History of computing hardware

2210: 41: 1511: 3789: 801: 2458: 1964: 1360: 3007: 1186: 9489: 848: 762: 2138: 1071: 2311: 318: 5571:"You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor in Charge 4251: 4164: 447: 3569: 730: 1722: 2040:

Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first binary electronic digital calculating device. This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable,

1378:. When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given the flight times of the shells. Various spotters on board the ship would relay distance measures and observations to a central plotting station. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for 2638: 668: 1280: 5355:, p. 128 "...the single-tooth gear, like that used by Schickard, would not do for a general carry mechanism. The single-tooth gear works fine if the carry is only going to be propagated a few places but, if the carry has to be propagated several places along the accumulator, the force needed to operate the machine would be of such magnitude that it would do damage to the delicate gear works." 726:, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam. A fire destroyed at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another. 2070: 943: 2722: 2171:

40 ft/s (12.2 m/s; 27.3 mph). Colossus Mark 1 contained 1500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark 2 with 2400 valves and five processors in parallel, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark 1, greatly speeding the decoding process. Mark 2 was designed while Mark 1 was being constructed.

11597: 4414:. ENIAC remained on, in continuous operation from 1947 to 1955, for eight years before being shut down. Although a vacuum tube might fail, it would be replaced without bringing down the system. By the simple strategy of never shutting down ENIAC, the failures were dramatically reduced. The vacuum-tube 816:. It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division. It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Mechanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s. 4443:

in modern microprocessors, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specific. Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and manufacturers prove their

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Described as small and primitive in a 1998 retrospective, the Baby was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as it had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop the design into

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In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer. This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display). John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry

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or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals;

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While the earliest microprocessor ICs literally contained only the processor, i.e. the central processing unit, of a computer, their progressive development naturally led to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic parts of a computer. The integrated circuit in the image on the right,

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were used for the first stage amplifiers for data read from the drum, since point-contact transistors were too noisy. From August 1956, CADET was offering a regular computing service, during which it often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours or more. Problems with the reliability of early

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computer, which became a large success in Europe, eventually selling more than 1,200 units, and the first computer produced in more than 1,000 units. The Gamma 3 had innovative features for its time including a dual-mode, software switchable, BCD and binary ALU, as well as a hardwired floating-point

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reading of a paper tape transcription of the enciphered intercepted message. This was arranged in a continuous loop so that it could be read and re-read multiple times – there being no internal store for the data. The reading mechanism ran at 5,000 characters per second with the paper tape moving at

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By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators

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around 1672. He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division. Leibniz once said "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely

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or AGC. Although not the most powerful computer of its time, the extreme constraints on size, mass, and power of the Apollo spacecraft required the AGC to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer, weighing in at only 70 pounds (32 kg). Each lunar landing mission carried two AGCs, one

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a month ($ 40,000 as of 2024). Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory limitations such as this were to dominate programming for decades afterward. The program instructions were fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Efficient execution

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at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors,

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The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were built with electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These mechanical components had a low operating speed

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of 2 (262,144), a calculation that was known would take a long time to run—and so prove the computer's reliability—by testing every integer from 2 − 1 downwards, as division was implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for

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The project was slowed by various problems including disputes with the chief machinist building parts for it. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand—this was a major problem for a machine with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British

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It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High-speed memory was limited to 20 words

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hard disks, like the hot-pluggable vacuum tubes of yesteryear, continue the tradition of repair during continuous operation. Semiconductor memories routinely have no errors when they operate, although operating systems like Unix have employed memory tests on start-up to detect failing hardware.

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in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had

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made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree. Based on a system of four gears, the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant. Thanks to this machine, errors in the calculation of first, second, third and quarter

1330:, later Lord Kelvin, in 1872. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing. 757:

or Pascaline) in the following ten years. Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums. A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as the "inventor of the mechanical calculator" and the range of issues to be considered is

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developed into devices that could be made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant current, except for leakage, during the

3774:) saw greatly increased use. Telephone connections provided sufficient speed for early remote terminals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation between remote-terminals and the computing center. Eventually these stand-alone computer networks would be generalized into an interconnected 1209:

Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.

2891: 2818:), a faster multiplier, and additional instructions. The basic cycle time was 1.2 milliseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in about 2.16 milliseconds. The multiplier used almost a quarter of the machine's 4,050 vacuum tubes (valves). A second machine was purchased by the 1205:. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards. 9304:

credits the idea for a 4 bit-slice PMOS chip to a woman researcher's idea at Sharp Corporation, which was not accepted by the other members of the Sharp brainstorming group. A 40-million yen infusion from Busicom to Intel was made at Sasaki's behest, to exploit the 4 bit-slice PMOS

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these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.

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conceived of a generalized protocol to link together multiple networks to be viewed as a single session regardless of the specific network: "Wait a minute. Why not just have one terminal, and it connects to anything you want it to be connected to? And, hence, the Arpanet was

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in its initial package and no input-output except its toggle switches and LED register display. Despite this, it was initially surprisingly popular, with several hundred sales in the first year, and demand rapidly outstripped supply. Several early third-party vendors such as

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An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred from the history of the seminal 1947 article by Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann. By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John von Neumann's

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which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget of the U.S. The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The

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V. M. Wolontis (18 August 1955) "A Complete Floating-Decimal Interpretive System for the I.B.M. 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator—Case 20878" Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Memorandum MM-114-37, Reported in IBM Technical Newsletter No. 11, March 1956, as referenced in

836:. The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine proposed by 2937:, SOAP, assigned instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus many instructions were, when needed, located in the next row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for drum rotation was reduced. 3645:, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. 4230:

were also implemented in minicomputers and microprocessors later, which influenced programming language design. Minicomputers served as low-cost computer centers for industry, business and universities. It became possible to simulate analog circuits with the

3699:, the first commercial transistor computer anywhere. Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years. A second generation computer, the 3048:(1955) and the Ferranti Mercury (1957) used magnetic-core memory. It went on to dominate the field into the 1970s, when it was replaced with semiconductor memory. Magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter. 8237: 2349:). However, this process of 'reprogramming' was often difficult and time-consuming, requiring engineers to create flowcharts and physically re-wire the machines. Stored-program computers, by contrast, were designed to store a set of instructions (a 4340:

language. It weighed 40 kg (88 lb). As a complete system, this was a significant step from the Altair, though it never achieved the same success. It was in competition with a similar product by IBM that had an external floppy disk drive.

1582:), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. 2276:

electronic machines that came later. Once a program was ready to be run, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were women who had been trained as mathematicians.

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bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents.

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that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with

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and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His late-1945 report 'Proposed Electronic Calculator' was the first reasonably detailed specification for such a device. Turing presented a more detailed paper to the

3755:, the core memory's cycle time was 5 microseconds; consequently most arithmetic instructions took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second) because most operations took at least two memory cycles; one for the instruction, one for the 383:). Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. The development of 2290:

capacitors, and inductors. One of its major engineering feats was to minimize the effects of tube burnout, which was a common problem in machine reliability at that time. The machine was in almost constant use for the next ten years.

2130:). After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February. By the time Germany surrendered in May 1945, there were ten 3959:

Third generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid-1960s. The first silicon IC computer was the

1259:(1936) discussed using existing IBM punch card machines to implement Babbage's design. In the same year he started the Rapid Arithmetical Machine project to investigate the problems of constructing an electronic digital computer. 1247:, where he wrote about Babbage's efforts at constructing a mechanical Analytical Engine and designed an electromechanical analytical machine which was to be controlled by a read-only program. The paper also introduced the idea of 4514:

reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018. A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at

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are the delivery platform. Google has managed this by using fault-tolerant software to recover from hardware failures, and is even working on the concept of replacing entire server farms on-the-fly, during a service event.

3820:– considered to be the most powerful computer in the world at that time. It was said that whenever Atlas went offline half of the United Kingdom's computer capacity was lost. It was a second-generation machine, using 4108:

The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor". The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the

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ran error-free for nine hours on the night of 16/17 June 1949. The machine's successful operation was widely reported in the British press, which used the phrase "electronic brain" in describing it to their readers.

2392:. The draft did not mention Eckert and Mauchly and, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas, the computer architecture it outlined became known as the ' 9738: 3727:

can be easily exchanged with another pack in a few seconds. Even if the removable disks' capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand.

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and not as a machine for practical use. However, the Manchester Mark 1 of 1949 (not to be confused with the 1948 prototype, the Baby) was available for university research in April 1949 despite being still under

6478:, p. 22: "von Neumann ... firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others. Letter by 11137: 4316:, the world's first complete, pre-assembled personal computer system. The central processing unit consisted of two cards, code named PUCE1 and PUCE2, and unlike most other personal computers was built with 2837:, a British catering company famous for its teashops but with strong interests in new office management techniques, decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The 2260:

and the others were destroyed. As a result, the machines were not included in many histories of computing. A reconstructed working copy of one of the Colossus machines is now on display at Bletchley Park.

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in 1940, described punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating-point representations, all on punched cards and

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library for scientific computing. In its E.T configuration, the Gamma 3 drum memory could fit about 50,000 instructions for a capacity of 16,384 words (around 100 kB), a large amount for the time.

6269: 2099:. They ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand. 5103:

calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a

4814:(1915–2008) served as the first corporate electronic systems analyst, for this first business computer system. LEO would calculate an employee's pay, handle billing, and other office automation tasks. 3588:

longer service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. Transistors greatly reduced computers' size, initial cost, and

9791: 3917:. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. Kilby's invention was a 636:

invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by

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included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns known as "wheel breaking". Both models were programmable using switches and plug panels in a way their predecessors had not been.

2379:, before the ENIAC was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed 9527: 4247:, small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses. Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond. 2272:, it was much faster and more flexible and was Turing-complete. Like the Colossi, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the 1553:'s 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as 9243: 5987: 9058: 4418:

air-defense computers became remarkably reliable – installed in pairs, one off-line, tubes likely to fail did so when the computer was intentionally run at reduced power to find them.

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Pakkiam, P.; Timofeev, A. V.; House, M. G.; Hogg, M. R.; Kobayashi, T.; Koch, M.; Rogge, S.; Simmons, M. Y. (26 November 2018). "Single-Shot Single-Gate rf Spin Readout in Silicon".

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By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals. Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable

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in modern CPUs, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called "barrels", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program might specify.

9377:"Since 2005, its data centers have been composed of standard shipping containers—each with 1,160 servers and a power consumption that can reach 250 kilowatts." —Ben Jai of Google. 901:

in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers. Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration.

9586: 9024: 2621:, concluded from their experiences with the Mark 1 that computers would be used more in scientific roles than in pure mathematics. In 1951 they started development work on 1120:. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary 9821: 2603:

in memory. Thirty-four patents resulted from the machine's development, and many of the ideas behind its design were incorporated in subsequent commercial products such as the

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Most of the use of Colossus was in determining the start positions of the Tunny rotors for a message, which was called "wheel setting". Colossus included the first-ever use of

9851: 1382:, weather effects on the air, and other adjustments; the computer would then output a firing solution, which would be fed to the turrets for laying. In 1912, British engineer 2386:

In 1945, von Neumann visited the Moore School and wrote notes on what he saw, which he sent to the project. The U.S. Army liaison there had them typed and circulated as the

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machine was used for high-level Army communications, code-named "Tunny" by the British. The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in 1941. As part of an attack on Tunny,

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operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. Later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form (e.g. distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a

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was invented in the 1620s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible.

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sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured

920:. Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as a vast number of administrative uses. The Astronomical Computing Bureau, 8991: 9422: 1232:, a clerk to a corn merchant in Dublin, Ireland. He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in 1909. 10294: 2756:

was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed

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The "brain" may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far.

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curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side. Later drawings (1858) depict a regularised grid layout. Like the

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system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was proven to have been a

699:, held together with the hands. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the 5158: 4502:

computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds. Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in

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using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture – the instruction format included the address of the next instruction – and software: the

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included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of

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in August 1953. Commercialization followed quickly. Magnetic core was used in peripherals of the IBM 702 delivered in July 1955, and later in the 702 itself. The

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of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his '

10068: 8261: 2268:(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC used similar technology to the 5895: 217: 6398: 391:

chip led to a series of breakthroughs, starting with transistor computers and then integrated circuit computers, causing digital computers to largely replace

12250: 1341:, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the 9950: 4878:

The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm, composed of 5.5 million transistors.

2998:, which also used multiple identical "bit slices" to simplify design. Interchangeable, replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the processor. 2091:, 40 miles (64 km) north of London, achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted enemy military communications. The German encryption machine, 1795:

applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the

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Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor. For example, while the communication processor controlled

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52 minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after the Baby had performed 3.5 million operations (for an effective CPU speed of 1.1

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elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines such as the

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was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories. It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to the Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete.

12209: 10076:, A record of a symposium and celebration, Aberdeen Proving Ground.: Army Research Laboratory and the U.S.Army Ordnance Center and School., archived from 12881: 12583: 11665: 11406: 10922: 8023: 7915:

How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda

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be relegated to anyone else if machines were used." However, Leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism. Leibniz also described the

11182: 7360: 4665:, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a 7073: 1363:

A Mk. I Drift Sight. The lever just in front of the bomb aimer's fingertips sets the altitude, the wheels near his knuckles set the wind and airspeed.

1337:, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by 13407: 12843: 12204: 12024: 10285: 9556: 9223: 5836: 4573: 695:

greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with the modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two

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Cortada, James W. (2009), "Public Policies and the Development of National Computer Industries in Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, 1940–80",

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for the IBM System/360 in 1964. As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494. The

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personally issued an order for their destruction into pieces no larger than a man's hand, to keep secret that the British were capable of cracking

532:, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. 10752: 3051:

As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic-core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original UNIX sites.

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in an X/Y line coincident-current setup. X and Y are drive lines, S is sense, Z is inhibit. Arrows indicate the direction of current for writing.

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at the University of Manchester. Work began in August 1948, and the first version was operational by April 1949; a program written to search for

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acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in

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invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious; the most powerful was constructed at the

1092:, originated the concept of a programmable computer, though none of his designs were successfully implemented until 1991. Often regarded as the " 9520: 4372:. Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now dominant in most market segments. 10115: 9085: 8207: 6309: 4240: 1841:), but to encode it. In November 1937, Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941), completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the " 1425:

from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the

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Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895

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may be the oldest known mathematical artifact. It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a

9048: 3661: 2400: 2202:. This enabled five different possible start positions to be examined for one transit of the paper tape. As well as wheel setting some later 1214: 10840: 5866: 4937:

is now Frontier (of Oak Ridge National Laboratory) at 1.102 ExaFlops, which is 2.66 times faster than Fugaku, now number two of the top 500.

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were considered by many to be the future of computing. These devices used the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as

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computing device, and was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It remained unknown, as a military secret, well into the 1970s.

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The existence of Colossus was kept secret by the UK Government for 30 years and so was not known to American computer scientists, such as

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of a baboon. It has a series of tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool. It was found in 1960 in Belgian Congo.

1557:. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an 1225:. This appears to be the first published description of programming, so Ada Lovelace is widely regarded as the first computer programmer. 12434: 9921: 8961: 8761: 8644: 8291: 6913: 5279: 11960: 8919: 6436: 5070: 2550:

of 32 words. As it was designed to be the simplest possible stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations implemented in

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Silicon Materials Science and Technology: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Silicon Materials Science and Technology

8125: 6779: 5550: 2158:. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of 2122:

was recommended to Max Newman by Alan Turing and spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the more flexible

1502:, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications. 436: 375:

The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary

260: 242: 59: 17: 12746: 10703: 9658: 9118: 7813: 7781: 5618: 12221: 12192: 11593: 10773: 9813: 8530: 11482: 11050: 10169: 9843: 6561: 5589: 656:

discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the

12273: 5672: 4953: 4356:, were sold as kits for do-it-yourselfers. Pre-assembled systems did not gain much ground until 1977, with the introduction of the 237: 212: 97: 9760: 8715: 7935:

How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States

6170: 2562:; other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The first of three programs written for the machine found the highest 2256:(from German rotor stream cipher machines) during the oncoming Cold War. Two of the machines were transferred to the newly formed 12874: 12707: 12576: 12455: 11884: 9578: 7757: 7670: 5507: 166: 12011: 8983: 5954: 13433: 11147: 10825: 9475: 9418: 7527: 7043: 6710: 5928: 5756: 4554:, and immediately started implementing their own systems. To this day, the rapid pace of development has continued, worldwide. 3824: 2749: 2376: 1477: 1349: 886:. That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of 290: 11245: 4258:

While which specific product is considered the first microcomputer system is a matter of debate, one of the earliest is R2E's

2864:

each ($ 11.7 million as of 2024). UNIVAC was the first "mass produced" computer. It used 5,200 vacuum tubes and consumed

2845:. On 17 November 1951, the J. Lyons company began weekly operation of a bakery valuations job on the LEO – the first business 2841:

computer (Lyons Electronic Office) became operational in April 1951 and ran the world's first regular routine office computer

2775:

in August 1949, but due to a number of problems, the computer only began operation in 1951, and then only on a limited basis.

11856: 11834: 11737: 11718: 11523: 11332: 11023: 10671:

In connection with the electric tabulation system which has been adopted by U.S. government for the work of the census bureau

10657: 10631: 10280: 9444: 9335: 8093: 7556: 6773: 6594: 5248: 5096: 5046: 4990: 3928:(IC) chip. His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of 2127: 2111: 812:

created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas

232: 10375: 7605: 7256: 3668:. The machine used a low clock speed of only 58 kHz to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock waveforms. 13412: 12848: 12068: 11750: 11171:[Simplified calculation by mechanical and graphical processes. First lesson: Arithmetic instruments and machines]. 10800: 10597: 8878: 4613: 4032: 3891: 3653: 2671: 2388: 1914:. In 1879 Gottlob Frege develops the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations. 1399: 140: 9296: 3861:, the CDC 6600 was the world's fastest computer from 1964 to 1969, when it relinquished that status to its successor, the 3723:

storage units, connected to the CPU via high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data storage units. A removable

1345:. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. 11111: 8824: 7507: 7421: 7385: 7094: 5205: 5164: 3060: 1252: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 9170: 7461: 3660:. The design featured a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the 12867: 12569: 11511: 11308: 11299: 10994: 10142: 9972: 9139: 8251: 4916: 4865: 4210:

During the 1960s, there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies. IBM implemented its

2248:

commands throughout occupied Europe. Details of their existence, design, and use were kept secret well into the 1970s.

1695: 1617:

due to their mechanical nature and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric components, originally using

340: 115: 12020: 11139:

Diccionario enciclopédico hispano-americano de literatura, ciencias y artes (Hispano-American Encyclopedic Dictionary)

10077: 9452: 8795: 7691: 5903: 1800: 1611: 1492: 1154:

There was to be a store (that is, a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 50 decimal digits each (ca. 16.6

12654: 12646: 11813: 11795: 11575: 11547: 11353: 11232: 11205: 11083: 10951: 10693: 10547: 10510: 10490: 10267: 10241: 10058: 8955: 8913: 8886: 8755: 8676: 8638: 8464: 6959: 6430: 6392: 5820: 4415: 4160:, a calculator manufacturer, had the initial insight that the CPU could be a single MOS LSI chip, supplied by Intel. 3805: 2934: 2478: 2179:

moved on to other projects. The first Mark 2 Colossus became operational on 1 June 1944, just in time for the Allied

1498:

By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but

1283: 749:

started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented a

7849: 3853:, released in 1964, is generally considered the first supercomputer. The CDC 6600 outperformed its predecessor, the 2367:

proposed, in August 1944, the construction of a machine called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (

1907: 1853:. Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes 13443: 12819: 6500: 6382: 3816:, and was first installed at Manchester University and officially commissioned in 1962 as one of the world's first 3563: 2405: 135: 120: 11169:"Calcul simplifié par des procédés mécaniques et graphiques. Premier cours: Instruments et machines arithmétiques" 6241:

Memoria sobre las máquinas algébricas: con un informe de la Real academia de ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales

5792:"'Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat" ['Anita' the first portable electronic computer]. 3703:, captured about one third of the world market. IBM installed more than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964. 12659: 11889: 10310: 9942: 4317: 3023: 2901:

Compared to the UNIVAC, IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in 1954 that proved very popular. The

2694:

EDSAC 1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.

1943:, which are now ubiquitous in digital computers. They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the 1837:

and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an

898: 887: 415:(PC), in the 1970s. The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then 227: 161: 145: 10500: 1865:. In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including 1048:

EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm)

804:

Detail of an arithmometer built before 1851. The one-digit multiplier cursor (ivory top) is the leftmost cursor.

528:–2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European 11672: 11533: 11241: 10389:

Davenport, Wilbur B. Jr; Root, William L. (1958), "An Introduction to the theory of Random Signals and Noise",

8312:

Wells, Benjamin (18 November 2010). "Unwinding performance and power on Colossus, an unconventional computer".

8031: 7175: 6746: 4097:(LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to 3672: 3635: 2768: 990:

made desktop mechanical calculators from the 1930s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. In 1948, the

222: 10913: 10346: 9209: 8491:

Cooke-Yarborough, E.H.; Barnes, R.C.M.; Stephen, J.H.; Howells, G.A. (1956). "A transistor digital computer".

3200: 2965:. Microprogramming allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now called 2028:. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the 13448: 12831: 9611: 7227: 4583: 3925: 2846: 2305: 1446: 789:, a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including 333: 321: 191: 181: 11227:, Prentice Hall Modern Semiconductor Design Series Sub Series: PH Signal Integrity Library, pp. 1–464, 7065: 3664:. By 1953 this team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller magnetic drum from the 1189:

Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum, London

13270: 13241: 9552: 7942: 7922: 7876: 6260: 5844: 5178:

Koetsier, Teun (2001), "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators",

4468: 4284:. However, the Altair 8800 was an extremely limited system in its initial stages, having only 256 bytes of 3209: 2119: 2017: 1986: 1967: 1756: 307: 295: 130: 11936: 11927: 11918: 4506:; stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for 3924:

Noyce came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year after Kilby. Noyce's invention was a

2216:

was the first Turing-complete electronic device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the

1575:: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. 1255:, an arithmetic unit on which commands could be typed and the results printed automatically. Bush's paper 13067: 13009: 10889: 7293: 6200: 4887:

In the defense field, considerable work was done in the computerized implementation of equations such as

4270:) launched "early 1973" using the Intel 8008. The first commercially available microcomputer kit was the 3685: 3676: 3573: 2857: 972: 716:

degrees can be avoided. Guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation.

664:', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division. 125: 11683:— (1938). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction". 3257: 2102:

The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The

1104:, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an 539:

were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included the

13246: 12688: 11324: 10758: 7735: 6113:"From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush" 4436: 4211: 3729: 3681: 3638:, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. The 1955 version used 200 transistors, 1,300 2745: 2413: 2372: 2241: 1510: 1473: 1147:, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as 196: 11585: 8816: 8228: 6851:

Guarnieri, M. (2012). "The Age of Vacuum Tubes: Merging with Digital Computing [Historical]".

6255: 1955:

design. In addition Shannon's paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder.

1178:(CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely on its own internal procedures, roughly equivalent to 574: 13060: 10217:(7th ed.), General Electric, Semiconductor Products Department, Syracuse, NY, pp. 139–204, 9301: 8199: 6313: 5104: 4149: 3918: 3887: 3740: 3665: 3177: 2682:

EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares and a list of

2614: 2505: 2482: 1932: 1813:

Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of

1772: 1426: 1248: 987: 883: 773: 569: 470: 10351:, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRAC), 3 June 2005, archived from 10197: 10095: 9079: 6054: 5478: 5423: 4267: 3995:

in 1959. In addition to data processing, the MOSFET enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as

3691:

The Manchester University Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of

2645:

The other contender for being the first recognizably modern digital stored-program computer was the

1590:. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be 13438: 13377: 13290: 13263: 13234: 12997: 12061: 11363: 11172: 11168: 10276: 7880: 6015: 5063: 4541:

Computing hardware and its software have even become a metaphor for the operation of the universe.

4507: 4168: 3961: 3842: 3627: 3612: 2974: 2792: 2676: 2393: 2315: 1944: 1870: 1796: 1599: 1579: 1465: 1342: 1338: 1041: 1025: 10871: 9396: 6626: 6218: 3849:

to use innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance. The

2875:

mercury delay lines capable of storing 1,000 words of 11 decimal digits plus sign (72-bit words).

1197:. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been 13320: 13315: 13203: 13176: 12779: 12732: 12676: 11994: 10259: 9144: 9053: 9020: 8947: 8847: 8256: 7137: 6214: 5124: 4790: 4439:(CAM) has become inexpensive enough to be used in networking, and is frequently used for on-chip 4411: 4219: 4094: 4024: 3996: 3914: 3776: 3763: 3639: 3605: 3597: 3454: 3423: 2954: 2772: 2662: 2571:). The successive approximations to the answer were displayed as a pattern of dots on the output 2568: 2474: 2409: 2299: 2273: 2041: 1948: 1771:. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as 1418: 1323: 1236: 1222: 1175: 1053: 400: 171: 11942: 11908: 8454: 6119: 4519:, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3 4484:

into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless

691:. His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division. 11539: 11275: 10821: 10704:"Lewis Fry Richardson and his contributions to Mathematics, Meteorology and Models of Conflict" 10192: 9913: 9408:"If you're running 10,000 machines, something is going to die every day." —Jeff Dean of Google. 8666: 7933: 7913: 7341: 6621: 4972: 4082: 3788: 2225: 1903: 1814: 800: 754: 734: 580:

Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the

186: 11016:

Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942

8941: 8741: 8628: 8283: 8083: 6905: 5287: 3041: 2826:. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to 1997:

were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used

13210: 12756: 11968: 10649: 10623: 8903: 6738: 6420: 5264: 4608: 4563: 4120:

in 1970, developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first single-chip microprocessor was the

3736: 3711:

Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the

3630:, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power. Their first 3593: 2823: 2819: 2408:(NPL) Executive Committee in March 1946, giving the first substantially complete design of a 2229: 1971: 1587: 1453: 1391: 1334: 1163: 1159: 1136: 1128: 1007: 917: 825: 809: 786: 750: 544: 251: 8116: 7806: 7788: 6763: 4101:

was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete

2599:, an innovation which made it easier for a program to read sequentially through an array of 1963: 13198: 12826: 12006: 11375: 11071: 10779: 10734: 10718: 10431: 10422: 10398: 10107: 9695: 9106: 7851:

Our Computer Heritage Pilot Study: Deliveries of Ferranti Mark I and Mark I Star computers.

6654: 5610: 4978: 4749: 4618: 4568: 4535: 4531: 4472: 4333: 4294: 4196: 4044: 4016: 4012: 4004: 3974: 3692: 3657: 3011: 2804: 2595:

The computer is especially historically significant because of its pioneering inclusion of

2501: 2440: 2423:

were crucial elements, so he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25

2180: 2167: 2152: 2080: 2048: 1878: 1866: 1842: 1745: 1707: 1699: 1563: 1307: 956: 712: 688: 629: 404: 32: 11488: 8538: 6553: 4263: 3346: 8: 13072: 12814: 12054: 11279: 11042: 10674: 10459:, Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University, pp. 101–114, 10163: 8823:, "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", issued 1961-04-25, assigned to 6277: 5664: 5581: 5210: 4974:

Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures

4957: 4588: 4523:; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics. 4280: 4048: 3940:, which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of 3748: 3631: 3557: 3091: 2626: 2149: 2077: 2013: 1918: 1894: 1434: 1368: 1274: 1097: 983: 921: 840:. These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently 641: 82: 11851:. Translated by McKenna, Patricia; Ross, J. Andrew. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. 11379: 11181:]. 2nd (in French). Vol. V. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Fils. pp. 231–268. 11075: 10722: 10435: 10402: 10111: 9699: 8719: 6658: 6162: 4982: 3921:(hybrid IC). It had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce. 12516: 12417: 12077: 11634: 11436: 11102: 10863: 10642: 10616: 10568: 10535: 10372:

Columbia University Computing History: A Chronology of Computing at Columbia University

10335: 10327: 10028: 9874:, pp. 53–57. Pages 220–226 are annotated references and guide for further reading. 9711: 9685: 9641: 9235: 8337: 8180: 8064: 8004: 7662: 7219: 6948: 6868: 6802:

Begriffsschrift: eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens

6672: 6363: 5722: 5499: 5473: 4753: 4598: 4578: 4481: 4227: 4114: 4110: 4102: 3983:(metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by 3880: 3771: 2991: 2764: 2517: 2217: 2029: 2025: 1978: 1854: 1539: 1438: 1359: 1295: 964: 879: 867: 621: 556: 388: 176: 7748: 7647: 7630: 5950: 5639: 5191: 4444:

processes on them; this allows price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s,

2492:

The machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a

2334:

got to know him and became intrigued by his concept of a universal computing machine.

866:

that could then be read by a machine. To process these punched cards, he invented the

13220: 13084: 12982: 12894: 12797: 12339: 12245: 11852: 11830: 11809: 11791: 11733: 11714: 11571: 11543: 11519: 11391: 11349: 11328: 11312: 11295: 11228: 11201: 11191: 11079: 11065: 11019: 10982: 10947: 10689: 10683: 10653: 10627: 10576: 10553: 10543: 10506: 10486: 10470: 10339: 10263: 10237: 10218: 10138: 10131: 10054: 10048: 9715: 9646: 9467: 9365: 8951: 8909: 8905:

To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology

8882: 8751: 8672: 8634: 8460: 8329: 8089: 7996: 7535: 7499: 7433: 7393: 7035: 6955: 6769: 6742: 6732: 6702: 6426: 6388: 6291: 5924: 5816: 5809: 5752: 5726: 5562: 5528: 5326:

Meli, Domenico Bertolini (1992). "Guidobaldo Dal Monte and the Archimedean Revival".

5244: 5092: 5042: 4986: 4720: 4702: 4645: 4526: 4491: 3984: 3949: 3906: 3886:

The idea of an integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the

3515: 3468: 3295: 3236: 2872: 2827: 2811: 2796: 2757: 2737: 2686:.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the first commercially applied computer, the 2584: 2551: 2529: 2380: 2364: 2286: 2269: 2249: 2203: 2184: 2131: 2123: 2060: 1990: 1742: 1387: 1194: 1171: 1108:, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via 1105: 1101: 1079: 1065: 999: 841: 719: 700: 696: 661: 637: 597: 548: 412: 50: 11650: 11440: 11153: 10815: 10032: 9239: 8184: 8068: 8008: 7223: 6872: 6367: 5366: 13055: 12946: 12536: 12440: 12166: 12001: 11746: 11692: 11626: 11469: 11456: 11426: 11418: 11383: 11254: 10867: 10855: 10726: 10666: 10460: 10439: 10406: 10319: 10281:"Note sur un moyen de tracer des courbes données par des équations différentielles" 10202: 10159: 10155: 10018: 9703: 9636: 9626: 9227: 8747: 8500: 8420: 8341: 8321: 8172: 8056: 7988: 7929: 7909: 7642: 7564: 7211: 6860: 6676: 6662: 6602: 6355: 6281: 6273: 5714: 5558: 5554: 5335: 5187: 4694: 4485: 4477: 3854: 3835: 3831: 3801: 3680:

batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors meant that the machine's

3396: 3182: 3086: 3006: 2973:). This concept greatly simplified CPU development. He first described this at the 2962: 2958: 2834: 2691: 2666: 2600: 2572: 2543: 2540: 2513: 2350: 2338: 2331: 2092: 1928: 1862: 1698:. It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by 1583: 1572: 1469: 1442: 1311: 1185: 1093: 1049: 1003: 991: 859: 777: 692: 625: 502: 416: 106: 11617:(1937). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". 11455:(Thesis), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, 11032:

Martin, Douglas (29 June 2008), "David Caminer, 92 Dies; A Pioneer in Computers",

10165:

Preliminary discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument

9327: 4698: 2457: 1488: 1356:

of order eight, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths.

998:. It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of 847: 13215: 13193: 13156: 13104: 12924: 12919: 12911: 12542: 12530: 12375: 12363: 12226: 12197: 12154: 12148: 11897: 11638: 11387: 11316: 11287: 11197: 10730: 10367: 10151: 8611: 7597: 7248: 6479: 6240: 6095: 6076:"Essais sur l'Automatique - Sa définition. Etendue théorique de ses applications" 5215: 5016: 4593: 4460: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4329: 4192: 4189: 4176: 4153: 4137: 4133: 3941: 3895: 3821: 3744: 3437: 3131: 3026:(ERA) in 1946 and 1947. ERA, then a part of Univac included a drum memory in its 2800: 2784: 2547: 2533: 2470: 2462: 2452: 2420: 2199: 2163: 2103: 1952: 1911: 1885: 1838: 1807: 1776: 1711: 1703: 1687: 1645: 1591: 1568: 1531: 1499: 1379: 1291: 1268: 1243:, also did follow on research based on Babbage's work. In 1914, Torres published 1198: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1085: 1075: 832:

in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from

790: 536: 474: 424: 392: 92: 12029: 11422: 10794: 10588: 10420:(1935), "The Computation of Special Perturbations by the Punched Card Method.", 6384:

The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemunde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era

6041:

Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones,

4423:

Today, the requirement of reliable performance is made even more stringent when

3751:

rate, and other databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices. On the

2760:. However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered. 2383:. However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered. 2341:', that could be altered by changing electrical connections using switches or a 761: 13280: 13181: 12951: 12934: 12524: 11706: 11696: 11630: 11614: 11589: 11448: 11402: 9631: 9292: 9231: 8411:

Cooke-Yarborough, E.H. (1998). "Some early transistor applications in the UK".

8348: 8160: 7976: 7626: 7487: 7441: 7401: 7098: 6346:

Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer".

5084: 4666: 4603: 4325: 4313: 4305: 4239:(1971) on minicomputers, one of the programs for electronic design automation ( 4215: 4090: 4086: 4078: 4028: 4000: 3937: 3589: 3264: 2987: 2946: 2842: 2807: 2744:'s construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the 2687: 2650: 2622: 2596: 2588: 2563: 2195: 2191: 2137: 2088: 1921: 1899: 1834: 1822: 1784: 1679: 1667: 1554: 1414: 1316: 1070: 995: 960: 837: 529: 469:

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using

408: 12505: 12040: 11954: 11097: 9707: 8325: 7469: 6016:"1907: was the first portable computer design Irish? | Ingenious Ireland" 5533:

The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890–1940

5219: 2047:

Computers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as

13427: 13382: 13372: 13352: 13168: 13094: 13047: 12992: 12987: 12939: 12601: 11765: 11271: 11000: 10939: 10564: 10531: 10465: 10323: 10251: 10229: 10222: 10206: 9973:"Japan's New Fugaku Supercomputer Is Number One, Ranking in at 415 Petaflops" 9612:"Exponential suppression of bit or phase errors with cyclic error correction" 9214: 9175: 8504: 8333: 8000: 7731: 7503: 7437: 7397: 7195: 6891: 6864: 6483: 6295: 6108: 5566: 4930: 4811: 4794: 4369: 4244: 4223: 4141: 3817: 3797: 3696: 3649: 3458: 3322: 3174: 3163: 3037: 2979: 2497: 2253: 2176: 2159: 2115: 2009: 1982: 1936: 1898:, published in 1854. His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by 1858: 1780: 1738: 1730: 1641: 1629: 1457: 1383: 1240: 1229: 1117: 904: 833: 829: 781: 746: 738: 684: 506: 12859: 12561: 11341: 9731:"Google Builds Circuit to Solve One of Quantum Computing's Biggest Problems" 8424: 8060: 7992: 7699: 7215: 6359: 5339: 4648:

era, about 18,000 to 20,000 BC. It is a dark brown length of bone, the

3395:

Read-only stored-programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program

1788: 1550: 13258: 13146: 13129: 13124: 12902: 11395: 11283: 11093: 10474: 10044: 10009:(August 1978), "Can Programming be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?", 9650: 8820: 8785: 7812:. The EDSAC Replica Project, The National Museum of Computing. March 2018. 7756:, University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, 6 May 1999, pp. 68–69, 5718: 4849: 4824: 4770: 4706: 4637: 4464: 4440: 4419: 4404: 4204: 4172: 4129: 4060: 3910: 3846: 3716: 3592:. Typically, second-generation computers were composed of large numbers of 3284: 3128: 2883: 2838: 2799:. The main improvements over the Manchester Mark 1 were in the size of the 2733: 2683: 2360: 2310: 2282: 2172: 2002: 1998: 1889: 1857:

is used, especially in high-density memory. Modern computers generally use

1850: 1671: 1660: 1430: 1210: 1132: 1109: 1045: 1011: 979: 924:, performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in 908: 863: 813: 640:

centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and

613: 609: 514: 490: 482: 451: 10996:"Do not fold, spindle or mutilate": A cultural history of the punched card 10557: 10483:

Minicomputer Systems: organization, programming, and applications (PDP-11)

10023: 9844:"Quantum Computing Breakthrough: Silicon Qubits Interact at Long-Distance" 7855: 2977:

Computer Inaugural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded form in

2473:(Small Scale Experimental Machine, SSEM) was the world's first electronic 2024:

in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the

1367:

An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first

1352:

since 1895, including one that was able to compute the roots of arbitrary

13357: 13325: 13228: 13188: 13151: 13119: 12961: 12294: 11844: 11822: 11179:

Annals of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, edited by the professors

11174:

Annales du Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, éditées par les professeurs

10452: 10417: 10183:

Chua, Leon O. (September 1971), "Memristor—The Missing Circuit Element",

10040: 10006: 7483: 6508: 6075: 6043:

Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.

5013: 4766: 4448: 4424: 4400: 4349: 4321: 4275: 4036: 3988: 3945: 3767: 3616: 3584: 3486: 3427: 3223: 3160: 3147: 3115: 3027: 3019: 2879: 2815: 2618: 2555: 2521: 2509: 2486: 2342: 2337:

Early computing machines executed the set sequence of steps, known as a '

2323: 2146: 2074: 2033: 2021: 1726: 1691: 1683: 1637: 1618: 1542: 1410: 1395: 1327: 1202: 1167: 1029: 766: 676: 653: 633: 601: 581: 552: 478: 365: 12499: 11666:"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" 11651:"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" 11461: 11431: 10618:

Targeting the Computer: Government Support and International Competition

10331: 4259: 3719:

were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits. Next to the

3022:

were developed for the US Navy during WW II with the work continuing at

1193:

The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day

13089: 13019: 13014: 13004: 12481: 12399: 10909: 10580: 9888: 7977:"From Gamma 2 to Gamma E.T.: The Birth of Electronic Computing at Bull" 7787:. Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick. Archived from 6286: 4956:. University of Western Australia School of Mathematics. Archived from 4432: 4396: 4392: 4271: 4250: 4163: 4125: 4121: 4020: 4008: 3902: 3827: 3732:

provided archival capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk.

3720: 3712: 3620: 3601: 3580: 3568: 3191: 2575:

which mirrored the pattern held on the Williams tube used for storage.

2432: 2237: 2107: 1940: 1760: 1622: 1578:

He also introduced the notion of a "universal machine" (now known as a

1422: 1375: 1353: 1037: 1022: 937: 729: 680: 617: 593: 589: 446: 420: 384: 376: 10859: 10410: 8176: 7877:"A brief history of British computers: the first 25 years (1948–1973)" 5039:

The Universal Book of Mathematics From Abracadabra to Zeno's Paradoxes

4900:

IBM's 127-qubit computer cannot be simulated on traditional computers.

4089:, MOS IC chips rapidly increased in complexity at a rate predicted by 4073:

History of computing hardware (1960s–present) § Fourth generation

3066:

Defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s

2322:

The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was proposed by

2032:

network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of

1721: 1636:

built with electromechanical relays and was created by civil engineer

1228:

Following Babbage, although at first unaware of his earlier work, was

955:

to perform mathematical calculations. By the 1920s, British scientist

13367: 13362: 13346: 13275: 13114: 12966: 12929: 12740: 12493: 12487: 12475: 12411: 12405: 12387: 12160: 12015: 11553:

Pages 220–226 are annotated references and guide for further reading.

11218:(in French), Clermont-Ferrand: La Française d'Edition et d'Imprimerie 6667: 6642: 5021: 4641: 4456: 4298: 4098: 4040: 3992: 3953: 3933: 3875:

History of computing hardware (1960s–present) § Third generation

3724: 3624: 2970: 2957:

of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialized

2950: 2536:, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer. 2346: 2245: 1849:

itchen table", on which he had assembled it), which became the first

1768: 1640:

in 1940 in Germany. It was an improvement on his earlier, mechanical

1595: 1558: 1406: 1402:

fire control system was fitted to British capital ships by mid-1916.

1303: 1299: 1179: 925: 894: 657: 585: 560: 540: 518: 12034: 11941:

1958–1967 Pictorial Report on the Computer Field – December issues (

11755:, Moore School of Electrical Engineering: University of Pennsylvania 8490: 7348:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 305 pages. QA76.W5 1956. 6980: 3684:

was about 90 minutes, but this improved once the more reliable

3671:

CADET used 324-point-contact transistors provided by the UK company

3030:, announced in February 1953. The first mass-produced computer, the 13305: 12956: 12891: 12721: 12469: 12381: 12333: 10444: 10352: 9917: 9690: 9659:"Physicists move closer to defeating errors in quantum computation" 9272: 9049:"1970: MOS Dynamic RAM Competes with Magnetic Core Memory on Price" 7199: 7142:, College Campus Washington: The American National Archive (NARA), 4357: 4309: 4290: 4081:

as the basis of their logic. The microprocessor has origins in the

3952:'s work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide at 3862: 3850: 3809: 3700: 2966: 2867: 2853: 2788: 2559: 2489:

and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.

2424: 2233: 2155: 1925: 1874: 1803: 1633: 1452:

The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the

1155: 1089: 1033: 871: 723: 486: 369: 73: 11592:, "Complex Computer", issued 1954-02-09, assigned to 11568:

From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of the Eckert-Mauchly Computers

10133:

Battle of wits: The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II

8197: 7462:"Why Williams-Kilburn Tube is a Better Name for the Williams Tube" 3747:

would bear data between the main CPU and core memory at the CPU's

3040:

memory patented in 1949 with its first usage demonstrated for the

1348:

A notable series of analog calculating machines were developed by

1059: 967:

to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on

687:

built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the

596:(c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval 13139: 13077: 13031: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12606: 12369: 12327: 12216: 12091: 11804:

Ziemer, Roger E.; Tranter, William H.; Fannin, D. Ronald (1993),

10540:

Feynman Lectures on Physics: Mainly Mechanics, Radiation and Heat

9445:"Intel Shows 48-core x86 Processor as Single-chip Cloud Computer" 8493:

Proceedings of the IEE - Part B: Radio and Electronic Engineering

8232: 7884: 4934: 4353: 4157: 3929: 3813: 3756: 3275: 3142: 3110: 3045: 3034:, also announced in 1953 had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory. 3031: 2995: 2902: 2895: 2675:

and was one of the first usefully operational electronic digital

2658: 2610: 2605: 2493: 1733:, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer 1664: 1632:

was one of the earliest examples of an electric operated digital

1121: 667: 605: 462: 380: 11989: 10644:

Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology

10256:

Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers

9814:"House Passes Bill to Create National Quantum Computing Program" 9013:"1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" 8843:"1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented" 8612:

Sao-Jie Chen; Guang-Huei Lin; Pao-Ann Hsiung; Yu-Hen Hu (2009).

8235:, "Pulse transfer controlling device", issued 1955-05-17 7249:"How the World's First Computer Was Rescued From the Scrap Heap" 5267:(May 1991). "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East". 2890: 13253: 13026: 12764: 12463: 12393: 12351: 12345: 12315: 12309: 12187: 12108: 10502:

Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet

7948: 4649: 4520: 4516: 4361: 4179:

that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, RAM, EPROM, and I/O

4056: 3980: 3525: 1792: 1775:. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in 1748:, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 1648:, it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical 1527: 1523: 1464:

starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of

510: 498: 494: 396: 11411:

Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers

11128:

Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers

9610:

Julian Kelly; et al. (Google Quantum AI) (15 July 2021).

9308: 6193:"The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage" 5896:"Babbage's Analytical Engine: The First True Digital Computer" 4320:

components rather than a microprocessor. It had one or two 8"

2994:

and other computers; it was implemented for the first time in

1279: 1100:

in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary

12715: 12696: 12131: 12125: 12046: 11098:"Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage" 10455:(1940), "XII: "The Computation of Planetary Perturbations"", 7163: 5705:

Light, Jennifer S. (July 1999). "When Computers Were Women".

4499: 4365: 4345: 4337: 4236: 4200: 4185: 4145: 4117: 4077:

The "fourth-generation" of digital electronic computers used

4052: 3858: 3752: 3642: 3623:

instead of valves. Initially the only devices available were

3497: 3406: 3378: 3353: 2753: 2741: 2729: 2708: 2646: 2637: 2428: 2368: 2356: 2281:(equivalent to about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of 2265: 2213: 2198:, enabling five simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 2096: 2095:, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical 2064: 1994: 1764: 1749: 1656: 1649: 1519: 1515: 1481: 968: 947: 875: 794: 10841:"A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems" 9501: 8141: 5968: 5307: 5295: 4954:"A very brief history of pure mathematics: The Ishango Bone" 4852:

used remote terminals to communicate cross-country with the

4827:

stated that "there was something special about the IBM 650".

3879:

The "third-generation" of digital electronic computers used

3583:

was invented in 1947. From 1955 onward transistors replaced

3061:

Analytical Engine § Comparison to other early computers

1538:

The principle of the modern computer was first described by

679:

can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the

13330: 13224: 12357: 12321: 11773:

Wilkes, Maurice (1986), "The Genesis of Microprogramming",

8790: 8593: 8581: 8511: 8391: 8389: 8387: 8372: 7730:

To be precise, EDSAC's first program printed a list of the

7631:"The EDSAC (Electronic delay storage automatic calculator)" 4910: 4853: 4445: 4388: 4285: 4278:, which was announced in the January 1975 cover article of 3857:, by about a factor of 3. With performance of about 1 2512:

at the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was a

2257: 2069: 1674:. The bombe's initial design was created in 1939 at the UK 1514:

Parts from four early computers, 1962. From left to right:

1372: 1113: 564: 458: 11321:

The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Volume III: Endings

9605: 9603: 7307: 6832: 3834:, "considered by many to be the first recognisable modern 2860:. Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than 2532:. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the 1690:. The engineering design and construction was the work of 942: 513:

was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the

13310: 13134: 10891:

The Log-Log Duplex Decitrig Slide Rule No. 4081: A Manual

10368:"The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC)" 10150: 9883: 9114: 8320:(4). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1383–1405. 7598:"Pioneering Edsac computer to be built at Bletchley Park" 5686: 5274: 4195:

that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of

3099: 3054: 2353:), in memory – typically the same memory as stored data. 2175:

took over leadership of the Colossus Mark 2 project when

2005:

for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.

1753: 1461: 851: 465:(The number represented on this abacus is 6,302,715,408.) 364:

covers the developments from early simple devices to aid

11518:, Pan Grand Strategy Series, London: Pan MacMillan Ltd, 9761:"Exclusive: IBM achieves quantum computing breakthrough" 9675: 8743:

Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts

8614:

Hardware software co-design of a multimedia SOC platform

8569: 8557: 8384: 7830: 7577: 7319: 7016: 5437: 3944:. The planar process was developed by Noyce's colleague 2928:($ 5.67 million as of 2024) or could be leased for 2721: 2711:

computer, long before the era of the personal computers.

2524:, and was used successfully in several early computers. 2435:

calls, whereas the EDVAC did not, and the ACE also used

1561:. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the 1390:(called at the time the Argo Clock). It was used by the 411:, leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized 12007:

The History of Japanese Mechanical Calculating Machines

11561:(3rd ed.), New York: Dover, pp. 92–95, p. 301 9600: 9043: 9041: 7105: 6992: 6968: 6327: 6169:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017. 6136: 5399: 4977:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1356. 3901:

The first working integrated circuits were invented by

3619:

designed and built a machine using the newly developed

3485:

Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory and

2054: 1737:

In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the

1612:

Mechanical computer § Electro-mechanical computers

1112:, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical 11043:"How the web was won: an oral history of the internet" 8984:"Apollo Guidance Computer and the First Silicon Chips" 7117: 6534: 6055:"Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas" 5806: 5241:

Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction

4410:

Systems as complicated as computers require very high

3936:. The basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's 2913:

and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5

477:. The earliest counting device was probably a form of 11829:(in German) (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 11407:"A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits" 10964:(2nd ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society 9579:"IBM Raises the Bar with a 50-Qubit Quantum Computer" 9262: 9260: 7663:"A brief informal history of the Computer Laboratory" 7432:(4), The Computer Conservation Society, Summer 1992, 6256:"A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle" 6232: 5640:(1928) On the Construction of Tables by Interpolation 5387: 5375: 5011: 4494:

is an emerging technology in the field of computing.

2625:, the Mark 1's successor, which would include a 2613:

as well as the Ferranti Mark 1. The chief designers,

2330:. Whilst Turing was at Princeton working on his PhD, 971:

are needed to adequately model its weather using the

959:'s interest in weather prediction led him to propose 950:

calculator could also do multiplication and division.

567:. The steam-powered automatic flute described by the 12037:– An introductory course on the history of computing 11311:(2010), "Science, technology, and the Cold War", in 10817:

Punched Cards: A brief illustrated technical history

10563: 10530: 10481:

Eckhouse, Richard H. Jr.; Morris, L. Robert (1979),

9943:"ORNL's Frontier First to Break the Exaflop Ceiling" 9841: 9468:"Intel unveils 48-core cloud computing silicon chip" 9132: 9038: 8835: 8354: 8305: 7270: 7004: 6888:

Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and its Technology

5988:"The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection" 5867:"Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer" 4498:

reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-

4344:

From 1975 to 1977, most microcomputers, such as the

2856:(Universal Automatic Computer) was delivered to the 2232:

that was obtained from reading the vast quantity of

2114:, a fixed-function machine to aid in code breaking. 1655:

In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called

1386:

developed the first electrically powered mechanical

11911:Magazine – Pictorial Report on the Computer Field: 11803: 11790:, Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society, 11732:(in French), Clermont-Ferrand: Muséum Henri-Lecoq, 11484:

Singer in World War II, 1939–1945 — the M5 Director

11453:

A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits

9210:"The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors" 8406: 8404: 6820: 6808: 6683: 6522: 6455: 6453: 5864: 5753:"Friden Model STW-10 Electro-Mechanical Calculator" 5449: 5198: 4480:(system on a chip) has compressed even more of the 4233:

simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis

584:and other mechanical computing devices invented by 11223:Pellerin, David; Thibault, Scott (22 April 2005), 10641: 10615: 10130: 9257: 8696: 8668:The American Midwest: an interpretive encyclopedia 8545: 7166:; Fensom, Harry; Milne, Frank A. (15 March 1995), 7162: 7097:. The National Museum of Computing. Archived from 6950:The First Electronic Computer: the Atanasoff story 6947: 6641:Williams, F. C.; Kilburn, T. (25 September 1948). 6575: 5808: 5665:"A Chronology of Computing at Columbia University" 5644: 5539: 5243:. Austin: University of Texas press. p. 184. 4679:Robson has recommended at least one supplement to 3999:storage elements, a function previously served by 3792:The University of Manchester Atlas in January 1963 3652:of 1955, built by the electronics division of the 1686:, with an important refinement devised in 1940 by 1545:, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, 1251:. In 1920, he presented in a Paris conference the 12025:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 11362: 11189: 11185:from the original on 2018-08-09 – via CNAM. 10070:Fifty Years of Army Computing: from ENIAC to MSRC 9918:Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik 9278: 9224:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 8085:Information Revolution in the History of the West 6755: 5843:. Science Museum. 19 January 2007. Archived from 5138: 4680: 4662: 4455:CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a 2419:Turing considered that the speed and the size of 1917:In the 1930s and working independently, American 1505: 13425: 11366:(1981), "Decipherment of the earliest tablets", 11222: 11091: 10575:, vol. III, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 9005: 8437: 8410: 8401: 8360: 7903: 7901: 6799: 6450: 5974: 5733: 4243:). The microprocessor led to the development of 3739:, the main CPU executed calculations and binary 1487:A fully electronic analog computer was built by 1286:'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81 647: 592:and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by 559:(c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including 11951:Bit by Bit: An Illustrated History of Computers 11292:A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century 10168:, Princeton, NJ: Institute for Advanced Study, 8940:Huff, Howard R.; Tsuya, H.; Gösele, U. (1998). 8939: 8198:T. Kilburn; R. B. Payne; D. J. Howarth (1962). 7854:, Computer Conservation Society, archived from 7669:. University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. 7520: 6640: 6085: 6080:Revue Génerale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées 5163:, vol. 2611, New Scientist, archived from 4226:, which allowed for simpler programming. These 3868: 3370:Program-controlled by patch cables and switches 3313:Program-controlled by patch cables and switches 3254:Program-controlled by patch cables and switches 2655:University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory 1884:The mathematical basis of digital computing is 1767:. Program code and data were stored on punched 1162:(the "mill") would be able to perform all four 1060:First proposed general-purpose computing device 819: 12041:Revolution – The First 2000 Years Of Computing 11685:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 11619:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 11584: 11346:The First Computers: History and Architectures 10887: 10573:Feynman Lectures on Physics: Quantum Mechanics 10542:, vol. I, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 10480: 10457:Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation 10067:Bergin, Thomas J., ed. (13–14 November 1996), 9389:"Google spotlights data center inner workings" 9314: 8908:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. 8665:Sisson, Richard; Zacher, Christian K. (2006). 8626: 7779: 7563:, The University of Manchester, archived from 6554:"A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On" 6494: 6492: 6052: 5313: 5301: 3965:each in the command and lunar ascent modules. 2465:, the first electronic stored-program computer 2228:would have been deprived of the very valuable 1799:, first implemented in 1948 in America in the 1605: 913:Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation 577:may have been the first programmable device. 13408:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 12889: 12875: 12844:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 12591: 12577: 12062: 12023:(archived) – a collection of articles by the 11609:(in French), Presses universitaires de France 11607:Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je ? n° 198 11516:Station X: The Codebreakers of Bletchley Park 11340: 11135: 11122:With notes upon the Memoir by the Translator. 10388: 9140:"1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced" 8252:"1953: Whirlwind computer debuts core memory" 7898: 7625: 6762:Dunn, J. Michael; Hardegree, Gary M. (2001). 6761: 6312:. National Museum of the USAF. Archived from 6053:Torres Quevedo, Leonardo (19 November 1914). 5829: 5061: 4724: 4685:Englund, R. (1993). "The origins of script". 4574:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 4379:development tools and libraries were used by 4105:could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. 2087:During World War II, British codebreakers at 1958: 1676:Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) 1405:Mechanical devices were also used to aid the 874:machine. His machines used electromechanical 341: 11806:Signals and Systems: Continuous and Discrete 11762:The Hut Six Story: Breaking the Enigma Codes 11132:German to English translation, M.I.T., 1969. 10688:(2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, 10681: 10286:Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées 9609: 8718:. Texas Instruments. c. 2008. Archived from 8708: 8664: 8147: 5420:"Schickard versus Pascal - an empty debate?" 3783: 2012:joined the telecommunications branch of the 1951:. This thesis essentially founded practical 1939:and certain electrical circuits, now called 1906:, and was first presented systematically by 1096:", he conceptualized and invented the first 753:. He built twenty of these machines (called 454:is thought to be a Paleolithic tally stick. 11745: 11730:Les Machines Arithmétiques de Blaise Pascal 11216:Les machines arithmétiques de Blaise Pascal 11040: 10796:Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004 9553:"How the PC is merging with the smartphone" 8627:Impagliazzo, John; Lee, John A. N. (2004). 8563: 8413:Engineering Science & Education Journal 7358: 7352: 6954:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 6501:"Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers" 6489: 4066: 4011:, was cheaper and consumed less power than 3542:Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory 2909:, the attached power supply weighed around 797:of 1945) were based on the decimal system. 501:. Later record keeping aids throughout the 12882: 12868: 12584: 12570: 12069: 12055: 11594:American Telephone & Telegraph Company 11487:, Singer Manufacturing Co., archived from 11063: 11041:Mayo, Keenan; Newcomb, Peter (July 2008), 10050:Computer Structures: Readings and Examples 10039: 9752: 9656: 9507: 9284: 9163: 8733: 8671:. Indiana University Press. p. 1489. 7548: 7534:, University of Manchester, archived from 7488:"From Cathode Ray Tube to Ferranti Mark I" 7422:"Early computers at Manchester University" 7336: 7334: 6946:Burks, Alice R.; Burks, Arthur W. (1988). 6945: 6618:How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer 6247: 5551:United States Government Publishing Office 5121:"Bibliography of Mesopotamian Mathematics" 4774: 4128:LSI chip. It was designed and realized by 2371:) and design work for it commenced at the 2293: 437:Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 348: 334: 11728:Vidal, Nathalie; Vogt, Dominique (2011), 11727: 11556: 11506:, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 180–181 11460: 11430: 11213: 11190:Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998), 11125: 10959: 10665: 10464: 10443: 10196: 10128: 10022: 9914:"IEEE Annals of the History of Computing" 9842:Princeton University (25 December 2019). 9811: 9781: 9758: 9722: 9689: 9640: 9630: 9386: 9355: 8866: 8599: 8587: 8575: 8517: 8452: 8395: 8378: 8281: 7836: 7646: 7583: 7392:(20), The Computer Conservation Society, 7383: 7022: 6850: 6768:. Oxford University Press US. p. 2. 6666: 6625: 6381:Neufeld, Michael J. (10 September 2013). 6285: 6068: 6033: 5927:. Projects.exeter.ac.uk. 8 January 1997. 5662: 5527: 5405: 4894: 4780:, a standard reference work in the 1970s. 4737: 4023:(SRAM), was developed by John Schmidt at 3706: 2849:to go live on a stored-program computer. 2822:, before the design was revised into the 1970:replica at first floor of Durham Center, 1888:, developed by the British mathematician 1310:the problem being solved, in contrast to 1170:. Initially (1838) it was conceived as a 706: 11785: 11759: 11307: 10275: 10250: 10228: 9550: 9207: 9203: 9201: 9199: 9197: 8988:SmithsonianNational Air and Space Museum 8975: 8780: 8778: 8088:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 266. 7928: 7908: 7498:(2), The Computer Conservation Society, 7325: 7313: 7247:Loerner, Brendan I. (25 November 2014). 7123: 7111: 6998: 6986: 6974: 6765:Algebraic methods in philosophical logic 6737:. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 6540: 6475: 6387:. Smithsonian Institution. p. 138. 6333: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6151: 5948: 5925:"The Babbage Pages: Calculating Engines" 5865:John Graham-Cumming (23 December 2010). 5352: 5284:History of Sciences in the Islamic World 5177: 5171: 4964: 4789:The Manchester Baby predated EDSAC as a 4530:Silicon qubit systems have demonstrated 4249: 4162: 3883:(IC) chips as the basis of their logic. 3787: 3567: 3005: 2889: 2720: 2636: 2456: 2309: 2208: 2136: 2068: 1962: 1833:The term digital was first suggested by 1720: 1509: 1358: 1278: 1184: 1069: 941: 907:'s articles on punched-card methods and 846: 799: 760: 728: 666: 457: 445: 11933:A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS, Part 2 11896: 11885:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 11447: 11401: 11270: 11013: 10981: 10938: 10682:Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989), 10365: 10307: 9884:Burks, Goldstine & von Neumann 1947 9812:MacKinnon, John D. (19 December 2018). 9495: 9099: 8981: 8901: 8165:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 8153: 8021: 7974: 7951:"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–" 7807:"Tutorial Guide to the EDSAC Simulator" 7782:"Tutorial Guide to the EDSAC Simulator" 7482: 7331: 7246: 7194: 7010: 6838: 6826: 6814: 6730: 6689: 6380: 6348:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 6345: 6219:"Memória sobre las Máquinas Algébricas" 6101: 5811:Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer 5455: 5381: 5156: 5036: 4951: 4823:For example, Kara Platoni's article on 4684: 3968: 3551: 2778: 2583:The SSEM led to the development of the 2224:Without the use of these machines, the 2162:operations on its data, but it was not 1806:and in Britain in the fully electronic 1644:; although it used the same mechanical 1322:The first modern analog computer was a 1290:In the first half of the 20th century, 441: 14: 13426: 11772: 11682: 11613: 11531: 11480: 11476:, Basic Books, Sloan Foundation Series 11166: 11031: 10838: 10451: 10416: 10212: 10093: 10066: 10005: 9871: 9576: 9442: 9290: 8739: 8159: 8081: 8055:(1). IEEE: 74–76. January–March 1986. 7970: 7968: 7966: 7528:"Early Electronic Computers (1946–51)" 7340: 7282: 7063: 6464: 6460: 6418: 6253: 6213: 6190: 6093:Electromechanical Calculating Machine, 5692: 5650: 5393: 5364: 5238: 5083: 4888: 4807: 4793:, but was built as a test bed for the 4752:(BCD) is a numeric representation, or 3068:(In the history of computing hardware) 3055:Early digital computer characteristics 2795:in February 1951. It was based on the 2783:The first commercial computer was the 2750:Moore School of Electrical Engineering 2707:in a June 1949 news article about the 2377:Moore School of Electrical Engineering 2044:distinguish it from modern computers. 1828: 1478:Moore School of Electrical Engineering 1036:in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode 854:punched-card accounting machines, 1936 769:'s calculating tables from around 1680 98:Free software and open-source software 12863: 12565: 12050: 12030:Columbia University Computing History 11915:A PICTORIAL INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 11713:, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 11604: 11565: 11510: 11501: 11468: 11253:, Reserve Bank Museum, archived from 10992: 10987:Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire 10968: 10908: 10792: 10775:IBM Standard Modular System SMS Cards 10639: 10613: 10498: 9970: 9728: 9266: 9194: 8879:Springer Science & Business Media 8872: 8815: 8775: 8702: 8605: 8551: 8311: 7949:Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. 7874: 7276: 7135: 6615: 6528: 6148: 5704: 5669:Columbia University Computing History 5611:"Chronological History of IBM: 1930s" 5504:Columbia University Computing History 5443: 5144: 4970: 4459:which is now ubiquitous, embedded in 2690:, used by food manufacturing company 2665:in 1949. The machine was inspired by 1598:execution capability equivalent to a 1413:was the first such aid, developed by 1088:, an English mechanical engineer and 882:. Hollerith's method was used in the 652:Scottish mathematician and physicist 13413:List of pioneers in computer science 12849:List of pioneers in computer science 12302: 11843: 11821: 11752:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 11705: 11678:on 2011-02-22 – via thocp.net. 11240: 11149:ENIAC: The Army-Sponsored Revolution 11145: 10701: 10586: 10182: 9892:, September–October 1962. Note that 9782:Juskalian, Russ (22 February 2017). 9358:"Google uncloaks once-secret server" 8875:History of Semiconductor Engineering 8227: 7780:Campbell-Kelly, Martin (July 2001). 7595: 7036:"Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus" 6885: 6853:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 6703:"Computer Pioneers – George Stibitz" 6581: 6278:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003 6142: 5739: 5325: 5263: 4614:List of pioneers in computer science 4552:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 4435:CPUs became commercially available. 4033:IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center 3841:In the US, a series of computers at 3804:was a joint development between the 3654:Atomic Energy Research Establishment 2672:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 2578: 2504:digital storage device. Invented by 2389:First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC 2055:The electronic programmable computer 994:was introduced by Austrian inventor 897:. When the United States instituted 600:and engineers; and the astronomical 11990:Obsolete Technology – Old Computers 11064:Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1980), 10894:, Keuffel & Esser, p. 92, 10771: 10750: 10366:Da Cruz, Frank (28 February 2008), 10185:IEEE Transactions on Circuit Theory 9356:Shankland, Stephen (1 April 2009). 8825:Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation 8440:Introduction to Transistor Circuits 8366: 8114: 7963: 7384:Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), 6167:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6107: 4952:Schultz, Phill (7 September 1999). 4736:All nine machines are described in 4452:'transition' between logic states. 4399:, and also used to write the first 3932:, whereas Kilby's chip was made of 2986:It was widely used in the CPUs and 2940: 1530:-I board, showing the trend toward 1262: 427:) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous. 24: 12021:25 Microchips that shook the world 11872: 11070:, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 10348:CSIRAC: Australia's first computer 9729:Moore, Samuel K. (13 March 2019). 9387:Shankland, Stephen (30 May 2008). 8355:Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1966 8049:Annals of the History of Computing 7981:Annals of the History of Computing 7720:"Pioneer computer to be rebuilt". 7554: 7204:Annals of the History of Computing 7136:Small, Albert W. (December 1944), 6695: 6254:Thomas, Federico (1 August 2008). 5118: 4917:Annals of the History of Computing 3796:The early 1960s saw the advent of 3634:, and the first in the world, was 3001: 2871:of power. Its primary storage was 2833:In October 1947, the directors of 2446: 2437:Abbreviated Computer Instructions, 1779:'s earlier design) by the simpler 1696:British Tabulating Machine Company 1670:-encrypted secret messages during 1166:, plus comparisons and optionally 39: 25: 13460: 12747:Computers built 1955 through 1978 11983: 11955:OCR with permission of the author 11146:Moye, William T. (January 1996), 10962:A History of Manchester Computers 10813: 9577:Knight, Will (10 November 2017). 8630:History of computing in education 7648:10.1090/s0025-5718-1950-0037589-7 6425:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 38. 6163:"The Modern History of Computing" 4836:The microcode was implemented as 4039:(DRAM). In 1967, Dawon Kahng and 3615:, a team under the leadership of 3283:Program-controlled by 24-channel 3228:Not programmable — single purpose 2935:Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program 2479:Victoria University of Manchester 2110:and his colleagues developed the 745:In 1642, while still a teenager, 88:Software configuration management 11193:Computer Organization and Design 9964: 9935: 9906: 9877: 9865: 9835: 9805: 9775: 9771:from the original on 2021-11-15. 9669: 9570: 9544: 9513: 9443:Shrout, Ryan (2 December 2009). 9436: 9411: 9380: 9349: 9320: 9299:from the original on 2020-08-02. 9208:Shirriff, Ken (30 August 2016). 9072: 8933: 8895: 8809: 8658: 8620: 8523: 8484: 8446: 8431: 8275: 8244: 8221: 8191: 8108: 8075: 8038: 8015: 7868: 7842: 7773: 7741: 7713: 7684: 7655: 7619: 7589: 7476: 7454: 7414: 7377: 7240: 7188: 7156: 7129: 7092: 7086: 7057: 6505:The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse 6498: 6096:The Origins of Digital Computers 5417: 5277: 5073:from the original on 2012-01-30. 4971:Selin, Helaine (12 March 2008). 4923: 4903: 4881: 4872: 4859: 4843: 4830: 4817: 4801: 4783: 4759: 4297:soon began supplying additional 3662:National Physical Laboratory, UK 3564:List of transistorized computers 3459:Williams cathode-ray tube memory 2763:It was finally delivered to the 2520:to temporarily store electronic 2166:. Data input to Colossus was by 2141:Wartime photo of Colossus No. 10 858:In the late 1880s, the American 430: 317: 316: 11924:A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS 11788:History of Computing Technology 11225:Practical FPGA Programming in C 11114:from the original on 2008-09-15 11053:from the original on 2020-11-09 10928:from the original on 2008-05-29 10921:, Stockholm: Nobel Foundation, 10898:from the original on 2015-05-01 10828:from the original on 2008-05-09 10803:from the original on 2008-05-13 10603:from the original on 2008-05-14 10519:from the original on 2023-02-02 10505:. 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While working at the 1506:Advent of the digital computer 1253:Electromechanical Arithmometer 931: 573:(850) by the Persian-Baghdadi 13: 1: 13434:History of computing hardware 13403:History of computing hardware 12839:History of computing hardware 11902:A History of Modern Computing 11865:Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk 11827:Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk 11786:Williams, Michael R. (1997), 11711:Adventures of a Mathematician 11659:– via Internet Archive. 10977:], ΑΙΟΛΟΣ PUBLICATIONS GR 10971:Ο ΥΠΟΛΟΓΙΣΤΗΣ ΤΩΝ ΑΝΤΙΚΥΘΗΡΩΝ 9998: 9894:preliminary discussion/design 9784:"Practical Quantum Computers" 9279:Patterson & Hennessy 1998 9171:"Not just a flash in the pan" 8442:. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. 8047:"Wolontis-Bell Interpreter". 6191:Girvan, Ray (May–June 2003). 5949:Robinson, Tim (28 May 2007). 5796:. November 1961. p. 207. 5192:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 5157:Sharkey, Noel (4 July 2007), 4920:, year by year, back to 1979. 4756:, which is still widely used. 4699:10.1126/science.260.5114.1670 4584:History of personal computers 4391:to develop the world's first 3926:monolithic integrated circuit 3762:During the second generation 3648:That distinction goes to the 2306:List of vacuum-tube computers 1594:, which is to say, they have 1447:United States Army Air Forces 793:'s machines of 1822 and even 782:famous stepped drum mechanism 774:Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz 741:invented his machine in 1642. 648:Renaissance calculating tools 522: 362:history of computing hardware 13271:Network interface controller 11504:A Source Book in Mathematics 11502:Smith, David Eugene (1929), 11388:10.1126/science.211.4479.283 11067:Introduction to VLSI Systems 10944:Content-addressable memories 10848:Journal of Basic Engineering 10731:10.1146/annurev.fluid.30.1.0 10596:, Columbia University ACIS, 10374:, Columbia University ACIS, 8282:N. Valery (21 August 1975). 7943:American Antiquarian Society 7923:American Antiquarian Society 7557:"Introduction to the Mark 1" 7386:"Computing's Golden Jubilee" 6989:, pp. 138–145, 295–309. 6507:. EPE Online. Archived from 6261:Mechanism and Machine Theory 5975:Menabrea & Lovelace 1843 5506:. Columbia University ACIS. 5314:Kells, Kern & Bland 1943 5302:Kells, Kern & Bland 1943 5280:"IX. Mechanical Engineering" 5206:"Episode 11: Ancient Robots" 5180:Mechanism and Machine Theory 4719:A Spanish implementation of 4085:(MOS IC) chip. Due to rapid 3869:Integrated circuit computers 3766:units (often in the form of 3686:bipolar junction transistors 3600:, each carrying one to four 2528:a more usable computer, the 2406:National Physical Laboratory 2120:Post Office Research Station 1741:, the world's first working 1429:, and reached a climax with 1028:, released in 1961. It used 820:Punched-card data processing 308:Glossary of computer science 7: 13068:Refreshable braille display 13010:Refreshable braille display 12002:Historic Computers in Japan 11943:195812.pdf, ..., 196712.pdf 11768:, pp. 138–145, 295–309 11423:10.1109/t-aiee.1938.5057767 11167:Ocagne, Maurice d' (1893). 10888:Kells; Kern; Bland (1943), 10650:Brookings Institution Press 10624:Brookings Institution Press 10236:. Oxford University Press. 10129:Budiansky, Stephen (2000), 10096:"The Language of Computers" 9971:McKay, Tom (22 June 2020). 9657:Adrian Cho (14 July 2021). 9526:(Report). 2007. p. 4. 9081:Solid State Design - Vol. 6 8902:Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). 7346:Automatic Digital Computers 6228:(in Spanish) (28): 217–222. 6074:Torres Quevedo. L. (1915). 5553:. 29 July 1895. p. 9. 5089:Mathematics in Ancient Iraq 5062:Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. 4557: 4544: 4352:, and some versions of the 4043:at Bell Labs developed the 3830:. Atlas also pioneered the 3598:IBM Standard Modular System 3574:bipolar junction transistor 3287:(but no conditional branch) 3194:(but no conditional branch) 2945:In 1951, British scientist 2880:Compagnie des Machines Bull 2516:that used an effect called 2427:, accessed at a speed of 1 2399:In 1945, Turing joined the 2134:working at Bletchley Park. 2118:, a senior engineer at the 1606:Electromechanical computers 1456:, built by H. L. Hazen and 1127:The Engine incorporated an 1040:tubes for its display. The 1021:calculator was the British 485:from the mountains between 10: 13465: 12689:University of Pennsylvania 11808:, Macmillan, p. 370, 11764:, Harmondsworth, England: 11325:Cambridge University Press 11092:Menabrea, Luigi Federico; 10993:Lubar, Steven (May 1991), 9896:was the term later called 9632:10.1038/s41586-021-03588-y 9315:Eckhouse & Morris 1979 9232:10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353 8716:"The Chip that Jack Built" 8357:, pp. 14–11 to 14–12. 7750:EDSAC 99: 15–16 April 1999 6197:Scientific Computing World 5239:Turner, Howard R. (1997). 5064:"The Evolution of Writing" 4463:, from greeting cards and 4437:Content-addressable memory 4212:IBM Solid Logic Technology 4070: 3972: 3872: 3682:mean time between failures 3561: 3555: 3514:Stored-program in mercury 3058: 3010:Diagram of a 4×4 plane of 2746:University of Pennsylvania 2450: 2414:Automatic Computing Engine 2373:University of Pennsylvania 2303: 2297: 2058: 2049:first generation computers 1959:Electronic data processing 1609: 1567:by first showing that the 1474:University of Pennsylvania 1407:accuracy of aerial bombing 1272: 1266: 1063: 935: 434: 18:Second-generation computer 13395: 13339: 13298: 13289: 13167: 13103: 13046: 12975: 12910: 12901: 12807: 12790: 12774: 12755: 12731: 12706: 12687: 12674: 12645: 12597: 12592:IBM vacuum tube computers 12559: 12552: 12515: 12454: 12427: 12293: 12286: 12266: 12183: 12176: 12141: 12118: 12101: 12084: 12043:, Computer History Museum 11961:"Z3 Computer (1938–1941)" 11760:Welchman, Gordon (1984), 11364:Schmandt-Besserat, Denise 10960:Lavington, Simon (1998), 10754:IBM 350 disk storage unit 10571:; Sands, Matthew (1966), 10538:; Sands, Matthew (1965), 10499:Evans, Claire L. (2018). 10277:Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave 10053:, New York: McGraw-Hill, 10011:Communications of the ACM 9900:, and even later, called 9708:10.1103/PhysRevX.8.041032 8740:Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). 8633:. Springer. p. 172. 8453:Lavington, Simon (1980). 8326:10.1007/s11047-010-9225-x 7290:"Generations of Computer" 6886:Pugh, Emerson W. (1996). 6226:Revista de Obras Públicas 6062:Revista de Obras Públicas 5815:. Crowell-Collier Press. 5535:. US GPO. pp. 47–55. 5368:La Machine d'arithmétique 5107:was in use 2350–2000 BCE. 5105:sexagesimal number system 5041:. John Wiley & Sons. 4725:Montaner & Simon 1887 4723:(1617), is documented in 3919:hybrid integrated circuit 3888:Royal Radar Establishment 3784:Transistor supercomputers 3737:card reading and punching 3666:Royal Radar Establishment 3628:point-contact transistors 3265:Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC 2949:developed the concept of 2461:A section of the rebuilt 2242:German High Command (OKW) 1933:one-to-one correspondence 1427:Course Setting Bomb Sight 1343:ball-and-disk integrators 1249:floating-point arithmetic 1032:, cold-cathode tubes and 884:1890 United States Census 862:invented data storage on 733:View through the back of 570:Book of Ingenious Devices 471:one-to-one correspondence 397:Metal-oxide-semiconductor 65:Hardware 1960s to present 11909:Computers and Automation 11697:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544 11631:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230 11538:, Basic Books, pp. 11348:. Cambridge: MIT Press. 11136:Montaner; Simon (1887), 11126:Menninger, Karl (1992), 10975:The Antikythera Computer 10969:Lazos, Christos (1994), 10324:10.1177/0022009409104120 10289:, series I (in French), 10207:10.1109/TCT.1971.1083337 8505:10.1049/pi-b-1.1956.0076 8148:Horowitz & Hill 1989 8082:Dudley, Leonard (2008). 7881:British Computer Society 7200:"The Design of Colossus" 7168:"Obituary: Allen Coombs" 6906:"Patents and Innovation" 6865:10.1109/MIE.2012.2207830 5794:Buromaschinen Mechaniker 5278:Hill, Donald Routledge. 5186:(5), Elsevier: 589–603, 4810:, p. 24 notes that 4775:Bell & Newell (1971) 4681:Schmandt-Besserat (1981) 4624: 4508:quantum error correction 4375:A NeXT Computer and its 4148:, and released in 1971. 4124:, developed on a single 4067:Microprocessor computers 3962:Apollo Guidance Computer 3948:in early 1959, based on 3843:Control Data Corporation 3806:University of Manchester 3715:. The second generation 3613:University of Manchester 3210:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 2975:University of Manchester 2793:University of Manchester 2716: 2632: 2394:von Neumann architecture 2316:von Neumann architecture 1987:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 1968:Atanasoff–Berry Computer 1935:between the concepts of 1797:von Neumann architecture 1600:universal Turing machine 1580:universal Turing machine 1124:fixed-point arithmetic. 387:technology and then the 167:Graphical user interface 13444:One-of-a-kind computers 13177:Central processing unit 12780:UNIVAC family computers 12733:Sperry Rand Corporation 12274:Soviet computer systems 11953:, Stan Augarten, 1984. 11214:Mourlevat, Guy (1988), 10793:Intel (November 1971), 10702:Hunt, J. C. R. (1998), 10648:, Washington, DC: 10640:Flamm, Kenneth (1988), 10622:, Washington, DC: 10614:Flamm, Kenneth (1987), 10260:Oxford University Press 9818:The Wall Street Journal 9145:Computer History Museum 9084:. Horizon House. 1965. 9054:Computer History Museum 9021:Computer History Museum 8948:Electrochemical Society 8848:Computer History Museum 8564:Mayo & Newcomb 2008 8456:Early British Computers 8257:Computer History Museum 8118:SOAP II for the IBM 650 8061:10.1109/MAHC.1986.10008 7993:10.1109/MAHC.1990.10010 7738:from 0 to 99 inclusive. 7692:"The Manchester Mark 1" 7216:10.1109/MAHC.1983.10079 7139:The Special Fish Report 7066:"Harry Fensom obituary" 6731:Ritchie, David (1986). 6360:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025 5671:. Columbia University. 5559:2027/osu.32435067619882 5365:Pascal, Blaise (1645). 5340:10.1163/182539192x00019 5037:Darling, David (2004). 4791:stored-program computer 4324:drives, a 32-character 4222:such as the B5000 were 4220:Burroughs large systems 4095:large-scale integration 4025:Fairchild Semiconductor 3915:Fairchild Semiconductor 3845:(CDC) were designed by 3717:disk data storage units 3632:transistorized computer 2955:central processing unit 2773:Aberdeen Proving Ground 2692:J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. 2663:University of Cambridge 2475:stored-program computer 2410:stored-program computer 2300:Stored-program computer 2294:Stored-program computer 2073:Colossus was the first 1785:Turing-complete machine 1571:for Turing machines is 1500:hybrid analog computers 1419:Royal Naval Air Service 1350:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 1324:tide-predicting machine 1237:Leonardo Torres Quevedo 1223:Luigi Federico Menabrea 1176:central processing unit 1054:reverse Polish notation 973:Navier–Stokes equations 824:In 1804, French weaver 628:in 1206, was the first 401:large-scale integration 116:Artificial intelligence 12456:University of Illinois 11849:The Computer – My Life 11559:Mathematical Snapshots 11557:Steinhaus, H. (1999), 11018:(in French), Hermann, 11014:Marguin, Jean (1994), 10822:The University of Iowa 10751:IBM (September 1956), 10711:Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 10685:The Art of Electronics 10213:Cleary, J. F. (1964), 10094:Bowden, B. V. (1970), 9898:system analysis/design 9508:Mead & Conway 1980 8982:Ceruzzi, Paul (2015). 8200:"The Atlas Supervisor" 7629:; Renwick, W. (1950). 6800:Arthur Gottlob Frege. 6599:Crash! The Story of IT 6082:, vol. 2, pp. 601–611. 5719:10.1353/tech.1999.0128 5707:Technology and Culture 5477:. 2005. Archived from 5265:Hill, Donald Routledge 4663:Schmandt-Besserat 1981 4328:, 80-column graphical 4304:In April 1975, at the 4255: 4180: 4083:MOS integrated circuit 4019:(RAM), in the form of 3793: 3707:Transistor peripherals 3594:printed circuit boards 3576: 3015: 2898: 2835:J. Lyons & Company 2726: 2714: 2642: 2477:. It was built at the 2466: 2431:. The ACE implemented 2319: 2221: 2142: 2126:(which superseded the 2084: 1974: 1904:Charles Sanders Peirce 1773:floating-point numbers 1734: 1716:"bomba kryptologiczna" 1659:were built by British 1549:. Turing reformulated 1535: 1364: 1287: 1190: 1094:father of the computer 1082: 1019:all-electronic desktop 951: 855: 805: 770: 742: 707:Mechanical calculators 672: 466: 455: 126:Early computer science 44: 11965:www.computermuseum.li 11645:Other online sources: 11586:US patent 2668661 11566:Stern, Nancy (1981), 10839:Kalman, R.E. (1960), 10778:, IBM, archived from 10757:, IBM, archived from 10024:10.1145/359576.359579 9788:MIT Technology Review 9583:MIT Technology Review 8786:"Integrated circuits" 8425:10.1049/esej:19980301 6734:The Computer Pioneers 6310:"Norden M9 Bombsight" 6244:, Misericordia, 1895. 5900:The Analytical Engine 5777:"Simple and Silent". 4738:Vidal & Vogt 2011 4609:Timeline of computing 4564:Antikythera mechanism 4496:MIT Technology Review 4431:In the 21st century, 4253: 4166: 3791: 3571: 3562:Further information: 3333:Binary floating point 3059:Further information: 3009: 2893: 2820:University of Toronto 2791:and delivered to the 2724: 2696: 2640: 2460: 2328:On Computable Numbers 2313: 2304:Further information: 2240:messages between the 2212: 2140: 2072: 1972:Iowa State University 1966: 1835:George Robert Stibitz 1724: 1610:Further information: 1588:theory of computation 1547:On Computable Numbers 1513: 1454:differential analyzer 1392:Imperial Russian Navy 1362: 1335:differential analyser 1282: 1273:Further information: 1257:Instrumental Analysis 1235:Two other inventors, 1188: 1164:arithmetic operations 1137:conditional branching 1129:arithmetic logic unit 1073: 945: 850: 826:Joseph Marie Jacquard 803: 787:binary numeral system 764: 758:discussed elsewhere. 751:mechanical calculator 732: 670: 545:Antikythera mechanism 461: 449: 252:Timeline of computing 136:Programming languages 121:Compiler construction 43: 13449:History of computing 12827:Vacuum-tube computer 11605:Taton, René (1969), 11532:Smolin, Lee (2001), 11327:, pp. 378–399, 11130:, Dover Publications 10673:(PhD dissertation). 10423:Astronomical Journal 10234:The Essential Turing 10215:GE Transistor Manual 9902:system architecture. 8950:. pp. 181–182. 8290:. pp. 419–421. 8024:"Love at First Byte" 7359:Alan Turing (1945). 6707:history.computer.org 6616:Rojas, Raúl (1998). 5951:"Difference Engines" 4778:Computing Structures 4750:Binary-coded decimal 4619:Vacuum-tube computer 4569:History of computing 4482:integrated circuitry 4473:thermal design power 4346:MOS Technology KIM-1 4295:Processor Technology 4047:, the basis for MOS 4045:floating-gate MOSFET 4017:random-access memory 4013:magnetic-core memory 4005:Semiconductor memory 3975:Semiconductor memory 3969:Semiconductor memory 3896:Geoffrey W.A. Dummer 3693:Metropolitan-Vickers 3677:junction transistors 3552:Transistor computers 3428:rotating drum memory 3098:Arthur H. Dickinson 3012:magnetic-core memory 2779:Commercial computers 2758:serial-access memory 2653:and his team at the 2615:Frederic C. Williams 2483:Frederic C. Williams 2441:programming language 2381:serial-access memory 2200:Boolean calculations 2181:Invasion of Normandy 1879:two-out-of-five code 1867:binary-coded decimal 1752:, implementing a 22- 1706:, and known as the " 1700:Polish Cipher Bureau 1564:Entscheidungsproblem 1369:fire-control systems 1245:Essays on Automatics 1201:as later defined by 957:Lewis Fry Richardson 918:unit record machines 713:Guidobaldo del Monte 689:University of Oxford 551:(c. 150–100 BC). In 509:is one example. The 442:Ancient and medieval 405:semiconductor memory 162:General-purpose CPUs 146:Software engineering 60:Hardware before 1960 33:History of computing 12815:Transistor computer 12251:Electronika SS VLSI 11380:1981Sci...211..283S 11076:1980aw...book.....M 11049:, pp. 96–117, 10946:, Springer-Verlag, 10723:1998AnRFM..30D..13H 10675:Columbia University 10587:Fisk, Dale (2005), 10436:1935AJ.....44..177E 10403:1958PhT....11f..30D 10258:, Oxford, England: 10112:1970AmSci..58...43B 9700:2018PhRvX...8d1032P 9474:. 3 December 2009. 8163:(1992). "Edsac 2". 7042:. 2 February 2010. 6935:Des Moines Register 6841:, pp. 494–495. 6659:1948Natur.162..487W 6217:(10 October 1895). 6145:, pp. 507–519. 6098:, pp.109-120, 1982. 6039:L. Torres Quevedo. 5695:, pp. 101–114. 5617:. 23 January 2003. 5588:. 23 January 2003. 5446:, pp. 180–181. 5269:Scientific American 5211:Ancient Discoveries 4983:2008ehst.book.....S 4693:(5114): 1670–1671. 4589:History of software 4368:computers, and the 4281:Popular Electronics 4228:pushdown automatons 4049:non-volatile memory 3956:in the late 1950s. 3892:Ministry of Defence 3777:network of networks 3749:fetch-execute cycle 3741:branch instructions 3636:operational by 1953 3558:Transistor computer 3083:Computing mechanism 3070: 2894:Front panel of the 2830:labs in Amsterdam. 2627:floating-point unit 2014:General Post Office 1919:electronic engineer 1895:The Laws of Thought 1829:Digital computation 1763:of about 5–10 1759:that operated at a 1435:Mark XIV bomb sight 1328:Sir William Thomson 1284:Sir William Thomson 1275:Mechanical computer 1098:mechanical computer 984:Marchant Calculator 922:Columbia University 755:Pascal's calculator 735:Pascal's calculator 671:A modern slide rule 642:information science 563:and a programmable 403:(LSI) then enabled 12517:Harvard University 12035:Computer Histories 11662: • 11647: • 11449:Shannon, Claude E. 11313:Leffler, Melvyn P. 11294:, pp. 47–92, 11103:Scientific Memoirs 11034:The New York Times 10983:Leibniz, Gottfried 10814:Jones, Douglas W, 10100:American Scientist 9465: • 9332:www.system-cfg.com 9017:The Silicon Engine 8873:Lojek, Bo (2007). 8535:Exposuremeters.net 7875:Lavington, Simon. 7804: • 7555:Napper, R. B. E., 6558:The New York Times 5549:. Washington, DC: 5529:Truesdell, Leon E. 5500:"Herman Hollerith" 5474:Cornell University 4754:character encoding 4683:, e.g., a review, 4599:IT History Society 4579:History of laptops 4256: 4207:in the same chip. 4181: 4115:Garrett AiResearch 4111:Four-Phase Systems 4103:computer processor 4027:in 1964. In 1966, 3881:integrated circuit 3794: 3772:Friden Flexowriter 3713:peripheral devices 3688:became available. 3577: 3336:Electro-mechanical 3285:punched paper tape 3280:Electro-mechanical 3183:Electro-mechanical 3065: 3042:Whirlwind computer 3016: 2924:. The system cost 2899: 2858:U.S. Census Bureau 2852:In June 1951, the 2727: 2703:British newspaper 2643: 2518:secondary emission 2467: 2326:in his 1936 paper 2320: 2222: 2218:United States Army 2143: 2085: 2030:telephone exchange 2026:telephone exchange 2003:punched paper tape 1991:Colossus computers 1979:electronic circuit 1975: 1855:three-valued logic 1735: 1540:computer scientist 1536: 1439:RAF Bomber Command 1421:; it measured the 1398:. The alternative 1365: 1288: 1195:assembly languages 1191: 1083: 1017:The world's first 965:numerical analysis 952: 911:'s publication of 856: 806: 771: 743: 673: 622:astronomical clock 608:(1094) during the 598:Muslim astronomers 588:(c. AD 1000); the 575:Banū Mūsā brothers 557:Hero of Alexandria 467: 456: 389:integrated circuit 182:Personal computers 141:Prominent pioneers 45: 13421: 13420: 13391: 13390: 13321:Analog audio jack 13042: 13041: 12857: 12856: 12798:Colossus computer 12786: 12785: 12683: 12682: 12668: 12667: 12450: 12449: 12282: 12281: 11996:Things That Count 11863:Translated from: 11858:978-3-642-08151-4 11836:978-3-540-56292-4 11747:von Neumann, John 11739:978-2-9528068-4-8 11723:, (autobiography) 11720:978-0-684-14391-0 11570:, Digital Press, 11525:978-0-330-41929-1 11474:Models of My Life 11470:Simon, Herbert A. 11405:(December 1938). 11374:(4479): 283–285, 11334:978-0-521-83721-7 11196:, San Francisco: 11025:978-2-7056-6166-3 10860:10.1115/1.3662552 10717:(1): xiii–xxxvi, 10667:Hollerith, Herman 10659:978-0-815-72850-4 10633:978-0-815-72852-8 10466:2027/uc1.b3621946 10411:10.1063/1.3062606 10252:Copeland, B. Jack 10230:Copeland, B. Jack 10160:von Neumann, John 10156:Goldstine, Herman 9678:Physical Review X 9625:(7867): 383–387. 9521:Energystar report 9510:, pp. 11–36. 9281:, pp. 27–39. 9179:. 11 March 2006. 9117:. 9 August 2017. 8616:. pp. 70–72. 8602:, pp. 50–52. 8590:, pp. 44–45. 8520:, pp. 36–37. 8381:, pp. 34–35. 8314:Natural Computing 8177:10.1109/85.194055 8095:978-1-84720-790-6 8028:Stanford Magazine 7316:, pp. 21–22. 6775:978-0-19-853192-0 6560:. 20 April 1994. 6238:Leonardo Torres. 5873:. No. 2791. 5271:. pp. 64–69. 5250:978-0-292-78149-8 5119:Robson, Eleanor. 5098:978-0-691-09182-2 5048:978-0-471-27047-8 4992:978-1-4020-4559-2 4891:, pp. 35–45. 4773:. And was not in 4727:, pp. 19–20. 4646:Upper Paleolithic 4527:Quantum supremacy 4512:Physical Review X 4492:Quantum computing 4264:François Gernelle 4113:AL-1 in 1969 and 3985:Mohamed M. Atalla 3950:Mohamed M. Atalla 3907:Texas Instruments 3549: 3548: 3516:delay-line memory 3469:Manchester Mark 1 3077:First operational 2812:secondary storage 2797:Manchester Mark 1 2738:J. Presper Eckert 2585:Manchester Mark 1 2579:Manchester Mark 1 2530:Manchester Mark 1 2439:an early form of 2365:J. Presper Eckert 2287:J. Presper Eckert 2254:Lorenz SZ cyphers 2250:Winston Churchill 2124:Colossus computer 2061:Colossus computer 1863:decimal computers 1801:electromechanical 1743:electromechanical 1663:to help decipher 1470:torque amplifiers 1388:analogue computer 1312:digital computers 1172:difference engine 1143:, and integrated 1106:Analytical Engine 1102:difference engine 1080:Difference Engine 1066:Analytical Engine 1052:, and introduced 1000:Gottfried Leibniz 842:numerical control 720:Wilhelm Schickard 701:pocket calculator 632:analog computer. 549:Hellenistic world 413:personal computer 358: 357: 131:Operating systems 16:(Redirected from 13456: 13296: 13295: 12947:Optical trackpad 12912:Pointing devices 12908: 12907: 12884: 12877: 12870: 12861: 12860: 12586: 12579: 12572: 12563: 12562: 12557: 12556: 12537:Harvard Mark III 12300: 12299: 12291: 12290: 12259: 12242: 12230: 12213: 12201: 12181: 12180: 12071: 12064: 12057: 12048: 12047: 12012:Computer History 11979: 11977: 11976: 11967:. Archived from 11905: 11898:Ceruzzi, Paul E. 11893: 11888:. Archived from 11862: 11840: 11818: 11800: 11782: 11775:Ann. Hist. Comp. 11769: 11756: 11749:(30 June 1945), 11742: 11724: 11700: 11679: 11677: 11671:. Archived from 11670: 11664:— (1937). 11660: 11658: 11657: 11649:— (1937). 11642: 11610: 11601: 11600: 11596: 11583:Stibitz, George 11580: 11562: 11552: 11528: 11507: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11477: 11465: 11464: 11444: 11434: 11398: 11359: 11337: 11317:Westad, Odd Arne 11304: 11288:Rota, Gian-Carlo 11267: 11266: 11265: 11259: 11252: 11242:Phillips, A.W.H. 11237: 11219: 11210: 11186: 11163: 11162: 11161: 11152:, archived from 11142: 11131: 11121: 11120: 11119: 11088: 11060: 11059: 11058: 11037: 11028: 11010: 11009: 11008: 10999:, archived from 10989: 10978: 10965: 10956: 10935: 10934: 10933: 10927: 10920: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10884: 10883: 10882: 10876: 10870:, archived from 10845: 10835: 10834: 10833: 10810: 10809: 10808: 10789: 10788: 10787: 10768: 10767: 10766: 10747: 10746: 10745: 10739: 10733:, archived from 10708: 10698: 10678: 10677:School of Mines. 10662: 10647: 10636: 10621: 10610: 10609: 10608: 10602: 10595: 10583: 10569:Leighton, Robert 10560: 10536:Leighton, Robert 10527: 10525: 10524: 10495: 10477: 10468: 10448: 10447: 10413: 10385: 10384: 10383: 10362: 10361: 10360: 10342: 10304: 10303: 10302: 10272: 10247: 10225: 10209: 10200: 10179: 10178: 10177: 10152:Burks, Arthur W. 10147: 10136: 10125: 10124: 10123: 10090: 10089: 10088: 10082: 10075: 10063: 10036: 10026: 9992: 9991: 9989: 9988: 9968: 9962: 9961: 9959: 9958: 9939: 9933: 9932: 9930: 9929: 9910: 9904: 9881: 9875: 9869: 9863: 9862: 9860: 9859: 9839: 9833: 9832: 9830: 9829: 9809: 9803: 9802: 9800: 9799: 9779: 9773: 9772: 9756: 9750: 9749: 9747: 9746: 9726: 9720: 9719: 9718:– via APS. 9693: 9673: 9667: 9666: 9654: 9644: 9634: 9616: 9607: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9594: 9574: 9568: 9567: 9565: 9564: 9548: 9542: 9541: 9539: 9538: 9532: 9525: 9517: 9511: 9505: 9499: 9493: 9487: 9486: 9484: 9483: 9463: 9461: 9460: 9440: 9434: 9433: 9431: 9430: 9415: 9409: 9407: 9405: 9404: 9395:. 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Archived from 7688: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7659: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7623: 7617: 7616: 7614: 7613: 7593: 7587: 7581: 7575: 7574: 7573: 7572: 7552: 7546: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7524: 7518: 7517: 7516: 7515: 7480: 7474: 7473: 7468:. Archived from 7458: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7449: 7440:, archived from 7418: 7412: 7411: 7410: 7409: 7400:, archived from 7381: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7371: 7365: 7356: 7350: 7349: 7338: 7329: 7323: 7317: 7311: 7305: 7304: 7302: 7301: 7292:. Archived from 7286: 7280: 7274: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7264: 7244: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7192: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7174:, archived from 7160: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7151: 7133: 7127: 7121: 7115: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7090: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7081: 7061: 7055: 7054: 7052: 7051: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6965: 6953: 6943: 6937: 6931: 6925: 6924: 6922: 6921: 6912:. 7 March 2012. 6902: 6896: 6895: 6883: 6877: 6876: 6848: 6842: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6818: 6812: 6806: 6805: 6797: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6728: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6699: 6693: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6670: 6668:10.1038/162487a0 6638: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6613: 6607: 6606: 6601:. Archived from 6591: 6585: 6579: 6573: 6572: 6570: 6569: 6550: 6544: 6538: 6532: 6526: 6520: 6519: 6517: 6516: 6496: 6487: 6473: 6467: 6457: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6444: 6422:Analog Computing 6416: 6410: 6409: 6407: 6406: 6378: 6372: 6371: 6343: 6337: 6331: 6325: 6324: 6322: 6321: 6306: 6300: 6299: 6289: 6251: 6245: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6223: 6215:Torres, Leonardo 6211: 6205: 6204: 6199:. Archived from 6188: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6159: 6146: 6140: 6134: 6133: 6131: 6130: 6124: 6118:. Archived from 6117: 6105: 6099: 6089: 6083: 6072: 6066: 6065: 6059: 6050: 6044: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6027: 6012: 6006: 6005: 6003: 6002: 5993:. Archived from 5992: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5936: 5921: 5915: 5914: 5912: 5911: 5902:. Archived from 5892: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5882: 5862: 5856: 5855: 5853: 5852: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5814: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5749: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5702: 5696: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5578: 5572: 5570: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5515: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5486: 5465: 5459: 5453: 5447: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5431: 5422:. Archived from 5415: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5362: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5343: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5293: 5291: 5286:. Archived from 5272: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5218:, archived from 5202: 5196: 5195: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5132: 5123:. Archived from 5116: 5110: 5109: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5068: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5026: 5009: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4999: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4949: 4938: 4927: 4921: 4907: 4901: 4898: 4892: 4885: 4879: 4876: 4870: 4863: 4857: 4847: 4841: 4834: 4828: 4821: 4815: 4805: 4799: 4787: 4781: 4763: 4757: 4747: 4741: 4734: 4728: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4677: 4671: 4659: 4653: 4634: 4199:, 2048 bytes of 4184:for example, an 4007:, also known as 3942:printed circuits 3855:IBM 7030 Stretch 3836:operating system 3832:Atlas Supervisor 3530: 3502: 3473: 3442: 3411: 3383: 3358: 3342: 3327: 3301: 3269: 3242: 3214: 3204: 3190: 3168: 3152:Not programmable 3136: 3120:Not programmable 3104: 3071: 3069: 3064: 2959:computer program 2951:microprogramming 2941:Microprogramming 2931: 2927: 2923: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2870: 2863: 2712: 2667:John von Neumann 2608: 2514:cathode-ray tube 2506:Freddie Williams 2332:John von Neumann 2018:research station 1929:Victor Shestakov 1708:cryptologic bomb 1417:in 1916 for the 1292:analog computers 1263:Analog computers 1004:Stepped Reckoner 860:Herman Hollerith 778:stepped reckoner 693:William Oughtred 626:Ismail al-Jazari 537:analog computers 527: 524: 503:Fertile Crescent 417:mobile computers 393:analog computers 350: 343: 336: 320: 319: 107:Computer science 29: 28: 21: 13464: 13463: 13459: 13458: 13457: 13455: 13454: 13453: 13439:Early computers 13424: 13423: 13422: 13417: 13387: 13335: 13285: 13163: 13157:USB flash drive 13106: 13099: 13038: 12971: 12925:Game controller 12920:Graphics tablet 12897: 12888: 12858: 12853: 12803: 12782: 12770: 12751: 12727: 12702: 12679: 12670: 12669: 12664: 12641: 12593: 12590: 12548: 12543:Harvard Mark IV 12531:Harvard Mark II 12511: 12446: 12423: 12278: 12262: 12253: 12236: 12224: 12207: 12195: 12172: 12137: 12114: 12097: 12080: 12075: 11986: 11974: 11972: 11959: 11904:, The MIT Press 11880:"online access" 11878: 11875: 11873:Further reading 11870: 11859: 11837: 11816: 11798: 11740: 11721: 11707:Ulam, Stanislaw 11675: 11668: 11663: 11661: 11655: 11653: 11648: 11646: 11615:Turing, Alan M. 11598: 11578: 11550: 11526: 11494: 11492: 11481:Singer (1946), 11417:(12): 713–723. 11403:Shannon, Claude 11356: 11335: 11309:Reynolds, David 11302: 11263: 11261: 11257: 11250: 11235: 11208: 11198:Morgan Kaufmann 11159: 11157: 11117: 11115: 11086: 11056: 11054: 11026: 11006: 11004: 10954: 10931: 10929: 10925: 10918: 10901: 10899: 10880: 10878: 10874: 10843: 10831: 10829: 10806: 10804: 10799:, Intel Corp., 10785: 10783: 10764: 10762: 10743: 10741: 10737: 10706: 10696: 10660: 10634: 10606: 10604: 10600: 10593: 10550: 10522: 10520: 10513: 10493: 10453:Eckert, Wallace 10418:Eckert, Wallace 10381: 10379: 10358: 10356: 10345: 10300: 10298: 10270: 10244: 10198:10.1.1.404.9037 10175: 10173: 10145: 10121: 10119: 10086: 10084: 10080: 10073: 10061: 10001: 9996: 9995: 9986: 9984: 9969: 9965: 9956: 9954: 9949:. 30 May 2022. 9941: 9940: 9936: 9927: 9925: 9912: 9911: 9907: 9882: 9878: 9870: 9866: 9857: 9855: 9840: 9836: 9827: 9825: 9810: 9806: 9797: 9795: 9780: 9776: 9757: 9753: 9744: 9742: 9727: 9723: 9674: 9670: 9614: 9608: 9601: 9592: 9590: 9575: 9571: 9562: 9560: 9549: 9545: 9536: 9534: 9530: 9523: 9519: 9518: 9514: 9506: 9502: 9494: 9490: 9481: 9479: 9466: 9464: 9458: 9456: 9441: 9437: 9428: 9426: 9419:"Google Groups" 9417: 9416: 9412: 9402: 9400: 9385: 9381: 9371: 9369: 9354: 9350: 9341: 9339: 9326: 9325: 9321: 9317:, pp. 1–2. 9313: 9309: 9289: 9285: 9277: 9273: 9265: 9258: 9249: 9247: 9206: 9195: 9186: 9184: 9169: 9168: 9164: 9155: 9153: 9138: 9137: 9133: 9124: 9122: 9105: 9104: 9100: 9091: 9089: 9078: 9077: 9073: 9064: 9062: 9047: 9046: 9039: 9030: 9028: 9011: 9010: 9006: 8997: 8995: 8980: 8976: 8967: 8965: 8958: 8938: 8934: 8925: 8923: 8916: 8900: 8896: 8889: 8881:. p. 120. 8871: 8867: 8858: 8856: 8841: 8840: 8836: 8829: 8814: 8810: 8801: 8799: 8784: 8783: 8776: 8767: 8765: 8758: 8750:. p. 140. 8738: 8734: 8725: 8723: 8714: 8713: 8709: 8701: 8697: 8688: 8686: 8679: 8663: 8659: 8650: 8648: 8641: 8625: 8621: 8610: 8606: 8598: 8594: 8586: 8582: 8574: 8570: 8562: 8558: 8550: 8546: 8529: 8528: 8524: 8516: 8512: 8499:(3S): 364–370. 8489: 8485: 8476: 8474: 8467: 8451: 8447: 8436: 8432: 8409: 8402: 8394: 8385: 8377: 8373: 8365: 8361: 8353: 8349: 8310: 8306: 8297: 8295: 8280: 8276: 8267: 8265: 8250: 8249: 8245: 8238: 8226: 8222: 8213: 8211: 8196: 8192: 8158: 8154: 8146: 8142: 8134: 8132: 8128: 8121: 8113: 8109: 8100: 8098: 8096: 8080: 8076: 8046: 8043: 8039: 8020: 8016: 7973: 7964: 7955: 7953: 7938: 7930:McCusker, J. J. 7918: 7910:McCusker, J. J. 7906: 7899: 7890: 7888: 7873: 7869: 7861: 7859: 7848: 7847: 7843: 7835: 7831: 7822: 7820: 7816: 7809: 7805: 7803: 7797: 7795: 7791: 7784: 7778: 7774: 7766: 7764: 7760: 7753: 7747: 7746: 7742: 7719: 7718: 7714: 7705: 7703: 7690: 7689: 7685: 7676: 7674: 7661: 7660: 7656: 7624: 7620: 7611: 7609: 7594: 7590: 7582: 7578: 7570: 7568: 7553: 7549: 7541: 7539: 7526: 7525: 7521: 7513: 7511: 7481: 7477: 7460: 7459: 7455: 7447: 7445: 7420: 7419: 7415: 7407: 7405: 7382: 7378: 7369: 7367: 7363: 7357: 7353: 7339: 7332: 7324: 7320: 7312: 7308: 7299: 7297: 7288: 7287: 7283: 7275: 7271: 7262: 7260: 7245: 7241: 7233: 7231: 7193: 7189: 7181: 7179: 7172:The Independent 7161: 7157: 7149: 7147: 7134: 7130: 7122: 7118: 7110: 7106: 7091: 7087: 7079: 7077: 7062: 7058: 7049: 7047: 7034: 7033: 7029: 7021: 7017: 7009: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6962: 6944: 6940: 6932: 6928: 6919: 6917: 6904: 6903: 6899: 6884: 6880: 6849: 6845: 6837: 6833: 6825: 6821: 6813: 6809: 6798: 6794: 6785: 6783: 6776: 6760: 6756: 6749: 6729: 6725: 6716: 6714: 6701: 6700: 6696: 6688: 6684: 6639: 6635: 6614: 6610: 6593: 6592: 6588: 6580: 6576: 6567: 6565: 6552: 6551: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6527: 6523: 6514: 6512: 6497: 6490: 6480:Stanley Frankel 6474: 6470: 6458: 6451: 6442: 6440: 6433: 6417: 6413: 6404: 6402: 6395: 6379: 6375: 6344: 6340: 6336:, pp. 5–9. 6332: 6328: 6319: 6317: 6308: 6307: 6303: 6252: 6248: 6237: 6233: 6221: 6212: 6208: 6189: 6185: 6176: 6174: 6161: 6160: 6149: 6141: 6137: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6115: 6106: 6102: 6090: 6086: 6073: 6069: 6057: 6051: 6047: 6038: 6034: 6025: 6023: 6014: 6013: 6009: 6000: 5998: 5990: 5986: 5985: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5960: 5958: 5947: 5943: 5934: 5932: 5923: 5922: 5918: 5909: 5907: 5894: 5893: 5889: 5880: 5878: 5863: 5859: 5850: 5848: 5835: 5834: 5830: 5823: 5805: 5801: 5791: 5790: 5786: 5779:Office Magazine 5776: 5775: 5771: 5762: 5760: 5751: 5750: 5746: 5738: 5734: 5703: 5699: 5691: 5687: 5678: 5676: 5663:Frank da Cruz. 5661: 5657: 5649: 5645: 5637: 5633: 5624: 5622: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5595: 5593: 5580: 5579: 5575: 5545: 5544: 5540: 5526: 5522: 5513: 5511: 5498: 5497: 5493: 5484: 5482: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5454: 5450: 5442: 5438: 5429: 5427: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5380: 5376: 5363: 5359: 5351: 5347: 5324: 5320: 5312: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5262: 5258: 5251: 5237: 5233: 5225: 5223: 5216:History Channel 5204: 5203: 5199: 5176: 5172: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5139: 5130: 5128: 5117: 5113: 5099: 5085:Robson, Eleanor 5082: 5078: 5066: 5060: 5056: 5049: 5035: 5031: 5012: 5010: 5006: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4969: 4965: 4950: 4946: 4941: 4928: 4924: 4914:summarizes the 4908: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4886: 4882: 4877: 4873: 4864: 4860: 4848: 4844: 4835: 4831: 4822: 4818: 4806: 4802: 4788: 4784: 4764: 4760: 4748: 4744: 4735: 4731: 4718: 4714: 4678: 4674: 4660: 4656: 4644:, dated to the 4635: 4631: 4627: 4594:Information Age 4560: 4547: 4385:Robert Cailliau 4381:Tim Berners-Lee 4377:object-oriented 4332:, 48 Kbytes of 4330:thermal printer 4216:hybrid circuits 4193:microcontroller 4177:microcontroller 4154:Masatoshi Shima 4138:Masatoshi Shima 4134:Federico Faggin 4079:microprocessors 4075: 4069: 3977: 3971: 3877: 3871: 3786: 3780:—the Internet. 3764:remote terminal 3709: 3566: 3560: 3554: 3528: 3500: 3471: 3440: 3438:Manchester Baby 3409: 3381: 3356: 3340: 3325: 3299: 3267: 3240: 3212: 3198: 3188: 3166: 3134: 3102: 3092:Turing-complete 3067: 3063: 3057: 3004: 3002:Magnetic memory 2943: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2865: 2861: 2801:primary storage 2785:Ferranti Mark 1 2781: 2719: 2713: 2702: 2635: 2604: 2597:index registers 2589:Mersenne primes 2581: 2539:The Baby had a 2534:Ferranti Mark 1 2471:Manchester Baby 2463:Manchester Baby 2455: 2453:Manchester Baby 2449: 2447:Manchester Baby 2421:computer memory 2308: 2302: 2296: 2196:systolic arrays 2192:shift registers 2164:Turing-complete 2160:Boolean logical 2104:Lorenz SZ 40/42 2067: 2059:Main articles: 2057: 1961: 1953:digital circuit 1949:Boolean algebra 1912:A. N. Whitehead 1886:Boolean algebra 1839:analog computer 1831: 1808:Manchester Baby 1777:Charles Babbage 1761:clock frequency 1704:Marian Rejewski 1688:Gordon Welchman 1614: 1608: 1592:Turing-complete 1569:halting problem 1555:Turing machines 1532:miniaturization 1508: 1380:Coriolis effect 1371:for long range 1317:Turing machines 1277: 1271: 1269:Analog computer 1265: 1213:translated and 1199:Turing-complete 1160:arithmetic unit 1149:Turing-complete 1135:in the form of 1086:Charles Babbage 1068: 1062: 978:Companies like 961:human computers 940: 934: 899:Social Security 844:machine tools. 822: 791:Charles Babbage 709: 650: 525: 444: 439: 433: 354: 154:Modern concepts 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13462: 13452: 13451: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13419: 13418: 13416: 13415: 13410: 13405: 13399: 13397: 13393: 13392: 13389: 13388: 13386: 13385: 13380: 13375: 13370: 13365: 13360: 13355: 13350: 13343: 13341: 13337: 13336: 13334: 13333: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13308: 13302: 13300: 13293: 13287: 13286: 13284: 13283: 13281:Expansion card 13278: 13273: 13268: 13267: 13266: 13261: 13251: 13250: 13249: 13239: 13238: 13237: 13232: 13218: 13208: 13207: 13206: 13201: 13191: 13186: 13185: 13184: 13182:Microprocessor 13173: 13171: 13165: 13164: 13162: 13161: 13160: 13159: 13154: 13144: 13143: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13122: 13117: 13111: 13109: 13101: 13100: 13098: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13081: 13080: 13070: 13065: 13064: 13063: 13052: 13050: 13048:Output devices 13044: 13043: 13040: 13039: 13037: 13036: 13035: 13034: 13024: 13023: 13022: 13012: 13007: 13002: 13001: 13000: 12990: 12985: 12979: 12977: 12973: 12972: 12970: 12969: 12964: 12959: 12954: 12952:Pointing stick 12949: 12944: 12943: 12942: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12916: 12914: 12905: 12899: 12898: 12887: 12886: 12879: 12872: 12864: 12855: 12854: 12852: 12851: 12846: 12841: 12836: 12835: 12834: 12824: 12823: 12822: 12811: 12809: 12805: 12804: 12802: 12801: 12794: 12792: 12791:United Kingdom 12788: 12787: 12784: 12783: 12778: 12776: 12772: 12771: 12769: 12768: 12761: 12759: 12753: 12752: 12750: 12749: 12743: 12737: 12735: 12729: 12728: 12726: 12725: 12719: 12712: 12710: 12704: 12703: 12701: 12700: 12693: 12691: 12685: 12684: 12681: 12680: 12677:IBM mainframes 12675: 12672: 12671: 12666: 12665: 12663: 12662: 12657: 12651: 12649: 12643: 12642: 12640: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12604: 12598: 12595: 12594: 12589: 12588: 12581: 12574: 12566: 12560: 12554: 12550: 12549: 12547: 12546: 12540: 12534: 12528: 12525:Harvard Mark I 12521: 12519: 12513: 12512: 12510: 12509: 12506:Trusted ILLIAC 12503: 12497: 12491: 12485: 12479: 12473: 12467: 12460: 12458: 12452: 12451: 12448: 12447: 12445: 12444: 12438: 12431: 12429: 12425: 12424: 12422: 12421: 12415: 12409: 12403: 12397: 12391: 12385: 12379: 12373: 12367: 12361: 12355: 12349: 12343: 12337: 12331: 12325: 12319: 12313: 12306: 12304: 12297: 12288: 12284: 12283: 12280: 12279: 12277: 12276: 12270: 12268: 12264: 12263: 12261: 12260: 12248: 12243: 12231: 12219: 12214: 12202: 12190: 12184: 12178: 12174: 12173: 12171: 12170: 12164: 12158: 12152: 12145: 12143: 12139: 12138: 12136: 12135: 12129: 12122: 12120: 12116: 12115: 12113: 12112: 12105: 12103: 12099: 12098: 12096: 12095: 12088: 12086: 12082: 12081: 12074: 12073: 12066: 12059: 12051: 12045: 12044: 12038: 12032: 12027: 12018: 12009: 12004: 11999: 11992: 11985: 11984:External links 11982: 11981: 11980: 11957: 11948: 11947: 11946: 11939: 11930: 11921: 11906: 11894: 11892:on 2006-05-23. 11874: 11871: 11869: 11868: 11857: 11841: 11835: 11819: 11814: 11801: 11796: 11783: 11770: 11757: 11743: 11738: 11725: 11719: 11703: 11702: 11701: 11691:(6): 544–546. 11680: 11625:(1): 230–265. 11611: 11602: 11590:George Stibitz 11581: 11576: 11563: 11554: 11548: 11529: 11524: 11512:Smith, Michael 11508: 11499: 11478: 11466: 11445: 11399: 11360: 11354: 11338: 11333: 11305: 11301:978-0124916500 11300: 11280:Metropolis, N. 11276:"The Colossus" 11272:Randell, Brian 11268: 11238: 11233: 11220: 11211: 11206: 11187: 11164: 11143: 11133: 11123: 11089: 11084: 11061: 11038: 11029: 11024: 11011: 10990: 10979: 10966: 10957: 10952: 10940:Kohonen, Teuvo 10936: 10906: 10885: 10836: 10811: 10790: 10769: 10748: 10699: 10694: 10679: 10663: 10658: 10637: 10632: 10611: 10584: 10565:Feynman, R. P. 10561: 10548: 10532:Feynman, R. P. 10528: 10511: 10496: 10491: 10478: 10449: 10445:10.1086/105298 10414: 10397:(6): 112–364, 10386: 10363: 10343: 10318:(3): 493–512, 10305: 10273: 10268: 10254:, ed. (2006), 10248: 10242: 10232:, ed. (2004). 10226: 10210: 10191:(5): 507–519, 10180: 10148: 10144:978-0684859323 10143: 10137:, Free Press, 10126: 10091: 10064: 10059: 10037: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9994: 9993: 9963: 9934: 9905: 9876: 9864: 9834: 9804: 9774: 9751: 9721: 9668: 9599: 9569: 9543: 9512: 9500: 9488: 9449:PC Perspective 9435: 9410: 9379: 9348: 9328:"R2E Micral N" 9319: 9307: 9283: 9271: 9256: 9193: 9162: 9131: 9098: 9071: 9037: 9004: 8974: 8956: 8932: 8914: 8894: 8887: 8865: 8834: 8808: 8774: 8756: 8732: 8707: 8695: 8677: 8657: 8639: 8619: 8604: 8600:Lavington 1998 8592: 8588:Lavington 1998 8580: 8576:Lavington 1998 8568: 8556: 8544: 8541:on 2014-01-07. 8522: 8518:Lavington 1998 8510: 8483: 8465: 8445: 8430: 8419:(3): 100–106. 8400: 8396:Lavington 1998 8383: 8379:Lavington 1998 8371: 8359: 8347: 8304: 8274: 8243: 8220: 8204:Atlas Computer 8190: 8152: 8150:, p. 743. 8140: 8124:, C24-4000-0, 8107: 8094: 8074: 8037: 8034:on 2006-09-25. 8014: 7962: 7947:1800–present: 7897: 7867: 7841: 7837:Lavington 1998 7829: 7772: 7740: 7712: 7683: 7654: 7618: 7588: 7584:Lavington 1998 7576: 7547: 7519: 7475: 7472:on 2013-06-06. 7453: 7413: 7376: 7351: 7330: 7328:, p. 104. 7318: 7306: 7281: 7269: 7239: 7210:(3): 239–252, 7196:Flowers, T. H. 7187: 7164:Randell, Brian 7155: 7128: 7116: 7104: 7101:on 2015-04-18. 7085: 7056: 7027: 7025:, p. 314. 7023:Budiansky 2000 7015: 7003: 7001:, p. 182. 6991: 6979: 6977:, p. 107. 6967: 6960: 6938: 6926: 6897: 6878: 6843: 6831: 6819: 6807: 6792: 6774: 6754: 6747: 6723: 6694: 6682: 6633: 6608: 6605:on 2008-03-18. 6586: 6574: 6545: 6533: 6521: 6488: 6468: 6449: 6431: 6411: 6393: 6373: 6354:(3): 227–240. 6338: 6326: 6301: 6246: 6231: 6206: 6203:on 2012-11-03. 6183: 6147: 6135: 6109:Randell, Brian 6100: 6084: 6067: 6045: 6032: 6007: 5979: 5967: 5953:. Meccano.us. 5941: 5916: 5887: 5857: 5828: 5821: 5799: 5784: 5769: 5744: 5732: 5713:(3): 455–483. 5697: 5685: 5655: 5643: 5638:Leslie Comrie 5631: 5602: 5573: 5538: 5520: 5491: 5460: 5448: 5436: 5410: 5406:Mourlevat 1988 5398: 5396:, p. 245. 5386: 5374: 5357: 5345: 5318: 5306: 5294: 5290:on 2007-12-25. 5256: 5249: 5231: 5197: 5170: 5149: 5137: 5111: 5097: 5076: 5054: 5047: 5029: 5017:"Lebombo Bone" 5004: 4991: 4963: 4960:on 2008-07-21. 4943: 4942: 4940: 4939: 4922: 4902: 4893: 4880: 4871: 4858: 4842: 4829: 4816: 4800: 4782: 4758: 4742: 4729: 4721:Napier's bones 4712: 4672: 4667:bill of lading 4654: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4622: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4604:Retrocomputing 4601: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4559: 4556: 4546: 4543: 4486:mobile devices 4326:plasma display 4312:presented the 4245:microcomputers 4224:stack machines 4171:from an Intel 4150:Tadashi Sasaki 4087:MOSFET scaling 4071:Main article: 4068: 4065: 4035:developed MOS 4029:Robert Dennard 4001:magnetic cores 3973:Main article: 3970: 3967: 3938:planar process 3873:Main article: 3870: 3867: 3818:supercomputers 3798:supercomputing 3785: 3782: 3708: 3705: 3590:operating cost 3556:Main article: 3553: 3550: 3547: 3546: 3543: 3540: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3522: 3521: 3518: 3512: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3494: 3493: 3490: 3483: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3465: 3464: 3461: 3455:Stored-program 3452: 3449: 3446: 3443: 3434: 3433: 3430: 3424:Stored-program 3421: 3418: 3415: 3412: 3403: 3402: 3399: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3379:Modified ENIAC 3375: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3328: 3318: 3317: 3314: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3302: 3292: 3291: 3288: 3281: 3278: 3273: 3270: 3261: 3260: 3255: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3233: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3206: 3205: 3195: 3185: 3180: 3178:floating point 3172: 3169: 3157: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3137: 3125: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3105: 3095: 3094: 3089: 3084: 3081: 3080:Numeral system 3078: 3075: 3056: 3053: 3003: 3000: 2988:floating-point 2961:in high-speed 2947:Maurice Wilkes 2942: 2939: 2808:Williams tubes 2780: 2777: 2718: 2715: 2700: 2677:stored-program 2651:Maurice Wilkes 2634: 2631: 2580: 2577: 2564:proper divisor 2451:Main article: 2448: 2445: 2314:Design of the 2298:Main article: 2295: 2292: 2274:stored-program 2128:Heath Robinson 2112:Heath Robinson 2089:Bletchley Park 2056: 2053: 2042:stored program 1960: 1957: 1931:both showed a 1922:Claude Shannon 1908:Ernst Schröder 1900:William Jevons 1830: 1827: 1823:Harvard Mark I 1791:. In two 1936 1680:Bletchley Park 1668:Enigma-machine 1607: 1604: 1507: 1504: 1415:Harry Wimperis 1326:, invented by 1306:quantities to 1267:Main article: 1264: 1261: 1064:Main article: 1061: 1058: 996:Curt Herzstark 936:Main article: 933: 930: 895:control panels 838:Basile Bouchon 821: 818: 708: 705: 662:Napier's bones 649: 646: 530:counting house 443: 440: 432: 429: 409:microprocessor 368:to modern day 356: 355: 353: 352: 345: 338: 330: 327: 326: 325: 324: 311: 310: 304: 303: 302: 301: 297:more timelines 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 255: 254: 248: 247: 246: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 207: 206: 202: 201: 200: 199: 194: 192:World Wide Web 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 156: 155: 151: 150: 149: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 110: 109: 103: 102: 101: 100: 95: 90: 85: 77: 76: 70: 69: 68: 67: 62: 54: 53: 47: 46: 36: 35: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13461: 13450: 13447: 13445: 13442: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13432: 13431: 13429: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13400: 13398: 13394: 13384: 13381: 13379: 13376: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13366: 13364: 13361: 13359: 13356: 13354: 13353:Parallel port 13351: 13348: 13345: 13344: 13342: 13338: 13332: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13322: 13319: 13317: 13314: 13312: 13309: 13307: 13304: 13303: 13301: 13297: 13294: 13292: 13288: 13282: 13279: 13277: 13274: 13272: 13269: 13265: 13262: 13260: 13257: 13256: 13255: 13252: 13248: 13245: 13244: 13243: 13240: 13236: 13233: 13230: 13226: 13222: 13219: 13217: 13214: 13213: 13212: 13209: 13205: 13202: 13200: 13197: 13196: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13183: 13180: 13179: 13178: 13175: 13174: 13172: 13170: 13169:Computer case 13166: 13158: 13155: 13153: 13150: 13149: 13148: 13145: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13127: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13112: 13110: 13108: 13102: 13096: 13095:Graphics card 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13079: 13076: 13075: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13062: 13059: 13058: 13057: 13054: 13053: 13051: 13049: 13045: 13033: 13030: 13029: 13028: 13025: 13021: 13018: 13017: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13003: 12999: 12996: 12995: 12994: 12993:Graphics card 12991: 12989: 12988:Image scanner 12986: 12984: 12981: 12980: 12978: 12974: 12968: 12965: 12963: 12960: 12958: 12955: 12953: 12950: 12948: 12945: 12941: 12938: 12937: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12917: 12915: 12913: 12909: 12906: 12904: 12903:Input devices 12900: 12896: 12893: 12885: 12880: 12878: 12873: 12871: 12866: 12865: 12862: 12850: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12840: 12837: 12833: 12830: 12829: 12828: 12825: 12821: 12818: 12817: 12816: 12813: 12812: 12810: 12806: 12799: 12796: 12795: 12793: 12789: 12781: 12777: 12773: 12766: 12763: 12762: 12760: 12758: 12754: 12748: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12738: 12736: 12734: 12730: 12723: 12720: 12717: 12714: 12713: 12711: 12709: 12705: 12698: 12695: 12694: 12692: 12690: 12686: 12678: 12673: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12652: 12650: 12648: 12644: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12600: 12599: 12596: 12587: 12582: 12580: 12575: 12573: 12568: 12567: 12564: 12558: 12555: 12551: 12544: 12541: 12538: 12535: 12532: 12529: 12526: 12523: 12522: 12520: 12518: 12514: 12507: 12504: 12501: 12498: 12495: 12492: 12489: 12486: 12483: 12480: 12477: 12474: 12471: 12468: 12465: 12462: 12461: 12459: 12457: 12453: 12442: 12439: 12436: 12433: 12432: 12430: 12426: 12419: 12416: 12413: 12410: 12407: 12404: 12401: 12398: 12395: 12392: 12389: 12386: 12383: 12380: 12377: 12374: 12371: 12368: 12365: 12362: 12359: 12356: 12353: 12350: 12347: 12344: 12341: 12338: 12335: 12332: 12329: 12326: 12323: 12320: 12317: 12314: 12311: 12308: 12307: 12305: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12292: 12289: 12287:United States 12285: 12275: 12272: 12271: 12269: 12265: 12257: 12252: 12249: 12247: 12244: 12240: 12235: 12232: 12228: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12211: 12206: 12203: 12199: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12186: 12185: 12182: 12179: 12175: 12168: 12165: 12162: 12159: 12156: 12153: 12150: 12147: 12146: 12144: 12140: 12133: 12130: 12127: 12124: 12123: 12121: 12117: 12110: 12107: 12106: 12104: 12100: 12093: 12090: 12089: 12087: 12083: 12079: 12072: 12067: 12065: 12060: 12058: 12053: 12052: 12049: 12042: 12039: 12036: 12033: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12022: 12019: 12017: 12013: 12010: 12008: 12005: 12003: 12000: 11998: 11997: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11987: 11971:on 2008-06-17 11970: 11966: 11962: 11958: 11956: 11952: 11949: 11944: 11940: 11938: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11925: 11922: 11920: 11916: 11913: 11912: 11910: 11907: 11903: 11899: 11895: 11891: 11887: 11886: 11881: 11877: 11876: 11866: 11860: 11854: 11850: 11846: 11842: 11838: 11832: 11828: 11824: 11820: 11817: 11815:0-02-431641-5 11811: 11807: 11802: 11799: 11797:0-8186-7739-2 11793: 11789: 11784: 11780: 11776: 11771: 11767: 11766:Penguin Books 11763: 11758: 11754: 11753: 11748: 11744: 11741: 11735: 11731: 11726: 11722: 11716: 11712: 11708: 11704: 11698: 11694: 11690: 11686: 11681: 11674: 11667: 11652: 11644: 11643: 11640: 11636: 11632: 11628: 11624: 11620: 11616: 11612: 11608: 11603: 11595: 11591: 11587: 11582: 11579: 11577:0-932376-14-2 11573: 11569: 11564: 11560: 11555: 11551: 11549:0-465-07835-4 11545: 11541: 11537: 11536: 11530: 11527: 11521: 11517: 11513: 11509: 11505: 11500: 11491:on 2009-06-04 11490: 11486: 11485: 11479: 11475: 11471: 11467: 11463: 11458: 11454: 11450: 11446: 11442: 11438: 11433: 11428: 11424: 11420: 11416: 11412: 11408: 11404: 11400: 11397: 11393: 11389: 11385: 11381: 11377: 11373: 11369: 11365: 11361: 11357: 11355:0-262-68137-4 11351: 11347: 11343: 11339: 11336: 11330: 11326: 11323:, Cambridge: 11322: 11318: 11314: 11310: 11306: 11303: 11297: 11293: 11289: 11285: 11281: 11277: 11273: 11269: 11260:on 2007-10-24 11256: 11249: 11248: 11243: 11239: 11236: 11234:0-13-154318-0 11230: 11226: 11221: 11217: 11212: 11209: 11207:1-55860-428-6 11203: 11199: 11195: 11194: 11188: 11184: 11180: 11176: 11175: 11170: 11165: 11156:on 2007-07-16 11155: 11151: 11150: 11144: 11141: 11140: 11134: 11129: 11124: 11113: 11109: 11105: 11104: 11099: 11095: 11094:Lovelace, Ada 11090: 11087: 11085:0-201-04358-0 11081: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11068: 11062: 11052: 11048: 11044: 11039: 11035: 11030: 11027: 11021: 11017: 11012: 11003:on 2006-10-25 11002: 10998: 10997: 10991: 10988: 10984: 10980: 10976: 10972: 10967: 10963: 10958: 10955: 10953:0-387-09823-2 10949: 10945: 10941: 10937: 10924: 10917: 10916: 10915:Nobel lecture 10911: 10907: 10897: 10893: 10892: 10886: 10877:on 2008-05-29 10873: 10869: 10865: 10861: 10857: 10853: 10849: 10842: 10837: 10827: 10823: 10819: 10818: 10812: 10802: 10798: 10797: 10791: 10782:on 2007-12-06 10781: 10777: 10776: 10770: 10761:on 2008-05-31 10760: 10756: 10755: 10749: 10740:on 2008-02-27 10736: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10716: 10712: 10705: 10700: 10697: 10695:0-521-37095-7 10691: 10687: 10686: 10680: 10676: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10661: 10655: 10651: 10646: 10645: 10638: 10635: 10629: 10625: 10620: 10619: 10612: 10599: 10592: 10591: 10585: 10582: 10578: 10574: 10570: 10566: 10562: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10549:0-201-02010-6 10545: 10541: 10537: 10533: 10529: 10518: 10514: 10512:9780735211759 10508: 10504: 10503: 10497: 10494: 10492:0-13-583914-9 10488: 10484: 10479: 10476: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10458: 10454: 10450: 10446: 10441: 10437: 10433: 10430:(1034): 177, 10429: 10425: 10424: 10419: 10415: 10412: 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10392: 10391:Physics Today 10387: 10377: 10373: 10369: 10364: 10355:on 2011-12-13 10354: 10350: 10349: 10344: 10341: 10337: 10333: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10317: 10313: 10312: 10306: 10296: 10292: 10288: 10287: 10282: 10278: 10274: 10271: 10269:0-19-284055-X 10265: 10261: 10257: 10253: 10249: 10245: 10243:0-19-825080-0 10239: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10224: 10220: 10216: 10211: 10208: 10204: 10199: 10194: 10190: 10186: 10181: 10171: 10167: 10166: 10161: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10146: 10140: 10135: 10134: 10127: 10117: 10113: 10109: 10105: 10101: 10097: 10092: 10083:on 2008-05-29 10079: 10072: 10071: 10065: 10062: 10060:0-07-004357-4 10056: 10052: 10051: 10046: 10045:Newell, Allen 10042: 10038: 10034: 10030: 10025: 10020: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10004: 10003: 9982: 9978: 9974: 9967: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9938: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9909: 9903: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9873: 9868: 9853: 9849: 9845: 9838: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9808: 9793: 9789: 9785: 9778: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9755: 9740: 9736: 9735:IEEE Spectrum 9732: 9725: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9684:(4). 041032. 9683: 9679: 9672: 9664: 9660: 9652: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9613: 9606: 9604: 9588: 9584: 9580: 9573: 9558: 9554: 9547: 9529: 9522: 9516: 9509: 9504: 9497: 9492: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9454: 9450: 9446: 9439: 9424: 9420: 9414: 9399:on 2014-08-18 9398: 9394: 9390: 9383: 9368:on 2014-07-16 9367: 9363: 9359: 9352: 9337: 9333: 9329: 9323: 9316: 9311: 9303: 9298: 9294: 9287: 9280: 9275: 9268: 9263: 9261: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9216: 9215:IEEE Spectrum 9211: 9204: 9202: 9200: 9198: 9182: 9178: 9177: 9176:The Economist 9172: 9166: 9151: 9147: 9146: 9141: 9135: 9120: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9102: 9087: 9083: 9082: 9075: 9060: 9056: 9055: 9050: 9044: 9042: 9026: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9008: 8993: 8989: 8985: 8978: 8963: 8959: 8957:9781566771931 8953: 8949: 8945: 8944: 8936: 8921: 8917: 8915:9780801886393 8911: 8907: 8906: 8898: 8890: 8888:9783540342588 8884: 8880: 8876: 8869: 8854: 8850: 8849: 8844: 8838: 8826: 8822: 8821:Noyce, Robert 8818: 8812: 8797: 8793: 8792: 8787: 8781: 8779: 8763: 8759: 8757:9789812814456 8753: 8749: 8745: 8744: 8736: 8722:on 2017-08-05 8721: 8717: 8711: 8704: 8699: 8684: 8680: 8678:0-253-34886-2 8674: 8670: 8669: 8661: 8646: 8642: 8640:1-4020-8135-9 8636: 8632: 8631: 8623: 8615: 8608: 8601: 8596: 8589: 8584: 8578:, p. 41. 8577: 8572: 8565: 8560: 8553: 8548: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8519: 8514: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8494: 8487: 8472: 8468: 8466:0-7190-0803-4 8462: 8458: 8457: 8449: 8441: 8434: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8407: 8405: 8398:, p. 37. 8397: 8392: 8390: 8388: 8380: 8375: 8368: 8363: 8356: 8351: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8327: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8308: 8293: 8289: 8288:New Scientist 8285: 8278: 8263: 8259: 8258: 8253: 8247: 8234: 8230: 8224: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8194: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8161:Wilkes, M. V. 8156: 8149: 8144: 8127: 8120: 8119: 8111: 8097: 8091: 8087: 8086: 8078: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8041: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8018: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7971: 7969: 7967: 7952: 7944: 7937: 7936: 7931: 7924: 7917: 7916: 7911: 7904: 7902: 7887:on 2010-07-05 7886: 7882: 7878: 7871: 7858:on 2016-12-11 7857: 7853: 7852: 7845: 7839:, p. 25. 7838: 7833: 7815: 7808: 7794:on 2015-12-22 7790: 7783: 7776: 7759: 7752: 7751: 7744: 7737: 7733: 7727: 7723: 7716: 7702:on 2014-02-09 7701: 7697: 7693: 7687: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7658: 7649: 7644: 7641:(30): 61–65. 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7627:Wilkes, W. V. 7622: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7592: 7586:, p. 20. 7585: 7580: 7567:on 2008-10-26 7566: 7562: 7558: 7551: 7538:on 2009-01-05 7537: 7533: 7529: 7523: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7479: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7457: 7444:on 2017-08-28 7443: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7417: 7404:on 2012-01-09 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7380: 7362: 7355: 7347: 7343: 7342:Wilkes, M. V. 7337: 7335: 7327: 7326:Copeland 2006 7322: 7315: 7314:Copeland 2004 7310: 7296:on 2015-07-02 7295: 7291: 7285: 7279:, p. 39. 7278: 7273: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7243: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7191: 7178:on 2012-02-03 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7159: 7145: 7141: 7140: 7132: 7125: 7124:Copeland 2006 7120: 7114:, p. 75. 7113: 7112:Copeland 2006 7108: 7100: 7096: 7089: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7060: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7031: 7024: 7019: 7012: 7007: 7000: 6999:Copeland 2006 6995: 6988: 6987:Welchman 1984 6983: 6976: 6975:Copeland 2006 6971: 6963: 6961:0-472-10090-4 6957: 6952: 6951: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6901: 6893: 6892:The MIT Press 6889: 6882: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6847: 6840: 6835: 6828: 6823: 6816: 6811: 6803: 6796: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6767: 6766: 6758: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6735: 6727: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6698: 6691: 6686: 6678: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6653:(4117): 487. 6652: 6648: 6644: 6637: 6628: 6627:10.1.1.37.665 6623: 6619: 6612: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6584:, p. 55. 6583: 6578: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6549: 6543:, p. 77. 6542: 6541:Welchman 1984 6537: 6531:, p. 60. 6530: 6525: 6511:on 2008-06-01 6510: 6506: 6502: 6499:Zuse, Horst. 6495: 6493: 6485: 6484:Brian Randell 6481: 6477: 6476:Copeland 2004 6472: 6466: 6462: 6456: 6454: 6438: 6434: 6432:9783486755183 6428: 6424: 6423: 6415: 6400: 6396: 6394:9781588344663 6390: 6386: 6385: 6377: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6342: 6335: 6334:Coriolis 1836 6330: 6316:on 2007-08-29 6315: 6311: 6305: 6297: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6272:: 1055–1063. 6271: 6267: 6263: 6262: 6257: 6250: 6243: 6242: 6235: 6227: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6187: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6152: 6144: 6139: 6125:on 2013-09-21 6121: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6097: 6094: 6088: 6081: 6077: 6071: 6063: 6056: 6049: 6042: 6036: 6021: 6017: 6011: 5997:on 2019-04-16 5996: 5989: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5956: 5952: 5945: 5930: 5926: 5920: 5906:on 2008-08-21 5905: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5876: 5872: 5871:New Scientist 5868: 5861: 5847:on 2012-08-07 5846: 5842: 5838: 5832: 5824: 5822:0-02-741370-5 5818: 5813: 5812: 5803: 5795: 5788: 5780: 5773: 5758: 5754: 5748: 5741: 5736: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5701: 5694: 5689: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5659: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5606: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5534: 5530: 5524: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5495: 5481:on 2006-09-13 5480: 5476: 5475: 5470: 5464: 5457: 5452: 5445: 5440: 5426:on 2014-04-08 5425: 5421: 5414: 5408:, p. 12. 5407: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5384:, p. 48. 5383: 5378: 5370: 5369: 5361: 5354: 5353:Williams 1997 5349: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5316:, p. 82. 5315: 5310: 5304:, p. 92. 5303: 5298: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5270: 5266: 5260: 5252: 5246: 5242: 5235: 5222:on 2014-03-01 5221: 5217: 5213: 5212: 5207: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5167:on 2017-12-13 5166: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5146: 5141: 5127:on 2016-06-16 5126: 5122: 5115: 5108: 5106: 5101:. p. 5: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5080: 5072: 5065: 5058: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5033: 5024: 5023: 5018: 5015: 5008: 4994: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4975: 4967: 4959: 4955: 4948: 4944: 4936: 4932: 4931:supercomputer 4926: 4919: 4918: 4913: 4912: 4906: 4897: 4890: 4884: 4875: 4867: 4862: 4855: 4851: 4846: 4839: 4833: 4826: 4820: 4813: 4812:David Caminer 4809: 4804: 4796: 4795:Williams tube 4792: 4786: 4779: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4755: 4751: 4746: 4739: 4733: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4676: 4668: 4664: 4661:According to 4658: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4633: 4629: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4565: 4562: 4561: 4555: 4553: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4528: 4522: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4453: 4450: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4426: 4421: 4420:Hot-pluggable 4417: 4413: 4408: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4370:Commodore PET 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4342: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4306:Hannover Fair 4302: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4252: 4248: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4191: 4187: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4165: 4161: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4142:Stanley Mazor 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4116: 4112: 4106: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4093:, leading to 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4074: 4064: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3966: 3963: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3882: 3876: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3826: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3790: 3781: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3733: 3731: 3730:Magnetic tape 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3697:Metrovick 950 3694: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3650:Harwell CADET 3646: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3559: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3527: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3517: 3513: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3499: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3487:magnetic drum 3484: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3470: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3444: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3431: 3429: 3425: 3422: 3419: 3416: 3413: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3400: 3398: 3394: 3391: 3388: 3385: 3380: 3377: 3376: 3372: 3369: 3366: 3363: 3361:December 1945 3360: 3355: 3352: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3338: 3335: 3332: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3297: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3259: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3238: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3202: 3196: 3193: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3126: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3062: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3038:Magnetic-core 3035: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3020:drum memories 3013: 3008: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2982: 2981: 2980:IEEE Spectrum 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2938: 2936: 2905:weighed over 2904: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2885: 2882:released the 2881: 2876: 2874: 2873:serial-access 2869: 2862:US$ 1 million 2859: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2816:magnetic drum 2813: 2809: 2806: 2805:random access 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2759: 2755: 2752:, before the 2751: 2747: 2743: 2740:proposed the 2739: 2735: 2731: 2723: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2695: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2684:prime numbers 2680: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2639: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2576: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2546:length and a 2545: 2542: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2502:random-access 2499: 2498:Williams tube 2495: 2490: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2464: 2459: 2454: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2390: 2384: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2301: 2291: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2177:Tommy Flowers 2174: 2169: 2168:photoelectric 2165: 2161: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2139: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2116:Tommy Flowers 2113: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2052: 2050: 2045: 2043: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2010:Tommy Flowers 2006: 2004: 2000: 1999:punched cards 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1937:Boolean logic 1934: 1930: 1927: 1923: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1826: 1824: 1821:In 1944, the 1819: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1702:cryptologist 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1662: 1661:cryptologists 1658: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1613: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1503: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1489:Helmut Hölzer 1485: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1466:James Thomson 1463: 1459: 1458:Vannevar Bush 1455: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1433:bomb sights, 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1384:Arthur Pollen 1381: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1361: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1339:James Thomson 1336: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1285: 1281: 1276: 1270: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1241:Vannevar Bush 1238: 1233: 1231: 1230:Percy Ludgate 1226: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1187: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1118:Jacquard loom 1115: 1111: 1110:punched cards 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1081: 1077: 1074:A portion of 1072: 1067: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 976: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 949: 944: 939: 929: 927: 923: 919: 914: 910: 906: 905:Leslie Comrie 902: 900: 896: 891: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 864:punched cards 861: 853: 849: 845: 843: 839: 835: 834:punched cards 831: 827: 817: 815: 811: 808:Around 1820, 802: 798: 796: 792: 788: 783: 779: 776:invented the 775: 768: 763: 759: 756: 752: 748: 747:Blaise Pascal 740: 736: 731: 727: 725: 721: 717: 714: 704: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 685:Edmund Gunter 682: 678: 669: 665: 663: 659: 655: 645: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 578: 576: 572: 571: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 533: 531: 520: 516: 512: 508: 507:counting rods 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 464: 460: 453: 448: 438: 431:Early devices 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 373: 371: 367: 363: 351: 346: 344: 339: 337: 332: 331: 329: 328: 323: 315: 314: 313: 312: 309: 306: 305: 300: 298: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 258: 257: 256: 253: 250: 249: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 233:South America 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 210: 209: 208: 204: 203: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 159: 158: 157: 153: 152: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 113: 112: 111: 108: 105: 104: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 84: 81: 80: 79: 78: 75: 72: 71: 66: 63: 61: 58: 57: 56: 55: 52: 49: 48: 42: 38: 37: 34: 31: 30: 27: 19: 13402: 13259:Power MOSFET 13242:Power supply 13211:Data storage 13147:Flash memory 13125:Optical disc 13107:data storage 12838: 12177:Soviet Union 11995: 11973:. Retrieved 11969:the original 11964: 11950: 11932: 11923: 11914: 11901: 11890:the original 11883: 11864: 11848: 11845:Zuse, Konrad 11826: 11823:Zuse, Konrad 11805: 11787: 11781:(2): 115–126 11778: 11774: 11761: 11751: 11729: 11710: 11688: 11684: 11673:the original 11654:. Retrieved 11622: 11618: 11606: 11567: 11558: 11534: 11515: 11503: 11493:, retrieved 11489:the original 11483: 11473: 11462:1721.1/11173 11452: 11432:1721.1/11173 11414: 11410: 11371: 11367: 11345: 11320: 11291: 11262:, retrieved 11255:the original 11246: 11224: 11215: 11192: 11178: 11173: 11158:, retrieved 11154:the original 11148: 11138: 11127: 11116:, retrieved 11107: 11101: 11066: 11055:, retrieved 11046: 11036:, p. 24 11033: 11015: 11005:, retrieved 11001:the original 10995: 10986: 10974: 10970: 10961: 10943: 10930:, retrieved 10914: 10900:, retrieved 10890: 10879:, retrieved 10872:the original 10854:(1): 35–45, 10851: 10847: 10830:, retrieved 10816: 10805:, retrieved 10795: 10784:, retrieved 10780:the original 10774: 10772:IBM (1960), 10763:, retrieved 10759:the original 10753: 10742:, retrieved 10735:the original 10714: 10710: 10684: 10670: 10643: 10617: 10605:, retrieved 10589: 10572: 10539: 10521:. Retrieved 10501: 10482: 10456: 10427: 10421: 10394: 10390: 10380:, retrieved 10371: 10357:, retrieved 10353:the original 10347: 10315: 10309: 10299:, retrieved 10290: 10284: 10255: 10233: 10214: 10188: 10184: 10174:, retrieved 10164: 10132: 10120:, retrieved 10106:(1): 43–53, 10103: 10099: 10085:, retrieved 10078:the original 10069: 10049: 10041:Bell, Gordon 10014: 10010: 10007:Backus, John 9985:. Retrieved 9976: 9966: 9955:. Retrieved 9946: 9937: 9926:. Retrieved 9908: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9887: 9879: 9867: 9856:. Retrieved 9848:SciTechDaily 9847: 9837: 9826:. Retrieved 9817: 9807: 9796:. Retrieved 9787: 9777: 9764: 9754: 9743:. Retrieved 9734: 9724: 9681: 9677: 9671: 9662: 9622: 9618: 9591:. Retrieved 9582: 9572: 9561:. Retrieved 9546: 9535:. Retrieved 9515: 9503: 9496:Kohonen 1980 9491: 9480:. Retrieved 9471: 9457:. Retrieved 9448: 9438: 9427:. Retrieved 9413: 9401:. Retrieved 9397:the original 9392: 9382: 9370:. Retrieved 9366:the original 9361: 9351: 9340:. Retrieved 9331: 9322: 9310: 9286: 9274: 9248:. Retrieved 9219: 9213: 9185:. Retrieved 9174: 9165: 9154:. Retrieved 9143: 9134: 9123:. Retrieved 9110: 9101: 9090:. Retrieved 9080: 9074: 9063:. Retrieved 9052: 9029:. Retrieved 9016: 9007: 8996:. Retrieved 8987: 8977: 8966:. Retrieved 8942: 8935: 8924:. Retrieved 8904: 8897: 8874: 8868: 8857:. Retrieved 8846: 8837: 8811: 8800:. Retrieved 8789: 8766:. Retrieved 8742: 8735: 8724:. Retrieved 8720:the original 8710: 8698: 8687:. Retrieved 8667: 8660: 8649:. Retrieved 8629: 8622: 8613: 8607: 8595: 8583: 8571: 8559: 8547: 8539:the original 8534: 8525: 8513: 8496: 8492: 8486: 8475:. Retrieved 8455: 8448: 8439: 8433: 8416: 8412: 8374: 8362: 8350: 8317: 8313: 8307: 8296:. Retrieved 8287: 8277: 8266:. Retrieved 8255: 8246: 8223: 8212:. Retrieved 8203: 8193: 8171:(4): 49–56. 8168: 8164: 8155: 8143: 8133:, retrieved 8117: 8115:IBM (1957), 8110: 8099:. Retrieved 8084: 8077: 8052: 8048: 8040: 8032:the original 8027: 8017: 7984: 7980: 7954:. Retrieved 7934: 7914: 7889:. Retrieved 7885:the original 7870: 7860:, retrieved 7856:the original 7850: 7844: 7832: 7821:. Retrieved 7796:. Retrieved 7789:the original 7775: 7765:, retrieved 7749: 7743: 7725: 7721: 7715: 7704:. Retrieved 7700:the original 7695: 7686: 7675:. Retrieved 7666: 7657: 7638: 7634: 7621: 7610:. Retrieved 7601: 7591: 7579: 7569:, retrieved 7565:the original 7560: 7550: 7540:, retrieved 7536:the original 7531: 7522: 7512:, retrieved 7495: 7492:Resurrection 7491: 7484:Kilburn, Tom 7478: 7470:the original 7465: 7456: 7446:, retrieved 7442:the original 7429: 7426:Resurrection 7425: 7416: 7406:, retrieved 7402:the original 7390:Resurrection 7389: 7379: 7368:. Retrieved 7354: 7345: 7321: 7309: 7298:. Retrieved 7294:the original 7284: 7272: 7261:. Retrieved 7252: 7242: 7232:, retrieved 7207: 7203: 7190: 7180:, retrieved 7176:the original 7171: 7158: 7148:, retrieved 7138: 7131: 7126:, p. 2. 7119: 7107: 7099:the original 7093:Sale, Tony. 7088: 7078:, retrieved 7070:The Guardian 7069: 7059: 7048:. Retrieved 7039: 7030: 7018: 7013:, p. 9. 7011:Randell 1980 7006: 6994: 6982: 6970: 6949: 6941: 6934: 6929: 6918:. Retrieved 6909: 6900: 6887: 6881: 6859:(3): 52–55. 6856: 6852: 6846: 6839:Shannon 1938 6834: 6827:Shannon 1940 6822: 6815:Shannon 1938 6810: 6801: 6795: 6784:. Retrieved 6764: 6757: 6733: 6726: 6715:. Retrieved 6706: 6697: 6690:Da Cruz 2008 6685: 6650: 6646: 6636: 6617: 6611: 6603:the original 6598: 6589: 6577: 6566:. Retrieved 6557: 6548: 6536: 6524: 6513:. Retrieved 6509:the original 6504: 6471: 6459:Turing 6441:. Retrieved 6421: 6414: 6403:. Retrieved 6383: 6376: 6351: 6347: 6341: 6329: 6318:. Retrieved 6314:the original 6304: 6265: 6259: 6249: 6239: 6234: 6225: 6209: 6201:the original 6196: 6186: 6175:. Retrieved 6166: 6138: 6127:. Retrieved 6120:the original 6103: 6092: 6091:B. Randell. 6087: 6079: 6070: 6061: 6048: 6040: 6035: 6024:. Retrieved 6010: 5999:. Retrieved 5995:the original 5982: 5970: 5959:. Retrieved 5944: 5933:. Retrieved 5919: 5908:. Retrieved 5904:the original 5899: 5890: 5879:. Retrieved 5870: 5860: 5849:. Retrieved 5845:the original 5841:Online stuff 5840: 5831: 5810: 5802: 5793: 5787: 5778: 5772: 5761:. Retrieved 5747: 5735: 5710: 5706: 5700: 5688: 5677:. Retrieved 5668: 5658: 5646: 5634: 5623:. Retrieved 5615:IBM Archives 5614: 5605: 5594:. Retrieved 5586:IBM Archives 5585: 5576: 5546: 5541: 5532: 5523: 5512:. Retrieved 5503: 5494: 5483:. Retrieved 5479:the original 5472: 5463: 5456:Leibniz 1703 5451: 5439: 5428:. Retrieved 5424:the original 5413: 5401: 5389: 5382:Marguin 1994 5377: 5371:(in French). 5367: 5360: 5348: 5331: 5327: 5321: 5309: 5297: 5288:the original 5283: 5268: 5259: 5240: 5234: 5224:, retrieved 5220:the original 5209: 5200: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5165:the original 5159: 5152: 5140: 5129:. Retrieved 5125:the original 5114: 5102: 5088: 5079: 5057: 5038: 5032: 5020: 5014:Pegg, Ed Jr. 5007: 4996:. Retrieved 4973: 4966: 4958:the original 4947: 4929:The fastest 4925: 4915: 4909: 4905: 4896: 4883: 4874: 4861: 4850:Allen Newell 4845: 4837: 4832: 4825:Donald Knuth 4819: 4803: 4798:development. 4785: 4777: 4771:Allen Newell 4761: 4745: 4732: 4715: 4690: 4686: 4675: 4657: 4638:Ishango bone 4632: 4551: 4548: 4540: 4532:entanglement 4524: 4511: 4503: 4495: 4490: 4454: 4441:cache memory 4430: 4425:server farms 4409: 4405:WorldWideWeb 4374: 4364:, the first 4360:, the Tandy 4343: 4303: 4279: 4268:André Truong 4257: 4232: 4209: 4188:8742, is an 4182: 4107: 4076: 4061:flash memory 3978: 3958: 3923: 3911:Robert Noyce 3900: 3885: 3878: 3847:Seymour Cray 3840: 3795: 3775: 3768:Teleprinters 3761: 3759:data fetch. 3734: 3710: 3690: 3670: 3647: 3610: 3596:such as the 3585:vacuum tubes 3579:The bipolar 3578: 3316:Conjectured 3129:Joseph Desch 3050: 3036: 3017: 2985: 2978: 2944: 2911:1350 kg 2900: 2877: 2851: 2832: 2782: 2762: 2734:John Mauchly 2728: 2704: 2697: 2681: 2670: 2644: 2594: 2582: 2538: 2526: 2500:, the first 2491: 2468: 2436: 2418: 2398: 2387: 2385: 2361:John Mauchly 2355: 2336: 2327: 2321: 2283:John Mauchly 2279: 2263: 2230:intelligence 2223: 2189: 2173:Allen Coombs 2153:programmable 2144: 2101: 2086: 2081:programmable 2046: 2038: 2034:vacuum tubes 2007: 1976: 1916: 1893: 1892:in his work 1890:George Boole 1883: 1859:binary logic 1851:binary adder 1846: 1832: 1820: 1812: 1746:programmable 1736: 1715: 1672:World War II 1654: 1627: 1619:vacuum tubes 1615: 1577: 1562: 1546: 1537: 1497: 1486: 1480:, where the 1451: 1431:World War II 1404: 1400:Dreyer Table 1366: 1347: 1332: 1321: 1289: 1256: 1244: 1234: 1227: 1218: 1211:Ada Lovelace 1207: 1192: 1168:square roots 1153: 1133:control flow 1126: 1116:such as the 1084: 1030:vacuum tubes 1018: 1016: 1012:Arithmometer 977: 953: 912: 909:W. J. Eckert 903: 892: 857: 823: 814:Arithmometer 807: 772: 744: 718: 710: 697:Gunter rules 677:real numbers 674: 651: 630:programmable 624:invented by 618:hydropowered 614:castle clock 610:Song dynasty 579: 568: 534: 521:as early as 517:was used in 515:Roman abacus 491:South Africa 483:Lebombo bone 468: 452:Ishango bone 374: 361: 359: 296: 291:2020–present 238:Soviet Union 218:Eastern Bloc 26: 13358:Serial port 13349:(IEEE 1394) 13326:DisplayPort 13316:Thunderbolt 13189:Motherboard 13152:Memory card 13120:Floppy disk 12962:Touchscreen 12254: [ 12237: [ 12225: [ 12208: [ 12196: [ 11342:Rojas, Raul 11284:Howlett, J. 11047:Vanity Fair 10910:Kilby, Jack 10590:Punch cards 9872:Smolin 2001 9498:, p. . 8531:"Metrovick" 7987:(1): 5–22. 7927:1700–1799: 7907:1634–1699: 7696:Computer 50 7561:Computer 50 7532:Computer 50 7466:Computer 50 6287:10261/30460 5869:. opinion. 5693:Eckert 1940 5651:Eckert 1935 5418:Falk, Jim. 5394:Ocagne 1893 5334:(1): 3–34. 4889:Kalman 1960 4808:Martin 2008 4767:Gordon Bell 4538:distances. 4449:logic gates 4412:reliability 4401:web browser 4350:Altair 8800 4322:floppy disk 4276:Altair 8800 4254:Altair 8800 4214:modules in 4175:, an 8-bit 4091:Moore's law 4037:dynamic RAM 3997:memory cell 3989:Dawon Kahng 3946:Jean Hoerni 3828:transistors 3640:solid-state 3621:transistors 3617:Tom Kilburn 3602:logic gates 3529:(Australia) 3087:Programming 2926:US$ 500,000 2907:900 kg 2847:application 2824:Mark 1 Star 2787:, built by 2669:'s seminal 2619:Tom Kilburn 2556:subtraction 2522:binary data 2510:Tom Kilburn 2487:Tom Kilburn 2343:patch panel 2324:Alan Turing 2238:telegraphic 2236:high-level 2022:Dollis Hill 1945:expressions 1941:logic gates 1924:and Soviet 1787:in 1998 by 1757:word length 1725:Replica of 1692:Harold Keen 1684:Alan Turing 1638:Konrad Zuse 1623:transistors 1584:Von Neumann 1573:undecidable 1543:Alan Turing 1526:board, and 1491:in 1942 at 1484:was built. 1411:Drift Sight 1396:World War I 1354:polynomials 1215:added notes 1203:Alan Turing 932:Calculators 767:John Napier 722:, a German 654:John Napier 634:Ramon Llull 620:mechanical 602:clock tower 582:planisphere 553:Roman Egypt 526: 2700 479:tally stick 421:smartphones 366:calculation 261:before 1950 187:Video games 13428:Categories 13105:Removable 13090:Sound card 13020:Sound chip 13015:Sound card 13005:Microphone 12895:components 12745:See also: 12482:ILLIAC III 12400:MUSASINO-1 12295:IAS family 12078:Mainframes 11975:2008-06-01 11656:2023-08-31 11495:2008-05-17 11264:2006-05-17 11247:The MONIAC 11160:2008-05-17 11118:2008-05-04 11057:2020-12-01 11007:2006-10-31 10932:2008-05-15 10902:2014-05-31 10881:2008-05-03 10832:2008-05-15 10807:2008-05-17 10786:2008-03-06 10765:2008-07-01 10744:2008-06-15 10607:2008-05-19 10581:B007BNG4E0 10523:2020-10-18 10382:2008-05-17 10359:2007-12-21 10301:2008-07-06 10176:2008-05-18 10122:2008-05-17 10087:2008-05-17 10017:(8): 613, 9999:References 9987:2020-06-23 9957:2023-08-26 9947:top500.org 9928:2023-08-29 9889:Datamation 9858:2019-12-26 9828:2018-12-20 9798:2020-12-02 9745:2019-03-14 9691:1809.01802 9593:2017-11-10 9563:2014-07-09 9537:2013-08-18 9482:2009-12-03 9459:2020-12-02 9429:2015-08-11 9403:2008-05-31 9372:2009-04-01 9342:2022-12-02 9267:Intel 1971 9250:2019-10-13 9187:2019-09-10 9156:2019-06-19 9125:2019-09-20 9092:2020-10-18 9065:2019-07-29 9031:2019-10-21 8998:2021-05-12 8968:2019-12-07 8926:2019-12-07 8859:2019-08-13 8817:US 2981877 8802:2019-08-13 8768:2019-12-07 8726:2008-05-29 8703:Kilby 2000 8689:2016-06-04 8651:2016-06-04 8552:Simon 1991 8477:2014-01-07 8298:2019-01-22 8268:2023-08-26 8229:US 2708722 8214:2010-02-09 8135:2009-05-25 8101:2020-08-30 7956:2024-02-29 7891:2010-01-10 7862:2010-01-09 7823:2020-12-02 7798:2016-11-18 7767:2013-06-29 7728:: 5. 2011. 7706:2014-01-05 7677:2020-12-01 7635:Math. Comp 7612:2018-06-21 7571:2008-11-04 7542:2008-11-16 7514:2012-03-15 7448:2010-07-07 7408:2008-04-19 7370:2023-08-24 7300:2015-08-11 7277:Evans 2018 7263:2017-03-07 7234:2019-03-03 7182:2012-10-18 7150:2019-01-11 7080:2012-10-17 7050:2012-10-19 6920:2020-12-01 6786:2016-06-04 6748:067152397X 6717:2018-11-08 6568:2017-02-16 6529:Smith 2007 6515:2008-06-17 6443:2021-12-27 6405:2020-10-18 6320:2008-05-17 6177:2014-01-07 6129:2013-09-09 6064:: 575–583. 6026:2022-12-02 6001:2019-08-08 5961:2012-08-01 5935:2024-04-23 5910:2008-08-21 5881:2012-08-01 5851:2012-08-01 5763:2015-08-11 5679:2023-08-31 5625:2020-12-01 5596:2020-12-01 5514:2010-01-30 5485:2023-08-26 5444:Smith 1929 5430:2014-05-15 5226:2008-09-06 5145:Lazos 1994 5131:2016-07-06 4998:2020-05-27 4866:Bob Taylor 4856:computers. 4469:satellites 4465:telephones 4461:many forms 4433:multi-core 4397:CERN httpd 4395:software, 4393:web server 4272:Intel 8080 4122:Intel 4004 4021:static RAM 4009:MOS memory 3903:Jack Kilby 3721:fixed disk 3606:flip-flops 3581:transistor 3539:Electronic 3511:Electronic 3482:Electronic 3476:April 1949 3451:Electronic 3420:Electronic 3407:ARC2 (SEC) 3392:Electronic 3386:April 1948 3367:Electronic 3343:film stock 3341:35 mm 3330:March 1945 3310:Electronic 3290:Debatable 3251:Electronic 3224:Electronic 3197:In theory 3192:film stock 3189:35 mm 3148:Electronic 3139:March 1940 3116:Electronic 2922:1.8 m 2732:inventors 2679:computer. 2433:subroutine 2359:inventors 2244:and their 2234:enciphered 2147:electronic 2108:Max Newman 2075:electronic 1993:, and the 1871:bi-quinary 1789:Raúl Rojas 1652:circuits. 1621:and later 1551:Kurt Gödel 1441:) and the 1423:wind speed 1300:mechanical 1296:electrical 1023:Bell Punch 938:Calculator 828:developed 681:slide rule 658:logarithms 594:Al-Zarqali 590:equatorium 435:See also: 385:transistor 377:arithmetic 243:Yugoslavia 205:By country 13368:PS/2 port 13363:Game port 13276:Fax modem 13115:Disk pack 12967:Trackball 12930:Light pen 12741:UNIVAC II 12602:305 RAMAC 12488:ILLIAC IV 12476:ILLIAC II 12435:FACOM 201 12388:MANIAC II 12085:Australia 12016:Bob Bemer 11847:(2010) . 11825:(1993) . 11514:(2007) , 10340:159510351 10223:223686427 10193:CiteSeerX 9716:119363882 9655:Cited in 9226:: 48–54. 8334:1567-7818 8001:0164-1239 7504:0958-7403 7438:0958-7403 7398:0958-7403 6622:CiteSeerX 6582:Zuse 1993 6296:0094-114X 6143:Chua 1971 5837:"Babbage" 5740:Hunt 1998 5727:108407884 5567:867910652 5022:MathWorld 4840:on Atlas. 4838:extracode 4642:bone tool 4536:non-local 4457:commodity 4299:S-100 bus 4099:computing 4041:Simon Sze 3993:Bell Labs 3954:Bell Labs 3934:germanium 3859:megaFLOPS 3825:germanium 3725:disk pack 3695:in their 3625:germanium 3445:June 1948 3326:(Germany) 3304:June 1944 3167:(Germany) 3018:Magnetic 2992:mainframe 2990:units of 2983:in 1955. 2971:microcode 2930:US$ 3,500 2878:In 1952, 2866:125 2814:(using a 2765:U.S. Army 2347:plugboard 2008:Engineer 1596:algorithm 1559:algorithm 1376:gunlaying 1304:hydraulic 1180:microcode 1034:Dekatrons 926:computing 868:tabulator 765:A set of 586:Al-Biruni 547:from the 541:astrolabe 519:Babylonia 370:computers 286:2010–2019 281:2000–2009 276:1990–1999 271:1980–1989 266:1950–1979 13347:FireWire 13340:Obsolete 13306:Ethernet 13085:Speakers 12983:Keyboard 12957:Touchpad 12892:computer 12775:See also 12757:Raytheon 12722:UNIVAC I 12660:AN/FSQ-8 12655:AN/FSQ-7 12500:ILLIAC 6 12470:ILLIAC I 12382:MANIAC I 12334:JOHNNIAC 12267:See also 11900:(1998), 11709:(1976), 11472:(1991), 11451:(1940), 11441:51638483 11396:17748027 11319:(eds.), 11290:(eds.), 11274:(1980), 11183:Archived 11112:archived 11096:(1843), 11051:archived 10985:(1703), 10942:(1980), 10923:archived 10912:(2000), 10896:archived 10826:archived 10801:archived 10669:(1890). 10598:archived 10517:Archived 10376:archived 10332:40543045 10295:archived 10279:(1836), 10170:archived 10162:(1947), 10116:archived 10047:(1971), 10033:16367522 9981:Archived 9951:Archived 9922:Archived 9852:Archived 9822:Archived 9792:Archived 9769:Archived 9739:Archived 9651:34262210 9587:Archived 9557:Archived 9528:Archived 9476:Archived 9472:BBC News 9453:Archived 9423:Archived 9336:Archived 9297:Archived 9244:Archived 9240:32003640 9181:Archived 9150:Archived 9119:Archived 9086:Archived 9059:Archived 9025:Archived 8992:Archived 8962:Archived 8920:Archived 8853:Archived 8796:Archived 8762:Archived 8683:Archived 8645:Archived 8471:Archived 8367:IBM 1960 8292:Archived 8262:Archived 8233:Wang, An 8208:Archived 8185:11377060 8126:archived 8069:36692260 8009:15227017 7932:(1992). 7912:(1997). 7814:Archived 7758:archived 7736:integers 7671:Archived 7667:EDSAC 99 7606:Archived 7602:BBC News 7508:archived 7486:(1990), 7366:(Report) 7344:(1956). 7257:Archived 7228:archived 7224:39816473 7198:(1983), 7144:archived 7074:archived 7044:Archived 7040:BBC News 6914:Archived 6873:41800914 6780:Archived 6711:Archived 6562:Archived 6486:, 1972." 6437:Archived 6399:Archived 6368:15986944 6171:Archived 6020:Archived 5955:Archived 5929:Archived 5875:Archived 5757:Archived 5673:Archived 5619:Archived 5590:Archived 5531:(1965). 5508:Archived 5087:(2008). 5071:Archived 4707:17810210 4558:See also 4545:Epilogue 4358:Apple II 4310:Olivetti 4291:Cromemco 4260:Micral N 4130:Ted Hoff 4051:such as 3863:CDC 7600 3851:CDC 6600 3822:discrete 3810:Ferranti 3701:IBM 1401 3533:Nov 1949 3505:May 1949 3414:May 1948 3296:Colossus 3272:May 1944 3245:Feb 1944 3237:Colossus 3171:May 1941 3107:Jan 1940 2967:firmware 2854:UNIVAC I 2789:Ferranti 2705:The Star 2701:— 2560:negation 2552:hardware 2496:for the 2156:computer 1926:logician 1875:excess-3 1869:or BCD, 1845:" (for " 1804:IBM SSEC 1634:computer 1468:and the 1217:to the " 1090:polymath 880:counters 872:keypunch 870:and the 780:and his 724:polymath 711:In 1609 561:automata 535:Several 487:Eswatini 407:and the 322:Category 213:Bulgaria 172:Internet 83:Software 74:Software 51:Hardware 13396:Related 13299:Current 13140:Blu-ray 13078:Plotter 13073:Printer 13056:Monitor 13032:Softcam 12940:Optical 12808:Related 12418:Cyclone 12412:EDB-2/3 12370:SILLIAC 12328:IBM 701 12222:PS-3000 12217:PS-2000 12193:ES-2701 12092:SILLIAC 11937:01/1958 11928:12/1957 11919:06/1957 11867:(1984). 11376:Bibcode 11368:Science 11072:Bibcode 10868:1242324 10719:Bibcode 10475:2275308 10432:Bibcode 10399:Bibcode 10293:: 5–9, 10108:Bibcode 9977:Gizmodo 9696:Bibcode 9663:Science 9642:8279951 8342:7492074 7734:of the 7732:squares 6910:IBM 100 6677:4110351 6655:Bibcode 5328:Nuncius 4979:Bibcode 4935:top 500 4933:of the 4687:Science 4517:kelvins 4515:3 4354:Apple I 4274:-based 4158:Busicom 4031:at the 3930:silicon 3890:of the 3814:Plessey 3770:like a 3757:operand 3745:databus 3658:Harwell 3611:At the 3389:Decimal 3364:Decimal 3347:In 1950 3298:Mark 2 3276:Decimal 3239:Mark 1 3143:Decimal 3111:Decimal 3046:IBM 704 3032:IBM 650 2996:EDSAC 2 2903:IBM 650 2896:IBM 650 2884:Gamma 3 2803:(using 2771:at the 2661:at the 2659:England 2606:IBM 701 2494:testbed 2416:(ACE). 2351:program 2339:program 2270:Colossi 2204:Colossi 2150:digital 2132:Colossi 2078:digital 1977:Purely 1843:Model K 1694:of the 1522:board, 1518:board, 1122:base-10 1076:Babbage 1056:(RPN). 1038:"Nixie" 638:Leibniz 606:Su Song 475:fingers 463:Suanpan 425:tablets 381:voltage 228:Romania 177:Laptops 13254:MOSFET 13194:Memory 13061:Screen 13027:Webcam 12890:Basic 12800:(1943) 12767:(1953) 12765:RAYDAC 12724:(1951) 12718:(1949) 12699:(1945) 12545:(1952) 12539:(1949) 12533:(1947) 12527:(1944) 12508:(2006) 12502:(2005) 12496:(1988) 12490:(1965) 12484:(1966) 12478:(1958) 12472:(1952) 12466:(1952) 12464:ORDVAC 12443:(1964) 12437:(1960) 12420:(1959) 12414:(1957) 12408:(1957) 12402:(1957) 12396:(1957) 12394:MISTIC 12390:(1956) 12384:(1956) 12378:(1956) 12372:(1956) 12366:(1957) 12360:(1955) 12354:(1955) 12352:WEIZAC 12348:(1952) 12346:ORDVAC 12342:(1953) 12340:ORACLE 12336:(1953) 12330:(1953) 12324:(1953) 12318:(1953) 12316:AVIDAC 12312:(1952) 12310:ILLIAC 12246:Elbrus 12188:BESM-6 12169:(1964) 12163:(1957) 12157:(1956) 12151:(1957) 12142:Sweden 12134:(1949) 12128:(1954) 12111:(1955) 12109:WEIZAC 12102:Israel 12094:(1956) 11855: 11833: 11812: 11794: 11736: 11717: 11637: 11599: 11588:, 11574: 11546: 11522: 11439: 11394: 11352: 11331: 11298: 11231: 11204: 11082: 11022: 10950: 10866: 10692: 10656: 10630: 10579: 10558:531535 10556: 10546: 10509: 10489: 10473: 10338: 10330: 10266: 10240: 10221: 10195: 10141: 10057: 10031: 9714: 9649: 9639: 9619:Nature 9302:Sasaki 9238: 9111:IBM100 9107:"DRAM" 8954: 8912: 8885: 8830: 8819:, 8754: 8675: 8637: 8463: 8340: 8332: 8239: 8231:, 8183: 8092: 8067: 8007: 7999: 7502: 7436: 7396: 7222: 6958: 6871: 6772: 6745: 6675: 6647:Nature 6624: 6595:"Zuse" 6429: 6391: 6366: 6294: 6270:IFToMM 5819: 5725: 5582:"1920" 5565: 5247: 5095: 5045: 4989: 4869:born." 4705: 4650:fibula 4504:Nature 4471:. 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