Seagrass - Knowledge

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the majority of people become more urbanized they are increasingly more disconnected from the natural world. This allows for misconceptions and a lack of understanding of seagrass ecology and its importance. Additionally, it is a challenge to obtain and maintain information on the status and condition of seagrass populations. With many populations across the globe, it is difficult to map the current populations. Another challenge faced in seagrass conservation is the ability to identify threatening activities on a local scale. Also, in an ever growing human population, there is a need to balance the needs of the people while also balancing the needs of the planet. Lastly, it is challenging to generate scientific research to support conservation of seagrass. Limited efforts and resources are dedicated to the study of seagrasses. This is seen in areas such as

8208: 116: 1318: 1805:, which emphasizes the importance and interactions of a microbial host with associated microorganisms and viruses and describes their functioning as a single biological unit, has been investigated and discussed for many model systems, although there is substantial criticism of a concept that defines diverse host-microbe symbioses as a single biological unit. The holobiont and hologenome concepts have evolved since the original definition, and there is no doubt that symbiotic microorganisms are pivotal for the biology and ecology of the host by providing vitamins, energy and inorganic or organic nutrients, participating in defense mechanisms, or by driving the evolution of the host. 1837: 8904: 1121: 1745: 1045: 967: 1701: 1983:, which are responsible for mechanical strengthening of the wall. In seagrasses, this polymer has also been detected, but often in lower amounts compared to angiosperm land plants. Thus, the cell walls of seagrasses seem to contain combinations of features known from both angiosperm land plants and marine macroalgae together with new structural elements. Dried seagrass leaves might be useful for papermaking or as insulating materials, so knowledge of cell wall composition has some technological relevance. 1109: 139: 917: 2161:

reclamation in areas near or in seagrass beds, to reduce the number and size of culture ponds, to control raft aquaculture and improve sediment quality, to establish seagrass reserves, to increase awareness of seagrass beds to fishermen and policy makers and to carry out seagrass restoration. Similar suggestions were made in India where scientists suggested that public engagement was important. Also, scientists, the public, and government officials should work in tandem to integrate

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would otherwise be bare of any vegetation. Due to this three dimensional structure in the water column, many species occupy seagrass habitats for shelter and foraging. It is estimated that 17 species of coral reef fish spend their entire juvenile life stage solely on seagrass flats. These habitats also act as a nursery grounds for commercially and recreationally valued fishery species, including the gag grouper (

507: 5940: 5045: 4485: 3241: 2660: 2378: 993: 756: 2107:. These studies suggest that the presence of seagrass depends on physical factors such as temperature, salinity, depth and turbidity, along with natural phenomena like climate change and anthropogenic pressure. While there are exceptions, regression was a general trend in many areas of the Mediterranean Sea. There is an estimated 27.7% reduction along the southern coast of 1716: 1682: 2055:. Rapidly developing human population density along coastlines has led to high nutrient loads in coastal waters from sewage and other impacts of development. Increased nutrient loads create an accelerating cascade of direct and indirect effects that lead to seagrass decline. While some exposure to high concentrations of nutrients, especially 479:, many aspects of their physiology are not well investigated. There are 26 species of seagrasses in North American coastal waters. Several studies have indicated that seagrass habitat is declining worldwide. Ten seagrass species are at elevated risk of extinction (14% of all seagrass species) with three species qualifying as 1623:. Furthermore, because seagrasses are underwater plants, they produce significant amounts of oxygen which oxygenate the water column. These meadows account for more than 10% of the ocean's total carbon storage. Per hectare, it holds twice as much carbon dioxide as rain forests and can sequester about 27.4 million tons of CO 1349:

Seagrasses residing the intertidal zone are usually smaller than those in the subtidal zone to minimize the effects of emergence stress. Intertidal seagrasses also show light-dependent responses, such as decreased photosynthetic efficiency and increased photoprotection during periods of high irradiance and air exposure.

1812:. Plant-associated microbial communities impact both key components of the fitness of plants, growth and survival, and are shaped by nutrient availability and plant defense mechanisms. Several habitats have been described to harbor plant-associated microbes, including the rhizoplane (surface of root tissue), the 2144:

efforts are imperative to the survival of seagrass species. While there are many challenges to overcome with respect to seagrass conservation there are some major ones that can be addressed. Societal awareness of what seagrasses are and their importance to human well-being is incredibly important. As

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Seagrasses occurring in the intertidal and subtidal zones are exposed to highly variable environmental conditions due to tidal changes. Subtidal seagrasses are more frequently exposed to lower light conditions, driven by plethora of natural and human-caused influences that reduce light penetration by

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Short, Frederick T.; Polidoro, Beth; Livingstone, Suzanne R.; Carpenter, Kent E.; Bandeira, Salomão; Bujang, Japar Sidik; Calumpong, Hilconida P.; Carruthers, Tim J.B.; Coles, Robert G.; Dennison, William C.; Erftemeijer, Paul L.A.; Fortes, Miguel D.; Freeman, Aaren S.; Jagtap, T.G.; Kamal, Abu Hena

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or by the diffusion of oxygen in the water column. When the water surrounding seagrass becomes hypoxic, so too do seagrass tissues. Hypoxic conditions negatively affect seagrass growth and survival with seagrasses exposed to hypoxic conditions shown to have reduced rates of photosynthesis, increased

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provide food for many marine herbivores. Sea turtles, manatees, parrotfish, surgeonfish, sea urchins and pinfish feed on seagrasses. Many other smaller animals feed on the epiphytes and invertebrates that live on and among seagrass blades. Seagrass meadows also provide physical habitat in areas that

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farming. It was found that areas with medium to high human impact suffered more severe reduction. Overall, it was suggested that 29% of known areal seagrass populations have disappeared since 1879. The reduction in these areas suggests that should warming in the Mediterranean basin continue, it may

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Despite only covering 0.1 - 0.2% of the ocean’s surface, seagrasses form critically important ecosystems. Much like many other regions of the ocean, seagrasses have been faced with an accelerating global decline. Since the late 19th century, over 20% of the global seagrass area has been lost, with

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Gloaguen, Vincent; Brudieux, Véronique; Closs, Brigitte; Barbat, Aline; Krausz, Pierre; Sainte-Catherine, Odile; Kraemer, Michel; Maes, Emmanuel; Guerardel, Yann (2010). "Structural Characterization and Cytotoxic Properties of an Apiose-Rich Pectic Polysaccharide Obtained from the Cell Wall of the

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seems to be more frequent than that expected in the past. Further, this seagrass has singular adaptations to increase its survival during recruitment. The large amounts of nutrient reserves contained in the seeds of this seagrass support shoot and root growth, even up to the first year of seedling

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adapt to reduced light conditions caused by light attenuation and scattering due to the overlaying water column and suspended particles. Seagrasses in the deep subtidal zone generally have longer leaves and wider leaf blades than those in the shallow subtidal or intertidal zone, which allows more

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Raven, John A.; Johnston, Andrew M.; Kübler, Janet E.; Korb, Rebecca; McInroy, Shona G.; Handley, Linda L.; Scrimgeour, Charlie M.; Walker, Diana I.; Beardall, John; Vanderklift, Mathew; Fredriksen, Stein; Dunton, Kenneth H. (2002). "Mechanistic interpretation of carbon isotope discrimination by

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In a study of seagrass conservation in China, several suggestions were made by scientists on how to better conserve seagrass. They suggested that seagrass beds should be included in the Chinese conservation agenda as done in other countries. They called for the Chinese government to forbid land

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efficiency by using the abundant wavelengths efficiently. As seagrasses in the intertidal and subtidal zones are under highly different light conditions, they exhibit distinctly different photoacclimatory responses to maximize photosynthetic activity and photoprotection from excess irradiance.

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Ruiz, J.M.; Marín-Guirao, L.; García-Muñoz, R.; Ramos-Segura, A.; Bernardeau-Esteller, J.; Pérez, M.; Sanmartí, N.; Ontoria, Y.; Romero, J.; Arthur, R.; Alcoverro, T.; Procaccini, G. (2018). "Experimental evidence of warming-induced flowering in the Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica".

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modifications have been identified in different species and tissues and it has been suggested these influence physical properties and function. In 2020, AGPs were isolated and structurally characterised for the first time from a seagrass. Although the common backbone structure of land plant

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stress relative to subtidal seagrass. Such extreme temperatures can lead to significant seagrass dieback when seagrasses are exposed to air during low tide. Desiccation stress during low tide has been considered the primary factor limiting seagrass distribution at the upper intertidal zone.

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Theis, K.R.; Dheilly, N.M.; Klassen, J.L.; Brucker, R.M.; Baines, J.F.; Bosch, T.C.G.; Cryan, J.F.; Gilbert, S.F.; Goodnight, C.J.; Lloyd, E.A.; et al. Getting the Hologenome Concept Right: An Eco-Evolutionary Framework for Hosts and Their Microbiomes. mSystems 2016, 1, e00028-16.

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Larkum AWD, James PL. Towards a model for inorganic carbon uptake in seagrasses involving carbonic anhydrase. In Kuo J, Phillips RC, Walker DI, Kirkman H, editors. Seagrass biology: Proceedings of an International Workshop. Nedlands: The University of Western Australia; 1996. pp.

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provide essential foraging habitat during reproduction. Sexual reproduction is extremely energetically expensive to be completed with stored energy; therefore, they require seagrass meadows in close proximity to complete reproduction. Furthermore, many commercially important

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Lee, Hueytyng; Golicz, Agnieszka A.; Bayer, Philipp E.; Jiao, Yuannian; Tang, Haibao; Paterson, Andrew H.; Sablok, Gaurav; Krishnaraj, Rahul R.; Chan, Chon-Kit Kenneth; Batley, Jacqueline; Kendrick, Gary A.; Larkum, Anthony W.D.; Ralph, Peter J.; Edwards, David (2016).

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Orth, Robert J.; Carruthers, TIM J. B.; Dennison, William C.; Duarte, Carlos M.; Fourqurean, James W.; Heck, Kenneth L.; Hughes, A. Randall; Kendrick, Gary A.; Kenworthy, W. Judson; Olyarnik, Suzanne; Short, Frederick T.; Waycott, Michelle; Williams, Susan L. (2006).

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1675:, and various species of sharks. The high diversity of marine organisms that can be found on seagrass habitats promotes them as a tourist attraction and a significant source of income for many coastal economies along the Gulf of Mexico and in the Caribbean. 1116:. (A) Newly released seeds inside a fruit, (B) one-week-old seeds. FP: fruit pericarp, NRS: newly released seeds, WS: 1-week-old seeds, H: adhesive hairs, S: seed, R1: primary root, Rh: rhizome, L: leaves. 1720: 1251:

sp. Accordingly, the seeds of long-lived seagrasses have a large dispersal capacity compared to the seeds of the short-lived type, which permits the evolution of species beyond unfavourable light conditions by the seedling development of parent meadows.

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Short, Frederick T.; Polidoro, Beth; Livingstone, Suzanne R.; Carpenter, Kent E.; Bandeira, Salomão; Bujang, Japar Sidik; Calumpong, Hilconida P.; Carruthers, Tim J. B.; Coles, Robert G.; Dennison, William C.; Erftemeijer, Paul L. A. (1 July 2011).

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Tripathi, Durgesh K.; Mishra, Rohit K.; Singh, Swati; Singh, Samiksha; Vishwakarma, Kanchan; Sharma, Shivesh; Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Prashant K.; Prasad, Sheo M.; Dubey, Nawal K.; Pandey, Avinash C.; Sahi, Shivendra; Chauhan, Devendra K. (2017).

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Orth, Robert J.; Carruthers, Tim J. B.; Dennison, William C.; Duarte, Carlos M.; Fourqurean, James W.; Heck, Kenneth L.; Hughes, A. Randall; Kendrick, Gary A.; Kenworthy, W. Judson; Olyarnik, Suzanne; Short, Frederick T. (1 December 2006).

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By far the most common threat to seagrass is human activity. Up to 67 species (93%) of seagrasses are affected by human activity along coastal regions. Activities such as coastal land development, motorboating, and fishing practices like

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Silva, Juliana M. C.; Dantas-Santos, Nednaldo; Gomes, Dayanne L.; Costa, Leandro S.; Cordeiro, Sara L.; Costa, Mariana S. S. P.; Silva, Naisandra B.; Freitas, Maria L.; Scortecci, Katia Castanho; Leite, Edda L.; Rocha, Hugo A. O. (2012).

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M.; Kendrick, Gary A.; Judson Kenworthy, W.; La Nafie, Yayu A.; Nasution, Ichwan M.; Orth, Robert J.; Prathep, Anchana; Sanciangco, Jonnell C.; Tussenbroek, Brigitta van; Vergara, Sheila G.; Waycott, Michelle; Zieman, Joseph C. (2011).

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Telesca, Luca; Belluscio, Andrea; Criscoli, Alessandro; Ardizzone, Giandomenico; Apostolaki, Eugenia T.; Fraschetti, Simonetta; Gristina, Michele; Knittweis, Leyla; Martin, Corinne S.; Pergent, Gérard; Alagna, Adriana (28 July 2015).

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all have the potential to induce widespread seagrass loss. An additional threat to seagrass beds is the introduction of non-native species. For seagrass beds worldwide, at least 28 non-native species have become established. Of these

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Waycott, Michelle; Duarte, Carlos M.; Carruthers, Tim J. B.; Orth, Robert J.; Dennison, William C.; Olyarnik, Suzanne; Calladine, Ainsley; Fourqurean, James W.; Heck, Kenneth L.; Hughes, A. Randall; Kendrick, Gary A. (28 July 2009).

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Balestri, Elena; De Battisti, Davide; Vallerini, Flavia; Lardicci, Claudio (2015). "First evidence of root morphological and architectural variations in young Posidonia oceanica plants colonizing different substrate typologies".

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Waycott, M.; Duarte, C. M.; Carruthers, T. J. B.; Orth, R. J.; Dennison, W. C.; Olyarnik, S.; Calladine, A.; Fourqurean, J. W.; Heck, K. L.; Hughes, A. R.; Kendrick, G. A.; Kenworthy, W. J.; Short, F. T.; Williams, S. L. (2009).

1644:, and many others. Some fish species utilize seagrass meadows and various stages of the life cycle. In a recent publication, Dr. Ross Boucek and colleagues discovered that two highly sought after flats fish, the common snook and 631:(different seagrass grazers and bacterial colonization) stressors. The cell walls of seagrasses seem intricate combinations of features known from both angiosperm land plants and marine macroalgae with new structural elements. 799:

and frogbit. The family includes both fresh and marine aquatics, although of the sixteen genera currently recognised, only three are marine. They are found throughout the world in a wide variety of habitats, but are primarily

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Boucek, R. E.; Leone, E.; Bickford, J.; Walters-Burnsed, S.; Lowerre-Barbieri, S. (2017). "More than just a spawning location: Examining fine-scale s[ace use of two estuarine fish species at a spawning aggregation site".

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Sogin, E. Maggie; Michellod, Dolma; Gruber-Vodicka, Harald R.; Bourceau, Patric; Geier, Benedikt; Meier, Dimitri V.; Seidel, Michael; Ahmerkamp, Soeren; Schorn, Sina; D’Angelo, Grace; Procaccini, Gabriele (2 May 2022).

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and complete their life cycle underwater. While it was previously believed this pollination was carried out without pollinators and purely by sea current drift, this has been shown to be false for at least one species,

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Alagna, Adriana; Fernández, Tomás Vega; Terlizzi, Antonio; Badalamenti, Fabio (2013). "Influence of microhabitat on seedling survival and growth of the mediterranean seagrass posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile".

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McMahon, Kathryn; Van Dijk, Kor-Jent; Ruiz-Montoya, Leonardo; Kendrick, Gary A.; Krauss, Siegfried L.; Waycott, Michelle; Verduin, Jennifer; Lowe, Ryan; Statton, John; Brown, Eloise; Duarte, Carlos (2014).

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Boese, Bruce L.; Robbins, Bradley D.; Thursby, Glen (2005). "Desiccation is a limiting factor for eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) distribution in the intertidal zone of a northeastern Pacific (USA) estuary".

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Guerrero-Meseguer, Laura; Sanz-Lázaro, Carlos; Suk-Ueng, Krittawit; Marín, Arnaldo (2017). "Influence of substrate and burial on the development of Posidonia oceanica : Implications for restoration".

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increasing the density of suspended opaque materials. Subtidal light conditions can be estimated, with high accuracy, using artificial intelligence, enabling more rapid mitigation than was available using

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Unsworth, Richard K. F.; McKenzie, Len J.; Collier, Catherine J.; Cullen-Unsworth, Leanne C.; Duarte, Carlos M.; Eklöf, Johan S.; Jarvis, Jessie C.; Jones, Benjamin L.; Nordlund, Lina M. (1 August 2019).

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Tarquinio, F., Hyndes, G.A., Laverock, B., Koenders, A. and Säwström, C. (2019) "The seagrass holobiont: understanding seagrass-bacteria interactions and their role in seagrass ecosystem functioning".

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Darnell, Kelly; Dunton, Kenneth (2016). "Reproductive phenology of the subtropical seagrasses Thalassia testudinum (Turtle grass) and Halodule wrightii (Shoal grass) in the northwest Gulf of Mexico".

1916:. It was proposed in 2005 that the ability to synthesise sulfated polysaccharides was regained by marine angiosperms. Another unique feature of cell walls of seagrasses is the occurrence of unusual 1599:. This means that the plants alter the ecosystem around them. This adjusting occurs in both physical and chemical forms. Many seagrass species produce an extensive underground network of roots and 3635:

Smith, Timothy M.; York, Paul H.; MacReadie, Peter I.; Keough, Michael J.; Ross, D. Jeff; Sherman, Craig D.H. (2016). "Spatial variation in reproductive effort of a southern Australian seagrass".

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sexual recruitment remain unknown, such as when photosynthesis in seeds is active or how seeds can remain anchored to and persist on substrate until their root systems have completely developed.

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are of interest because of their involvement in both wall architecture and cellular regulatory processes. Arabinogalactan proteins are ubiquitous in seed land plants and have also been found in

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Durako, M. J.; Kunzelman, J. I.; Kenworthy, W. J.; Hammerstrom, K. K. (2003). "Depth-related variability in the photobiology of two populations of Halophila johnsonii and Halophila decipiens".

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by stabilizing heavy metals, pollutants, and excess nutrients. The long blades of seagrasses slow the movement of water which reduces wave energy and offers further protection against coastal

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Silva, João; Santos, Rui; Calleja, Maria Ll.; Duarte, Carlos M. (2005). "Submerged versus air-exposed intertidal macrophyte productivity: From physiological to community-level assessments".

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worm larvae have both been found with pollen grains, the plant producing nutritious mucigenous clumps of pollen to attract and stick to them instead of nectar as terrestrial flowers do.

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of plant tissues change based on the inorganic carbon sources for photosynthesis, seagrasses in the intertidal and subtidal zones may have different stable carbon isotope ratio ranges.

567:, have more diverse evolutionary lineages. In spite of their low species diversity, seagrasses have succeeded in colonising the continental shelves of all continents except Antarctica. 5296:

Nayar, S.; Collings, G.J.; Miller, D.J.; Bryars, S.; Cheshire, A.C. (2009). "Uptake and resource allocation of inorganic carbon by the temperate seagrasses Posidonia and Amphibolis".

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Lamport, Derek T. A.; Kieliszewski, Marcia J.; Showalter, Allan M. (2006). "Salt stress upregulates periplasmic arabinogalactan proteins: Using salt stress to analyse AGP function".

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Longstaff, B.J; Dennison, W.C (1999). "Seagrass survival during pulsed turbidity events: The effects of light deprivation on the seagrasses Halodule pinifolia and Halophila ovalis".

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Lee, Kun-Seop; Dunton, Kenneth H. (1997). "Effect of in situ light reduction on the maintenance, growth and partitioning of carbon resources in Thalassia testudinum banks ex König".

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Hirst A, Ball D, Heislers S, Young P, Blake S, Coots A. Baywide Seagrass Monitoring Program, Milestone Report No. 2 (2008). Fisheries Victoria Technical Report No. 29, January 2009.

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Macreadie, P. I.; Baird, M. E.; Trevathan-Tackett, S. M.; Larkum, A. W. D.; Ralph, P. J. (2013). "Quantifying and modelling the carbon sequestration capacity of seagrass meadows".

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Pearson, Ryan M.; Collier, Catherine J.; Brown, Christopher J.; Rasheed, Michael A.; Bourner, Jessica; Turschwell, Mischa P.; Sievers, Michael; Connolly, Rod M. (15 August 2021).

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Kuo, John; Iizumi, Hitoshi; Nilsen, Bjorg E.; Aioi, Keiko (1990). "Fruit anatomy, seed germination and seedling development in the Japanese seagrass Phyllospadix (Zosteraceae)".

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Olivé, I.; Vergara, J. J.; Pérez-Lloréns, J. L. (2013). "Photosynthetic and morphological photoacclimation of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa to season, depth and leaf position".

536:. Seagrasses then evolved from terrestrial plants which migrated back into the ocean. Between about 70 million and 100 million years ago, three independent seagrass lineages ( 6896: 7463:"Diversity, distribution and conservation of seagrass in coastal waters of the Liaodong Peninsula, North Yellow Sea, northern China: Implications for seagrass conservation" 5105:

Campbell, Stuart J.; McKenzie, Len J.; Kerville, Simon P.; Bité, Juanita S. (2007). "Patterns in tropical seagrass photosynthesis in relation to light, depth and habitat".

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Schwarz, A.-M.; Björk, M.; Buluda, T.; Mtolera, M.; Beer, S. (2000). "Photosynthetic utilisation of carbon and light by two tropical seagrass species as measured in situ".

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activity, which increases their photosynthetic rates and thus maximises seedling establishment success. Seedlings also show high morphological plasticity during their

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Evolution of seagrass, showing the progression onto land from marine origins, the diversification of land plants and the subsequent return to the sea by the seagrasses

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A. Schwartz; M. Morrison; I. Hawes; J. Halliday. 2006. Physical and biological characteristics of a rare marine habitat: sub-tidal seagrass beds of offshore islands.

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Although most work on host-microbe interactions has been focused on animal systems such as corals, sponges, or humans, there is a substantial body of literature on

6368:"Extraction, Isolation, Structural Characterization and Anti-Tumor Properties of an Apigalacturonan-Rich Polysaccharide from the Sea Grass Zostera caespitosa Miki" 2153:

where there is little to no plan in place to conserve seagrass populations. However, the conservation and restoration of seagrass may contribute to 16 of the 17

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in the air. Thus, the composition of inorganic carbon sources for seagrass photosynthesis probably varies between intertidal and subtidal plants. Because stable

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will have serious repercussions for marine biodiversity and the human population that depends upon the resources and ecosystem services that seagrasses provide.

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Diaz-Almela, Elena; Marbà, Nuria; Duarte, Carlos M. (2007). "Consequences of Mediterranean warming events in seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) flowering records".

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van Tussenbroek, Brigitta I.; Villamil, Nora; Márquez-Guzmán, Judith; Wong, Ricardo; Monroy-Velázquez, L. Verónica; Solis-Weiss, Vivianne (29 September 2016).

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rhizosphere shows similar complexity as terrestrial habitats that contain thousands of taxa per gram of soil. In contrast, the chemistry in the rhizosphere of

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Duarte, Carlos M. and Carina L. Chiscano “Seagrass biomass and production: a reassessment” Aquatic Botany Volume 65, Issues 1–4, November 1999, Pages 159–174.

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seagrass bed loss occurring at a rate of 1.5% each year. Of the 72 global seagrass species, approximately one quarter (15 species) could be considered at a

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Hemminga, M. A., and Duarte, C. M. eds (2000). “Seagrasses in the human environment,” in Seagrass Ecology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 248–291.

1414:) for photosynthetic carbon reduction. Despite air exposure during low tide, seagrasses in the intertidal zone can continue to photosynthesize utilizing CO 5985: 4822:

Koch, Evamaria W. (2001). "Beyond Light: Physical, Geological, and Geochemical Parameters as Possible Submersed Aquatic Vegetation Habitat Requirements".

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Les, D.H., Cleland, M.A. and Waycott, M. (1997) "Phylogenetic studies in Alismatidae, II: evolution of marine angiosperms (seagrasses) and hydrophily".

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Sánchez-Cañizares, C., Jorrín, B., Poole, P.S. and Tkacz, A. (2017) "Understanding the holobiont: the interdependence of plants and their microbiome".

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Lee, Kun-Seop; Park, Sang Rul; Kim, Young Kyun (2007). "Effects of irradiance, temperature, and nutrients on growth dynamics of seagrasses: A review".

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in deeper water. In response to high nutrient levels, macroalgae form dense canopies on the surface of the water, limiting the light able to reach the

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that can remain in the dormancy stage for several months. These seagrasses are generally short-lived and can recover quickly from disturbances by not

6606:"Arabinogalactan-proteins of Zostera marina L. Contain unique glycan structures and provide insight into adaptation processes to saline environments" 2004:

Red List of Threatened Species. Threats include a combination of natural factors, such as storms and disease, and anthropogenic in origin, including

669:, which occurs in brackish water, is not regarded as a "real" seagrass by all authors and has been shifted to the Cymodoceaceae by some authors. The 3683:

j. Inglis, Graeme (1999). "Variation in the recruitment behaviour of seagrass seeds: Implications for population dynamics and resource management".

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Zilber-Rosenberg, I. and Rosenberg, E. (2008) "Role of microorganisms in the evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome theory of evolution".

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of Mediterranean coasts, which, among others, makes this seagrass a priority habitat of conservation. Currently, the flowering and recruitment of

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arabinogalactan proteins is conserved, the glycan structures exhibit unique features suggesting a role of seagrass arabinogalactan proteins in

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Vandenkoornhuyse, P., Quaiser, A., Duhamel, M., Le Van, A. and Dufresne, A. (2015) "The importance of the microbiome of the plant holobiont".

4948: 4342:"Evidences of adaptive traits to rocky substrates undermine paradigm of habitat preference of the Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica" 471:

Seagrasses profoundly influence the physical, chemical, and biological environments of coastal waters. Though seagrasses provide invaluable

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Nagelkerken, I.; Roberts, C. M.; van der Velde, G.; Dorenbosch, M.; van Riel, M. C.; Cocheret de la Morinière, E.; Nienhuis, P. H. (2002).

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United Nations Environment Programme (2020). Out of the blue: The value of seagrasses to the environment and to people. UNEP, Nairobi.

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Grey, William; Moffler, Mark (1987). "Flowering of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum (Hydrocharitacea) in the Tampa Bay, Florida area".

4764:"Photosynthetic response of Amphibolis antarctica and Posidonia australis to temperature and desiccation using chlorophyll fluorescence" 1233:. This strategy is typical of long-lived seagrasses that can form buoyant fruits with inner large non-dormant seeds, such as the genera 7977: 2138:

in the Mediterranean by 2050. Scientists suggested that the trends they identified appear to be part of a large-scale trend worldwide.

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Vacchi, Matteo; De Falco, Giovanni; Simeone, Simone; Montefalcone, Monica; Morri, Carla; Ferrari, Marco; Bianchi, Carlo Nike (2017).

8207: 3914:"Nitric Oxide Ameliorates Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Phytotoxicity in Wheat Seedlings: Implication of the Ascorbate–Glutathione Cycle" 1700: 3495:"High levels of gene flow and low population genetic structure related to high dispersal potential of a tropical marine angiosperm" 2537: 5596: 3798:"Implications of Extreme Life Span in Clonal Organisms: Millenary Clones in Meadows of the Threatened Seagrass Posidonia oceanica" 8382: 8167: 7857: 4867:"Emergence stress and morphological constraints affect the species distribution and growth of subtropical intertidal seagrasses" 4594:"Remote estimation of aquatic light environments using machine learning: A new management tool for submerged aquatic vegetation" 1537:(partly because of their low nutritional content), but scientific reviews and improved working methods have shown that seagrass 6837:"Radically different lignin composition in Posidonia species may link to differences in organic carbon sequestration capacity" 3460:

Orth, Robert J.; Harwell, Matthew C.; Inglis, Graeme J. (2006). "Ecology of Seagrass Seeds and Seagrass Dispersal Processes".

1756:(PAR) determines the photosynthetic activity of the seagrass plant that determines how much carbon dioxide is fixed, how much 396:

three to four times from land plants back to the sea. The following characteristics can be used to define a seagrass species:

7155: 3477: 2714: 2701: 2232: 7833: 4999:"Salinity and temperature significantly influence seed germination, seedling establishment, and seedling growth of eelgrass 1584:

Seagrasses trap sediment and slow down water movement, causing suspended sediment to settle out. Trapping sediment benefits

8397: 7838: 3362:"Understanding the sexual recruitment of one of the oldest and largest organisms on Earth, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica" 3191:"Understanding the sexual recruitment of one of the oldest and largest organisms on Earth, the seagrass Posidonia oceanica" 514:

Around 140 million years ago, seagrasses evolved from early monocots which succeeded in conquering the marine environment.

115: 7089:"Inorganic nitrogen has a dominant impact on estuarine eelgrass distribution in the Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada" 3744:

Kuo J, Den Hartog C. (2006) "Seagrass morphology, anatomy, and ultrastructure". In: Larkum AWD, Orth RJ, Duarte CM (Eds),

2171:

is an annual event held on March 1 to raise awareness about seagrass and its important functions in the marine ecosystem.

8495: 8357: 7461:

Xu, Shaochun; Qiao, Yongliang; Xu, Shuai; Yue, Shidong; Zhang, Yu; Liu, Mingjie; Zhang, Xiaomei; Zhou, Yi (1 June 2021).

7137: 6778:

Martone, Patrick T.; Estevez, José M.; Lu, Fachuang; Ruel, Katia; Denny, Mark W.; Somerville, Chris; Ralph, John (2009).

6561:

Classen, Birgit; Baumann, Alexander; Utermoehlen, Jon (2019). "Arabinogalactan-proteins in spore-producing land plants".

1753: 329:, and most occur in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms. Most species undergo submarine 6052:

Rosenberg, E. and Zilber-Rosenberg, I. (2016) "Microbes drive evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome concept".

7087:

Heuvel, Michael R.; Hitchcock, Jesse K.; Coffin, Michael R. S.; Pater, Christina C.; Courtenay, Simon C. (8 May 2019).

4949:"Seasonal heterogeneity in the photophysiological response to air exposure in two tropical intertidal seagrass species" 2408: 1370:

photosynthesis, in turn resulting in greater growth. Seagrasses also respond to reduced light conditions by increasing

6836: 5212:"Physiological characteristics of the seagrass Posidonia sinuosa along a depth-related gradient of light availability" 8387: 6537: 5997: 5773:"How important are mangroves and seagrass beds for coral-reef fish? The nursery hypothesis tested on an island scale" 3758:

Fonseca, Mark S.; Kenworthy, W.Judson (1987). "Effects of current on photosynthesis and distribution of seagrasses".

3569: 3164: 3085: 6419:"The Fasciclin-Like Arabinogalactan Proteins of Arabidopsis. A Multigene Family of Putative Cell Adhesion Molecules" 4111:"Seed nutrient content and nutritional status of Posidonia oceanica seedlings in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea" 3035:"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV" 2838:

Papenbrock, J (2012). "Highlights in seagrass' phylogeny, physiology, and metabolism: what makes them so species?".

8022: 7877: 7700:

Waycott, M, McMahon, K, & Lavery, P 2014, A guide to southern temperate seagrasses, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne

7688:

A.W.D. Larkum, R.J. Orth, and C.M. Duarte (eds). Seagrass Biology: A Treatise. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, in press.

3796:

Arnaud-Haond, Sophie; Duarte, Carlos M.; Diaz-Almela, Elena; Marbà, Núria; Sintes, Tomas; Serrão, Ester A. (2012).

2162: 1681: 5529:

Nordlund, Lina; Koch, Evamaria W.; Barbier, Edward B.; Creed, Joel C. (12 October 2016). Reinhart, Kurt O. (ed.).

2233:"On the morphology and anatomy of turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum (Hydrocharitaceae). I. Vegetative Morphology" 7799:

Seagrass-Watch - the largest scientific, non-destructive, seagrass assessment and monitoring program in the world

2063:, can result in increased seagrass productivity, high nutrient levels can also stimulate the rapid overgrowth of 1340:

are regularly exposed to air and consequently experience extreme high and low temperatures, high photoinhibitory

1317: 1147: 2100:, where the decomposition of organic matter further decreases the amount of oxygen present in the water column. 8849: 2032:

plant species, they are highly affected by environmental conditions that change water clarity and block light.

7852: 7193: 7176: 2888: 2871: 2802: 2785: 2441: 2424: 7406:

Unsworth, Richard K. F.; Cullen-Unsworth, Leanne C.; Jones, Benjamin L.; Lilley, Richard J. (5 August 2022).

6009:

Douglas, A.E.; Werren, J.H. (2016) "Holes in the Hologenome: Why Host-Microbe Symbioses Are Not Holobionts".

4160:

Celdrán, David; Marín, Arnaldo (2011). "Photosynthetic activity of the non-dormant Posidonia oceanica seed".

2154: 6366:

Lv, Youjing; Shan, Xindi; Zhao, Xia; Cai, Chao; Zhao, Xiaoliang; Lang, Yinzhi; Zhu, He; Yu, Guangli (2015).

2096:

respiration, and smaller growth. Hypoxic conditions can eventually lead to seagrass die-off which creates a

8869: 8854: 7696: 5921:

Ugarelli, K., Chakrabarti, S., Laas, P. and Stingl, U. (2017) "The seagrass holobiont and its microbiome".

7783:

SeagrassSpotter - Citizen Science project raising awaress for seagrass meadows and mapping their locations

4593: 2035:

Seagrasses are also negatively affected by changing global climatic conditions. Increased weather events,

1935:-rich glycoprotein family, are important components of cell walls of land plants. The highly glycosylated 639:

Today, seagrasses are a polyphyletic group of marine angiosperms with around 60 species in five families (

8964: 8864: 7870: 7524:

Newmaster, AF; Berg, KJ; Ragupathy, S.; Palanisamy, M.; Sambandan, K.; Newmaster, SG (23 November 2011).

1836: 7772:

Project Seagrass - Charity advancing the conservation of seagrass through community, research and action

5376:

Beer, Sven; Rehnberg, Jon (1997). "The acquisition of inorganic carbon by the seagrass Zostera marina".

3965:"Flowering of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica in NW Mediterranean: Is there a link with solar activity?" 2028:

in the water, causing seagrass die-off. Since seagrasses have some of the highest light requirements of

138: 8969: 8172: 3258:

Collier, C.J.; Waycott, M. (2014). "Temperature extremes reduce seagrass growth and induce mortality".

1608: 660: 7462: 7228: 7033: 8480: 8374: 623:

one would expect habitat-driven adaptation process to the new environment characterized by multiple

8933: 8726: 8721: 8017: 1757: 491: 1768:

conditions in the rhizosphere, differentiating it from the surrounding sediments that are usually

1141: 1137: 1120: 593:

to the sea. During the evolutionary step back to the ocean, different genes have been lost (e.g.,

8634: 8445: 8339: 8067: 8057: 3421:"Importance of genetic diversity in eelgrass Zostera marina for its resilience to global warming" 2097: 2087:

conditions, which seagrasses are also highly susceptible to. Since coastal sediment is generally

2084: 1997: 1963:

to relatively small protein/peptide backbones (normally less than 10% of the molecule). Distinct

1936: 1845: 1769: 1636: 460: 210: 6299:"Biological activities of the sulfated polysaccharide from the vascular plant Halodule wrightii" 6255:

Aquino, R. S.; Landeira-Fernandez, A. M.; Valente, A. P.; Andrade, L. R.; Mourão, P. A. (2004).

8460: 8450: 8152: 8137: 7712: 5597:

https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/out-blue-value-seagrasses-environment-and-people

3115: 2052: 1607:. This system also assists in oxygenating the sediment, providing a hospitable environment for 1177: 1170: 611:

has shown further that adaptation to the marine habitat was accomplished by radical changes in

4947:

Petrou, K.; Jimenez-Denness, I.; Chartrand, K.; McCormack, C.; Rasheed, M.; Ralph, PJ (2013).

3101: 615:

composition. However the cell walls of seagrasses are not well understood. In addition to the

8879: 8806: 8741: 8606: 8581: 8556: 8440: 8187: 7967: 7793: 6698:"Decomposition of senescent blades of the seagrass Halodule wrightii in a subtropical lagoon" 5611:

Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H.; Shachak, Moshe (1994). "Organisms as ecosystem engineers".

3493:

Van Dijk, JK; Van Tussenbroek, BI; Jiménez-Durán, K.; Márquez-Guzmán, GJ; Ouborg, J. (2009).

1785: 1760:(DOC) is exuded from the leaves and root system, and how much oxygen is transported into the 1162: 1154: 878: 6520:

Ma, Yingxuan; Zeng, Wei; Bacic, Antony; Johnson, Kim (2018). "AGPs Through Time and Space".

8954: 8614: 8576: 7907: 7813: 7794:

Nature Geoscience article describing the locations of the seagrass meadows around the world

7728: 7474: 7419: 7354: 7288: 7240: 7100: 7045: 6974: 6908: 6848: 6791: 6750: 6709: 6617: 6167: 5872: 5835: 5784: 5622: 5542: 5420: 5385: 5340: 5305: 5270: 5223: 5184: 5149: 5114: 5071: 4963: 4919: 4878: 4775: 4712: 4666: 4605: 4515: 4446: 4407: 4353: 4296: 4250: 4169: 4122: 4075: 4014: 3872: 3809: 3767: 3719: 3644: 3506: 3432: 3373: 3314: 3267: 3202: 2990: 2737: 2618:"The Cell Wall of Seagrasses: Fascinating, Peculiar and a Blank Canvas for Future Research" 2552: 2489: 2354:"Highlights in Seagrasses' Phylogeny, Physiology, and Metabolism: What Makes Them Special?" 2267: 2141: 1860: 1744: 1706: 1688: 1667:. Charismatic fauna can also be seen visiting the seagrass habitats. These species include 1655: 1446: 1419: 1044: 476: 336: 5531:"Seagrass Ecosystem Services and Their Variability across Genera and Geographical Regions" 2728:

Knauth, L. Paul; Kennedy, Martin J. (2009). "The late Precambrian greening of the Earth".

494:. The worldwide endangering of these sea meadows, which provide food and habitat for many 463:

and depend on oxygen transport from the leaves and rhizomes but are also important in the

8: 8836: 8490: 8299: 8257: 8027: 7987: 7818: 2005: 1668: 1158: 1086: 251:

environments. There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four

214: 7804:

Restore-A-Scar - a non-profit campaign to restore seagrass meadows damaged by boat props

7732: 7478: 7423: 7358: 7292: 7244: 7104: 7049: 6978: 6912: 6852: 6795: 6754: 6713: 6621: 6604:

Pfeifer, Lukas; Shafee, Thomas; Johnson, Kim L.; Bacic, Antony; Classen, Birgit (2020).

6171: 5876: 5839: 5788: 5626: 5546: 5424: 5389: 5344: 5309: 5274: 5227: 5188: 5153: 5118: 5075: 4967: 4923: 4882: 4779: 4716: 4670: 4609: 4519: 4450: 4411: 4357: 4300: 4254: 4173: 4126: 4079: 4018: 3876: 3813: 3771: 3723: 3648: 3510: 3436: 3377: 3318: 3271: 3206: 2994: 2741: 2556: 2493: 2271: 368:

which are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. They function as important

8756: 8751: 8619: 8561: 8455: 8304: 8222: 8107: 8087: 7997: 7940: 7760: 7560: 7525: 7506: 7443: 7383: 7317: 7276: 7206: 7069: 7005: 6962: 6942: 6874: 6817: 6780:"Discovery of Lignin in Seaweed Reveals Convergent Evolution of Cell-Wall Architecture" 6638: 6605: 6586: 6543: 6492: 6467: 6394: 6367: 6196: 6155: 5700: 5638: 5573: 5530: 5463: 5087: 5029: 4998: 4997:

Xu, Shaochun; Zhou, Yi; Wang, Pengmei; Wang, Feng; Zhang, Xiaomei; Gu, Ruiting (2016).

4847: 4839: 4728: 4682: 4639: 4574: 4469: 4434: 4374: 4341: 4322: 4185: 4091: 4048: 3986: 3940: 3913: 3890: 3832: 3797: 3612: 3587: 3396: 3361: 3225: 3190: 3056: 3016: 2949: 2924: 2901: 2815: 2761: 2644: 2617: 2568: 2512: 2477: 2454: 2296: 2255: 2168: 2134: 1993: 1952: 1596: 1592: 1472:/meadows can be either monospecific (made up of a single species) or in mixed beds. In 1302: 1257: 1126: 480: 405: 393: 133: 7776: 7716: 6443: 6418: 6221:"Fiber Characteristics and Papermaking of Seagrass Using Hand-beaten and Blended Pulp" 5397: 5196: 5161: 4433:

Park, Sang Rul; Kim, Sangil; Kim, Young Kyun; Kang, Chang-Keun; Lee, Kun-Seop (2016).

3337: 3302: 2048:, the majority (64%) have been documented to infer negative effects on the ecosystem. 1261:(L.) Delile is one of the oldest and largest species on Earth. An individual can form 8959: 8766: 8644: 8591: 8510: 8177: 8142: 8082: 8042: 8012: 7982: 7893: 7752: 7744: 7602: 7565: 7547: 7510: 7498: 7490: 7447: 7435: 7388: 7370: 7322: 7304: 7256: 7198: 7151: 7118: 7061: 7010: 6992: 6934: 6878: 6860: 6809: 6678: 6674: 6643: 6578: 6547: 6533: 6497: 6448: 6399: 6348: 6278: 6201: 6183: 6090: 5993: 5753: 5735: 5669: 5578: 5560: 5499: 5352: 5034: 4643: 4631: 4474: 4379: 4087: 4040: 3945: 3894: 3837: 3779: 3731: 3660: 3617: 3565: 3473: 3401: 3342: 3283: 3230: 3160: 3137: 3081: 3008: 2954: 2893: 2753: 2697: 2681: 2649: 2517: 2446: 2301: 2283: 2210: 2104: 1645: 1247: 1166: 870: 796: 624: 529: 472: 423: 280: 24: 7764: 7486: 7073: 6946: 6821: 6590: 6315: 6298: 5731: 5704: 5091: 4851: 4732: 4686: 4617: 4578: 4326: 4189: 4095: 4052: 4026: 3990: 3656: 3279: 2979:"The genome of the seagrass Zostera marina reveals angiosperm adaptation to the sea" 2572: 8874: 8566: 8470: 8422: 8334: 8227: 7925: 7736: 7555: 7537: 7482: 7427: 7378: 7362: 7312: 7296: 7248: 7210: 7188: 7143: 7108: 7053: 7000: 6982: 6924: 6916: 6864: 6856: 6799: 6758: 6717: 6670: 6633: 6625: 6570: 6525: 6487: 6479: 6438: 6430: 6389: 6379: 6340: 6310: 6268: 6257:"Occurrence of sulfated galactans in marine angiosperms: Evolutionary implications" 6237: 6232: 6220: 6191: 6175: 6136: 6111: 6086: 6061: 6036: 6018: 5965: 5930: 5880: 5843: 5822:

Nordlund, L. M.; Unsworth, R. K. F.; Gullstrom, M.; Cullen-Unsworth, L. C. (2018).

5802: 5792: 5727: 5692: 5665: 5630: 5568: 5550: 5491: 5455: 5428: 5393: 5348: 5313: 5278: 5241: 5231: 5192: 5157: 5122: 5079: 5024: 5014: 4979: 4971: 4927: 4886: 4831: 4793: 4783: 4720: 4674: 4621: 4613: 4566: 4533: 4523: 4464: 4454: 4435:"Photoacclimatory Responses of Zostera marina in the Intertidal and Subtidal Zones" 4415: 4369: 4361: 4312: 4304: 4266: 4258: 4220: 4177: 4140: 4130: 4083: 4030: 4022: 3976: 3935: 3925: 3880: 3827: 3817: 3775: 3727: 3692: 3652: 3607: 3599: 3557: 3549: 3544:

Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, ed. (2014). "Summary for Policymakers".

3524: 3514: 3465: 3440: 3391: 3381: 3332: 3322: 3275: 3220: 3210: 3127: 3060: 3046: 3020: 2998: 2944: 2936: 2905: 2883: 2819: 2807: 2797: 2765: 2745: 2689: 2639: 2629: 2560: 2507: 2497: 2458: 2436: 2365: 2291: 2275: 2045: 2009: 1921: 1672: 1630: 1455: 1387: 1379: 787: 780: 745: 644: 628: 582: 549: 537: 419: 264: 252: 7638:

Verhandl. der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Natuurkunde

6574: 6529: 5934: 3963:

Montefalcone, M.; Giovannetti, E.; Morri, C.; Peirano, A.; Bianchi, C. N. (2013).

3492: 1588:

by reducing sediment loads, improving photosynthesis for both coral and seagrass.

8844: 8811: 8672: 8624: 8500: 8475: 8284: 8237: 8162: 8007: 7992: 7787: 7526:"Local Knowledge and Conservation of Seagrasses in the Tamil Nadu State of India" 7057: 5613: 5555: 4459: 3822: 3553: 3386: 3215: 2688:. Systematics Association Special Volumes. Vol. 20020544. pp. 431–458. 2564: 2205: 1956: 1854: 1809: 1796: 1604: 1464: 1337: 1269: 1262: 1193: 1079: 1060: 966: 898:

contains a single genus with two to nine marine species found in the seas of the

616: 519: 498:, prompts the need for protection and understanding of these valuable resources. 365: 340:, which carries out a mixed biotic-abiotic strategy. Crustaceans (such as crabs, 322: 299: 244: 176: 7584: 7252: 7227:

Burkholder, JoAnn M.; Tomasko, David A.; Touchette, Brant W. (9 November 2007).

5432: 5331:

Beer, Sven (1989). "Photosynthesis and photorespiration of marine angiosperms".

5317: 5282: 3469: 1573:. Some fish species that visit/feed on seagrasses raise their young in adjacent 1265:

measuring nearly 15 km wide and can be hundreds to thousands of years old.

475:

by acting as breeding and nursery ground for a variety of organisms and promote

8708: 8662: 8657: 8629: 8596: 8465: 8324: 8252: 8242: 8092: 8037: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7277:"Seagrass meadows (Posidonia oceanica) distribution and trajectories of change" 6963:"Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems" 6629: 6179: 5944: 5126: 5049: 4504:"Daily variation patterns in seagrass photosynthesis along a vertical gradient" 4489: 4419: 4262: 3245: 3132: 2693: 2664: 2478:"Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems" 2382: 2092: 2040: 2036: 2013: 1969: 1960: 1932: 1885: 1866: 1660: 1541:

is an important link in the food chain, feeding hundreds of species, including

1478: 1357: 1323: 1290: 1227: 982: 576: 571: 522:(angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf or 495: 442: 248: 163: 124: 7366: 6920: 6804: 6779: 6140: 6040: 4724: 4678: 4181: 2256:"Experimental evidence of pollination in marine flowers by invertebrate fauna" 2111:, 18%-38% reduction in the Northern Mediterranean basin, 19%-30% reduction on 1108: 956:, includes only marine species. Some taxonomists do not recognize this family. 8948: 8922: 8816: 8781: 8682: 8677: 8652: 8182: 8147: 8122: 7972: 7935: 7748: 7551: 7494: 7374: 7308: 7260: 7202: 7147: 7122: 7065: 6996: 6938: 6417:

Johnson, Kim L.; Jones, Brian J.; Bacic, Antony; Schultz, Carolyn J. (2003).

6187: 5981: 5564: 5516: 4635: 3154: 3141: 2897: 2634: 2450: 2319: 2287: 2200: 2088: 2072: 2001: 1612: 1391: 1375: 1366: 1273: 1222: 1008: 948: 941: 932: 899: 894: 887: 852: 670: 652: 648: 541: 349: 276: 268: 256: 189: 73: 7740: 7431: 7342: 6987: 6273: 6256: 5969: 4908:"Photosynthetic tolerances to desiccation of tropical intertidal seagrasses" 3930: 3327: 3303:"Ecosystem recovery after climatic extremes enhanced by genotypic diversity" 2502: 8908: 8687: 8667: 8571: 8309: 8192: 8112: 8072: 8062: 8032: 7834:

Seagrass Science and Management in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

7756: 7569: 7542: 7502: 7439: 7392: 7326: 7014: 6813: 6682: 6647: 6582: 6501: 6452: 6403: 6352: 6282: 6205: 5739: 5582: 5503: 5038: 4478: 4383: 4044: 3949: 3841: 3664: 3621: 3603: 3405: 3346: 3287: 3234: 3012: 2958: 2757: 2677: 2653: 2521: 2305: 2112: 2076: 1928: 1817: 1692: 1650: 1641: 1542: 1526: 1469: 1434: 1430: 1070: 1034: 738: 564: 484: 7407: 6483: 6434: 6219:

Syed, Nurul Farahin Nur; Zakaria, Muta Harah; Bujang, Japar Sidik (2016).

6065: 6022: 5696: 5083: 2370: 2353: 1441: 1352: 8821: 8796: 8791: 8761: 8544: 8520: 8485: 8294: 8197: 8117: 8077: 7930: 6466:

Ellis, Miriam; Egelund, Jack; Schultz, Carolyn J.; Bacic, Antony (2010).

5770: 4570: 4538: 4285: 4225: 4204: 3543: 3116:"The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase" 2925:"The Genome of a Southern Hemisphere Seagrass Species (Zostera muelleri)" 2253: 2185: 2180: 2128: 2123:

the main reason for regression was due to human activity such as illegal

2091:, seagrass must supply oxygen to their below-ground roots either through 2080: 1913: 1909: 1813: 1761: 1620: 1491: 1411: 1371: 1345: 1294: 1282: 1189: 1053: 916: 826: 771: 713: 700: 693: 640: 545: 533: 412: 373: 369: 330: 326: 318: 272: 260: 199: 48: 6869: 6739:"Retention of lignin in seagrasses:angiosperms that returned to the sea" 5821: 4626: 4271: 4145: 4003: 3003: 2978: 2940: 2749: 2279: 1816:(periphery of the roots), the endosphere (inside plant tissue), and the 1321:

Morphological and photoacclimatory responses of intertidal and subtidal

836: 8801: 8736: 8525: 8505: 8289: 8262: 8047: 7960: 6929: 6835:

Kaal, Joeri; Serrano, Oscar; Del Río, José C.; Rencoret, Jorge (2018).

6763: 6738: 6722: 6697: 6384: 5885: 5864: 5807: 5797: 5772: 5642: 5467: 5019: 4983: 4946: 4932: 4907: 4891: 4866: 4843: 4788: 4763: 4528: 4503: 4317: 4035: 3561: 2811: 2190: 2064: 2060: 2029: 1901: 1889: 1781: 1732: 1578: 1566: 1518: 1514: 1341: 975: 862: 656: 620: 590: 587: 556: 389: 377: 358: 93: 58: 8917: 7339: 7300: 7113: 7088: 6344: 6254: 6115: 5848: 5823: 5246: 5236: 5211: 4975: 4798: 4757: 4755: 4365: 4308: 4135: 4110: 3791: 3789: 3529: 3519: 3494: 3445: 3420: 3360:

Guerrero-Meseguer, Laura; Sanz-Lázaro, Carlos; Marín, Arnaldo (2018).

3189:

Guerrero-Meseguer, Laura; Sanz-Lázaro, Carlos; Marín, Arnaldo (2018).

3051: 3034: 1533:. Few species were originally considered to feed directly on seagrass 810: 597:

genes) or have been reduced (e.g., genes involved in the synthesis of

8826: 8731: 8515: 8279: 8272: 8247: 8157: 7862: 7667:

Larkum, Anthony W.D., Robert J. Orth, and Carlos M. Duarte (Editors)

5717: 3981: 3964: 3885: 3856: 3696: 2025: 1944: 1905: 1893: 1881: 1875: 1841: 1802: 1749: 1728: 1538: 1510: 1498: 1473: 1298: 1235: 1230: 1210: 1198: 1181: 1001: 925: 903: 845: 709: 602: 598: 523: 506: 453: 434: 401: 303: 98: 42: 6152: 5863:

Unsworth, R. K. F.; Nordlund, L. M.; Cullen-Unsworth, L. C. (2019).

5634: 5495: 5459: 4835: 4239: 1959:(normally over 90% of the molecule) which are covalently linked via 1828:

was dominated by the presence of sugars like sucrose and phenolics.

1752:

are related to processes in the carbon, nitrogen and sulfur cycles.

1018: 729: 8776: 8132: 8127: 8052: 4752: 4656: 3962: 3786: 3584: 2195: 2124: 2103:

Possible seagrass population trajectories have been studied in the

2068: 2056: 2021: 1773: 1574: 1530: 1483: 1204: 1185: 1150: 1027: 708:, includes two genera containing 14 marine species. It is found in 608: 594: 560: 464: 88: 83: 68: 63: 53: 7782: 7771: 7405: 5902: 4396: 3795: 1820:(total above-ground surface area). The microbial community in the 719:

waters, with the highest diversity located around Korea and Japan.

532:

evolved perhaps as early as 450 million years ago from a group of

8786: 8746: 8716: 8694: 8314: 8102: 8002: 7823: 7674:

Orth, Robert J. et al. "A Global Crisis for Seagrass Ecosystems"

7273: 7222: 7220: 7030: 5943: