Transformer - Knowledge

3281:, had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five high-efficiency AC transformers, the first of these units having been shipped on September 16, 1884. This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form. In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either wound around an iron wire ring core or surrounded by an iron wire core. The two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day, termed "core form" or "shell form" . 3210:. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil. Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the transformer would be instrumental in the 2204:

applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.

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ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred). When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces. Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested the use of

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necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings above 10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

2194: 2679: 2351: 2253: 2213: 3314: 2918: 6876: 2639: 7455: 3116: 3097: 2937: 1250: 1215: 2378:. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating 1300: 2272:. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance. 2654:

the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced. Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, by circulating externally heated transformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used.

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certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.

2875:, transformers allow transmission of electric power at high voltages, which reduces the loss due to heating of the wires. This allows generating plants to be located economically at a distance from electrical consumers. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. 2650:

windings and protect them from moisture or corrosion. The resin may be impregnated into the winding insulation using combinations of vacuum and pressure during the coating process, eliminating all air voids in the winding. In the limit, the entire coil may be placed in a mold, and resin cast around it as a solid block, encapsulating the windings.

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voltage bushing current transformers 12. Low voltage (LV) bushing 13. Low voltage current transformers 14. Bushing voltage-transformer for metering 15. Core 16. Yoke of the core 17. Limbs connect the yokes and hold them up 18. Coils 19. Internal wiring between coils and tapchanger 20. Oil release valve 21. Vacuum valve

3135:, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the induced secondary EMF will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce 1049: 768: 2557:

insulation and overloading failures. Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure. With a great body of empirical study as a guide,

2914:, such as between external cables and internal circuits. Isolation transformers prevent leakage of current into the secondary circuit and are used in medical equipment and at construction sites. Resonant transformers are used for coupling between stages of radio receivers, or in high-voltage Tesla coils. 3288:

below). The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs. The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations: one concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series connected, utilization loads, the other concerning the

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company in the United States in 1886. They also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was highly successful and adopted for an electric lighting system. Their device used a fixed 1:1 ratio to supply a series circuit for the utilization load (lamps). The voltage of their system was

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Schematic of a large oil-filled power transformer 1. Tank 2. Lid 3. Conservator tank 4. Oil level indicator 5. Buchholz relay for detecting gas bubbles after an internal fault 6. Piping 7. Tap changer 8. Drive motor for tap changer 9. Drive shaft for tap changer 10. High voltage (HV) bushing 11. High

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A transformer can be produced by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. An air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material. The magnetizing inductance is drastically reduced by the lack of a magnetic core, resulting in large

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Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field

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to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to

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and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect

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assumptions, retains a number of approximations. Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and

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to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected

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Large oil-filled power transformers use windings wrapped with insulating paper, which is impregnated with oil during assembly of the transformer. Oil-filled transformers use highly refined mineral oil to insulate and cool the windings and core. Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that

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Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer

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Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be

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The electrical conductor used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference

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Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is

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This also implies the following: The net core flux is zero, the input impedance is infinite when secondary is open and zero when secondary is shorted; there is zero phase-shift through an ideal transformer; input and output power and reactive volt-ampere are each conserved; these three statements

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Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed a core that was easier to manufacture, consisting of a stack of thin 'E‑shaped' iron plates insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Pre-wound copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in to

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Inter-turn insulation of small transformers may be a layer of insulating varnish on the wire. Layer of paper or polymer films may be inserted between layers of windings, and between primary and secondary windings. A transformer may be coated or dipped in a polymer resin to improve the strength of

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Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a large transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages,

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is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's 'dot' end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's 'dot' end.

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insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer failures are due to

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are induced in the conductive metal transformer core by the changing magnetic field, and this current flowing through the resistance of the iron dissipates energy as heat in the core. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material

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Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three engineers. They also popularized the word 'transformer' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current although the term had already been in use by 1882. In 1886, the ZBD engineers designed, and the Ganz

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and proximity effect losses. Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at

2581:, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either trigger an alarm or de-energize the transformer. Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems. 1815:

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However,

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Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil, or be installed in fire-resistant rooms. Air-cooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant

1457:) ratio of two transformers were the same, the transformers would share the load power in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary. 3338:

the task of redesign the Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for commercial use in United States. Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding (see image). This design was first used

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typically use core materials with much lower hysteresis and eddy-current losses than those for 50/60 Hz. Primary examples are iron-powder and ferrite cores. The lower frequency-dependant losses of these cores often is at the expense of flux density at saturation. For instance,

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with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The

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train service operating across regions with different electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV).

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does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.

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that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the 1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers.

1280:, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding proportional to its number of turns. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the winding turns ratio. 1859:

At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of switching power semiconductor devices made

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thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of laminations (thin plates) electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.

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The tank of liquid-filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have

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In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible transformer

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with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior

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held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers, requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles. George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents for $ 50,000 in February 1886. He assigned to

3544:, provides a measure of rate of magnetic flux in the core and hence of EMF induced in the respective winding. The negative sign in eq. 1 & eq. 2 is consistent with Lenz's law and Faraday's law in that by convention EMF "induced by an 1899:

losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing

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Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent.

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The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed

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may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. However, the long life span of transformers can mean that the potential for exposure can be high long after banning.

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transformers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A

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Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current

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The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.

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at intermediate points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load

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Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical

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A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary winding induces a varying

3182:, Budapest, Hungary, began producing equipment for electric lighting and, by 1883, had installed over fifty systems in Austria-Hungary. Their AC systems used arc and incandescent lamps, generators, and other equipment. 2403:

magnetizing currents and losses if used at low frequencies. Air-core transformers are unsuitable for use in power distribution, but are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications. Air cores are also used for

2386:(about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see 566: 2007: 870: 2878:

In many electronic devices, a transformer is used to convert voltage from the distribution wiring to convenient values for the circuit requirements, either directly at the power line frequency or through a

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Cutaway view of liquid-immersed transformer. The conservator (reservoir) at top provides liquid-to-atmosphere isolation as coolant level and temperature changes. The walls and fins provide required heat

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An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.

1401:, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. 2868:. Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles, they are customized in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions. 1350:, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided 2544:

heat dissipation. As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-cooling, or combinations of these. Large transformers are filled with

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connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive force cancels to zero.

100:, and utilization of alternating current electric power. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from 1828:. Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies. 3284:

In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (see

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closed-core transformer. However he only applied individual pulses of current to his transformer, and never discovered the relation between the turns ratio and EMF in the windings.

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In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the

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across any other coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without a metallic (conductive) connection between the two circuits.

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L. Dalessandro, F. d. S. Cavalcante, and J. W. Kolar, "Self-Capacitance of High-Voltage Transformers," IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 2081–2092, 2007.

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in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on January 8, 1886. The new firm became active in developing alternating current (AC) electric infrastructure throughout the United States. The

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invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected to several

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The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a

763:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {I_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac {N_{\text{P}}}{N_{\text{S}}}}={\sqrt {\frac {L_{\text{P}}}{L_{\text{S}}}}}=a} 5957: 2134:

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as

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also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some

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Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have a nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a

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were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early

1044:{\displaystyle Z'_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{I_{\text{P}}}}={\frac {aV_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}/a}}=a^{2}{\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}=a^{2}{Z_{\text{L}}}} 2390:

below). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types.

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voltage levels, such transformers being termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level, respectively. Transformers can also be used to provide

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Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.

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Power transformer overexcitation condition caused by decreased frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

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Core form, front; shell form, back. Earliest specimens of ZBD-designed high-efficiency constant-potential transformers manufactured at the Ganz factory in 1885.

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first exhibited a device with an initially widely criticized laminated plate open iron core called a 'secondary generator' in London, then sold the idea to the

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in 1832. Only Faraday furthered his experiments to the point of working out the equation describing the relationship between EMF and magnetic flux now known as

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Insulation must be provided between the individual turns of the windings, between the windings, between windings and core, and at the terminals of the winding.

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is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron. For more detailed analysis, see

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are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings. A

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commercially in the US in 1886 but Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and cheap to produce.

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Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire, including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first

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until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices such as

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Although ideal transformer's winding inductances are each infinitely high, the square root of winding inductances' ratio is equal to the turns ratio.

5502: 5325: 4819: 3998: 5158: 4932: 7491: 6281: 4718: 4567: 4526: 4498: 6727: 4275:

Boteler, D. H.; Pirjola, R. J.; Nevanlinna, H. (1998). "The Effects of Geomagnetic Disturbances On Electrical Systems at the Earth's Surface".

4154: 7400: 5352: 4361: 505: 3214:, and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since. 2279:

means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high

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It is a rule of thumb that the life expectancy of electrical insulation is halved for about every 7 °C to 10 °C increase in

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The ideal transformer model neglects many basic linear aspects of real transformers, including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies.

8365: 5498: 5817:. 16th International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution (CIRED 2001). Institution of Engineering and Technology. 6577: 6557: 2459:. Larger power transformers may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of 4777: 3360: 1342:

Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.

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Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of

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are common. Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the

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in the secondary winding. This electromagnetic induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action and, in accordance with

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Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or

77:, discovered in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil. 6227: 6183: 6139: 6116: 6095: 6074: 6051: 6023: 5888: 5867: 5848: 5798: 5754: 5561: 5468: 5222: 4870: 4484: 3806: 3739: 2309:. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load. 5260: 3305:

that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steam-powered Rome-Cerchi power plant.

7923: 7458: 6875: 6330: 5642: 3854: 4997: 4265:, §2.1.7 & §2.1.6.2.1 in Section §2.1 Power Transformers by H. Jin Sim and Scott H. Digby in Chapter 2 Equipment Types 1332:(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with: 7704: 7484: 7297: 6425: 6274: 1935: 8529: 7405: 6720: 5556:(in German). In collaboration with VDE "History of Electrical Engineering" Committee (2nd ed.). Berlin: VDE-Verl. 2666:

made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the

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Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the

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supply, core flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current

7687: 7583: 7025: 6206: 6162: 6002: 5441: 4503:. 36th Annual Conference of the International Association of Engineering Insurers. p. 7 (fig. 6). Archived from 3764: 3715: 3469: 3326: 3194: 17: 8539: 7827: 7554: 5400: 3466:

and the core area, the magnetic field varying with time according to the excitation of the primary. The expression

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Some transformers are gas-insulated. Their windings are enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and often cooled by

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Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests:

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are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, (

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diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding.

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Winding joule losses and leakage reactance are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:

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losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.

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transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the

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The Scope for Energy Saving in the EU through the Use of Energy-Efficient Electricity Distribution Transformers

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With turns of the winding oriented perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the

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Shell form transformer. Sketch used by Uppenborn to describe ZBD engineers' 1885 patents and earliest articles.

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High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided

1821: 1266:, the secondary current so produced creates a flux equal and opposite to that produced by the primary winding. 89: 3729: 1466: 8544: 7360: 7292: 7282: 7158: 7058: 6713: 4545: 4383: 3330: 2956: 2339: 1277: 88:

between circuits as well as to couple stages of signal-processing circuits. Since the invention of the first

74: 3293:, and Déri had performed the experiments; In early 1885, the three engineers also eliminated the problem of 7906: 7658: 7213: 7173: 6750: 6506: 6375: 4044: 2847: 2592: 2379: 1901: 1629: 1393: 31: 5837:

Del Vecchio, Robert M.; Poulin, Bertrand; Feghali, Pierre T.M.; Shah, Dilipkumar; Ahuja, Rajendra (2002).

2404: 8549: 7710: 7647: 7440: 7435: 7153: 7128: 7118: 7094: 7089: 6795: 6511: 6395: 6340: 6335: 5508: 5329: 4581: 2872: 2553: 1783:{\displaystyle E_{\text{rms}}={\frac {2\pi fNAB_{\text{peak}}}{\sqrt {2}}}\approx 4.44fNAB_{\text{peak}}} 97: 93: 2407:

such as Tesla coils, where they can achieve reasonably low loss despite the low magnetizing inductance.

8370: 7917: 7355: 7073: 7043: 6820: 6484: 4451:, §3.4.8 in Section 3.4 Load and Thermal Performance by Robert F. Tillman in Chapter 3 Ancillary Topics 3356: 3352: 2552:

that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil and

1868: 1291:

to the primary circuit is equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.

5553:

Michael von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky and Three-Phase: The Beginnings of Modern e Technology and Power Supply

3343:

create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse obtained a patent for the new low-cost design in 1887.

3047: 8124: 7838: 7681: 7566: 7410: 6899: 6860: 6462: 5002:

Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Part III: Power Apparatus and Systems

4504: 3175:(arc lamps) of his own design. The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers. 2944: 5536: 5183:. Budapest University of Technology and Economics, National Technical Information Centre and Library 8133: 7991: 7843: 7699: 7385: 7193: 7133: 6790: 6489: 5261:"Lecture to Mark the 100th Anniversary of the Discovery of the Electron in 1897 (preliminary text)" 4794: 4520: 3034:{\displaystyle |{\mathcal {E}}|=\left|{{\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\text{B}}} \over \mathrm {d} t}\right|,} 2880: 2772: 2584: 2142:

or "transformer hum". This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at

1909: 1861: 1097: 5311: 2228:

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability

2220: 2170:

There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.

1959:

within the steel. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by

1070: 8144: 7864: 7663: 7324: 7314: 7304: 6587: 6494: 6440: 4982: 4643: 2694:

showing three of five 220 kV – 66 kV transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA

2667: 2558: 2520: 2111: 1364:

Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is rarely attempted; the

2540:

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection and

1912:

for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a

37: 8313: 7880: 7745: 7721: 7245: 7108: 6891: 6780: 6562: 6528: 6435: 6194: 5433: 5214: 4696: 3948: 3422: 2562: 2241:

can be used to calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred level of magnetic flux.

2216:

Shell type transformer with laminated core showing edges of laminations at the top of the photo

1848: 1471:

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an

482: 46: 5458: 4860: 3596:

Percent impedance is the ratio of the voltage drop in the secondary from no load to full load.

2290:

On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to

1864:

viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level with a small transformer.

8382: 8334: 8155: 7971: 7886: 7817: 7653: 7380: 7148: 7143: 7123: 6545: 6523: 6501: 6390: 6380: 6085: 6013: 5037: 3889: 3617:

Bedell, Frederick (1942). "History of A-C Wave Form, Its Determination and Standardization".

3463: 2796: 2683: 2530: 2299: 1931: 4763: 3266: 3238: 2080:{\displaystyle P_{\text{h}}\approx {W}_{\text{h}}f\approx \eta {f}\beta _{\text{max}}^{1.6}} 447:{\displaystyle ={\frac {V_{\text{P}}}{V_{\text{S}}}}={\frac {N_{\text{P}}}{N_{\text{S}}}}=a} 8456: 8200: 8095: 7869: 7762: 7616: 7577: 7508: 7500: 6974: 6736: 6315: 5671: 5209:

Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact

4315: 4284: 3585: 3507: 3335: 2842: 2663: 2509: 1557:

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model:

41:

An O-core transformer consisting of two coils of copper wire wrapped around a magnetic core

5180: 5085: 2761:: Dry or liquid-immersed; self-cooled, forced air-cooled;forced oil-cooled, water-cooled. 1840:

losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may require

8: 8176: 8084: 7976: 7812: 7789: 7345: 7178: 7078: 7053: 7006: 6815: 6805: 6770: 6674: 6592: 6582: 6538: 6533: 6518: 6350: 5978: 5118: 4976: 4125: 3322: 3211: 3157: 2818: 2612: 2505: 2323: 2150: 2107: 1952: 1409: 1319: 1259: 1174: 81: 70: 5675: 5305: 4618: 4319: 4288: 1124:

is the apparent load or driving point impedance of the primary circuit, the superscript

8481: 8341: 8049: 8016: 7832: 7716: 7694: 7219: 6830: 6684: 6602: 6572: 6567: 6550: 6405: 6385: 6355: 6128: 6063: 5944: 5915: 5809: 5720: 5524: 5370: 5287: 5244: 5207: 5017: 4910: 3919:(8th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. see esp. Section 6 Transformers, etc, pp. 547–644. 3634: 3527: 3407: 3290: 3160:

were available, and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly, without an

3153: 3140: 2810: 2534: 2423: 1941: 1649: 1472: 1435: 1417: 1398: 1389: 1378: 1162: 1127: 789: 607: 587: 325: 298: 85: 62: 5683: 4327: 4310:

Hasegawa, Ryusuke (June 2, 2000). "Present Status of Amorphous Soft Magnetic Alloys".

4296: 4155:"EM 1110-2-3006 Engineering and Design – Hydroelectric Power Plants Electrical Design" 2698: 2548:

that both cools and insulates the windings. Transformer oil is often a highly refined

1624: 8476: 8397: 8288: 8240: 8069: 7996: 7958: 7370: 7250: 6855: 6471: 6370: 6223: 6202: 6179: 6158: 6135: 6112: 6091: 6070: 6047: 6019: 5998: 5884: 5863: 5844: 5794: 5750: 5687: 5557: 5464: 5437: 5374: 5218: 5134: 4914: 4866: 4712: 4561: 4480: 3882: 3802: 3760: 3735: 3711: 3442: 3206:

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to

3172: 3090: 2947:, the principle of the operation of the transformer, was discovered independently by 2865: 2859: 2768: 2738: 2627: 2618:

Experimental power transformers in the 500–1,000 kVA range have been built with

2374:

are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's

2295: 2284: 2143: 1645: 1439: 1421: 632: 58: 54: 5948: 5927:

Halacsy, A. A.; Von Fuchs, G. H. (April 1961). "Transformer Invented 75 Years Ago".

5919: 5724: 5021: 3638: 2306: 1831: 1408:

current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit

272:{\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}=-N_{\text{S}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}} 187:{\displaystyle V_{\text{P}}=-N_{\text{P}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi }{\mathrm {d} t}}} 8192: 8139: 7966: 7605: 7319: 7260: 6964: 6959: 6936: 6845: 6785: 6669: 5936: 5907: 5880:

Practical Transformer Handbook: for Electronics, Radio and Communications Engineers

5818: 5777: 5712: 5679: 5360: 5009: 4902: 4658: 4323: 4292: 4211: 3626: 3427: 3270: 3242: 3190: 3168: 3132: 2460: 2438: 2367: 2331: 2154: 2135: 1905: 1841: 1666: 625: 8001: 5604: 4757: 1951:

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to

8469: 8402: 8255: 7986: 7896: 7740: 7350: 7309: 7287: 7168: 7138: 7103: 7063: 6865: 6479: 6430: 6410: 6400: 6173: 6150: 6106: 6041: 5940: 5878: 5838: 5733: 5578: 5264: 5013: 4886: 4425: 3553: 3381: 3207: 3128: 2948: 2814: 2746: 2742: 2619: 2574: 2545: 1956: 1852: 1636:

The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on

1549: 1446: 343: 101: 7627: 5840:

Transformer Design Principles: With Applications to Core-Form Power Transformers

5808:

De Keulenaer, Hans; Chapman, David; Fassbinder, Stefan; McDermott, Mike (2001).

5646: 4890: 3858: 3630: 2910:

transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has

2415: 8444: 8225: 8215: 7981: 7784: 7375: 7365: 7163: 6775: 6638: 6633: 6623: 6345: 6325: 6310: 5765: 5378: 5112:"Electrostatics and Electrodynamics at Pest University in the Mid-19th Century" 4354:"Toroidal Line Power Transformers. Power Ratings Tripled. | Magnetics Magazine" 4123: 3432: 3385: 3186: 3136: 3124: 3110: 2578: 2371: 2280: 2147: 1825: 1799: 1315:(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of 1270: 494: 486: 6250: 5700: 5365: 5157:. Institute for Developing Alternative Energy in Latin America. Archived from 2809:, two-winding combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and 2491:

are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such as

2193: 1428:

or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as

8523: 8506: 8329: 8245: 8064: 7891: 7859: 7395: 7183: 7068: 7048: 6979: 6969: 6926: 6810: 6765: 6648: 5911: 5781: 3417: 3302: 2911: 2895: 2678: 2623: 2456: 2359: 2350: 2229: 1927: 1876:

saturation occurs at a substantially lower flux density than laminated iron.

1405: 1336: 1263: 66: 5605:"telephone | History, Definition, Invention, Uses, & Facts | Britannica" 4619:"What silicone wristbands say about chemical exposure in Uruguayan children" 3992: 3274: 3246: 2767:: power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer, 1844:

to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.

8387: 8375: 8263: 8230: 8059: 8044: 7611: 7415: 7390: 7255: 7224: 7038: 6840: 6452: 4906: 3412: 3375: 3367: 3294: 3260: 3083: 2952: 2806: 2721: 2706: 2600: 2252: 2245: 2212: 2120: 1896: 1892: 1873: 1413: 1325: 810: 5822: 4215: 3313: 2917: 631:

Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 with this endnote gives the ideal transformer

8171: 8120: 8026: 8011: 7794: 7756: 7240: 7001: 6989: 6909: 6835: 6825: 6755: 6618: 6420: 6360: 5965:. RWTH Aachen University Institute of Electrical Machines. Archived from 3437: 3161: 2903: 2780: 2630:

windings, which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.

2549: 2492: 2488: 2471: 2319: 1817: 1429: 7469: 5716: 5240: 3575:

apply for any frequency above zero and periodic waveforms are conserved.

2638: 8501: 8491: 8424: 8298: 8268: 8235: 8210: 8205: 8182: 8054: 8034: 7912: 7774: 7751: 7637: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7203: 7198: 7011: 6994: 6850: 6705: 6643: 6628: 6320: 3371: 3278: 3179: 3115: 3096: 2936: 2891: 2702: 2497: 2375: 2260:

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of

2233: 1661: 1611: 1170: 490: 347: 316: 105: 5807: 5691: 5310:. Translated by Julius Maier. New York: D. Appleton & Co. p. 3979: 3297:

losses with the invention of the lamination of electromagnetic cores.

2577:

for water-cooling. An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a

2419:

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

2224:

Interleaved E-I transformer laminations showing air gap and flux paths

65:. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying 8464: 8308: 8303: 8293: 8220: 8100: 7934: 7929: 7854: 7779: 6919: 6914: 6800: 6760: 6259: 5497: 4662: 3389: 3252: 2899: 2887: 2864:

Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of

2776: 2691: 2687: 2541: 2501: 2467: 2363: 2276: 2139: 1913: 1891:

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate

1637: 1425: 1322:

losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer core, and

1249: 1158: 4759:

Magnetism and Electricity: A Manual for Students in Advanced Classes

2716:

Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

2138:, the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as 1214: 8486: 8434: 8414: 8392: 8278: 8273: 8161: 8150: 8079: 7849: 7033: 6679: 6365: 5929:

IEEE Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers

4202:

Allan, D.J. (Jan 1991). "Power Transformers – The Second Century".

3374:, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transformer for producing very 2851: 2608: 2596: 2265: 2261: 1360:

Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;

1347: 1299: 561:{\displaystyle S=I_{\text{P}}V_{\text{P}}=I_{\text{S}}V_{\text{S}}} 3994:

Opportunities for New Appliance and Equipment Efficiency Standards

3256:

Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable gap open-core induction coils

2002:{\displaystyle W_{\text{h}}\approx \eta \beta _{\text{max}}^{1.6}} 350:

of the magnetic flux Φ through one turn of the winding over time (

8346: 8283: 8105: 8090: 7944: 7901: 7549: 6954: 6944: 6689: 6415: 4542:"An Analysis of Transformer Failures, Part 1 – 1988 through 1997" 4148: 4146: 2588: 2327: 865:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}={\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}} 319: 30:

This article is about the electrical device. For other uses, see

6015:

Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930

5983:. J. B. Lippincott Company. pp. see esp. 106–107, 178, 238. 3201: 2455:

between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from

1442:

exploits saturation of the core to control alternating current.

8419: 8110: 8074: 8039: 7599: 7571: 7544: 7519: 6949: 4131:. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. p. 12 3317:

E-shaped plates for transformer cores developed by Westinghouse

2725:: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA. 2710: 2595:

led to a widespread ban on their use. Today, non-toxic, stable

1938:

causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.

1804: 1365: 4865:. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 171. 4644:"Transforming Transformers [Superconducting windings]" 4143: 3685:, §18-1 Symbols and Polarity of Mutual Inductance, pp.=589–590 3619:

Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers

3388:") were used by early experimenters in the development of the 8496: 8407: 8166: 7939: 7732: 7594: 7589: 6305: 6195:"§2.5.5 'Transformers' & §10.1.3 'The Ideal Transformer'" 6018:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 96. 5551: 3301:

factory supplied electrical equipment for, the world's first

3198:

controlled by pushing in and pulling out its open iron core.

2907: 2662:

Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated

1696:

in Wb/m or T (tesla) is given by the universal EMF equation:

5836: 4862:

Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory: A Modern Perspective

4111: 3225: 3217: 1895:, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and 61:

from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple

8439: 7822: 7768: 7669: 7622: 7560: 6904: 6694: 5353:"A Contrarian History of Early Electric Power Distribution" 4641: 3233: 2886:

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of

6201:(2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 172, 1017. 5959:

Electrical Machines I: Basics, Design, Function, Operation

4762:. London and New York: Longmans, Green, & Co. p. 4152: 2731:: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying. 6664: 3147: 2940:

Faraday's experiment with induction between coils of wire

1366:'real' transformer model's equivalent circuit shown below 4274: 3321:

Building on the advancement of AC technology in Europe,

3261:

Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution

2587:(PCBs) have properties that once favored their use as a 2287:

must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass.

1641:

reactance by simple summation as two series impedances.

1516:

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation,

1449:

and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (

5898:

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "Who Invented the Transformer?".

2898:

to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed

2256:

Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

2238: 1867:

Transformers for higher frequency applications such as

1652:, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test. 1339:

due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings

3139:

rather than AC, induction coils relied upon vibrating

3123:

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the

5745:

CEGB, (Central Electricity Generating Board) (1982).

5173: 4124:

Hydroelectric Research and Technical Services Group.

4107: 4105: 4103: 3530: 3510: 3472: 3277:(ZBD), three Hungarian engineers associated with the 3050: 2968: 2022: 1967: 1934:

of the wire. As frequency increases, skin effect and

1926:

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes

1705: 1130: 1100: 1094:

is the load impedance of the secondary circuit &

1073: 896: 824: 792: 646: 610: 590: 508: 383: 328: 301: 218: 133: 6251:(Video) Power transformer inrush current (animation) 4891:"Experimental Researches on Electricity, 7th Series" 4126:"Transformers: Basics, Maintenance, and Diagnostics" 2500:

is often used in the output stage of an audio power

1904:

for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality

1354:

Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

1307: 92:

in 1885, transformers have become essential for the

4842: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4170: 4168: 4020: 4018: 4016: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 2173:

Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission

1632:

and X1 markings on low-voltage ("LV") side terminal

1475:model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer. 69:in the transformer's core, which induces a varying 6127: 6062: 5286: 5206: 4642:Mehta, S.P.; Aversa, N.; Walker, M.S. (Jul 1997). 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4100: 3881: 3759:. Saunders College Publishing. 1984. p. 610. 3584:Direction of transformer currents is according to 3536: 3516: 3496: 3346: 3070: 3033: 2826:: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding, 12-pulse; . . ., 2232:. The steel has a permeability many times that of 2079: 2001: 1782: 1664:, the relationship for either winding between its 1140: 1116: 1086: 1043: 864: 798: 762: 616: 596: 560: 497:power are each conserved in the input and output: 446: 334: 307: 271: 186: 5241:Electrical Society of Cornell University (1896). 5024:. Archived from the original on November 28, 2023 4601: 4599: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3829: 3827: 3731:Handbook of Transformer Design & Applications 2302:and operation of transformer protection devices. 1847:One example is in traction transformers used for 8521: 6104: 5926: 5858:Fink, Donald G.; Beatty, H. Wayne, eds. (1978). 5425: 5393: 5139:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 5071: 5042:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 4970: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4951: 4949: 4833: 4605: 4228: 4165: 4013: 3999:American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy 3966: 3921:Nomenclature for Parallel Operation, pp. 585–586 3888:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1165:. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core 5701:"The Transformer [Historical Overview]" 5351:Brusso, Barry; Allerhand, Adam (January 2021). 5350: 4895:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 4815:Joseph Henry: The Rise of an American scientist 4737: 4533: 4444: 4442: 4334: 4258: 4256: 4234: 4222: 3896: 3497:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} \Phi /\mathrm {d} t} 2427:Cut view through transformer windings. Legend: 6083: 5662:Coltman, J. W. (Jan 1988). "The Transformer". 5482: 5480: 5293:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989. 5067: 5065: 4676: 4596: 4490: 4454: 4088: 3990: 3924: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3824: 3721: 2789:: Core form, shell form, concentric, sandwich. 2387: 2197:Core form = core type; shell form = shell type 7485: 6721: 6275: 6192: 5408:. Tinicum Township Historical Society. 1993. 5326:"Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri, Károly Zipernowsky" 5121:. Archived from the original on June 27, 2022 4996:Halacsy, Andrew; Fuchs, George (April 1961). 4961: 4946: 4811: 4582:"ASTDR ToxFAQs for Polychlorinated Biphenyls" 4471: 4469: 3688: 3666: 3664: 3504:, defined as the derivative of magnetic flux 3202:Early series circuit transformer distribution 6108:Transformer Engineering: Design and Practice 5980:Men and Volts: The Story of General Electric 5734:"Chapter 18–Circuits with Magnetic Coupling" 5731: 5147: 5077: 4995: 4805: 4725: 4635: 4439: 4253: 4117: 4074:"Why We Must Be Concerned With Transformers" 3908: 3682: 3670: 3610: 3552:to the direction that would be given by the 3363:('General Electricity Company') in Germany. 3308: 3082:is the magnetic flux through the circuit in 2755:: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts. 2673: 6193:Parker, M. R; Ula, S.; Webb, W. E. (2005). 6175:Electrical Transformers and Power Equipment 5504:Otto Blathy, Miksa Déri, Károly Zipernowsky 5491: 5477: 5303: 5213:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 5086:"Historical Development of the Transformer" 5062: 5050: 4717:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4697:"The Basics of Large Dry-Type Transformers" 4688: 4566:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4525:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4408: 4406: 4404: 4312:Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 3839: 2824:Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration 2565:provides valuable maintenance information. 1816:properties such as core loss and conductor 1655: 7492: 7478: 6728: 6714: 6282: 6268: 6065:Electrical Machines and Their Applications 5860:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 5857: 5402:History of Tinicum Township (PA) 1643–1993 5155:"Hungarian Inventors and Their Inventions" 5103: 4477:Power Distribution Planning Reference Book 4466: 3917:Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 3792: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3676: 3673:, §18-6 The Ideal Transformer, pp. 598–600 3661: 3100:Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhaven, Germany 3078:is the magnitude of the EMF in volts and Φ 2670:without letting the transformer leak oil. 2642:Substation transformer undergoing testing. 2326:, cores made from non-conductive magnetic 371:Combining the ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2: 7499: 6105:Kulkarni, S. V.; Khaparde, S. A. (2004). 6060: 6039: 5897: 5549: 5499:International Electrotechnical Commission 5364: 5243:Proceedings of the Electrical Society of 4974: 4846: 4743: 4174: 4067: 4065: 4024: 3902: 2931: 2793:Constant-potential transformer descriptor 2432:: Air, liquid or other insulating medium 1955:within the core, caused by motion of the 1916:between initial cost and operating cost. 1677:of the winding, and the supply frequency 1610:in transformer equivalent circuits. With 6735: 6578:Rotary variable differential transformer 6558:Linear variable differential transformer 6155:Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook 5876: 4981:. London: E. & F. N. Spon. pp. 4401: 4309: 4197: 4195: 4186: 4180: 3914: 3727: 3651: 3312: 3251: 3232: 3224: 3216: 3114: 3095: 2935: 2916: 2841: 2697: 2677: 2637: 2519: 2422: 2414: 2370:. A strip construction ensures that the 2349: 2251: 2244:The effect of laminations is to confine 2219: 2211: 2207: 2192: 2131:Magnetostriction related transformer hum 1830: 1623: 1548: 1298: 1248: 1218:Ideal transformer connected with source 1213: 36: 27:Device to couple energy between circuits 6171: 6148: 6125: 5976: 5955: 5788: 5698: 5661: 5640: 5486: 5456: 5450: 5200: 5198: 5056: 4885: 4852: 4682: 4460: 4340: 4247: 4094: 4030: 3991:Kubo, T.; Sachs, H.; Nadel, S. (2001). 3935: 3852: 3833: 3773: 3757:Electrical Engineering: An Introduction 2533:(an instance of the application of the 2322:. For frequencies extending beyond the 2307:amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy 474:< 1 and for a step-down transformer 14: 8522: 6289: 6130:Elementary Electric Power and Machines 6011: 5991:Electric Power Transformer Engineering 5987: 5763: 5732:Brenner, Egon; Javid, Mansour (1959). 5645:. University of Denver. Archived from 5631: 5429:George Westinghouse Powering the World 5307:The Modern Applications of Electricity 5109: 4955: 4921: 4755: 4448: 4262: 4071: 4062: 3879: 3857:. University of Denver. Archived from 3694: 3616: 3403:High-voltage transformer fire barriers 3148:First alternating current transformers 2482:Power-frequency transformers may have 1810: 7473: 6709: 6263: 6084:Kothari, D.P.; Nagrath, I.J. (2010). 4929:"Stanley Transformer – 1886 - MagLab" 4778:"A Brief History of Electromagnetism" 4423: 4417: 4201: 4192: 3361:Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft 2366:wound into a coil, powdered iron, or 2342:) of tuned radio-frequency circuits. 1460: 1236:on secondary, where 0 < 7924:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 6331:Condition monitoring of transformers 6219:High Voltage Engineering and Testing 6215: 5900:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 5744: 5415:from the original on April 23, 2015. 5258: 5204: 5195: 4858: 4731: 4694: 4412: 4388:Electronic Transformers and Circuits 1689:in m and peak magnetic flux density 1621:equals transformer no-load current. 1357:Capacitance between adjacent layers; 1152: 887: 815: 637: 499: 373: 209: 124: 7705:Programmable unijunction transistor 6426:Toroidal inductors and transformers 5791:Introduction to Electrical Machines 5705:IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 5576: 5570: 5357:IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 5259:Nagy, Árpád Zoltán (Oct 11, 1996). 4998:"Transformer Invented 75 Years Ago" 4539: 4496: 4153:US Army Corps of Engineers (1994). 3796: 3285: 1553:Real transformer equivalent circuit 1294: 1253:Ideal transformer and induction law 24: 7606:Multi-gate field-effect transistor 7406:Renewable energy commercialization 6090:(4th ed.). Tata McGraw-Hill. 6069:(4th ed.). Exeter: Pergamon. 5770:IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory 5463:. Algora Publishing. p. 102. 5460:George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius 5248:. Andrus & Church. p. 39. 4611: 3511: 3487: 3478: 3474: 3127:, invented by Irish-Catholic Rev. 3104: 3058: 3014: 3002: 2997: 2976: 2239:transformer universal EMF equation 2099:is the hysteresis coefficient and 1660:If the flux in the core is purely 1148:denoting referred to the primary. 259: 253: 249: 174: 168: 164: 25: 8566: 7584:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 6237: 6149:McLyman, Colonel William (2004). 5684:10.1038/scientificamerican0188-86 5634:Industrial Power Systems Handbook 5083: 4038:"Understanding Transformer Noise" 2345: 2014:hysteresis loss is thus given by 1308:Deviations from ideal transformer 7828:Heterostructure barrier varactor 7555:Chemical field-effect transistor 7454: 7453: 6874: 6461: 5740:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 586–622. 4799:Smithsonian Institution Archives 4695:Lane, Keith (2007) (June 2007). 4544:. The Locomotive. Archived from 4500:Analysis of Transformer Failures 3884:Electronic and Radio Engineering 3801:(5th ed.). London: Pitman. 3652:Skilling, Hugh Hildreth (1962). 3071:{\displaystyle |{\mathcal {E}}|} 1882: 813:and ideal transformer identity: 470:where for a step-up transformer 80:Transformers are used to change 7876:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 6197:. In Whitaker, Jerry C. (ed.). 5977:Hammond, John Winthrop (1941). 5699:Coltman, J. W. (Jan–Feb 2002). 5625: 5597: 5543: 5419: 5344: 5318: 5297: 5279: 5252: 5234: 4989: 4879: 4787: 4770: 4756:Poyser, Arthur William (1892). 4749: 4574: 4381: 4375: 4346: 4303: 4268: 3984: 3941: 3873: 3815: 3749: 3710:, Worth Publishers, Inc., 1976 3700: 3590: 3351:In 1889, Russian-born engineer 3347:Other early transformer designs 2906:over a single pair of wires. A 2837: 2512:transmitters are very similar. 2354:Small toroidal core transformer 2268:pieces, leading to its name of 2181: 1919:Transformer losses arise from: 1822:railway electrification systems 1372: 1057: 878: 776: 574: 460: 368:denotes primary and secondary. 285: 200: 122:By Faraday's law of induction: 6598:Variable-frequency transformer 6448:Transformer utilization factor 5862:(11th ed.). McGraw Hill. 5328:. IEC Techline. Archived from 3645: 3578: 3568: 3559: 3456: 3064: 3052: 2982: 2970: 2312: 1260:electromotive force or voltage 1227:on primary and load impedance 90:constant-potential transformer 13: 1: 7401:Renewable Energy Certificates 7361:Cost of electricity by source 7283:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 7159:High-voltage shore connection 5747:Modern Power Station Practice 5738:Analysis of Electric Circuits 5304:Hospitalier, Édouard (1882). 4540:Hartley, William H. (~2011). 4328:10.1016/S0304-8853(00)00126-8 4297:10.1016/S0273-1177(97)01096-X 3880:Terman, Frederick E. (1955). 3734:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. 3728:Flanagan, William M. (1993). 3656:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3603: 3548:of magnetic flux linkages is 3331:Edison Electric Light Company 2890:and to match devices such as 2803:General winding configuration 2633: 2591:, though concerns over their 2508:. Modulation transformers in 1902:energy efficient transformers 1628:Instrument transformer, with 1303:Leakage flux of a transformer 1117:{\displaystyle Z'_{\text{L}}} 111: 7907:Silicon controlled rectifier 7769:Organic light-emitting diode 7659:Diffused junction transistor 7416:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 7214:Transmission system operator 7174:Mains electricity by country 6751:Automatic generation control 6507:Energy efficient transformer 5941:10.1109/AIEEPAS.1961.4500994 5632:Beeman, Donald, ed. (1955). 5577:Uth, Robert (Dec 12, 2000). 5457:Skrabec, Quentin R. (2007). 5072:Halacsy & Von Fuchs 1961 5014:10.1109/AIEEPAS.1961.4500994 4606:Kulkarni & Khaparde 2004 4497:Hartley, William H. (2003). 4229:Kulkarni & Khaparde 2004 4159:Chapter 4 Power Transformers 4072:Nailen, Richard (May 2005). 3915:Knowlton, A.E., ed. (1949). 3799:Alternating Current Machines 2848:Limestone Generating Station 2439:Grain oriented silicon steel 2397: 2380:electromagnetic interference 1685:, core cross-sectional area 1594:are collectively termed the 1467:Steinmetz equivalent circuit 1087:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}} 806:is winding self-inductance. 32:Transformer (disambiguation) 7: 7711:Static induction transistor 7648:Bipolar junction transistor 7600:MOS field-effect transistor 7572:Fin field-effect transistor 7441:List of electricity sectors 7436:Electric energy consumption 7154:High-voltage direct current 7129:Electric power transmission 7119:Electric power distribution 6796:Energy return on investment 6512:Amorphous metal transformer 6396:Resonant inductive coupling 6336:Electrical insulation paper 5550:Neidhöfer, Gerhard (2008). 4812:MacPherson, Ph.D., Ryan C. 3949:"400 Hz Electrical Systems" 3631:10.1109/T-AIEE.1942.5058456 3395: 2912:balanced voltages to ground 2873:electric power transmission 2657: 2410: 2153:associated with television 1793: 346:in a winding, dΦ/dt is the 118:Ideal transformer equations 10: 8571: 7918:Static induction thyristor 7356:Carbon offsets and credits 7074:Three-phase electric power 6043:J & P Transformer Book 6040:Heathcote, Martin (1998). 6012:Hughes, Thomas P. (1993). 5583:Tesla: Master of Lightning 5263:. Budapest. Archived from 4978:History of the Transformer 4426:"Power Transformer Design" 4277:Advances in Space Research 4114:, pp. 10–11, Fig. 1.8 3353:Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky 3291:parallel shunt connections 3237:The ZBD team consisted of 3167:In 1876, Russian engineer 3119:Faraday's ring transformer 3108: 2957:Faraday's law of induction 2926: 2857: 2833:, ·6-pulse; polygon; etc.. 2515: 1862:switch-mode power supplies 1464: 1376: 75:Faraday's law of induction 29: 8530:Electric power conversion 8455: 8355: 8322: 8254: 8191: 8119: 8087:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode) 8025: 7957: 7839:Hybrid integrated circuit 7803: 7731: 7682:Light-emitting transistor 7636: 7518: 7507: 7449: 7424: 7411:Renewable Energy Payments 7334: 7271: 7233: 7087: 7024: 6935: 6900:Fossil fuel power station 6890: 6883: 6872: 6743: 6657: 6611: 6470: 6459: 6298: 6172:Pansini, Anthony (1999). 6046:(12th ed.). Newnes. 5877:Gottlieb, Irving (1998). 5843:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 5426:William R. Huber (2022). 5366:10.1109/MIAS.2020.3028630 5289:Oxford English Dictionary 4975:Uppenborn, F. J. (1889). 4433:Magnetics Design Handbook 4358:www.magneticsmagazine.com 4204:Power Engineering Journal 3309:Westinghouse improvements 2945:Electromagnetic induction 2783:, amplifier output, etc.. 2674:Classification parameters 2593:environmental persistence 2585:Polychlorinated biphenyls 2498:center-tapped transformer 2388:Classification parameters 2264:steel sheets capped with 1161:, lossless and perfectly 71:electromotive force (EMF) 8134:Backward-wave oscillator 7844:Light emitting capacitor 7700:Point-contact transistor 7670:Junction Gate FET (JFET) 7194:Single-wire earth return 7134:Electrical busbar system 6791:Energy demand management 6490:Distribution transformer 6199:The Electronics Handbook 6061:Hindmarsh, John (1977). 5912:10.1109/MIE.2013.2283834 5782:10.1109/TCT.1958.1086447 4314:. 215–216 (1): 240–245. 3980:De Keulenaer et al. 2001 3683:Brenner & Javid 1959 3671:Brenner & Javid 1959 3449: 3158:alternating current (AC) 3152:By the 1870s, efficient 2881:switch mode power supply 2795:: Step-up, step-down, 2601:fluorinated hydrocarbons 2292:geomagnetic disturbances 2186: 1826:electric traction motors 1656:Transformer EMF equation 1157:An ideal transformer is 8540:19th-century inventions 8145:Crossed-field amplifier 7664:Field-effect transistor 7325:Residual-current device 7315:Power system protection 7305:Generator interlock kit 6588:Solid-state transformer 6495:Pad-mounted transformer 6441:Transformer oil testing 6126:McLaren, Peter (1984). 5789:Daniels, A. R. (1985). 5766:"The Ideal Transformer" 5641:Calvert, James (2001). 5434:McFarland & Company 4384:"Air-Core Transformers" 4112:Del Vecchio et al. 2002 3853:Calvert, James (2001). 3265:In the autumn of 1884, 2902:circuits to carry on a 2668:electric field gradient 2559:transformer oil testing 1570:Magnetizing reactance: 8555:Electrical engineering 8314:Voltage-regulator tube 7881:MOS integrated circuit 7746:Constant-current diode 7722:Unijunction transistor 7109:Distributed generation 6781:Electric power quality 6563:Parametric transformer 6529:Instrument transformer 6485:Buck–boost transformer 6436:Dissolved gas analysis 5988:Harlow, James (2004). 5091:. IEE Sri Lanka Centre 4907:10.1098/rstl.1834.0008 4250:, pp. 3-9 to 3-14 3538: 3518: 3498: 3423:Parametric transformer 3318: 3257: 3249: 3230: 3222: 3120: 3101: 3072: 3035: 2941: 2932:Discovery of induction 2923: 2855: 2771:, circuit isolation, 2713: 2695: 2643: 2563:dissolved gas analysis 2526: 2451: 2420: 2355: 2300:saturation of the core 2257: 2225: 2217: 2198: 2081: 2003: 1849:electric multiple unit 1836: 1784: 1633: 1554: 1304: 1254: 1246: 1142: 1118: 1088: 1045: 866: 800: 764: 618: 604:is apparent power and 598: 562: 483:conservation of energy 448: 336: 309: 273: 188: 47:electrical engineering 42: 8535:Electric transformers 8383:Electrolytic detector 8156:Inductive output tube 7972:Low-dropout regulator 7887:Organic semiconductor 7818:Printed circuit board 7654:Darlington transistor 7501:Electronic components 7381:Fossil fuel phase-out 7149:Electricity retailing 7144:Electrical substation 7124:Electric power system 6546:Isolation transformer 6524:Grounding transformer 6502:Delta-wye transformer 6381:Pressure relief valve 5956:Hameyer, Kay (2004). 5643:"Inside Transformers" 5205:Smil, Vaclav (2005). 5181:"Bláthy, Ottó Titusz" 4859:Chow, Tai L. (2006). 4424:Dixon, Lloyd (2001). 3855:"Inside Transformers" 3539: 3519: 3517:{\displaystyle \Phi } 3499: 3464:magnetic flux density 3327:Westinghouse Electric 3316: 3255: 3236: 3228: 3220: 3118: 3099: 3073: 3036: 2939: 2920: 2845: 2729:Duty of a transformer 2701: 2684:electrical substation 2681: 2641: 2531:operating temperature 2523: 2457:enamelled magnet wire 2426: 2418: 2405:resonant transformers 2353: 2255: 2223: 2215: 2208:Laminated steel cores 2196: 2082: 2004: 1834: 1785: 1627: 1561:Core or iron losses: 1552: 1302: 1252: 1217: 1167:magnetic permeability 1143: 1119: 1089: 1046: 867: 801: 765: 619: 599: 563: 449: 337: 310: 274: 189: 40: 8545:Hungarian inventions 8201:Beam deflection tube 7870:Metal-oxide varistor 7763:Light-emitting diode 7617:Thin-film transistor 7578:Floating-gate MOSFET 6737:Electricity delivery 6216:Ryan, H. M. (2004). 5381:on December 12, 2020 5267:on November 25, 2012 5110:Jeszenszky, Sándor. 4435:. Texas Instruments. 4078:Electrical Apparatus 4043:. FP. Archived from 3586:the Right-Hand Rule. 3528: 3508: 3470: 3355:developed the first 3048: 2966: 2904:two-way conversation 2450:: Secondary winding 2336:coupling coefficient 2151:flyback transformers 2112:Steinmetz's equation 2020: 1965: 1923:Winding joule losses 1703: 1430:electric arc welders 1128: 1098: 1071: 894: 822: 790: 644: 608: 588: 506: 381: 326: 299: 216: 131: 8177:Traveling-wave tube 7977:Switching regulator 7813:Printed electronics 7790:Step recovery diode 7567:Depletion-load NMOS 7346:Availability factor 7298:Sulfur hexafluoride 7179:Overhead power line 7079:Virtual power plant 7054:Induction generator 7007:Sustainable biofuel 6816:Home energy storage 6806:Grid energy storage 6771:Droop speed control 6675:Mitsubishi Electric 6593:Trigger transformer 6583:Scott-T transformer 6539:Voltage transformer 6534:Current transformer 6519:Flyback transformer 6351:Induction regulator 5823:10.1049/cp:20010853 5764:Crosby, D. (1958). 5717:10.1109/2943.974352 5676:1988SciAm.258a..86C 5664:Scientific American 5511:on December 6, 2010 5119:University of Pavia 4479:, 2004 CRC Press. 4320:2000JMMM..215..240H 4289:1998AdSpR..22...17B 4216:10.1049/pe:19910004 3797:Say, M. G. (1983). 3378:at high frequency. 3359:transformer at the 3323:George Westinghouse 3212:war of the currents 3141:electrical contacts 3137:direct current (DC) 2846:Transformer at the 2787:Basic magnetic form 2613:sulfur hexafluoride 2117:Eddy current losses 2076: 1998: 1811:Effect of frequency 1498:Secondary winding: 1410:negative resistance 1287:The load impedance 1175:magnetomotive force 1113: 909: 8550:British inventions 8482:Crystal oscillator 8342:Variable capacitor 8017:Switched capacitor 7959:Voltage regulators 7833:Integrated circuit 7717:Tetrode transistor 7695:Pentode transistor 7688:Organic LET (OLET) 7675:Organic FET (OFET) 7220:Transmission tower 6831:Nameplate capacity 6685:Schneider Electric 6603:Zigzag transformer 6573:Rotary transformer 6568:Planar transformer 6551:Austin transformer 6406:Short-circuit test 6386:Quadrature booster 6356:Leakage inductance 5609:www.britannica.com 5245:Cornell University 5074:, pp. 121–125 4795:"Electromagnetism" 4734:, pp. 416–417 4507:on 20 October 2013 3534: 3514: 3494: 3408:Inductive coupling 3319: 3267:Károly Zipernowsky 3258: 3250: 3239:Károly Zipernowsky 3231: 3223: 3173:'electric candles' 3121: 3102: 3068: 3031: 2942: 2924: 2856: 2773:power distribution 2714: 2696: 2644: 2589:dielectric coolant 2569:transformer room. 2535:Arrhenius equation 2527: 2452: 2445:: Primary winding 2421: 2356: 2258: 2226: 2218: 2199: 2164:converted to heat. 2095:is the frequency, 2077: 2062: 1999: 1984: 1837: 1780: 1681:, number of turns 1650:short-circuit test 1634: 1596:magnetizing branch 1555: 1473:equivalent circuit 1461:Equivalent circuit 1399:voltage regulation 1390:leakage inductance 1379:Leakage inductance 1346:(c) similar to an 1305: 1255: 1247: 1245: < ∞. 1138: 1114: 1101: 1084: 1041: 897: 862: 796: 760: 614: 594: 558: 444: 356:), and subscripts 332: 305: 269: 184: 86:galvanic isolation 43: 8517: 8516: 8477:Ceramic resonator 8289:Mercury-arc valve 8241:Video camera tube 8193:Cathode-ray tubes 7953: 7952: 7561:Complementary MOS 7467: 7466: 7371:Environmental tax 7251:Cascading failure 7020: 7019: 6856:Utility frequency 6703: 6702: 6371:Open-circuit test 6229:978-0-85296-775-1 6185:978-0-88173-311-2 6141:978-0-470-20057-5 6134:. Ellis Horwood. 6118:978-0-8247-5653-6 6097:978-0-07-069967-0 6087:Electric Machines 6076:978-0-08-030573-8 6053:978-0-7506-1158-9 6025:978-0-8018-2873-7 5890:978-0-7506-3992-7 5869:978-0-07-020974-9 5850:978-90-5699-703-8 5800:978-0-333-19627-4 5756:978-0-08-016436-6 5563:978-3-8007-3115-2 5470:978-0-87586-508-9 5224:978-0-19-803774-3 4872:978-0-7637-3827-3 4485:978-0-8247-4875-3 3808:978-0-273-01969-5 3741:978-0-07-021291-6 3537:{\displaystyle t} 3443:Voltage converter 3022: 3008: 2866:transformer types 2860:Transformer types 2506:push-pull circuit 2330:materials called 2144:power frequencies 2069: 2045: 2030: 1991: 1975: 1948:Hysteresis losses 1842:protective relays 1777: 1753: 1752: 1744: 1713: 1646:open-circuit test 1544:) = a. 1482:Primary winding: 1447:percent impedance 1440:saturable reactor 1388:, and results in 1211: = 0). 1153:Ideal transformer 1141:{\displaystyle '} 1108: 1081: 1065: 1064: 1037: 1014: 1011: 1001: 977: 965: 953: 935: 932: 922: 904: 886: 885: 860: 857: 847: 832: 799:{\displaystyle L} 784: 783: 752: 751: 748: 738: 723: 720: 710: 696: 693: 683: 669: 666: 656: 617:{\displaystyle I} 597:{\displaystyle S} 582: 581: 555: 545: 532: 522: 468: 467: 436: 433: 423: 409: 406: 396: 335:{\displaystyle N} 308:{\displaystyle V} 293: 292: 267: 242: 226: 208: 207: 182: 157: 141: 59:electrical energy 55:passive component 18:Secondary winding 16:(Redirected from 8562: 8371:electrical power 8256:Gas-filled tubes 8140:Cavity magnetron 7967:Linear regulator 7516: 7515: 7494: 7487: 7480: 7471: 7470: 7457: 7456: 7366:Energy subsidies 7320:Protective relay 7261:Rolling blackout 6888: 6887: 6878: 6846:Power-flow study 6786:Electrical fault 6730: 6723: 6716: 6707: 6706: 6670:General Electric 6465: 6284: 6277: 6270: 6261: 6260: 6233: 6212: 6189: 6168: 6145: 6133: 6122: 6101: 6080: 6068: 6057: 6036: 6034: 6032: 6008: 5996: 5984: 5973: 5971: 5964: 5952: 5923: 5894: 5873: 5854: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5816: 5804: 5785: 5760: 5741: 5728: 5695: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5637: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5615: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5534: 5530: 5528: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5507:. Archived from 5495: 5489: 5484: 5475: 5474: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5423: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5407: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5377:. Archived from 5368: 5359:. IEEE.org: 12. 5348: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5229:ZBD transformer. 5212: 5202: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5138: 5130: 5128: 5126: 5116: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5096: 5090: 5081: 5075: 5069: 5060: 5059:, pp. 86–95 5054: 5048: 5047: 5041: 5033: 5031: 5029: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4972: 4959: 4958:, pp. 95–96 4953: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4931:. Archived from 4925: 4919: 4918: 4887:Faraday, Michael 4883: 4877: 4876: 4856: 4850: 4849:, pp. 56–59 4844: 4831: 4830: 4828: 4827: 4818:. Archived from 4809: 4803: 4802: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4722: 4716: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4692: 4686: 4685:, pp. 66–67 4680: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4669: 4663:10.1109/6.609815 4648: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4615: 4609: 4603: 4594: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4565: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4524: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4494: 4488: 4475:H. Lee Willis, 4473: 4464: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4437: 4436: 4430: 4421: 4415: 4410: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4379: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4369: 4360:. Archived from 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4251: 4245: 4232: 4231:, pp. 36–37 4226: 4220: 4219: 4199: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4177:, pp. 29–31 4172: 4163: 4162: 4150: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4130: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4080:. Archived from 4069: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4049: 4042: 4034: 4028: 4027:, pp. 41–42 4022: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4006: 3988: 3982: 3977: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3953:Aerospaceweb.org 3945: 3939: 3938:, pp. 47–49 3933: 3922: 3920: 3912: 3906: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3887: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3850: 3837: 3836:, pp. 68–74 3831: 3822: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3794: 3771: 3770: 3753: 3747: 3745: 3725: 3719: 3706:Paul A. Tipler, 3704: 3698: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3659: 3657: 3654:Electromechanics 3649: 3643: 3642: 3614: 3597: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3576: 3572: 3566: 3563: 3557: 3543: 3541: 3540: 3535: 3523: 3521: 3520: 3515: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3477: 3460: 3428:Polyphase system 3191:John Dixon Gibbs 3169:Pavel Yablochkov 3133:Maynooth College 3077: 3075: 3074: 3069: 3067: 3062: 3061: 3055: 3040: 3038: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3009: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2985: 2980: 2979: 2973: 2832: 2807:IEC vector group 2599:-based oils, or 2470:to minimize the 2372:grain boundaries 2136:magnetostriction 2086: 2084: 2083: 2078: 2075: 2070: 2067: 2061: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2041: 2032: 2031: 2028: 2008: 2006: 2005: 2000: 1997: 1992: 1989: 1977: 1976: 1973: 1957:magnetic domains 1936:proximity effect 1789: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1778: 1775: 1754: 1748: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1742: 1720: 1715: 1714: 1711: 1424:vapor lamps and 1295:Real transformer 1147: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1137: 1123: 1121: 1120: 1115: 1109: 1106: 1093: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1083: 1082: 1079: 1059: 1050: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1028: 1027: 1015: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999: 993: 991: 990: 978: 976: 972: 967: 966: 963: 956: 955: 954: 951: 941: 936: 934: 933: 930: 924: 923: 920: 914: 905: 902: 888: 880: 871: 869: 868: 863: 861: 859: 858: 855: 849: 848: 845: 839: 834: 833: 830: 816: 805: 803: 802: 797: 778: 769: 767: 766: 761: 753: 750: 749: 746: 740: 739: 736: 730: 729: 724: 722: 721: 718: 712: 711: 708: 702: 697: 695: 694: 691: 685: 684: 681: 675: 670: 668: 667: 664: 658: 657: 654: 648: 638: 623: 621: 620: 615: 603: 601: 600: 595: 576: 567: 565: 564: 559: 557: 556: 553: 547: 546: 543: 534: 533: 530: 524: 523: 520: 500: 462: 453: 451: 450: 445: 437: 435: 434: 431: 425: 424: 421: 415: 410: 408: 407: 404: 398: 397: 394: 388: 374: 341: 339: 338: 333: 314: 312: 311: 306: 287: 278: 276: 275: 270: 268: 266: 262: 256: 252: 246: 244: 243: 240: 228: 227: 224: 210: 202: 193: 191: 190: 185: 183: 181: 177: 171: 167: 161: 159: 158: 155: 143: 142: 139: 125: 21: 8570: 8569: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8561: 8560: 8559: 8520: 8519: 8518: 8513: 8451: 8366:audio and video 8351: 8318: 8250: 8187: 8115: 8096:Photomultiplier 8021: 7949: 7897:Quantum circuit 7805: 7799: 7741:Avalanche diode 7727: 7639: 7632: 7521: 7510: 7503: 7498: 7468: 7463: 7445: 7429: 7427: 7420: 7351:Capacity factor 7339: 7337: 7330: 7310:Numerical relay 7288:Circuit breaker 7276: 7274: 7267: 7229: 7169:Load management 7139:Electrical grid 7104:Demand response 7097: 7092: 7083: 7064:Microgeneration 7016: 6931: 6879: 6870: 6866:Vehicle-to-grid 6739: 6734: 6704: 6699: 6653: 6607: 6480:Autotransformer 6466: 6457: 6431:Transformer oil 6411:Stacking factor 6401:Severity factor 6294: 6288: 6258: 6256: 6240: 6230: 6209: 6186: 6165: 6142: 6119: 6098: 6077: 6054: 6030: 6028: 6026: 6005: 5994: 5969: 5962: 5891: 5870: 5851: 5827: 5825: 5814: 5801: 5757: 5652: 5650: 5628: 5623: 5622: 5613: 5611: 5603: 5602: 5598: 5588: 5586: 5575: 5571: 5564: 5548: 5544: 5532: 5531: 5522: 5521: 5514: 5512: 5496: 5492: 5485: 5478: 5471: 5455: 5451: 5444: 5424: 5420: 5412: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5394: 5384: 5382: 5349: 5345: 5335: 5333: 5324: 5323: 5319: 5302: 5298: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5270: 5268: 5257: 5253: 5239: 5235: 5225: 5203: 5196: 5186: 5184: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5164: 5162: 5153: 5152: 5148: 5132: 5131: 5124: 5122: 5114: 5108: 5104: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5078: 5070: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5035: 5034: 5027: 5025: 4994: 4990: 4973: 4962: 4954: 4947: 4938: 4936: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4884: 4880: 4873: 4857: 4853: 4845: 4834: 4825: 4823: 4810: 4806: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4780: 4776: 4775: 4771: 4754: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4710: 4709: 4702: 4700: 4693: 4689: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4665: 4646: 4640: 4636: 4627: 4625: 4623:www.buffalo.edu 4617: 4616: 4612: 4604: 4597: 4587: 4585: 4580: 4579: 4575: 4559: 4558: 4551: 4549: 4548:on 18 June 2018 4538: 4534: 4521:cite conference 4518: 4517: 4510: 4508: 4495: 4491: 4474: 4467: 4459: 4455: 4447: 4440: 4428: 4422: 4418: 4411: 4402: 4392: 4390: 4380: 4376: 4367: 4365: 4352: 4351: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4308: 4304: 4273: 4269: 4261: 4254: 4246: 4235: 4227: 4223: 4200: 4193: 4185: 4181: 4173: 4166: 4151: 4144: 4134: 4132: 4128: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4101: 4093: 4089: 4070: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4036: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4014: 4004: 4002: 4001:. p. 39, fig. 1 3989: 3985: 3978: 3967: 3957: 3955: 3947: 3946: 3942: 3934: 3925: 3913: 3909: 3901: 3897: 3878: 3874: 3864: 3862: 3851: 3840: 3832: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3795: 3774: 3767: 3755: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3726: 3722: 3705: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3669: 3662: 3650: 3646: 3615: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3560: 3554:right-hand rule 3529: 3526: 3525: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3486: 3481: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3398: 3386:repeating coils 3384:transformers (" 3382:Audio frequency 3349: 3336:William Stanley 3311: 3263: 3204: 3150: 3129:Nicholas Callan 3113: 3107: 3105:Induction coils 3081: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3013: 3012: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2949:Michael Faraday 2934: 2929: 2862: 2840: 2827: 2815:autotransformer 2747:radio-frequency 2743:audio-frequency 2739:Power-frequency 2735:Frequency range 2705:transformer in 2676: 2660: 2636: 2628:superconducting 2620:liquid nitrogen 2575:heat exchangers 2546:transformer oil 2518: 2446: 2441: 2433: 2428: 2413: 2400: 2348: 2315: 2275:A steel core's 2270:E-I transformer 2210: 2189: 2184: 2105: 2071: 2066: 2057: 2042: 2037: 2036: 2027: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2017: 1993: 1988: 1972: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1910:amorphous steel 1885: 1813: 1796: 1774: 1770: 1741: 1737: 1721: 1719: 1710: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1695: 1676: 1658: 1620: 1608: 1593: 1586: 1576: 1567: 1543: 1536: 1529: 1522: 1511: 1504: 1495: 1488: 1469: 1463: 1381: 1375: 1310: 1297: 1244: 1235: 1226: 1210: 1202: 1193: 1185: 1155: 1150: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1105: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1078: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1034: 1030: 1029: 1023: 1019: 1008: 1004: 998: 994: 992: 986: 982: 968: 962: 958: 957: 950: 946: 942: 940: 929: 925: 919: 915: 913: 901: 895: 892: 891: 854: 850: 844: 840: 838: 829: 825: 823: 820: 819: 791: 788: 787: 745: 741: 735: 731: 728: 717: 713: 707: 703: 701: 690: 686: 680: 676: 674: 663: 659: 653: 649: 647: 645: 642: 641: 609: 606: 605: 589: 586: 585: 552: 548: 542: 538: 529: 525: 519: 515: 507: 504: 503: 430: 426: 420: 416: 414: 403: 399: 393: 389: 387: 382: 379: 378: 367: 361: 344:number of turns 327: 324: 323: 300: 297: 296: 258: 257: 248: 247: 245: 239: 235: 223: 219: 217: 214: 213: 173: 172: 163: 162: 160: 154: 150: 138: 134: 132: 129: 128: 114: 57:that transfers 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8568: 8558: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8515: 8514: 8512: 8511: 8510: 8509: 8504: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8473: 8472: 8461: 8459: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8449: 8448: 8447: 8445:Wollaston wire 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8411: 8410: 8405: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8379: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8359: 8357: 8353: 8352: 8350: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8338: 8337: 8326: 8324: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8260: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8226:Selectron tube 8223: 8218: 8216:Magic eye tube 8213: 8208: 8203: 8197: 8195: 8189: 8188: 8186: 8185: 8180: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8153: 8148: 8142: 8137: 8130: 8128: 8117: 8116: 8114: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8031: 8029: 8023: 8022: 8020: 8019: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7963: 7961: 7955: 7954: 7951: 7950: 7948: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7921: 7915: 7910: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7878: 7873: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7841: 7836: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7809: 7807: 7801: 7800: 7798: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7785:Schottky diode 7782: 7777: 7772: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7749: 7743: 7737: 7735: 7729: 7728: 7726: 7725: 7719: 7714: 7708: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7691: 7690: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7672: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7644: 7642: 7634: 7633: 7631: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7614: 7609: 7603: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7581: 7575: 7569: 7564: 7558: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7526: 7524: 7513: 7505: 7504: 7497: 7496: 7489: 7482: 7474: 7465: 7464: 7462: 7461: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7444: 7443: 7438: 7432: 7430: 7426:Statistics and 7425: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7376:Feed-in tariff 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7342: 7340: 7335: 7332: 7331: 7329: 7328: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7285: 7279: 7277: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7237: 7235: 7231: 7230: 7228: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7164:Interconnector 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7114:Dynamic demand 7111: 7106: 7100: 7098: 7088: 7085: 7084: 7082: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7044:Combined cycle 7041: 7036: 7030: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6941: 6939: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6896: 6894: 6885: 6881: 6880: 6873: 6871: 6869: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6821:Load-following 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6776:Electric power 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6740: 6733: 6732: 6725: 6718: 6710: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6654: 6652: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6639:Repeating coil 6636: 6634:Polyphase coil 6631: 6626: 6624:Induction coil 6621: 6615: 6613: 6609: 6608: 6606: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6554: 6553: 6543: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6504: 6499: 6498: 6497: 6487: 6482: 6476: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6460: 6458: 6456: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6438: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6346:High-leg delta 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6326:Circle diagram 6323: 6318: 6313: 6311:Buchholz relay 6308: 6302: 6300: 6296: 6295: 6287: 6286: 6279: 6272: 6264: 6254: 6253: 6247: 6239: 6238:External links 6236: 6235: 6234: 6228: 6213: 6207: 6190: 6184: 6169: 6163: 6146: 6140: 6123: 6117: 6102: 6096: 6081: 6075: 6058: 6052: 6037: 6024: 6009: 6003: 5985: 5974: 5972:on 2013-02-10. 5953: 5935:(3): 121–125. 5924: 5895: 5889: 5874: 5868: 5855: 5849: 5834: 5805: 5799: 5786: 5761: 5755: 5742: 5729: 5696: 5659: 5649:on May 9, 2007 5638: 5636:. McGraw-Hill. 5627: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5596: 5569: 5562: 5542: 5490: 5476: 5469: 5449: 5442: 5436:. p. 84. 5418: 5392: 5343: 5317: 5296: 5278: 5251: 5233: 5223: 5194: 5172: 5146: 5102: 5076: 5061: 5049: 5008:(3): 121–125. 4988: 4960: 4945: 4920: 4878: 4871: 4851: 4847:Guarnieri 2013 4832: 4804: 4786: 4769: 4748: 4744:Heathcote 1998 4736: 4724: 4687: 4675: 4634: 4610: 4608:, pp. 2–3 4595: 4573: 4532: 4489: 4465: 4453: 4438: 4416: 4400: 4374: 4345: 4333: 4302: 4267: 4252: 4233: 4221: 4191: 4179: 4175:Hindmarsh 1977 4164: 4161:. p. 4-1. 4142: 4116: 4099: 4087: 4084:on 2009-04-29. 4061: 4050:on 10 May 2006 4029: 4025:Heathcote 1998 4012: 3983: 3965: 3940: 3923: 3907: 3903:Heathcote 1998 3895: 3872: 3861:on May 9, 2007 3838: 3823: 3814: 3807: 3772: 3765: 3748: 3740: 3720: 3699: 3687: 3675: 3660: 3644: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3589: 3577: 3567: 3558: 3533: 3513: 3493: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3454: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3433:Power inverter 3430: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3348: 3345: 3310: 3307: 3286:Toroidal cores 3262: 3259: 3203: 3200: 3187:Lucien Gaulard 3149: 3146: 3125:induction coil 3111:Induction coil 3109:Main article: 3106: 3103: 3079: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3042: 3041: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3016: 3004: 2999: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2896:record players 2858:Main article: 2839: 2836: 2835: 2834: 2821: 2800: 2790: 2784: 2762: 2756: 2750: 2732: 2726: 2675: 2672: 2659: 2656: 2635: 2632: 2579:Buchholz relay 2517: 2514: 2412: 2409: 2399: 2396: 2347: 2346:Toroidal cores 2344: 2314: 2311: 2281:inrush current 2209: 2206: 2201: 2200: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2178: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2148:high-frequency 2132: 2128: 2127: 2126: 2125: 2118: 2115: 2103: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2074: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2040: 2035: 2026: 2012: 2011: 2010: 1996: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1971: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1924: 1884: 1881: 1812: 1809: 1800:dot convention 1795: 1792: 1791: 1790: 1773: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1751: 1740: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1718: 1709: 1693: 1674: 1657: 1654: 1618: 1606: 1598:of the model. 1591: 1584: 1579: 1578: 1574: 1568: 1565: 1541: 1534: 1527: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1509: 1502: 1496: 1493: 1486: 1462: 1459: 1377:Main article: 1374: 1371: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1355: 1344: 1343: 1340: 1330: 1329: 1323: 1309: 1306: 1296: 1293: 1271:voltage source 1240: 1231: 1222: 1206: 1198: 1189: 1181: 1154: 1151: 1136: 1133: 1112: 1104: 1077: 1063: 1062: 1053: 1051: 1033: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1007: 997: 989: 985: 981: 975: 971: 961: 949: 945: 939: 928: 918: 912: 908: 900: 884: 883: 874: 872: 853: 843: 837: 828: 795: 782: 781: 772: 770: 759: 756: 744: 734: 727: 716: 706: 700: 689: 679: 673: 662: 652: 613: 593: 580: 579: 570: 568: 551: 541: 537: 528: 518: 514: 511: 481:By the law of 466: 465: 456: 454: 443: 440: 429: 419: 413: 402: 392: 386: 363: 357: 331: 304: 291: 290: 281: 279: 265: 261: 255: 251: 238: 234: 231: 222: 206: 205: 196: 194: 180: 176: 170: 166: 153: 149: 146: 137: 115: 113: 110: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8567: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8527: 8525: 8508: 8507:mercury relay 8505: 8503: 8500: 8499: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8471: 8468: 8467: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8460: 8458: 8454: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8400: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8363: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8354: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8336: 8333: 8332: 8331: 8330:Potentiometer 8328: 8327: 8325: 8321: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8261: 8259: 8257: 8253: 8247: 8246:Williams tube 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8198: 8196: 8194: 8190: 8184: 8181: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8135: 8132: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8065:Fleming valve 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8032: 8030: 8028: 8024: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7964: 7962: 7960: 7956: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7925: 7922: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7892:Photodetector 7890: 7888: 7885: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7860:Memtransistor 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7770: 7767: 7764: 7761: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7738: 7736: 7734: 7730: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7712: 7709: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7689: 7686: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7641: 7635: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7607: 7604: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7585: 7582: 7579: 7576: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7562: 7559: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7527: 7525: 7523: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509:Semiconductor 7506: 7502: 7495: 7490: 7488: 7483: 7481: 7476: 7475: 7472: 7460: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7433: 7431: 7423: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7396:Pigouvian tax 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7333: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7293:Earth-leakage 7291: 7290: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7270: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7238: 7236: 7234:Failure modes 7232: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7184:Power station 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7069:Rankine cycle 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7049:Cooling tower 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6928: 6925: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6892:Non-renewable 6889: 6886: 6882: 6877: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6811:Grid strength 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6766:Demand factor 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6731: 6726: 6724: 6719: 6717: 6712: 6711: 6708: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6658:Manufacturers 6656: 6650: 6649:Trembler coil 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6610: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6547: 6544: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6464: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6297: 6292: 6285: 6280: 6278: 6273: 6271: 6266: 6265: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6246: 6244: 6243:General links 6231: 6225: 6222:. CRC Press. 6221: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6208:0-8493-1889-0 6204: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6187: 6181: 6178:. CRC Press. 6177: 6176: 6170: 6166: 6164:0-8247-5393-3 6160: 6156: 6152: 6147: 6143: 6137: 6132: 6131: 6124: 6120: 6114: 6111:. CRC Press. 6110: 6109: 6103: 6099: 6093: 6089: 6088: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6067: 6066: 6059: 6055: 6049: 6045: 6044: 6038: 6027: 6021: 6017: 6016: 6010: 6006: 6004:0-8493-1704-5 6000: 5997:. CRC Press. 5993: 5992: 5986: 5982: 5981: 5975: 5968: 5961: 5960: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5882: 5881: 5875: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5856: 5852: 5846: 5842: 5841: 5835: 5824: 5820: 5813: 5812: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5793:. Macmillan. 5792: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5762: 5758: 5752: 5748: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5660: 5648: 5644: 5639: 5635: 5630: 5629: 5610: 5606: 5600: 5584: 5580: 5573: 5565: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5546: 5538: 5526: 5510: 5506: 5505: 5500: 5494: 5488: 5483: 5481: 5472: 5466: 5462: 5461: 5453: 5445: 5443:9781476686929 5439: 5435: 5431: 5430: 5422: 5411: 5404: 5403: 5396: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5347: 5332:on 2010-12-06 5331: 5327: 5321: 5313: 5309: 5308: 5300: 5291: 5290: 5282: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5247: 5246: 5237: 5230: 5226: 5220: 5216: 5211: 5210: 5201: 5199: 5182: 5176: 5161:on 2012-03-22 5160: 5156: 5150: 5142: 5136: 5120: 5113: 5106: 5087: 5080: 5073: 5068: 5066: 5058: 5053: 5045: 5039: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4992: 4984: 4980: 4979: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4957: 4952: 4950: 4935:on 2017-10-11 4934: 4930: 4924: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4882: 4874: 4868: 4864: 4863: 4855: 4848: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4822:on 2015-12-08 4821: 4817: 4816: 4808: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4779: 4773: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4752: 4745: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4720: 4714: 4698: 4691: 4684: 4679: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4651:IEEE Spectrum 4645: 4638: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4607: 4602: 4600: 4583: 4577: 4569: 4563: 4547: 4543: 4536: 4528: 4522: 4506: 4502: 4501: 4493: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4472: 4470: 4462: 4457: 4450: 4445: 4443: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4414: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4389: 4385: 4382:Lee, Reuben. 4378: 4364:on 2016-09-24 4363: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4343:, p. 3-1 4342: 4337: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4306: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4271: 4264: 4259: 4257: 4249: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4230: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4198: 4196: 4188: 4187:Gottlieb 1998 4183: 4176: 4171: 4169: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4147: 4127: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4096: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4068: 4066: 4046: 4039: 4033: 4026: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4000: 3996: 3995: 3987: 3981: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3937: 3932: 3930: 3928: 3918: 3911: 3904: 3899: 3891: 3886: 3885: 3876: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3835: 3830: 3828: 3818: 3810: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3768: 3766:0-03-061758-8 3762: 3758: 3752: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3724: 3718:, pp. 937-940 3717: 3716:0-87901-041-X 3713: 3709: 3703: 3697:, p. 145 3696: 3691: 3684: 3679: 3672: 3667: 3665: 3655: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3609: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3571: 3562: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3531: 3491: 3482: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3418:Magnetization 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3400: 3393: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3377: 3376:high voltages 3373: 3370:invented the 3369: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3315: 3306: 3304: 3303:power station 3298: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3235: 3227: 3219: 3215: 3213: 3209: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3181: 3178:In 1878, the 3176: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3145: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3117: 3112: 3098: 3094: 3092: 3087: 3085: 3028: 3024: 3018: 2990: 2986: 2962: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2919: 2915: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2884: 2882: 2876: 2874: 2869: 2867: 2861: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2830: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2763: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2753:Voltage class 2751: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2718: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2671: 2669: 2665: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2631: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2570: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2522: 2513: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2425: 2417: 2408: 2406: 2395: 2391: 2389: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2360:silicon steel 2352: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2310: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2254: 2250: 2249:10 kHz. 2247: 2246:eddy currents 2242: 2240: 2235: 2231: 2230:silicon steel 2222: 2214: 2205: 2195: 2191: 2190: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2152: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2122: 2121:Eddy currents 2119: 2116: 2113: 2109: 2108:Magnetic core 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2072: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2038: 2033: 2024: 2016: 2015: 2013: 1994: 1985: 1981: 1978: 1969: 1961: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1928:joule heating 1925: 1922: 1921: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1906:silicon steel 1903: 1898: 1894: 1889: 1883:Energy losses 1880: 1877: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1863: 1857: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1843: 1833: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1749: 1738: 1734: 1731: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1716: 1707: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1663: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1639: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1613: 1605: 1599: 1597: 1590: 1583: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1551: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1533: 1526: 1519: 1508: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1468: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1414:electric arcs 1411: 1407: 1406:short-circuit 1402: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1380: 1370: 1367: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1349: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1333: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1301: 1292: 1290: 1285: 1281: 1279: 1278:Faraday's law 1276:According to 1274: 1272: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1251: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1194: − 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1173:and zero net 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1149: 1134: 1132: 1110: 1102: 1075: 1061: 1054: 1052: 1031: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1005: 995: 987: 983: 979: 973: 969: 959: 947: 943: 937: 926: 916: 910: 906: 898: 890: 889: 882: 875: 873: 851: 841: 835: 826: 818: 817: 814: 812: 807: 793: 780: 773: 771: 757: 754: 742: 732: 725: 714: 704: 698: 687: 677: 671: 660: 650: 640: 639: 636: 634: 629: 627: 611: 591: 578: 571: 569: 549: 539: 535: 526: 516: 512: 509: 502: 501: 498: 496: 492: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 464: 457: 455: 441: 438: 427: 417: 411: 400: 390: 384: 376: 375: 372: 369: 366: 360: 355: 354: 349: 345: 329: 321: 318: 317:instantaneous 302: 289: 282: 280: 263: 236: 232: 229: 220: 212: 211: 204: 197: 195: 178: 151: 147: 144: 135: 127: 126: 123: 120: 119: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 78: 76: 72: 68: 67:magnetic flux 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 39: 33: 19: 8429: 8264:Cold cathode 8231:Storage tube 8121:Vacuum tubes 8070:Neutron tube 8045:Beam tetrode 8027:Vacuum tubes 7612:Power MOSFET 7391:Net metering 7338:and policies 7256:Power outage 7225:Utility pole 7208: 7189:Pumped hydro 7095:distribution 7090:Transmission 7039:Cogeneration 6841:Power factor 6453:Vector group 6290: 6255: 6242: 6241: 6218: 6198: 6174: 6154: 6129: 6107: 6086: 6064: 6042: 6029:. Retrieved 6014: 5990: 5979: 5967:the original 5958: 5932: 5928: 5906:(4): 56–59. 5903: 5899: 5883:. Elsevier. 5879: 5859: 5839: 5826:. Retrieved 5810: 5790: 5773: 5769: 5749:. Pergamon. 5746: 5737: 5708: 5704: 5670:(1): 86–95. 5667: 5663: 5651:. Retrieved 5647:the original 5633: 5626:Bibliography 5612:. Retrieved 5608: 5599: 5587:. Retrieved 5582: 5579:"Tesla Coil" 5572: 5552: 5545: 5513:. Retrieved 5509:the original 5503: 5493: 5487:Coltman 2002 5459: 5452: 5428: 5421: 5401: 5395: 5383:. Retrieved 5379:the original 5356: 5346: 5334:. Retrieved 5330:the original 5320: 5306: 5299: 5288: 5281: 5269:. Retrieved 5265:the original 5254: 5242: 5236: 5228: 5208: 5185:. Retrieved 5175: 5163:. Retrieved 5159:the original 5149: 5123:. Retrieved 5105: 5093:. Retrieved 5084:Lucas, J.R. 5079: 5057:Coltman 1988 5052: 5038:cite journal 5028:November 28, 5026:. Retrieved 5005: 5001: 4991: 4977: 4937:. Retrieved 4933:the original 4923: 4898: 4894: 4881: 4861: 4854: 4824:. Retrieved 4820:the original 4814: 4807: 4798: 4789: 4772: 4758: 4751: 4739: 4727: 4701:. Retrieved 4690: 4683:Pansini 1999 4678: 4666:. Retrieved 4657:(7): 43–49. 4654: 4650: 4637: 4626:. Retrieved 4622: 4613: 4586:. Retrieved 4576: 4550:. Retrieved 4546:the original 4535: 4509:. Retrieved 4505:the original 4499: 4492: 4476: 4463:, p. 32 4461:Pansini 1999 4456: 4432: 4419: 4391:. Retrieved 4387: 4377: 4366:. Retrieved 4362:the original 4357: 4348: 4341:McLyman 2004 4336: 4311: 4305: 4283:(1): 17–27. 4280: 4276: 4270: 4248:McLyman 2004 4224: 4207: 4203: 4182: 4158: 4133:. Retrieved 4119: 4097:, p. 23 4095:Pansini 1999 4090: 4082:the original 4077: 4052:. Retrieved 4045:the original 4032: 4003:. Retrieved 3993: 3986: 3956:. Retrieved 3952: 3943: 3936:Daniels 1985 3916: 3910: 3898: 3883: 3875: 3863:. Retrieved 3859:the original 3834:McLaren 1984 3817: 3798: 3756: 3751: 3746:pp. 2-1, 2-2 3730: 3723: 3707: 3702: 3690: 3678: 3653: 3647: 3622: 3618: 3612: 3592: 3580: 3570: 3561: 3549: 3545: 3458: 3413:Load profile 3380: 3368:Nikola Tesla 3365: 3350: 3341: 3325:founded the 3320: 3299: 3295:eddy current 3283: 3264: 3205: 3195:Westinghouse 3184: 3180:Ganz factory 3177: 3166: 3151: 3122: 3088: 3043: 2953:Joseph Henry 2951:in 1831 and 2943: 2885: 2877: 2870: 2863: 2838:Applications 2828: 2823: 2802: 2792: 2786: 2764: 2759:Cooling type 2758: 2752: 2734: 2728: 2722:Power rating 2720: 2715: 2707:Langley City 2661: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2617: 2606: 2583: 2571: 2567: 2539: 2528: 2525:dissipation. 2489:tap changers 2483: 2481: 2477: 2465: 2453: 2447: 2442: 2435:Green spiral 2434: 2429: 2401: 2392: 2384: 2357: 2316: 2304: 2296:solar storms 2289: 2274: 2269: 2259: 2243: 2227: 2202: 2182:Construction 2160:Stray losses 2100: 2096: 2092: 1918: 1897:eddy current 1893:no-load loss 1890: 1886: 1878: 1866: 1858: 1846: 1838: 1814: 1797: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1671: 1665: 1659: 1643: 1635: 1630:polarity dot 1615: 1603: 1600: 1595: 1588: 1581: 1580: 1571: 1562: 1556: 1546: 1538: 1531: 1524: 1517: 1515: 1506: 1499: 1490: 1483: 1477: 1470: 1454: 1450: 1444: 1434: 1403: 1386:leakage flux 1385: 1382: 1373:Leakage flux 1363: 1345: 1337:Joule losses 1331: 1326:Eddy current 1314: 1311: 1288: 1286: 1282: 1275: 1268: 1256: 1241: 1237: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1219: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1169:and winding 1156: 1066: 1055: 876: 808: 785: 774: 630: 583: 572: 480: 475: 471: 469: 458: 377:Turns ratio 370: 364: 358: 352: 351: 294: 283: 198: 121: 117: 116: 98:distribution 94:transmission 79: 50: 44: 8430:Transformer 8172:Sutton tube 8012:Charge pump 7865:Memory cell 7795:Zener diode 7757:Laser diode 7640:transistors 7522:transistors 7386:Load factor 7241:Black start 7209:Transformer 6910:Natural gas 6861:Variability 6836:Peak demand 6826:Merit order 6756:Backfeeding 6619:Hybrid coil 6421:Tap changer 6361:Magnet wire 6291:Transformer 6151:"Chapter 3" 5711:(1): 8–15. 5533:|work= 4956:Hughes 1993 4766:, fig. 248. 4746:, p. 1 4668:14 November 4449:Harlow 2004 4263:Harlow 2004 4210:(1): 5–14. 4189:, p. 4 3905:, p. 4 3695:Crosby 1958 3625:(12): 864. 3438:Rectiformer 3357:three-phase 3271:Ottó Bláthy 3243:Ottó Bláthy 3162:interrupter 2892:microphones 2781:arc furnace 2765:Application 2703:Camouflaged 2550:mineral oil 2493:arc furnace 2472:skin-effect 2320:resistivity 2313:Solid cores 1942:Core losses 1930:due to the 1818:skin effect 51:transformer 8524:Categories 8502:reed relay 8492:Parametron 8425:Thermistor 8403:resettable 8362:Connector 8323:Adjustable 8299:Nixie tube 8269:Crossatron 8236:Trochotron 8211:Iconoscope 8206:Charactron 8183:X-ray tube 8055:Compactron 8035:Acorn tube 7992:Buck–boost 7913:Solaristor 7775:Photodiode 7752:Gunn diode 7748:(CLD, CRD) 7530:Transistor 7428:production 7273:Protective 7204:Super grid 7199:Smart grid 7026:Generation 6960:Geothermal 6851:Repowering 6644:Tesla coil 6629:Oudin coil 6321:Center tap 5776:(2): 145. 5614:2022-07-17 5385:January 1, 4939:2021-07-27 4901:: 77–122. 4826:2015-10-28 4703:29 January 4699:. 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