: 4539: 4535: 4525: 4523: 4515: 4514: 4510: 4500: 4498: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4475: 4473: 4463: 4459: 4449: 4447: 4436: 4432: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4408: 4404: 4359: 4355: 4320: 4316: 4306: 4304: 4296:Camille, Bond. 4294: 4290: 4280: 4278: 4271: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4218: 4214: 4206: 4198: 4194: 4184: 4182: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4159: 4157: 4149: 4148: 4144: 4134: 4132: 4126:"Methodologies" 4124: 4123: 4119: 4109: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4098: 4094: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4072: 4068: 4058: 4056: 4054:ghgprotocol.org 4048: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4009: 4007: 3994: 3993: 3989: 3981: 3977: 3969: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3940: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3924: 3914: 3912: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3889: 3887: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3801: 3797: 3787: 3785: 3775: 3771: 3761: 3759: 3756:ghgprotocol.org 3748: 3744: 3734: 3732: 3729:ghgprotocol.org 3721: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3699:ghgprotocol.org 3691: 3687: 3677: 3675: 3667: 3661: 3657: 3647: 3645: 3635: 3628: 3618: 3616: 3615:on 10 July 2023 3612: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3594: 3587: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3493: 3489: 3479: 3477: 3466: 3457: 3447: 3445: 3434: 3430: 3420: 3418: 3407: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3383: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3352: 3350: 3349:. November 2021 3341: 3340: 3336: 3326: 3324: 3317: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3298: 3296: 3289: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3270: 3268: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3240: 3238: 3225: 3224: 3220: 3210: 3208: 3200: 3192: 3188: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3164: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3136: 3134: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3110: 3108: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3068: 3062: 3058: 3048: 3046: 3036: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3010: 3006: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2981: 2971: 2969: 2960: 2959: 2955: 2945: 2943: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2900: 2892: 2888: 2880: 2876: 2868: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2842: 2840: 2832: 2831: 2827: 2817: 2815: 2814:. Section C.5.2 2806: 2805: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2744: 2740: 2732: 2728: 2683: 2679: 2669: 2667: 2657: 2651: 2647: 2638: 2637: 2624: 2616: 2612: 2602: 2600: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2577: 2575: 2574:. Section C.5.2 2566: 2565: 2561: 2551: 2549: 2541: 2540: 2536: 2526: 2524: 2522:redd.mma.gov.br 2516: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2450: 2448: 2445:ghgprotocol.org 2439: 2438: 2434: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2397: 2395: 2385: 2381: 2371: 2369: 2359: 2355: 2345: 2343: 2333: 2329: 2319: 2317: 2309: 2308: 2304: 2294: 2292: 2284: 2283: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2241: 2231: 2227: 2217: 2215: 2206: 2205: 2201: 2191: 2189: 2188:. 20 April 2019 2180: 2179: 2175: 2164: 2160: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2122: 2118: 2111: 2099: 2098: 2094: 2084: 2082: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2061: 2054: 2044: 2042: 2034: 2033: 2026: 2016: 2014: 1996: 1992: 1982: 1980: 1970: 1966: 1956: 1954: 1944: 1940: 1930: 1928: 1918: 1914: 1904: 1902: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1876: 1869: 1861: 1854: 1850:, pp. 6–11 1846: 1842: 1832: 1830: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1799: 1789: 1787: 1782: 1781: 1777: 1722: 1715: 1705: 1703: 1695: 1694: 1690: 1680: 1678: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1654: 1652: 1646: 1642: 1637: 1579: 1572: 1565: 1558: 1551: 1546: 1544: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1484: 1472: 1466: 1453: 1440: 1419: 1414: 1385: 1364: 1349:carbon removals 1344: 1338: 1329: 1316: 1296: 1275: 1269: 1256: 1250: 1241: 1232: 1224:double-counting 1190: 1176: 1155: 1149: 1125: 1112:risk management 1096: 1090: 1075: 1054: 1034: 1022: 1016: 1000:land use change 972: 963: 940: 923: 911:Main articles: 909: 831: 819: 814: 787:Paris Agreement 785:Since the 2015 778:(WWF), and the 722: 718: 712: 699:climate program 691: 628: 626: 625: 618: 617: 536: 535:Related content 528: 527: 483: 473: 472: 448:Paris Agreement 443:Ethical banking 433:Business ethics 428: 420: 419: 303:Climate finance 278: 270: 269: 200: 153: 37: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8806: 8796: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8778:Carbon finance 8763: 8762: 8760: 8759: 8754: 8742: 8732: 8721: 8718: 8717: 8715: 8714: 8709: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8669: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8589: 8583: 8581: 8577: 8576: 8574: 8573: 8568: 8558: 8548: 8542: 8540: 8534: 8533: 8531: 8530: 8525: 8523:GxP guidelines 8520: 8514: 8512: 8508: 8507: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8453: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8416: 8414: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8361: 8356: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8332: 8326: 8324: 8316: 8315: 8308: 8306: 8304: 8303: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8271:Social justice 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8178: 8173: 8167:responsibility 8152: 8147: 8141: 8139: 8130: 8129: 8126:accountability 8115: 8114: 8107: 8100: 8092: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8079: 8067: 8055: 8043: 8028: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8020: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7997: 7996: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7970: 7968: 7964: 7963: 7961: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7919: 7918: 7908: 7906:Cloud feedback 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7887: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7861: 7855: 7853: 7849: 7848: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7824: 7822: 7814: 7813: 7803: 7802: 7799: 7798: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7764: 7762:Kyoto Protocol 7759: 7753: 7751: 7747: 7746: 7744: 7743: 7738: 7737: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7716: 7714:Media coverage 7711: 7706: 7704:Climate spiral 7701: 7696: 7690: 7688: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7612: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7601: 7600: 7595: 7593:Public opinion 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7559: 7558: 7548: 7543: 7541:Climate action 7538: 7532: 7530: 7522: 7521: 7508: 7507: 7504: 7503: 7500: 7499: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7494: 7483: 7481: 7477: 7476: 7474: 7473: 7468: 7462: 7461: 7460: 7455: 7453:REDD and REDD+ 7450: 7445: 7437: 7432: 7430:Carbon farming 7427: 7426: 7425: 7420: 7410: 7404: 7402: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7363: 7357: 7355: 7351: 7350: 7348: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7291: 7290: 7280: 7275: 7269: 7267: 7257: 7256: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7176: 7174: 7168: 7167: 7165: 7164: 7162:Water security 7159: 7157:Water scarcity 7154: 7152:Urban flooding 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7113: 7112: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7091: 7090: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7044: 7043: 7038: 7027: 7025: 7021: 7020: 7018: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 7000:Forest dieback 6997: 6992: 6987: 6986: 6985: 6974: 6972: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6937:Sea level rise 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6918: 6917: 6912: 6910:stratification 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6882: 6881: 6880: 6875: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6817: 6815: 6807: 6806: 6794: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6720: 6717: 6716: 6706: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6689: 6688: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6675:Carbon leakage 6672: 6667: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6641: 6639: 6635: 6634: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6616: 6614:Climate system 6610: 6608: 6600: 6599: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6539: 6538: 6535:Climate change 6531: 6530: 6523: 6516: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6449: 6448:External links 6446: 6444: 6443: 6424: 6404: 6384: 6364: 6344: 6316: 6273: 6261: 6241: 6221: 6201: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6145: 6119: 6070: 6003: 5938: 5912: 5900: 5874: 5862:Wood Mackenzie 5848: 5822: 5805: 5790: 5778: 5766: 5754: 5742: 5730: 5705: 5680: 5655: 5643: 5617: 5591: 5565: 5539: 5503: 5484: 5473: 5447: 5432: 5417: 5391: 5364: 5338: 5327:on 30 May 2023 5307: 5280: 5254: 5235: 5206:(1): 350–363. 5186: 5157: 5128: 5116: 5097: 5068: 5049:(3): 415–435. 5029: 5010:(2): 138–155. 4997: 4986: 4951:(2): 115–127. 4931: 4873: 4854: 4828: 4803: 4792:. 10 July 2017 4777: 4744: 4718: 4698: 4686: 4659: 4638: 4610: 4583: 4558: 4533: 4508: 4483: 4457: 4430: 4402: 4353: 4314: 4288: 4260: 4232: 4212: 4192: 4180:carbonplan.org 4167: 4142: 4117: 4092: 4066: 4041: 4029: 4017: 3987: 3975: 3971:SEI-GHGMI 2019 3960: 3956:SEI-GHGMI 2019 3948: 3922: 3897: 3872: 3860: 3795: 3777:Gallo, Iciar. 3769: 3742: 3712: 3685: 3655: 3626: 3592: 3585: 3562: 3487: 3455: 3428: 3401: 3389: 3372: 3360: 3334: 3306: 3278: 3248: 3218: 3186: 3174: 3144: 3118: 3093: 3056: 3030: 3004: 2979: 2968:. 21 June 2022 2953: 2923: 2909: 2886: 2874: 2862: 2860:, pp. 8–9 2850: 2834:"GHG Protocol" 2825: 2799: 2787: 2758:(1): 337–339. 2738: 2726: 2697:(1): 550–553. 2677: 2645: 2622: 2610: 2585: 2559: 2534: 2509: 2483: 2458: 2432: 2405: 2379: 2353: 2327: 2302: 2277: 2265:Fox Rothschild 2251: 2225: 2199: 2173: 2158: 2139: 2116: 2109: 2092: 2067: 2065:, p. 409. 2052: 2024: 1990: 1964: 1938: 1926:Conservice ESG 1912: 1882: 1867: 1865:, p. 416. 1852: 1840: 1814: 1797: 1775: 1713: 1688: 1662: 1639: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1632: 1631: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1570: 1556: 1553:Ecology portal 1542: 1526: 1523: 1504:Project Vulcan 1483: 1480: 1470: 1465: 1462: 1452: 1449: 1439: 1436: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1412:Current trends 1410: 1384: 1381: 1363: 1360: 1337: 1334: 1328: 1325: 1315: 1312: 1295: 1292: 1271:Main article: 1268: 1265: 1252:Main article: 1249: 1246: 1240: 1237: 1231: 1228: 1194:carbon offsets 1175: 1172: 1151:Main article: 1148: 1145: 1124: 1121: 1092:Main article: 1089: 1086: 1073: 1070:petrochemicals 1053: 1050: 1033: 1030: 1018:Main article: 1015: 1012: 971: 968: 962: 959: 939: 936: 908: 905: 881:(EU ETS) is a 830: 827: 818: 815: 813: 810: 791:financial risk 720: 710: 707:carbon dioxide 703:Kyoto protocol 693: 692: 690: 689: 682: 675: 667: 664: 663: 662: 661: 649: 637: 620: 619: 616: 615: 614: 613: 608: 603: 598: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 541:Climate action 537: 534: 533: 530: 529: 526: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 484: 479: 478: 475: 474: 471: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 429: 426: 425: 422: 421: 418: 417: 412: 411: 410: 405: 400: 395: 388:Sustainability 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 358:Green building 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 313:Eco-capitalism 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 279: 276: 275: 272: 271: 268: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 210:Coal phase-out 207: 201: 196: 195: 192: 191: 190: 189: 184: 179: 177:Climate change 171: 170: 164: 163: 152: 149: 98:carbon credits 62:greenhouse gas 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8805: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8775: 8773: 8758: 8757:Organizations 8755: 8753: 8752: 8743: 8741: 8733: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8722: 8719: 8713: 8710: 8707: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8617:Disinvestment 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8584: 8582: 8578: 8572: 8569: 8566: 8565:certification 8562: 8559: 8556: 8555:certification 8552: 8551:Environmental 8549: 8547: 8544: 8543: 8541: 8539: 8535: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8515: 8513: 8509: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8413: 8410:Environmental 8407: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8354:environmental 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8325: 8323: 8317: 8312: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8124: 8123:environmental 8120: 8113: 8108: 8106: 8101: 8099: 8094: 8093: 8090: 8078: 8077: 8068: 8066: 8065: 8056: 8054: 8053: 8044: 8042: 8041: 8030: 8029: 8026: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7995: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7979:Climate model 7977: 7975: 7972: 7971: 7969: 7965: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7917: 7914: 7913: 7912: 7911:Cloud forcing 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7866: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7856: 7854: 7850: 7844: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7825: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7808: 7804: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7748: 7742: 7739: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7721: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7686:Communication 7683: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7666:Vulnerability 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7636:Flood control 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7609: 7605: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7513: 7509: 7493: 7490: 7489: 7488: 7485: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7472: 7469: 7466: 7463: 7459: 7458:reforestation 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7443:afforestation 7441: 7440: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7415: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7405: 7403: 7401: 7395: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7378:Nuclear power 7376: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7289: 7286: 7285: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7273:Carbon budget 7271: 7270: 7268: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7249: 7245: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7173: 7169: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7111: 7110:Mental health 7108: 7107: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7089: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7042: 7041:United States 7039: 7037: 7034: 7033: 7032: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7022: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6984: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6976: 6975: 6973: 6969: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6895:deoxygenation 6893: 6891: 6890:acidification 6888: 6887: 6886: 6883: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6866: 6862: 6859: 6858: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6818: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6799: 6795: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6718: 6711: 6707: 6693: 6690: 6686: 6685:from wetlands 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6645:Deforestation 6643: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6630: 6627: 6624: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6611: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6592: 6588: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6554: 6551: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6529: 6524: 6522: 6517: 6515: 6510: 6509: 6506: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6429: 6425: 6414:(Report). SEI 6410: 6405: 6390: 6385: 6370: 6365: 6350: 6345: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6279: 6274: 6267: 6262: 6247: 6242: 6227: 6222: 6207: 6202: 6187: 6182: 6181: 6160: 6156: 6149: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6115: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6090:(8): 084003. 6089: 6085: 6081: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6007: 5999: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5909: 5904: 5888: 5884: 5878: 5863: 5859: 5852: 5837: 5833: 5826: 5815: 5809: 5802: 5797: 5795: 5787: 5782: 5775: 5770: 5763: 5758: 5751: 5746: 5739: 5734: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5694: 5690: 5684: 5669: 5665: 5659: 5652: 5647: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5606: 5602: 5595: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5554: 5550: 5543: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5519: 5514: 5507: 5492: 5488: 5477: 5461: 5457: 5451: 5443: 5436: 5429: 5424: 5422: 5406: 5402: 5395: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5368: 5352: 5348: 5342: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5284: 5269: 5265: 5258: 5250: 5246: 5239: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5190: 5175: 5171: 5164: 5162: 5146: 5142: 5135: 5133: 5125: 5120: 5109: 5108: 5101: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5073: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5033: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4990: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4866: 4865: 4858: 4843: 4839: 4832: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4791: 4787: 4781: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4748: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4711: 4710: 4702: 4695: 4690: 4671: 4670: 4663: 4648: 4642: 4627: 4620: 4614: 4595: 4594: 4587: 4572: 4568: 4562: 4547: 4543: 4537: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4415: 4414: 4406: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4367:Energy Policy 4364: 4357: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4328:Energy Policy 4325: 4318: 4303: 4299: 4292: 4277: 4270: 4264: 4245: 4244: 4236: 4225: 4224: 4216: 4205: 4204: 4196: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4156: 4152: 4146: 4131: 4127: 4121: 4102: 4096: 4077: 4070: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4033: 4026: 4021: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3991: 3984: 3979: 3972: 3967: 3965: 3957: 3952: 3933: 3926: 3911: 3907: 3901: 3886: 3882: 3876: 3869: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3730: 3726: 3719: 3717: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3673: 3666: 3659: 3644: 3640: 3633: 3631: 3611: 3604: 3603: 3596: 3588: 3582: 3575: 3574: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3398: 3393: 3386: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3369: 3364: 3348: 3344: 3338: 3323: 3316: 3310: 3295: 3288: 3282: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3222: 3206: 3199: 3198: 3190: 3183: 3178: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3148: 3133:. 1 June 2023 3132: 3128: 3122: 3107: 3103: 3097: 3078: 3074: 3067: 3060: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3019: 3015: 3008: 2989: 2983: 2967: 2966:Bloomberg.com 2963: 2957: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2927: 2912: 2906: 2899: 2898: 2890: 2883: 2878: 2871: 2866: 2859: 2854: 2839: 2835: 2829: 2813: 2809: 2803: 2796: 2791: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2735: 2730: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2665: 2664: 2656: 2649: 2641: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2619: 2614: 2599: 2595: 2589: 2573: 2569: 2563: 2548: 2544: 2538: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2497: 2496:wwf.panda.org 2493: 2487: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2446: 2442: 2436: 2417: 2416: 2409: 2394: 2390: 2383: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2342: 2338: 2331: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2291: 2287: 2281: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2213: 2209: 2203: 2187: 2183: 2177: 2169: 2162: 2151: 2150: 2143: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2120: 2112: 2110:1-56973-568-9 2106: 2102: 2096: 2081: 2077: 2071: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2041: 2037: 2031: 2029: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1994: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1953: 1949: 1942: 1927: 1923: 1916: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1886: 1879: 1874: 1872: 1864: 1859: 1857: 1849: 1844: 1829: 1825: 1818: 1811: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1785: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1720: 1718: 1702: 1698: 1692: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1651: 1644: 1640: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1581:Energy portal 1576: 1571: 1568: 1562: 1557: 1554: 1543: 1540: 1529: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1515:Climate Trace 1512: 1509: 1505: 1497: 1493: 1488: 1479: 1477: 1461: 1457: 1448: 1445: 1435: 1433: 1427: 1423: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1362:Effectiveness 1359: 1357: 1352: 1350: 1343: 1333: 1324: 1320: 1311: 1305: 1300: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1280:afforestation 1274: 1267:Gold Standard 1264: 1262: 1255: 1245: 1236: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1209:additionality 1205: 1203: 1202:Gold Standard 1199: 1195: 1189: 1185: 1184:Carbon offset 1181: 1180:Carbon credit 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1095: 1085: 1083: 1080:, or default 1079: 1071: 1068:, cement, or 1067: 1063: 1059: 1049: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1029: 1027: 1021: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 996: 993: 989: 983: 981: 976: 967: 958: 956: 952: 947: 945: 935: 933: 929: 922: 918: 914: 904: 902: 898: 893: 892:cap-and-trade 889: 884: 883:cap-and-trade 880: 876: 872: 869: 867: 863: 859: 854: 851: 847: 843: 838: 836: 826: 824: 823:due diligence 809: 807: 802: 800: 796: 792: 788: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 764: 762: 758: 754: 750: 745: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 726:nitrous oxide 716: 708: 704: 700: 688: 683: 681: 676: 674: 669: 668: 666: 665: 660: 659: 650: 648: 647: 638: 635: 624: 623: 622: 621: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 593: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 561:Disinvestment 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 538: 532: 531: 524: 523:Reforestation 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 485: 482: 477: 476: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 430: 424: 423: 416: 413: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 390: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 280: 274: 273: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 240:Nuclear power 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 202: 199: 194: 193: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 173: 172: 169: 166: 165: 161: 157: 156: 148: 146: 145:AI techniques 142: 141:Climate Trace 138: 137:additionality 133: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 106: 104: 99: 94: 90: 89:climate risks 86: 81: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 48: 43: 39: 35: 27: 19: 8749: 8622:Eco-labeling 8597:Child labour 8492:supply chain 8490: / 8486: / 8482: / 8478: / 8449: / 8445: / 8441: / 8437: / 8419: 8211:Ethical code 8199: / 8195: / 8191: / 8187: / 8183: / 8169: / 8165: / 8161: / 8157: / 8074: 8062: 8050: 8031: 7864:Carbon cycle 7821:Measurements 7516:Society and 7400:carbon sinks 7305:Climate debt 7295:Carbon price 7117:Human rights 6942:Season creep 6900:heat content 6826:Anoxic event 6739:James Hansen 6664: 6435:. 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