Natural selection - Knowledge

1538:", but the precise meaning of the term is much more subtle. Modern evolutionary theory defines fitness not by how long an organism lives, but by how successful it is at reproducing. If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation. Though natural selection acts on individuals, the effects of chance mean that fitness can only really be defined "on average" for the individuals within a population. The fitness of a particular genotype corresponds to the average effect on all individuals with that genotype. A distinction must be made between the concept of "survival of the fittest" and "improvement in fitness". "Survival of the fittest" does not give an "improvement in fitness", it only represents the removal of the less fit variants from a population. A mathematical example of "survival of the fittest" is given by Haldane in his paper "The Cost of Natural Selection". Haldane called this process "substitution" or more commonly in biology, this is called "fixation". This is correctly described by the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. On the other hand, "improvement in fitness" is not dependent on the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype, it is dependent on the absolute survival of the particular variant. The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant. The mathematics of "improvement in fitness was described by Kleinman. An empirical example of "improvement in fitness" is given by the Kishony Mega-plate experiment. In this experiment, "improvement in fitness" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region. Fixation or substitution is not required for this "improvement in fitness". On the other hand, "improvement in fitness" can occur in an environment where "survival of the fittest" is also acting. 1142:

struggle for life, and this certainly cannot be disputed; then, considering the infinite complexity of the relations of all organic beings to each other and to their conditions of existence, causing an infinite diversity in structure, constitution, and habits, to be advantageous to them, I think it would be a most extraordinary fact if no variation ever had occurred useful to each being's own welfare, in the same way as so many variations have occurred useful to man. But if variations useful to any organic being do occur, assuredly individuals thus characterised will have the best chance of being preserved in the struggle for life; and from the strong principle of inheritance they will tend to produce offspring similarly characterised. This principle of preservation, I have called, for the sake of brevity, Natural Selection.

938:... Yet it is impossible that this should be the true view. For teeth and all other natural things either invariably or normally come about in a given way; but of not one of the results of chance or spontaneity is this true. We do not ascribe to chance or mere coincidence the frequency of rain in winter, but frequent rain in summer we do; nor heat in the dog-days, but only if we have it in winter. If then, it is agreed that things are either the result of coincidence or for an end, and these cannot be the result of coincidence or spontaneity, it follows that they must be for an end; and that such things are all due to nature even the champions of the theory which is before us would agree. Therefore action for an end is present in things which come to be and are by nature. 1086: 1881: 1950: 1430: 44: 1905:, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival. Others split the life cycle into further components of selection. Thus viability and survival selection may be defined separately and respectively as acting to improve the probability of survival before and after reproductive age is reached, while fecundity selection may be split into additional sub-components including sexual selection, gametic selection, acting on 1408:

the term is used to refer both to the evolutionary consequence of blind selection and to its mechanisms. It is sometimes helpful to explicitly distinguish between selection's mechanisms and its effects; when this distinction is important, scientists define "(phenotypic) natural selection" specifically as "those mechanisms that contribute to the selection of individuals that reproduce", without regard to whether the basis of the selection is heritable. Traits that cause greater reproductive success of an organism are said to be

1232:"; in his early manuscripts he referred to a "Nature" which would do the selection. At the time, other mechanisms of evolution such as evolution by genetic drift were not yet explicitly formulated, and Darwin believed that selection was likely only part of the story: "I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification." In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term "Natural Selection", preferring the term "Natural Preservation". 91: 851: 2188:, an increase in the number of fingers or toes. When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population. Established traits are not immutable; traits that have high fitness in one environmental context may be much less fit if environmental conditions change. In the absence of natural selection to preserve such a trait, it becomes more variable and deteriorate over time, possibly resulting in a 1198: 2058: 1759: 1334: 12091: 10741: 646: 12117: 12104: 10751: 916:

was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.

59: 12472: 633: 2560:) and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities could logically have been: (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type), (2) the capacity to avoid decay, and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources. These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations (including those configurations with 799:. He described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. The union of traditional 2483:, had a profound influence on 19th century thought, including his radical claim that "elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner" evolved from the simplest forms of life by a few simple principles. This inspired some of Darwin's most ardent supporters—and provoked the strongest opposition. Natural selection had the power, according to 1472:, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation. Even if the reproductive advantage is very slight, over many generations any advantageous heritable trait becomes dominant in the population. In this way the 1239:, educated people generally accepted that evolution had occurred in some form. However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its "unguided" and non- 3063: 1082:, there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most advantageous variations. If the variations are heritable, then differential reproductive success leads to the evolution of particular populations of a species, and populations that evolve to be sufficiently different eventually become different species. 877:, expressed the idea that nature produces a huge variety of creatures, randomly, and that only those creatures that manage to provide for themselves and reproduce successfully persist. Empedocles' idea that organisms arose entirely by the incidental workings of causes such as heat and cold was criticised by 2423:

period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift. Natural selection reduces genetic variation by eliminating maladapted individuals, and consequently the mutations that caused the maladaptation. At the same time, new mutations occur, resulting in a

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Natural selection acts on an organism's phenotype, or physical characteristics. Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives. When different organisms in a population possess different versions of a gene for a certain trait, each

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Natural variation occurs among the individuals of any population of organisms. Some differences may improve an individual's chances of surviving and reproducing such that its lifetime reproductive rate is increased, which means that it leaves more offspring. If the traits that give these individuals

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is most often defined to operate on heritable traits, because these directly participate in evolution. However, natural selection is "blind" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable. Following Darwin's primary usage,

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So what hinders the different parts from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it

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and speciation. He defined natural selection as the "principle by which each slight variation , if useful, is preserved". The concept was simple but powerful: individuals best adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce. As long as there is some variation between them and

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is the opposite of a selective sweep. If a specific site experiences strong and persistent purifying selection, linked variation tends to be weeded out along with it, producing a region in the genome of low overall variability. Because background selection is a result of deleterious new mutations,

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in initially small new populations. When genetic variation does not result in differences in fitness, selection cannot directly affect the frequency of such variation. As a result, the genetic variation at those sites is higher than at sites where variation does influence fitness. However, after a

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Darwinian evolution by natural selection is pervasive in literature, whether taken optimistically in terms of how humanity may evolve towards perfection, or pessimistically in terms of the dire consequences of the interaction of human nature and the struggle for survival. Among major responses is

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If during the long course of ages and under varying conditions of life, organic beings vary at all in the several parts of their organisation, and I think this cannot be disputed; if there be, owing to the high geometrical powers of increase of each species, at some age, season, or year, a severe

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collected a set of fossils of ammonites as well as other biological material. He extensively reasoned in his writings that the shapes of animals are not given once and forever by the "upper power" but instead are generated in different forms naturally and then selected for reproduction by their

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Some traits are governed by only a single gene, but most traits are influenced by the interactions of many genes. A variation in one of the many genes that contributes to a trait may have only a small effect on the phenotype; together, these genes can produce a continuum of possible phenotypic

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and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype. Far more common is stabilizing selection, which lowers the frequency of alleles that have a deleterious effect on the phenotype—that is, produce organisms of lower fitness. This process can continue until the allele is eliminated from the

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is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, ("improvement in fitness" during "survival of the fittest"). The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of the lineage to give improved fitness is slowed by the competition. The variant which is a candidate for a

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state. He wrote "... selection for toughness, heroism, and social utility ... must be accomplished by some human institution, if mankind, in default of selective factors, is not to be ruined by domestication-induced degeneracy. The racial idea as the basis of our state has already

2494:, "Darwin's dangerous idea" of evolution by natural selection is a "universal acid," which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings. Thus, in the last decades, the concept of natural selection has spread from 1258:

published in 1869 included Spencer's phrase as an alternative to natural selection, with credit given: "But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient." Although the phrase is still often used by

2618:, wrote in 1872 that "Darwin did not know what a bitter satire he wrote on mankind, and especially on his countrymen, when he showed that free competition, the struggle for existence, which the economists celebrate as the highest historical achievement, is the normal state of the 2454:, or whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population. Since a selective sweep also results in selection of neighbouring alleles, the presence of a block of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate a 'recent' selective sweep near the centre of the block. 1136:

to appreciate the "struggle for existence" in nature. It struck him that as population outgrew resources, "favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species." Darwin wrote:

1500:, giving the dark-coloured moths an advantage in hiding from predators. This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial 2309:

When some component of a trait is heritable, selection alters the frequencies of the different alleles, or variants of the gene that produces the variants of the trait. Selection can be divided into three classes, on the basis of its effect on allele frequencies:

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individuals (with just one copy of the allele) have a higher fitness than homozygous individuals (with two copies). This is called heterozygote advantage or over-dominance, of which the best-known example is the resistance to malaria in humans heterozygous for

2176:. Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes. Most, but not all, mutations in regulatory genes result in non-viable embryos. Some nonlethal regulatory mutations occur in 2041:, that mothers want promiscuous sons to give them large numbers of grandchildren and so choose promiscuous fathers for their children. Aggression between members of the same sex is sometimes associated with very distinctive features, such as the antlers of 2242:

realized in 1903 that reproductive isolation could evolve through divergence, if each lineage acquired a different, incompatible allele of the same gene. Selection against the heterozygote would then directly create reproductive isolation, leading to the

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with members of the same or other species. However, this does not imply that natural selection is always directional and results in adaptive evolution; natural selection often results in the maintenance of the status quo by eliminating less fit variants.

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beneficial mutation in this limited carrying capacity environment must first out-compete the "less fit" variants in order to accumulate the requisite number of replications for there to be a reasonable probability of that beneficial mutation occurring.

2584:) in which he suggested that the development of an organism results from a Darwinian competition between the parts of the embryo, occurring at all levels, from molecules to organs. In recent years, a modern version of this theory has been proposed by 2157:). Any of these changes might have an effect that is highly advantageous or highly disadvantageous, but large effects are rare. In the past, most changes in the genetic material were considered neutral or close to neutral because they occurred in 1476:

of an organism "selects for" traits that confer a reproductive advantage, causing evolutionary change, as Darwin described. This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice. Artificial selection is

2098:(MRSA) has been described as a "superbug" because of the threat it poses to health and its relative invulnerability to existing drugs. Response strategies typically include the use of different, stronger antibiotics; however, new 2144:

A prerequisite for natural selection to result in adaptive evolution, novel traits and speciation is the presence of heritable genetic variation that results in fitness differences. Genetic variation is the result of mutations,

1941:, if it occurs, acts on groups of organisms, on the assumption that groups replicate and mutate in an analogous way to genes and individuals. There is an ongoing debate over the degree to which group selection occurs in nature. 2375:

of trait values. Finally, balancing selection can occur through frequency-dependent selection, where the fitness of one particular phenotype depends on the distribution of other phenotypes in the population. The principles of

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of two alleles are close on a chromosome. During the formation of gametes, recombination reshuffles the alleles. The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them.

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in geology promoted the idea that simple, weak forces could act continuously over long periods of time to produce radical changes in the Earth's landscape. The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of

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Selection can be classified in several different ways, such as by its effect on a trait, on genetic diversity, by the life cycle stage where it acts, by the unit of selection, or by the resource being competed for.

5663: 2339:, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants. Disruptive (or diversifying) selection is selection favoring extreme trait values over intermediate trait values. Disruptive selection may cause 2322:. Directional selection occurs when an allele has a greater fitness than others, so that it increases in frequency, gaining an increasing share in the population. This process can continue until the allele is 2427:. The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be. 3446:

This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.'

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Once he had his theory, Darwin was meticulous about gathering and refining evidence before making his idea public. He was in the process of writing his "big book" to present his research when the naturalist

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which can occur randomly in any haplotype, it does not produce clear blocks of linkage disequilibrium, although with low recombination it can still lead to slightly negative linkage disequilibrium overall.

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nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance. However, some thinkers enthusiastically embraced natural selection; after reading Darwin,

2818:, a female animal making a choice of mate may be argued to be intending to get the best mate; there is no suggestion that she has any intention to improve the bloodline in the manner of an animal breeder. 4666:

Jardine, Phillip E.; Janis, Christine M.; Sahney, Sarda; Benton, Michael J. (1 December 2012). "Grit not grass: Concordant patterns of early origin of hypsodonty in Great Plains ungulates and Glires".

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in 1964. This synthesis cemented natural selection as the foundation of evolutionary theory, where it remains today. A second synthesis was brought about at the end of the 20th century by advances in

2690:, have been hypothesised to have similar origins as adaptations to the early environment in which modern humans evolved. By analogy to the action of natural selection on genes, the concept of 1132:; thus, inevitable limitations of resources would have demographic implications, leading to a "struggle for existence". When Darwin read Malthus in 1838 he was already primed by his work as a 2442:

occur when an allele becomes more common in a population as a result of positive selection. As the prevalence of one allele increases, closely linked alleles can also become more common by "

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have deleterious effects. Although both mutation rates and average fitness effects of mutations are dependent on the organism, a majority of mutations in humans are slightly deleterious.

1512:. A recent study, using image analysis and avian vision models, shows that pale individuals more closely match lichen backgrounds than dark morphs and for the first time quantifies the 1289:, the father of modern genetics, was a contemporary of Darwin's, his work lay in obscurity, only being rediscovered in 1900. With the early 20th-century integration of evolution with 2106:, in which bacteria develop strains less susceptible to antibiotics, while medical researchers attempt to develop new antibiotics that can kill them. A similar situation occurs with 1297:, scientists generally came to accept natural selection. The synthesis grew from advances in different fields. Ronald Fisher developed the required mathematical language and wrote 1395:

which control the development of the embryo at molecular level. Natural selection is here understood to act on embryonic development to change the morphology of the adult body.

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Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species (1st edition). Chapter 4, page 88. "And this leads me to say a few words on what I call Sexual Selection. This depends ..."

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have been used to fight bacterial diseases. The widespread misuse of antibiotics has selected for microbial resistance to antibiotics in clinical use, to the point that the

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being competed for. Sexual selection results from competition for mates. Sexual selection typically proceeds via fecundity selection, sometimes at the expense of viability.

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From Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms. A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism

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proposed that natural selection might be understood as a physical principle that could be described in terms of the use of energy by a system, a concept later developed by

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also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction. In particular, if the trait is quantitative and

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van't Hof, Arjen E.; Campagne, Pascal; Rigden, Daniel J; et al. (June 2016). "The industrial melanism mutation in British peppered moths is a transposable element".

2196:. In many circumstances, the apparently vestigial structure may retain a limited functionality, or may be co-opted for other advantageous traits in a phenomenon known as 1045:

worked on the area of variation, artificial selection, and how a similar process occurs in nature. Darwin acknowledged Blyth's ideas in the first chapter on variation of

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An Essay on the Principle of Population, As It Affects the Future Improvement of Society: with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and Other Writers

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The concept of fitness is central to natural selection. In broad terms, individuals that are more "fit" have better potential for survival, as in the well-known phrase "

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and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species.

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as a mechanism for evolutionary change; adaptive traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime could be inherited by that organism's progeny, eventually causing

9458: 3486: 1925:. Individual selection acts on the individual, in the sense that adaptations are "for" the benefit of the individual, and result from selection among individuals. 1564:

In biology, competition is an interaction between organisms in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another. This may be because both rely on a

10473: 362: 1584:, since competition plays a powerful role in natural selection, but according to the "room to roam" theory it may be less important than expansion among larger 1639: 6659: 2626:'s interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for 8241: 12199: 6448: 5058:"The dilemma of Fisherian sexual selection: Mate choice for indirect benefits despite rarity and overall weakness of trait-preference genetic correlation" 7913:"This book is based on a series of lectures delivered in January 1931 at the Prifysgol Cymru, Aberystwyth, and entitled 'A re-examination of Darwinism'." 3343: 2694:—"units of cultural transmission," or culture's equivalents of genes undergoing selection and recombination—has arisen, first described in this form by 2487:, to "dethrone some of the deepest and most traditional comforts of Western thought", such as the belief that humans have a special place in the world. 2414:

proposes that this variation accounts for a large fraction of observed genetic diversity. Neutral events can radically reduce genetic variation through

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The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809–1882: With original omissions restored; Edited and with Appendix and Notes by his grand-daughter, Nora Barlow

1995:. Following Darwin, natural selection is sometimes defined as ecological selection, in which case sexual selection is considered a separate mechanism. 2014:, most often with males displaying and females choosing. However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family 964:

in the 9th century, particularly in the context of top-down population regulation, but not in reference to individual variation or natural selection.

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chains first experienced the basic conditions, as conceived by Charles Darwin, for natural selection to operate. These conditions are: heritability,

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if "fittest" is read to mean "functionally superior" and is applied to individuals rather than considered as an averaged quantity over populations.

2446:", whether they are neutral or even slightly deleterious. A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected 2662:

in terms of adaptation to the ancestral environment. The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of

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in its place, and believed that form was achieved for a purpose, citing the regularity of heredity in species as proof. Nevertheless, he accepted

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have been applied to understand the fitness distributions in these situations, particularly in the study of kin selection and the evolution of

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are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin. The problem does not occur in

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in plants and insects. Arms races are not necessarily induced by man; a well-documented example involves the spread of a gene in the butterfly

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The likelihood of these traits being 'selected' and passed down are determined by many factors. Some are likely to be passed down because they

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For Darwin and his contemporaries, natural selection was in essence synonymous with evolution by natural selection. After the publication of

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at the molecular level generates diversity in cell types whereas cell interactions impose a characteristic order on the developing embryo.

285: 8978:"Darwinism, probability and complexity: Market-based organizational transformation and change explained through the theories of evolution" 7921: 2371:, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a 8985: 2540:

How life originated from inorganic matter remains an unresolved problem in biology. One prominent hypothesis is that life first appeared

2450:(the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population. Selective sweeps can be detected by measuring 2092: 8977: 5627: 596: 911:, Aristotle considered whether different forms (e.g., of teeth) might have appeared accidentally, but only the useful forms survived: 11663: 7767: 1818:

acts to hold a trait at a stable optimum, and in the simplest case all deviations from this optimum are selectively disadvantageous.

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well to their environments. Others are passed down because these traits are actively preferred by mating partners, which is known as

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A portion of all genetic variation is functionally neutral, producing no phenotypic effect or significant difference in fitness.

2244: 1120: 1099: 1023: 2737:, that simulate selective processes and can be highly efficient in 'adapting' entities to an environment defined by a specified 12449: 12307: 9532: 5187:

Eens, Marcel; Pinxten, Rianne (5 October 2000). "Sex-role reversal in vertebrates: behavioural and endocrinological accounts".

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announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858. Darwin published a detailed account of his evidence and conclusions in

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On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

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The social implications of the theory of evolution by natural selection also became the source of continuing controversy.

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in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.

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if the environment that favours these traits remain fixed. If new traits become more favored due to changes in a specific

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Charlat, Sylvain; Hornett, Emily A.; Fullard, James H.; et al. (13 July 2007). "Extraordinary Flux in Sex Ratio".

3433: 2757:, identify optimal solutions by simulated reproduction and mutation of a population of solutions defined by an initial 2273: 1384: 1337: 1313: 1228:

Darwin thought of natural selection by analogy to how farmers select crops or livestock for breeding, which he called "

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On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

12149: 11463: 9462: 8174: 1062: 987: 10301: 6340:(7 September 2006). "Interference among deleterious mutations favours sex and recombination in finite populations". 12497: 12096: 11703: 11488: 11280: 10773: 10306: 9904: 8642: 7331:

The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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Galis, Frietson (April 1999). "Why do almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae? Developmental constraints,

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activity) of the RNA replicators that, in turn, would have been encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences.

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grows through the survival of individuals less affected by the antibiotic. Their offspring inherit the resistance.

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do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population. This can occur in

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Schuler, Hannes; Hood, Glen R.; Egan, Scott P.; Feder, Jeffrey L. (2016). "Modes and Mechanisms of Speciation".

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decided to present his essay together with unpublished writings that Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists, and

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Bernstein, Harris; Byerly, Henry C.; Hopf, Frederick A.; et al. (June 1983). "The Darwinian Dynamic".

6417: 3617: 3348: 2730:, whereby evolutionary systems with selective advantage maximise the rate of useful energy transformation. 581: 2683: 2238:

speciation with geographically separated populations, which can diverge with different sets of mutations.

1797:, and selective pressure can be produced by any aspect of the environment, including sexual selection and 930:

But Aristotle rejected this possibility in the next paragraph, making clear that he is talking about the

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more heavily in much fewer offspring, each with a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood.

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The principles of natural selection have inspired a variety of computational techniques, such as "soft"

1991:

is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and

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especially if these new traits are radically different from the traits possessed by their predecessors.

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Natural selection relies crucially on the idea of heredity, but developed before the basic concepts of

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would likely have been a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (i.e., determined by the

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to selection, actually supplied the raw material for natural selection by creating genetic diversity.

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independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to

12537: 12345: 12219: 12003: 11974: 11861: 11775: 11683: 11658: 11483: 11448: 11224: 10244: 10041: 9851: 9619: 9512: 7547:. Columbia University Biological Series (3rd revised ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. 7517: 7428: 6192: 3092: 3082: 2742: 2511: 1577: 1573: 1177: 503: 478: 458: 438: 115: 10373: 5510: 4259:"Avian vision models and field experiments determine the survival value of peppered moth camouflage" 3733: 2642:, in writings that he subsequently disowned, used the theory as a justification for policies of the 12397: 11896: 11780: 11653: 11473: 11406: 11268: 11241: 11096: 10871: 10834: 10667: 10531: 10503: 10478: 10435: 10338: 10271: 10146: 10019: 9987: 9960: 9950: 9284: 8860: 7266: 5444: 4877: 3508: 2781: 2758: 2499: 2076: 2070: 2062: 1182: 1149: 1073:

In 1859, Charles Darwin set out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for

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From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design – Second Edition

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From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design – Second Edition

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largely replaced the formerly usual light morph (both shown here). Since the moths are subject to

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accomplished much in this respect." Others have developed ideas that human societies and culture

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then both higher and lower trait levels are favoured. Disruptive selection can be a precursor to

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Baym, M.; Lieberman, T. D.; Kelsic, E. D.; Chait, R.; Gross, R.; Yelin, I.; Kishony, R. (2016).

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The Phylogenetic Handbook: A Practical Approach to Phylogenetic Analysis and Hypothesis Testing

7991: 7933: 7727: 6647: 5505: 4477:"Historical contingency and the evolution of a key innovation in an experimental population of 3503: 2798:", transformed by natural selection into a being with a huge head and eyes, and shrunken body. 2682:. Other aspects of human behaviour and social structures, from specific cultural norms such as 2585: 2507: 2451: 2223: 2103: 1870: 1362: 994:

was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their

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Mayr, Ernst (2006) . "Sexual Selection and Natural Selection". In Campbell, Bernard G. (ed.).

5723: 4548:"Distribution of fixed beneficial mutations and the rate of adaptation in asexual populations" 4546:

Good, B. H.; Rouzine, I. M.; Balick, D. J.; Hallatschek, O.; Desai, M. M. (27 February 2012).

4086:; Arnold, Stevan J. (November 1983). "The Measurement of Selection on Correlated Characters". 12436: 12330: 12325: 12229: 12045: 12008: 11906: 11815: 11810: 11785: 11513: 11493: 11343: 11263: 11236: 11167: 10935: 10652: 10526: 10445: 10440: 10425: 10410: 10400: 10316: 10291: 10126: 10082: 10046: 10014: 9955: 9933: 9914: 9777: 9730: 9681: 9676: 9634: 9322: 8605: 8454: 8372: 8210: 7987: 7578: 7503: 7354: 5482: 4831: 2896: 2557: 2415: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2173: 2146: 1992: 1934: 1898: 1885: 1819: 1815: 1798: 1773: 1763: 1559: 1493: 1434: 1429: 1318: 1187: 1159: 1115: 1019: 931: 907: 901: 786: 616: 498: 443: 409: 322: 3218: 1610:. In this theory, selective pressures drive evolution in one of two stereotyped directions: 1508:, and the dark moths became rare again, demonstrating the influence of natural selection on 743:. Thus, these traits are passed onto the next generation. These traits can also become more 12507: 12282: 11998: 11805: 11790: 11758: 11745: 11606: 11518: 11386: 11353: 11328: 11182: 11146: 11040: 11010: 10829: 10626: 10521: 10455: 10256: 10171: 10087: 9999: 9982: 9909: 9899: 9609: 9517: 9501: 9240: 8615: 7688: 6861: 6802: 6504: 6351: 6037: 5920: 5834: 5672: 5615: 5497: 5355: 5143: 4994: 4920: 4673: 4492: 4431: 4215: 3873: 3822: 2774: 2671: 2611: 2495: 2457: 2368: 2340: 2332: 2319: 2193: 2126:, where the spread of the gene is known to have occurred over a period of just five years. 2107: 1988: 1823: 1607: 1592: 1482: 1388: 1341: 1260: 1229: 1167: 740: 468: 240: 125: 82: 10261: 10131: 2842: 2654:

More recently, work among anthropologists and psychologists has led to the development of

2283:. It is this genetic variation that underlies differences in phenotype. An example is the 8: 12426: 12302: 12189: 12165: 12065: 11830: 11615: 11533: 11074: 11018: 10945: 10689: 10647: 10597: 10516: 10364: 10356: 10286: 10266: 10212: 10056: 9809: 9752: 9614: 9597: 9575: 9231: 9186: 7698: 7469: 7151: 6491: 6208: 5230:

Barlow, George W. (March 2005). "How Do We Decide that a Species is Sex-Role Reversed?".

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http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=F373&pageseq=12

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Evolutionary Ecology: The 23rd Symposium of the British Ecological Society, Leeds, 1982

7215: 6884: 6849: 6825: 6790: 6566: 6558: 6375: 6289: 6266: 6241: 6099: 6091: 6005: 5989: 5984: 5967: 5788: 5763: 5577: 5555: 5551:"The Distribution of Fitness Effects of New Deleterious Amino Acid Mutations in Humans" 5550: 5531: 5399:"Methicillin-Resistant S. Aureus Infections among Patients in the Emergency Department" 5379: 5257: 5212: 5169: 5087: 5015: 4982: 4943: 4908: 4748: 4740: 4643: 4616: 4574: 4547: 4523: 4510: 4476: 4452: 4419: 4332: 4307: 4283: 4258: 4239: 4180: 4105: 4007: 3846: 3711: 3622: 3521: 3154: 3005: 2929: 2860: 2750: 2344: 2328: 1984: 1569: 1505: 1380: 1221: 1125: 934:

with the phrase "either invariably or normally come about", not the origin of species:

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considered whether different forms could have appeared, only the useful ones surviving.

812: 804: 714: 601: 533: 317: 245: 210: 31: 7617:. Translation by Arthur Fairbanks. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd. 6516: 5943: 5908: 5200: 2976: 2878: 1038:'s ill-fated antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid-20th century. 12517: 12407: 12402: 12340: 12234: 12116: 12109: 12103: 11886: 11881: 11795: 11597: 11338: 11305: 11172: 11033: 10981: 10918: 10886: 10750: 10704: 10430: 10378: 10156: 9972: 9873: 9836: 9787: 9782: 9735: 9701: 9425: 9399: 9391: 9381: 9350: 9342: 9332: 9306: 9298: 9288: 9264: 9256: 9214: 9206: 9196: 9170: 9162: 9152: 9146: 9133: 9125: 9115: 9084: 9076: 9066: 9046: 9038: 9028: 9002: 8964: 8926: 8918: 8908: 8882: 8874: 8864: 8850: 8838: 8830: 8820: 8814: 8801: 8793: 8783: 8746: 8738: 8728: 8704: 8696: 8686: 8666: 8658: 8648: 8626: 8618: 8593: 8585: 8575: 8552: 8543: 8539: 8517: 8509: 8499: 8482: 8474: 8464: 8438: 8430: 8420: 8410: 8394: 8386: 8376: 8350: 8342: 8332: 8326: 8313: 8305: 8295: 8274: 8266: 8228: 8220: 8198: 8190: 8180: 8154: 8124: 8116: 8106: 8089: 8081: 8071: 8051: 8043: 8033: 7997: 7975: 7967: 7957: 7937: 7904: 7896: 7871: 7863: 7853: 7841: 7829: 7821: 7811: 7785: 7777: 7751: 7741: 7731: 7710: 7702: 7672: 7664: 7654: 7626: 7618: 7590: 7582: 7556: 7548: 7529: 7521: 7491: 7483: 7473: 7450: 7442: 7432: 7406: 7398: 7388: 7366: 7358: 7335: 7316: 7308: 7284: 7276: 7249: 7241: 7231: 7202: 7194: 7184: 7157: 7128: 7120: 7110: 7082: 7074: 7064: 7043: 7035: 7025: 6889: 6830: 6714: 6618: 6520: 6464: 6454: 6408: 6367: 6315: 6271: 6222: 6212: 6204: 6174: 6164: 6135: 6125: 6053: 6049: 5997: 5948: 5816: 5793: 5741: 5700: 5695: 5654: 5631: 5582: 5523: 5463: 5420: 5371: 5346: 5326: 5321: 5300: 5249: 5204: 5161: 5079: 5020: 4948: 4889: 4847: 4837: 4789: 4648: 4579: 4528: 4457: 4400: 4337: 4288: 4231: 4113: 4030: 3999: 3964: 3923: 3889: 3885: 3838: 3834: 3782: 3639: 3629: 3599: 3595: 3559: 3234: 3224: 3106: 3096: 2754: 2746: 2503: 2484: 2393: 2112: 2046: 2030: 2026: 2022: 1966: 1962: 1922: 1843: 1727: 1529: 1462: 1094: 1007: 968: 755:

occurs. If new traits become more favored due to changes in the broader environment,

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Atti del IX Congresso Internazionale di Genetica, Bellagio (Como) 24–31 agosto 1953

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and later of evolutionary psychology, a field that attempts to explain features of

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is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in

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Modified from Christiansen by adding survival selection in the reproductive phase.

5779: 1937:, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process. 1851: 12184: 12055: 11946: 11911: 11820: 11708: 11602: 11558: 11538: 11411: 11127: 11106: 10861: 10657: 10281: 10108: 10097: 10051: 9994: 9943: 9723: 9527: 9377: 9328: 9318: 9103: 8644:

Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought

8265:. Columbia Biological Series. Vol. 13. New York: Columbia University Press. 8245: 8144: 7949: 7378: 7180: 6985: 6786: 6333: 4933: 4685: 4621: 4606: 4604: 3563: 3450: 2734: 2715: 2695: 2439: 2430: 2226:—that is, a reduction in gene flow. However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a 2102:

of MRSA have recently emerged that are resistant even to these drugs. This is an

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Mechanism of evolution by differential survival and reproduction of individuals

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Thinking about Life: The History and Philosophy of Biology and Other Sciences

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Bejerano, Gill; Pheasant, Michael; Makunin, Igor; et al. (28 May 2004).

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Joravsky, David (January 1959). "Soviet Marxism and Biology before Lysenko".

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The more recent classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by

862: 824: 523: 195: 9403: 9354: 9218: 9137: 9050: 8998: 8930: 8886: 8708: 8670: 8521: 8442: 8398: 8354: 8317: 8232: 8202: 8158: 8093: 8055: 7979: 7875: 7833: 7676: 7495: 7454: 7253: 7206: 7161: 7132: 7086: 5519: 5367: 4564: 4505: 4443: 4379:"The basic science and mathematics of random mutation and natural selection" 3643: 3338: 3110: 850: 12387: 12239: 11840: 11141: 11118: 10694: 10642: 10587: 10420: 10415: 10009: 9767: 9192: 9174: 8842: 8547: 8529: 8170: 8001: 7941: 7908: 7630: 7410: 7339: 6893: 6834: 6718: 6598: 6371: 6275: 6139: 6117: 6001: 5952: 5933: 5759: 5719: 5659:

genes: A dose-dependent mechanism with potential evolutionary implications"

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acts to maintain genetic variation in a population, even in the absence of

1603: 1240: 1079: 1003: 543: 528: 312: 307: 225: 10765: 8278: 7594: 7560: 7533: 7320: 7156:. Translated by R.P. Hardie and R.K. Gaye. The Internet Classics Archive. 6622: 6524: 6319: 6057: 5909:"Directional selection is the primary cause of phenotypic diversification" 5797: 5745: 5704: 5628:

10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990415)285:1<19::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-Z

5440:"Small fitness effect of mutations in highly conserved non-coding regions" 3968: 3893: 3842: 1998:

Sexual selection as first articulated by Darwin (using the example of the

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Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality

8063: 7646: 6874: 6815: 5458: 5439: 5415: 5398: 5280:"MRSA superbug found in supermarket pork raises alarm over farming risks" 4710: 2791: 2761:. Such algorithms are particularly useful when applied to problems whose 2687: 2627: 2535: 2377: 2185: 2088: 2011: 2006:, between individuals of the same sex, that is male–male competition, or 1970: 1739: 1703:{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)\qquad \!} 1322: 1186:

in 1859. In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like

1107:

Darwin's ideas were inspired by the observations that he had made on the

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acts to remove genetic variation from the population (and is opposed by

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The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature

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Hamilton, W. (1964). "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I".

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exists in both light and dark colours in Great Britain, but during the

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A Reason for Everything: Natural Selection and the English Imagination

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Blount, Zachary D.; Borland, Christina Z.; Lenski, Richard E. (2008).

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by mechanisms analogous to those that apply to evolution of species.

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against the changed background, suggesting natural selection at work.

1450: 1254:, which became a popular summary of the theory. The fifth edition of 888: 878: 874: 854: 800: 728: 698: 694: 586: 200: 120: 67: 8611:

Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. A Series of Essays

5853: 4323: 4101: 3995: 3216: 3150: 2002:'s tail) refers specifically to competition for mates, which can be 12040: 11800: 11505: 10619: 9821: 8622: 8568:

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Lemey, Philippe; Salemi, Marco; Vandamme, Anne-Mieke, eds. (2009).

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Alternatively, selection can be divided according to its effect on

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stage at which it acts. Some biologists recognise just two types:

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as explanations for complex cultural activities, including human

2675: 2552:, and competition for limited resources. The fitness of an early 2355: 2288: 2227: 1999: 1954: 1424: 1282: 782: 9346: 9210: 9166: 9129: 9080: 9042: 8922: 8834: 8662: 8589: 8478: 8434: 8390: 8346: 8270: 8224: 8194: 8149:. Translated by William Ellery Leonard. Medford/Somerville, MA: 8085: 8047: 7971: 7900: 7867: 7781: 7706: 7668: 7622: 7586: 7552: 7525: 7487: 7446: 7402: 7362: 7312: 7280: 7245: 7198: 7078: 6026:(July 1964). "The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II". 3068:

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Greenfield, M.D.; Alem, S.; Limousin, D.; Bailey, N.W. (2014).

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Notice sur la loi que la population suit dans son accroissement

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in 1976 and subsequently expanded upon by philosophers such as

2544:

polymers. On this view, life may have come into existence when

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elucidated the nature of selection and adaptation. In his book

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Darwin summarising natural selection in the fourth chapter of

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popularised the term "natural selection", contrasting it with

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by birds hunting by sight, the colour change offers better

1307:

introduced the concept of the "cost" of natural selection.

8614:(2nd, with corrections and additions ed.). New York: 8070:(3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 7101:. In Ariew, André; Cummins, Robert; Perlman, Mark (eds.). 6326: 3413:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Library. Letter 5145 2387: 2367:. Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through 2129: 2075:

Natural selection is seen in action in the development of

717:, which is intentional, whereas natural selection is not. 7930:

Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Genetics

7575:

Darwin's Century: Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It

6540: 3909:"The morphogenesis of evolutionary developmental biology" 3738:

Proceedings of the VI International Congress of Genetrics

2545: 2284: 2153:(the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the 1738:, and produce many offspring, each with a relatively low 1504:

were dark. The balance was reversed by the effect of the

1259:

non-biologists, modern biologists avoid it because it is

819:, which explains evolution at the molecular level. While 8976:

Sammut-Bonnici, Tanya; Wensley, Robin (September 2002).

6984:

Stableford, Brian M.; Langford, David R. (5 July 2018).

6601:(1987). "Evolution of the Genetic Apparatus: A Review". 5965: 5548: 5036: 5034: 4665: 4417: 4024: 3776: 3628:(2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 2670:, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to 827:, natural selection remains the primary explanation for 9324:

The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time

5717: 3943:"Resynthesizing Evolutionary and Developmental Biology" 1114:(1831–1836), and by the work of a political economist, 6074:(March 1971). "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism". 5655:"Regulation of number and size of digits by posterior 1983:

Finally, selection can be classified according to the

1387:("evo-devo"), which seeks to explain the evolution of 12460: 9151:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 7059:. Monographs in Behavior and Ecology. Princeton, NJ: 5764:"Dobzhansky, Bateson, and the Genetics of Speciation" 5718:

Sanyal, Somes; Jansen, Harry G.; de Grip, Willem J.;

5437: 5130:

Hosken, David J.; House, Clarissa M. (January 2011).

5031: 2291:

in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype.

1642: 735:. However, some traits are more likely to facilitate 8456:

The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language

62:

Modern biology began in the nineteenth century with

8100: 7168: 6603:

Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology

4983:"Multilevel and kin selection in a connected world" 4964: 4962: 4864: 4596: 4474: 2025:in one sex and desired in the other sex, causing a 793:, was elaborated in Darwin's influential 1859 book 9107: 9063:Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges 8021: 6983: 6282: 6196: 6154: 4358:(November 1992). "The Cost of Natural Selection". 3621: 3223:(4th ed.). Jones and Bartlett. pp. 4–6. 2595: 1702: 905:, Book IV). As quoted in Darwin's 1872 edition of 9417:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 9148:Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History 7176:Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities 5474: 4906: 4669:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4610: 2997:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2709: 1944: 1921:Selection can also be classified by the level or 1909:survival, and compatibility selection, acting on 1837: 1699: 1354:Evolutionary developmental biology § History 12484: 7924:. In Montalenti, Giuseppe; Chiarugi, A. (eds.). 5733:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 5431: 4980: 4959: 4823: 3940: 1822:favours extreme values of a trait. The uncommon 8165: 7015: 4698: 4552:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4485:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4308:"Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics" 3941:Gilbert, S.F.; Opitz, J.M.; Raff, R.A. (1996). 3217:Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2008). 3022: 2790:("nowhere", written mostly backwards). In 1893 2522:. This unlimited applicability has been called 1897:Another option is to classify selection by the 1857:, which introduces new variation. In contrast, 1730:of its local environmental setting. Typically, 1348:in the fruit fly, during embryonic development. 7726: 6294:"The hitch-hiking effect of a favourable gene" 5968:"A neo-Darwinian commentary on macroevolution" 5880: 5837:Reviews in Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine 4836:. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–43. 3916:International Journal of Developmental Biology 2298: 1425:Heritable variation, differential reproduction 1344:to the precise pattern of gene activity, here 12150: 10781: 9486: 9188:Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated 8943:"Natural Selection and the Emergence of Mind" 8331:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 7653:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 7016:Agutter, Paul S.; Wheatley, Denys N. (2008). 6791:"Contribution to the energetics of evolution" 6695:(September 2005). "Which image for Lorenz?". 6536: 6534: 6446: 6332: 6185: 6116: 5483:"Ultraconserved Elements in the Human Genome" 5125: 5123: 5051: 5049: 4256: 4065: 4043: 2622:." Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate 2567: 1568:supply of a resource such as food, water, or 1124:(1798), noted that population (if unchecked) 781:Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern 671: 8685:. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 7347:Darwin, Charles (1958). Barlow, Nora (ed.). 7213: 5813:Fitness Landscapes and the Origin of Species 4968: 4829: 4468: 979:and others, including Darwin's grandfather, 10795: 8986:International Journal of Management Reviews 8715: 8415:. Complex Adaptive Systems. Cambridge, MA: 7216:"The Definition and Measurement of Fitness" 6906: 6850:"Natural selection as a physical principle" 5966:Charlesworth B, Lande R, Slatkin M (1982). 5542: 5292: 5186: 5129: 4806: 4764: 4762: 4659: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4082: 3934: 3900: 3584: 3484: 3038:. Institut of France. Trans. Richter. 2016. 2910:"Aristotle on the Mechanism of Inheritance" 1929:acts directly at the level of the gene. In 1814:Selection has different effects on traits. 1793:Natural selection can act on any heritable 1034:, was an influence on the Soviet biologist 899:(τερας), can occur in very rare instances ( 12157: 12143: 10788: 10774: 9493: 9479: 7601: 7540: 7502: 7295:The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online 6582: 6580: 6531: 6288: 5120: 5046: 4250: 3765: 3754: 3487:"The Propensity Interpretation of Fitness" 3048: 2838: 1483:biologists often use teleological language 1208:had created many kinds of pigeon, such as 678: 664: 9020:Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology 8861:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 8135: 7769:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 7054: 6883: 6873: 6824: 6814: 6691: 6309: 6265: 6122:The neutral theory of molecular evolution 6016: 5983: 5942: 5932: 5810: 5787: 5694: 5684: 5576: 5509: 5457: 5414: 5320: 5155: 5115: 5073: 5014: 4942: 4932: 4642: 4573: 4563: 4522: 4504: 4451: 4394: 4331: 4282: 4161:. University of Michigan. 10 October 2010 3958: 3655: 3653: 3558:. Norwich, UK: Germplasm Resources Unit, 3507: 3485:Mills, Susan K.; Beatty, John H. (1979). 3368: 3366: 2856: 2542:in the form of short self-replicating RNA 2418:. which among other things can cause the 2358:species (with pairs of chromosomes) when 2267: 1884:Different types of selection act at each 1300:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 1069:Coloration evidence for natural selection 845: 834: 811:of the mid-20th century. The addition of 11952:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 10727:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 9500: 8819:. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press. 8637: 8463: ed.). New York: Harper Perennial. 8405: 7948: 7840: 6946: 6935: 6924: 6191: 6152: 6064: 6022: 5890: 5888: 4768: 4759: 4376: 4257:Walton, Olivia; Stevens, Martin (2018). 4173: 4146: 4049: 3863: 3812: 3781:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 66–67. 3134: 3128: 2765:is very rough or has many local minima. 2588:. According to this cellular Darwinism, 2192:manifestation of the trait, also called 2056: 1948: 1879: 1757: 1742:of surviving to adulthood. In contrast, 1428: 1332: 1196: 1084: 849: 57: 42: 12164: 8903:(Canto ed.). Cambridge, New York: 8604: 8209: 8068:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 7986: 7916: 7882: 7796: 7461: 7417: 7377: 7179:(3rd ed.). Oxford; Cambridge, MA: 6774: 6762: 6745: 6577: 6435: 6163:. Vol. 3. Macmillan Reference US. 6110: 6070: 5397:Moran, Gregory J.; et al. (2006). 4782:Correspondance Mathématique et Physique 4354: 4299: 4130: 4071: 3906: 3681: 3670: 3292: 3256: 3251: 3123: 2388:Selection, genetic variation, and drift 2130:Evolution by means of natural selection 1916: 1902: 1809: 1481:where natural selection is not, though 1266: 1121:An Essay on the Principle of Population 1024:inheritance of acquired characteristics 785:. The concept, published by Darwin and 14: 12485: 12450:Index of evolutionary biology articles 8677: 8498:. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. 8449: 8361: 8324: 7922:"The Measurement of Natural Selection" 7762: 7683: 7645: 7569: 7346: 7327: 7300: 7261: 7020:. Dordrecht, the Netherlands; London: 6751: 6740: 6680: 6646: 6586: 6392: 6233: 5711: 5298: 5229: 5223: 4981:Wade, Michael J.; et al. (2010). 4817: 4709: 4060: 3981: 3975: 3728: 3659: 3650: 3588:(1929–1930). "The A B C of Genetics". 3578: 3468: 3431: 3405: 3383: 3372: 3363: 3333: 3318: 3303: 3277: 3262: 3201: 3186: 3171: 3080: 2990: 2957: 1892: 1877:locus has been explained in this way. 1776:: intermediate favoured over extremes. 1412:, while those that reduce success are 12138: 11444:Psychological effects of Internet use 10769: 10490:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 9474: 8776:Selection: The Mechanism of Evolution 8562: 8412:An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms 7956:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7733:Introduction to Quantitative Genetics 7514:Columbia University Biological Series 7387:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7334:(6th ed.). London: John Murray. 7307:(3rd ed.). London: John Murray. 7146: 7093: 6912:Self-Organization and Maximum Empower 6847: 6785: 6597: 6407: 6239: 5885: 5599: 5396: 4875: 4830:Arnqvist, Göran; Rowe, Locke (2005). 4141: 2972: 2946: 2907: 2874: 2614:and co-originator of the ideology of 2582:The Struggle of Parts in the Organism 2408:neutral theory of molecular evolution 2331:functional genetic features, such as 2116:suppressing male-killing activity by 1965:, driven to its conspicuous size and 1368:Systematics and the Origin of Species 1328: 1128:, whereas the food supply grows only 1041:Between 1835 and 1837, the zoologist 9467: – Chapter 4, Natural Selection 8856:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory 8528: 8493: 8285: 8255: 8219:(1st ed.). London: J. Johnson. 8062: 8016: 7169:Begon, Michael; Townsend, Colin R.; 6977: 6635: 5894: 5180: 5104: 4029:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 13. 3801: 3399: 3394: 2901: 2892: 2741:. For example, a class of heuristic 2475:Darwin's ideas, along with those of 2369:disruptive or diversifying selection 2204:, is believed to retain function in 2122:bacteria parasites on the island of 1321:established the idea that mutation, 1100:Essay on the Principle of Population 972:compatibility with the environment. 869:and his intellectual successor, the 791:joint presentation of papers in 1858 11424:Digital media use and mental health 8024:Aristotle: The Desire to Understand 7697:(3rd rev. ed.). Moscow, USSR: 6990:The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction 5860:Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 5758: 5309:Clinical Microbiology and Infection 4615:; Ferry, Paul A. (23 August 2010). 4305: 4185:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3553: 1888:of a sexually reproducing organism. 731:, exists within all populations of 24: 11055:Automatic and controlled processes 9895:Evolutionary developmental biology 9253:10.1038/scientificamerican0978-212 8961:10.1111/j.1746-8361.1978.tb01321.x 8778:(2nd ed.). Oxford; New York: 8759: 8553:Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus 8535:Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus 7544:Genetics and the Origin of Species 7509:Genetics and the Origin of Species 5985:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1982.tb05068.x 3432:Stucke, Maurice E. (Summer 2008). 2753:in the 1970s and expanded upon by 2578:Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus 2327:population. Stabilizing selection 1468:a reproductive advantage are also 1385:evolutionary developmental biology 1338:Evolutionary developmental biology 1314:Genetics and the Origin of Species 1052: 986:Until the early 19th century, the 817:evolutionary developmental biology 36:Natural selection (disambiguation) 25: 12549: 11464:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 9447: 8816:Introduction to Natural Selection 8176:The Theory of Island Biogeography 7850:Addison-Wesley Publishing Company 7736:(4th ed.). Harlow, England: 7577:(1st ed.). Garden City, NY: 7228:Blackwell Scientific Publications 6723:Eisenberg quoting translation of 6517:10.1038/scientificamerican0481-88 5728:. Rudiment with Hidden Function?" 4865:Lemey, Salemi & Vandamme 2009 4597:Begon, Townsend & Harper 1996 4181:"Teleological Notions in Biology" 4159:"Evolution and Natural Selection" 3408:"Darwin, C. R. to Wallace, A. R." 3339:"Darwin, C. R. to Lyell, Charles" 3084:Evolution: The History of an Idea 2914:Journal of the History of Biology 2529: 2279:of these versions is known as an 2180:in humans, which can result in a 1973:by females over many generations. 1903:viability (or survival) selection 1753: 1582:in theory either adapt or die out 1361:recognised the key importance of 1018:The early 19th-century zoologist 932:development of animals as embryos 12470: 12115: 12102: 12090: 12089: 11489:Mobile phones and driving safety 10749: 10740: 10739: 9229:(September 1978). "Adaptation". 7636:The First Philosophers of Greece 7615:The First Philosophers of Greece 7226:. Vol. 23. Oxford; Boston: 7214:Christiansen, Freddy B. (1984). 6951: 6940: 6929: 6918: 6900: 6841: 6779: 6768: 6756: 6734: 6685: 6674: 6640: 6629: 6591: 6475: 6453:. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. 6440: 6429: 6401: 6386: 6242:"Evolution of the mutation rate" 6146: 5959: 5900: 5874: 5847: 5804: 5724:"The Eye of the Blind Mole Rat, 5322:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01343.x 2498:to other disciplines, including 2490:In the words of the philosopher 2262: 2222:Speciation requires a degree of 1734:-selected species exploit empty 967:At the turn of the 16th century 645: 644: 631: 89: 11392:Computer-mediated communication 10552:Extended evolutionary synthesis 9741:Gene-centered view of evolution 9023:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: 8725:Evolution: Making Sense of Life 7719:The book is available from the 7022:Springer Science+Business Media 6543:The Quarterly Review of Biology 6153:Robinson, Richard, ed. (2003). 6076:The Quarterly Review of Biology 5752: 5642: 5607:Journal of Experimental Zoology 5593: 5403:New England Journal of Medicine 5390: 5337: 5268: 5233:The Quarterly Review of Biology 5109: 5098: 4974: 4900: 4869: 4858: 4811: 4800: 4703: 4692: 4590: 4539: 4411: 4370: 4348: 4199: 4135: 4124: 4076: 4054: 4018: 3857: 3806: 3795: 3770: 3759: 3748: 3722: 3687:"The Cost of Natural Selection" 3675: 3664: 3610: 3547: 3478: 3462: 3425: 3406:Darwin, Charles (5 July 1866). 3388: 3377: 3327: 3312: 3297: 3286: 3271: 3245: 3210: 3195: 3180: 3165: 3138:Journal of the History of Ideas 3117: 3074: 3042: 3028: 3016: 2908:Henry, Devin (September 2006). 2808: 2596:Social and psychological theory 2245:Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model 1848:Purifying or negative selection 1698: 1273:Modern synthesis (20th century) 1097:in England 1780–1810, from his 841:History of evolutionary thought 803:with subsequent discoveries in 638:Evolutionary biology portal 12250:Constructive neutral evolution 11669:Empathising–systemising theory 10972:female intrasexual competition 10909:Evolutionarily stable strategy 10680:Hologenome theory of evolution 10547:History of molecular evolution 9773:Evolutionarily stable strategy 9662:Last universal common ancestor 6910:(1995). Hall, C. A. S. (ed.). 6848:Lotka, Alfred J. (June 1922). 6698:American Journal of Psychiatry 6240:Lynch, Michael (August 2010). 6124:. Cambridge University Press. 6029:Journal of Theoretical Biology 5862:. National Library of Medicine 5856:"ABO Glycosyltransferase; ABO" 5815:, Princeton University Press, 5299:Schito, Gian C. (March 2006). 4788:. Brussels, Belgium: 113–121. 4713:(November–December 1970). "On 3866:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3815:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3089:University of California Press 3087:(3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: 2984: 2966: 2951: 2940: 2886: 2868: 2850: 2832: 2710:Information and systems theory 2520:cosmological natural selection 2274:Genotype–phenotype distinction 1961:, and is a classic example of 1945:By resource being competed for 1838:By effect on genetic diversity 1553: 1547:long-term evolution experiment 1441:, leaving tree trunks dark. A 1398: 1293:of inheritance, the so-called 1063:Development of Darwin's theory 597:Creation–evolution controversy 351:History of evolutionary theory 30:For the Brad Laner album, see 13: 1: 12029:Standard social science model 11082:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis 10474:Renaissance and Enlightenment 8007:Philosophie zoologique (1809) 7730:; Mackay, Trudy F.C. (1996). 7651:Natural Selection in the Wild 7218:. In Shorrocks, Bryan (ed.). 5201:10.1016/S0376-6357(00)00124-8 4306:Orr, H. Allen (August 2009). 3434:"Better Competition Advocacy" 3411:Darwin Correspondence Project 3344:Darwin Correspondence Project 3070:(in French). Berlin: 267–294. 2825: 2768: 2211: 2174:"toolkit" or regulatory genes 2165:. However, many mutations in 2052: 1867:frequency-dependent selection 12200:Fisher's fundamental theorem 11877:Missing heritability problem 11469:Social aspects of television 11092:Evolution of nervous systems 11060:Computational theory of mind 10685:Missing heritability problem 10312:Gamete differentiation/sexes 7996:. Paris: Dentu et L'Auteur. 7427:(1st ed.). Boston, MA: 6914:. Colorado University Press. 6418:The New York Review of Books 6050:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90039-6 4934:10.1371/journal.pone.0125003 4686:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.09.001 3886:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90039-6 3835:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 3618:National Academy of Sciences 3444:(3). Jamaica, NY: 951–1036. 3349:Cambridge University Library 2686:to broader patterns such as 1869:. One mechanism for this is 1787:Group A: original population 1419: 1059:Inception of Darwin's theory 861:Several philosophers of the 823:can slowly change by random 582:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 12225:Coefficient of relationship 12123:Evolutionary biology portal 9283:. Science Masters. London: 9145:Gould, Stephen Jay (1977). 8572:University of Chicago Press 8325:Michod, Richard A. (1999). 8028:. Cambridge, UK; New York: 7462:Dennett, Daniel C. (1995). 7293:The book is available from 6711:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.9.1760 6615:10.1101/sqb.1987.052.01.004 5780:10.1093/genetics/144.4.1331 5722:; et al. 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New York: 8030:Cambridge University Press 7224:British Ecological Society 7061:Princeton University Press 7008: 6413:"Darwinian Fundamentalism" 5881:Falconer & Mackay 1996 3907:Gilbert, Scott F. (2003). 2772: 2599: 2572:In 1881, the embryologist 2568:Cell and molecular biology 2533: 2468: 2425:mutation–selection balance 2391: 2302: 2271: 2215: 2133: 2068: 1976: 1626:, can be illustrated in a 1557: 1527: 1523: 1460: 1351: 1270: 1066: 1056: 838: 745:common within a population 617:Nature-nurture controversy 29: 12445: 12380: 12354: 12316: 12291: 12258: 12220:Coefficient of inbreeding 12172: 12078: 12004:Environmental determinism 11975:Cultural selection theory 11967: 11862:Evolutionary epistemology 11849: 11776:evolutionary neuroscience 11738: 11731: 11629: 11504: 11449:Rank theory of depression 11372: 11296: 11198: 11004: 10997: 10951:Parent–offspring conflict 10860: 10803: 10735: 10635: 10560: 10464: 10391: 10347: 10202: 10106: 9923: 9882: 9815:Parent–offspring conflict 9751: 9620:Earliest known life forms 9541: 9508: 9285:Weidenfeld & Nicolson 9110:Climbing Mount Improbable 7894:Longmans, Green & Co. 7518:Columbia University Press 7429:Little, Brown and Company 7055:Andersson, Malte (1994). 6311:10.1017/S0016672300014634 6258:10.1016/j.tig.2010.05.003 5157:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.053 4770:Verhulst, Pierre François 4275:10.1038/s42003-018-0126-3 3081:Bowler, Peter J. (2003). 2926:10.1007/s10739-005-3058-y 2512:evolutionary epistemology 2464: 2083:. Since the discovery of 2063:resistance to antibiotics 2021:Phenotypic traits can be 1618:-selection. These terms, 1340:relates the evolution of 1178:Linnean Society of London 1006:. However, the theory of 504:Evolutionary neuroscience 479:Evolutionary epistemology 459:Evolutionary anthropology 439:Applications of evolution 12398:Evolutionary game theory 12180:Hardy–Weinberg principle 11897:Cultural group selection 11781:Biocultural anthropology 11474:Societal impacts of cars 11407:Media naturalness theory 11097:Fight-or-flight response 10668:Cultural group selection 10532:The eclipse of Darwinism 10504:On the Origin of Species 10479:Transmutation of species 7721:Marxist Internet Archive 7328:Darwin, Charles (1872). 7301:Darwin, Charles (1861). 7271:(1st ed.). London: 6963:Pharmacological Sciences 6701:(Letter to the editor). 5686:10.1073/pnas.94.25.13695 5445:Human Molecular Genetics 4876:Loewe, Laurence (2008). 3220:Strickberger's Evolution 3050:Maupertuis, Pierre Louis 2801: 2759:probability distribution 2638:. For example, in 1940, 2500:evolutionary computation 2247:, further elaborated by 2172:Some mutations occur in 2071:Antimicrobial resistance 1789:Group B: after selection 1437:, pollution killed many 1383:, creating the field of 1256:On the Origin of Species 1237:On the Origin of Species 1183:On the Origin of Species 1150:On the Origin of Species 1047:On the Origin of Species 1028:transmutation of species 494:Evolutionary linguistics 489:Evolutionary game theory 464:Evolutionary computation 47:A diagram demonstrating 12498:Biological interactions 12210:Shifting balance theory 12097:Evolutionary psychology 12061:Sociocultural evolution 11902:Dual inheritance theory 11359:Personality development 10820:Theoretical foundations 10797:Evolutionary psychology 10673:Dual inheritance theory 10512:History of paleontology 8999:10.1111/1468-2370.00088 8900:The Theory of Evolution 8780:Oxford University Press 8766:For technical audiences 8250:Rogers State University 8141:Leonard, William Ellery 7889:The Causes of Evolution 7541:—— (1951). 7424:Consciousness Explained 7297:. Retrieved 2015-07-23. 7107:Oxford University Press 6156:"Population Bottleneck" 5520:10.1126/science.1098119 5368:10.1126/science.1143369 4886:Nature Publishing Group 4807:Zimmer & Emlen 2013 4724:The American Naturalist 4565:10.1073/pnas.1119910109 4506:10.1073/pnas.0803151105 4444:10.1126/science.aag0822 3984:Nature Reviews Genetics 3594:. Vol. 2. London: 2862:On the Nature of Things 2724:maximum power principle 2602:Evolutionary psychology 2516:evolutionary psychology 2163:synonymous substitution 2149:and alterations in the 1536:survival of the fittest 1510:peppered moth evolution 1251:survival of the fittest 1126:increases exponentially 977:Pierre Louis Maupertuis 607:Objections to evolution 514:Evolutionary psychology 509:Evolutionary physiology 454:Evolutionary aesthetics 433:Fields and applications 415:History of paleontology 12195:Linkage disequilibrium 12019:Social constructionism 12014:Psychological nativism 11989:Biological determinism 11937:Recent human evolution 11932:Punctuated equilibrium 11755:Behavioral epigenetics 11750:evolutionary economics 11719:Variability hypothesis 11664:Emotional intelligence 11397:Engineering psychology 11087:Evolution of the brain 10361:Punctuated equilibrium 9682:Non-adaptive radiation 9630:Evolutionary arms race 8606:Wallace, Alfred Russel 8494:Rice, Sean H. (2004). 8237:The book is available 8211:Malthus, Thomas Robert 7993:Philosophie Zoologique 7988:Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 7934:University of Florence 7504:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6447:von Sydow, M. (2012). 6292:; Haigh, John (1974). 5934:10.1073/pnas.192360899 5811:Gavrilets, S. (2004), 4635:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 4383:Statistics in Medicine 4263:Communications Biology 3960:10.1006/dbio.1996.0032 2508:evolutionary economics 2452:linkage disequilibrium 2416:population bottlenecks 2268:Genotype and phenotype 2224:reproductive isolation 2147:genetic recombinations 2104:evolutionary arms race 2093:methicillin-resistant 2066: 1974: 1889: 1871:heterozygote advantage 1865:mutation, by negative 1790: 1704: 1458: 1365:for speciation in his 1363:reproductive isolation 1349: 1248:introduced the phrase 1225: 1155: 1104: 954:struggle for existence 950: 928: 858: 846:Pre-Darwinian theories 835:Historical development 539:Speciation experiments 519:Experimental evolution 474:Evolutionary economics 296:Recent human evolution 154:Processes and outcomes 71: 55: 34:. For other uses, see 12437:Quantitative genetics 12346:Balding–Nichols model 12331:Population bottleneck 12326:Small population size 12230:Selection coefficient 12046:Multilineal evolution 12009:Nature versus nurture 11968:Theoretical positions 11816:Functional psychology 11811:Evolutionary medicine 11786:Biological psychiatry 11494:Texting while driving 11484:Lead–crime hypothesis 11344:Cognitive development 11329:Caregiver deprivation 10840:Gene selection theory 10653:Evolutionary medicine 10527:Mendelian inheritance 10235:Biological complexity 10223:Programmed cell death 9915:Phenotypic plasticity 9635:Evolutionary pressure 9625:Evidence of evolution 9523:Timeline of evolution 9098:For general audiences 8559:Retrieved 2015-08-11. 8290:. New Brunswick, NJ: 8139:(1916). "Book V". In 7764:Fisher, Ronald Aylmer 7094:Ariew, André (2002). 6485:; Gardiner, William; 5303:Staphylococcus aureus 5189:Behavioural Processes 4377:Kleinman, A. (2014). 3947:Developmental Biology 3495:Philosophy of Science 3456:Principles of Biology 3438:St. John's Law Review 3337:(28 September 1860). 2612:political philosopher 2305:Directional selection 2095:Staphylococcus aureus 2077:antibiotic resistance 2069:Further information: 2061:Selection in action: 2060: 1977:Further information: 1952: 1935:intragenomic conflict 1883: 1820:Directional selection 1816:Stabilizing selection 1774:stabilizing selection 1764:directional selection 1761: 1705: 1572:. Competition may be 1560:Competition (biology) 1494:Industrial Revolution 1435:Industrial Revolution 1432: 1336: 1319:Theodosius Dobzhansky 1200: 1188:William Charles Wells 1160:Alfred Russel Wallace 1139: 1116:Thomas Robert Malthus 1109:second voyage of HMS 1088: 1067:Further information: 1020:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 936: 913: 908:The Origin of Species 902:Generation of Animals 887:. He posited natural 853: 787:Alfred Russel Wallace 761:new species can arise 499:Evolutionary medicine 444:Biosocial criminology 410:History of speciation 323:Evolutionary taxonomy 286:Timeline of evolution 61: 46: 12528:Evolutionary biology 12513:Ecological processes 12477:Evolutionary biology 12308:Background selection 12295:on genomic variation 12293:Effects of selection 12245:Population structure 11999:Cultural determinism 11806:Evolutionary biology 11791:Cognitive psychology 11739:Academic disciplines 11387:Cognitive ergonomics 11354:Language acquisition 11334:Childhood attachment 11147:Wason selection task 11041:Behavioral modernity 10830:Cognitive revolution 10813:Evolutionary thought 10627:Teleology in biology 10522:Blending inheritance 9900:Genetic assimilation 9763:Artificial selection 9502:Evolutionary biology 9465:on 25 February 2001. 9227:Lewontin, Richard C. 8244:15 July 2021 at the 8167:MacArthur, Robert H. 7936:. pp. 480–487. 7892:. London; New York: 7728:Falconer, Douglas S. 7690:Dialectics of Nature 7470:Simon & Schuster 7142:on 19 February 2009. 7105:. Oxford; New York: 6959:"Genetic Algorithms" 6875:10.1073/pnas.8.6.151 6816:10.1073/pnas.8.6.147 6648:Kupiec, Jean-Jacques 6024:Hamilton, William D. 5604:genes, and cancer". 5416:10.1056/NEJMoa055356 4878:"Negative Selection" 2980:, Book II, Chapter 8 2784:'s 1872 pessimistic 2775:Evolution in fiction 2745:algorithms known as 2496:evolutionary biology 2458:Background selection 2373:bimodal distribution 2341:sympatric speciation 2337:regulatory sequences 2333:protein-coding genes 2320:disruptive selection 2194:evolutionary baggage 2108:pesticide resistance 1989:Ecological selection 1917:By unit of selection 1824:disruptive selection 1810:By effect on a trait 1640: 1598:, which is based on 1323:once seen as a rival 1267:The modern synthesis 1230:artificial selection 1168:Joseph Dalton Hooker 947:, Book II, Chapter 8 925:, Book II, Chapter 8 741:reproductive success 715:artificial selection 705:characteristic of a 701:, the change in the 469:Evolutionary ecology 83:Evolutionary biology 70:by natural selection 12427:Population genomics 12303:Genetic hitchhiking 12190:Identity by descent 12166:Population genetics 12066:Unilineal evolution 11831:Population genetics 11616:Sexy son hypothesis 11554:Hormonal motivation 11534:Concealed ovulation 11075:Dual process theory 10946:Parental investment 10690:Molecular evolution 10648:Ecological genetics 10517:Transitional fossil 10307:Sexual reproduction 10147:endomembrane system 10076:pollinator-mediated 10032:dolphins and whales 9810:Parental investment 9245:1978SciAm.239c.212L 9232:Scientific American 9059:Williams, George C. 8895:Maynard Smith, John 8679:Wilson, David Sloan 8639:Williams, George C. 8616:Macmillan & Co. 8248:from Frank Elwell, 7798:Futuyma, Douglas J. 7774:The Clarendon Press 7699:Progress Publishers 7222:. Symposium of the 6866:1922PNAS....8..151L 6807:1922PNAS....8..147L 6509:1981SciAm.244d..88E 6492:Scientific American 6364:10.1038/nature05049 6356:2006Natur.443...89K 6334:Keightley, Peter D. 6290:Smith, John Maynard 6042:1964JThBi...7...17H 5925:2002PNAS...9912242R 5919:(19): 12242–12245. 5677:1997PNAS...9413695Z 5671:(25): 13695–13700. 5653:(9 December 1997). 5620:1999JEZ...285...19G 5502:2004Sci...304.1321B 5496:(5675): 1321–1325. 5360:2007Sci...317..214C 5148:2011CBio...21..R62H 5007:10.1038/nature08809 4999:2010Natur.463....8W 4925:2015PLoSO..1025003V 4678:2012PPP...365....1J 4497:2008PNAS..105.7899B 4436:2016Sci...353.1147B 4228:10.1038/nature17951 4220:2016Natur.534..102H 3878:1964JThBi...7...17H 3827:1964JThBi...7....1H 3695:Journal of Genetics 3591:The Science of Life 3535:on 25 December 2015 2586:Jean-Jacques Kupiec 2558:nucleotide sequence 2524:universal Darwinism 2471:Universal Darwinism 2444:genetic hitchhiking 2382:reciprocal altruism 2365:sickle-cell anaemia 2352:balancing selection 2039:sexy son hypothesis 2010:, where one gender 1893:By life cycle stage 1859:balancing selection 1766:: a single extreme 1718:of the population ( 1632:population dynamics 1608:island biogeography 1474:natural environment 1103:, 6th edition, 1826 801:Darwinian evolution 776:fecundity selection 759:occurs. Sometimes, 571:Social implications 559:Universal Darwinism 549:Island biogeography 484:Evolutionary ethics 449:Ecological genetics 395:Molecular evolution 333:Transitional fossil 161:Population genetics 77:Part of a series on 18:Selection (biology) 12413:Landscape genetics 12024:Social determinism 11907:Fisher's principle 11867:Great ape language 11857:Cultural evolution 11826:Philosophy of mind 11659:Division of labour 11621:Westermarck effect 11569:Mating preferences 11479:Distracted driving 11213:Literary criticism 11070:Domain specificity 11050:modularity of mind 10663:Cultural evolution 9778:Fisher's principle 9707:Handicap principle 9697:Parallel evolution 9561:Adaptive radiation 8851:Gould, Stephen Jay 7842:Goldberg, David E. 7808:Sinauer Associates 7806:. Sunderland, MA: 7693:. 1939 preface by 7419:Dennett, Daniel C. 6409:Gould, Stephen Jay 6246:Trends in Genetics 6072:Trivers, Robert L. 5459:10.1093/hmg/ddi226 5132:"Sexual Selection" 4613:Benton, Michael J. 3708:10.1007/BF02984069 2751:John Henry Holland 2747:genetic algorithms 2345:niche partitioning 2067: 1975: 1890: 1791: 1700: 1506:Clean Air Act 1956 1459: 1381:molecular genetics 1350: 1329:A second synthesis 1226: 1222:selective breeding 1105: 1078:that variation is 859: 829:adaptive evolution 813:molecular genetics 805:classical genetics 709:over generations. 602:Theistic evolution 534:Selective breeding 246:Parallel evolution 211:Adaptive radiation 72: 56: 32:Natural Selections 12493:Natural selection 12458: 12457: 12408:Genetic genealogy 12403:Fitness landscape 12132: 12131: 12110:Psychology portal 12074: 12073: 11917:Hologenome theory 11887:Unit of selection 11882:Primate cognition 11796:Cognitive science 11727: 11726: 11598:Sexual attraction 11574:Mating strategies 11339:Cinderella effect 11269:Moral foundations 11173:Visual perception 11065:Domain generality 11034:Facial expression 10982:Sexual dimorphism 10941:Natural selection 10887:Hamiltonian spite 10763: 10762: 10379:Uniformitarianism 10332:Sex-determination 9837:Sexual dimorphism 9832:Natural selection 9736:Unit of selection 9702:Signalling theory 9387:978-0-571-22392-3 9338:978-0-679-40003-5 9294:978-0-297-60741-0 9281:What Evolution Is 9202:978-0-375-50103-6 9158:978-0-393-06425-4 9121:978-0-393-03930-6 9072:978-0-19-506933-4 9034:978-0-262-69162-8 8941:(December 1978). 8914:978-0-521-45128-4 8870:978-0-674-00613-3 8859:. Cambridge, MA: 8826:978-0-8391-0936-5 8789:978-0-19-856972-5 8734:978-1-936221-17-2 8721:Emlen, Douglas J. 8692:978-0-691-02615-2 8654:978-0-691-02615-2 8581:978-0-226-76748-2 8540:Wilhelm Engelmann 8505:978-0-87893-702-8 8470:978-0-06-097651-4 8426:978-0-262-13316-6 8407:Mitchell, Melanie 8382:978-0-385-49516-5 8338:978-0-691-02699-2 8301:978-0-202-30845-6 8292:AldineTransaction 8186:978-0-691-08836-5 8171:Wilson, Edward O. 8112:978-0-521-73071-6 8077:978-0-226-45808-3 8039:978-0-521-34762-4 7963:978-0-19-507951-7 7859:978-0-201-15767-3 7817:978-0-87893-187-3 7747:978-0-582-24302-6 7685:Engels, Friedrich 7660:978-0-691-08386-5 7611:Fairbanks, Arthur 7479:978-0-684-80290-9 7438:978-0-316-18065-8 7394:978-0-19-857519-1 7237:978-0-632-01189-6 7190:978-0-632-03801-5 7181:Blackwell Science 7116:978-0-19-824103-4 7070:978-0-691-00057-2 7031:978-1-4020-8865-0 6965:. 7 November 2016 6460:978-3-86395-006-4 6298:Genetics Research 6218:978-0-8053-1940-8 6205:Benjamin Cummings 6193:Campbell, Neil A. 6170:978-0-02-865609-0 6131:978-0-521-23109-1 5822:978-0-691-11983-0 5726:Spalax ehrenbergi 5452:(15): 2221–2229. 5315:(Suppl s1): 3–8. 5075:10.1111/evo.12542 5068:(12): 3524–3536. 4969:Christiansen 1984 4884:. Cambridge, MA: 4843:978-0-691-12218-2 4672:. 365–366: 1–10. 4558:(13): 4950–4955. 4430:(6304): 1147–51. 4389:(29): 5074–5080. 4356:Haldane, J. B. S. 4214:(7605): 102–105. 4036:978-1-4051-1950-4 3788:978-1-4051-1950-4 3685:(December 1957). 3683:Haldane, J. B. S. 3635:978-0-309-06406-4 3596:Amalgamated Press 3560:John Innes Centre 3347:. Cambridge, UK: 3230:978-0-7637-0066-9 3102:978-0-520-23693-6 3036:Leonardo, Codex C 2755:David E. Goldberg 2550:variation of type 2504:quantum Darwinism 2485:Stephen Jay Gould 2394:Genetic variation 2161:or resulted in a 2113:Hypolimnas bolina 2047:sexual dimorphism 2031:Fisherian runaway 2027:positive feedback 1963:Fisherian runaway 1923:unit of selection 1844:genetic diversity 1728:carrying capacity 1691: 1661: 1530:Fitness (biology) 1463:Genetic variation 1405:natural selection 1095:population growth 1008:uniformitarianism 992:Western societies 969:Leonardo da Vinci 691:Natural selection 688: 687: 379:Origin of Species 181:Natural selection 16:(Redirected from 12545: 12538:Sexual selection 12475: 12474: 12466: 12367:J. B. S. Haldane 12159: 12152: 12145: 12136: 12135: 12119: 12106: 12093: 12092: 11736: 11735: 11732:Related subjects 11519:Adult attachment 11046:Cognitive module 11002: 11001: 10989:Social selection 10963:Costly signaling 10958:Sexual selection 10845:Modern synthesis 10790: 10783: 10776: 10767: 10766: 10753: 10743: 10742: 10542:Modern synthesis 10302:Multicellularity 10297:Mosaic evolution 10182:auditory ossicle 9864:Social selection 9847:Flowering plants 9842:Sexual selection 9495: 9488: 9481: 9472: 9471: 9466: 9461:. 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B. S. 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Reading, MA: 7818: 7748: 7661: 7647:Endler, John A. 7480: 7439: 7395: 7263:Darwin, Charles 7238: 7191: 7171:Harper, John L. 7139: 7117: 7098: 7071: 7032: 7011: 7006: 7005: 6995: 6993: 6982: 6978: 6968: 6966: 6957: 6956: 6952: 6945: 6941: 6934: 6930: 6923: 6919: 6905: 6901: 6846: 6842: 6784: 6780: 6773: 6769: 6761: 6757: 6750: 6746: 6739: 6735: 6693:Eisenberg, Leon 6690: 6686: 6679: 6675: 6665: 6663: 6645: 6641: 6634: 6630: 6596: 6592: 6585: 6578: 6539: 6532: 6487:Schuster, Peter 6480: 6476: 6461: 6445: 6441: 6434: 6430: 6406: 6402: 6391: 6387: 6350:(7107): 89–92. 6331: 6327: 6287: 6283: 6238: 6234: 6219: 6190: 6186: 6171: 6151: 6147: 6132: 6115: 6111: 6069: 6065: 6021: 6017: 5964: 5960: 5905: 5901: 5893: 5886: 5879: 5875: 5865: 5863: 5852: 5848: 5833: 5829: 5823: 5809: 5805: 5757: 5753: 5716: 5712: 5647: 5643: 5598: 5594: 5547: 5543: 5511:10.1.1.380.9305 5485: 5479: 5475: 5436: 5432: 5395: 5391: 5342: 5338: 5297: 5293: 5273: 5269: 5228: 5224: 5185: 5181: 5136:Current Biology 5128: 5121: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5099: 5054: 5047: 5039: 5032: 4993:(7283): E8–E9. 4979: 4975: 4967: 4960: 4919:(5): e0125003. 4905: 4901: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4859: 4844: 4833:Sexual Conflict 4828: 4824: 4816: 4812: 4805: 4801: 4767: 4760: 4711:Pianka, Eric R. 4708: 4704: 4697: 4693: 4664: 4660: 4622:Biology Letters 4611:Sahney, Sarda; 4609: 4602: 4595: 4591: 4544: 4540: 4473: 4469: 4416: 4412: 4375: 4371: 4360:Current Science 4353: 4349: 4324:10.1038/nrg2603 4304: 4300: 4255: 4251: 4204: 4200: 4190: 4188: 4179: 4178: 4174: 4164: 4162: 4157: 4156: 4147: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4125: 4102:10.2307/2408842 4081: 4077: 4070: 4066: 4059: 4055: 4048: 4044: 4037: 4023: 4019: 3996:10.1038/nrg2219 3990:(12): 943–949. 3980: 3976: 3939: 3935: 3911: 3905: 3901: 3862: 3858: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3775: 3771: 3766:Dobzhansky 1951 3764: 3760: 3755:Dobzhansky 1937 3753: 3749: 3727: 3723: 3689: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3665: 3658: 3651: 3636: 3615: 3611: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3566:on 14 June 2016 3556:"Mendel's Peas" 3554:Ambrose, Mike. 3552: 3548: 3538: 3536: 3532: 3489: 3483: 3479: 3467: 3463: 3451:Herbert Spencer 3430: 3426: 3416: 3414: 3404: 3400: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3364: 3354: 3352: 3335:Darwin, Charles 3332: 3328: 3317: 3313: 3302: 3298: 3291: 3287: 3276: 3272: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3246: 3231: 3215: 3211: 3200: 3196: 3185: 3181: 3170: 3166: 3151:10.2307/2707968 3133: 3129: 3122: 3118: 3103: 3079: 3075: 3047: 3043: 3034: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 2989: 2985: 2971: 2967: 2956: 2952: 2945: 2941: 2906: 2902: 2891: 2887: 2873: 2869: 2855: 2851: 2839:Empedocles 1898 2837: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2822: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2777: 2771: 2749:, pioneered by 2735:artificial life 2716:Alfred J. Lotka 2712: 2696:Richard Dawkins 2604: 2598: 2570: 2538: 2532: 2473: 2467: 2431:Genetic linkage 2400: 2392:Main articles: 2390: 2307: 2301: 2276: 2270: 2265: 2220: 2214: 2142: 2134:Main articles: 2132: 2073: 2055: 2037:in 1930 is the 1981: 1947: 1939:Group selection 1919: 1895: 1875:ABO blood group 1840: 1812: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1771: 1756: 1683: 1676: 1672: 1653: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1638: 1637: 1578:between species 1562: 1556: 1532: 1526: 1465: 1427: 1422: 1401: 1356: 1331: 1281:. Although the 1275: 1269: 1246:Herbert Spencer 1206:pigeon fanciers 1192:Patrick Matthew 1154: 1146: 1071: 1065: 1057:Main articles: 1055: 1053:Darwin's theory 1030:. This theory, 1013:geological time 996:Platonic ideals 988:prevailing view 949: 942: 927: 920: 848: 843: 837: 684: 643: 630: 629: 622: 621: 572: 564: 563: 434: 426: 425: 424: 352: 344: 343: 342: 291:Human evolution 281:History of life 265: 264:Natural history 257: 256: 255: 155: 147: 102: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12551: 12541: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12510: 12505: 12503:Charles Darwin 12500: 12495: 12480: 12479: 12456: 12455: 12453: 12452: 12446: 12443: 12442: 12440: 12439: 12434: 12432:Phylogeography 12429: 12424: 12422:Microevolution 12419: 12410: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12384: 12382: 12381:Related topics 12378: 12377: 12375: 12374: 12369: 12364: 12358: 12356: 12352: 12351: 12349: 12348: 12343: 12338: 12336:Founder effect 12333: 12328: 12322: 12320: 12314: 12313: 12311: 12310: 12305: 12299: 12297: 12292: 12289: 12288: 12286: 12285: 12280: 12275: 12270: 12264: 12262: 12256: 12255: 12253: 12252: 12247: 12242: 12237: 12232: 12227: 12222: 12217: 12215:Price equation 12212: 12207: 12205:Neutral theory 12202: 12197: 12192: 12187: 12182: 12176: 12174: 12170: 12169: 12162: 12161: 12154: 12147: 12139: 12130: 12129: 12127: 12126: 12113: 12100: 12087: 12079: 12076: 12075: 12072: 12071: 12069: 12068: 12063: 12058: 12053: 12048: 12043: 12038: 12033: 12032: 12031: 12026: 12021: 12016: 12011: 12006: 12001: 11996: 11991: 11977: 11971: 11969: 11965: 11964: 11962: 11961: 11960: 11959: 11954: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11934: 11929: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11899: 11894: 11884: 11879: 11874: 11869: 11864: 11859: 11853: 11851: 11847: 11846: 11844: 11843: 11838: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11788: 11783: 11778: 11761: 11752: 11742: 11740: 11733: 11729: 11728: 11725: 11724: 11722: 11721: 11716: 11711: 11706: 11701: 11696: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11676: 11671: 11666: 11661: 11656: 11651: 11646: 11641: 11635: 11633: 11627: 11626: 11624: 11623: 11618: 11613: 11600: 11591: 11586: 11581: 11576: 11571: 11566: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11521: 11516: 11510: 11508: 11502: 11501: 11499: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11491: 11486: 11481: 11471: 11466: 11461: 11456: 11451: 11446: 11441: 11439:Mind-blindness 11436: 11431: 11426: 11421: 11416: 11415: 11414: 11409: 11404: 11399: 11394: 11383: 11381: 11370: 11369: 11367: 11366: 11361: 11356: 11351: 11346: 11341: 11336: 11331: 11326: 11313: 11308: 11302: 11300: 11294: 11293: 11291: 11290: 11285: 11284: 11283: 11273: 11272: 11271: 11261: 11260: 11259: 11254: 11249: 11239: 11234: 11233: 11232: 11222: 11221: 11220: 11215: 11204: 11202: 11196: 11195: 11193: 11192: 11191: 11190: 11185: 11180: 11170: 11165: 11160: 11151: 11150: 11149: 11144: 11134: 11132:theory of mind 11125: 11116: 11115: 11114: 11109: 11104: 11094: 11089: 11084: 11079: 11078: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11057: 11043: 11038: 11037: 11036: 11031: 11026: 11015: 11013: 10999: 10995: 10994: 10992: 10991: 10986: 10985: 10984: 10979: 10974: 10965: 10955: 10954: 10953: 10943: 10938: 10933: 10928: 10927: 10926: 10916: 10911: 10906: 10901: 10899:Baldwin effect 10896: 10895: 10894: 10889: 10884: 10874: 10868: 10866: 10858: 10857: 10855: 10854: 10849: 10848: 10847: 10842: 10837: 10832: 10827: 10817: 10816: 10815: 10804: 10801: 10800: 10793: 10792: 10785: 10778: 10770: 10761: 10760: 10758: 10757: 10747: 10736: 10733: 10732: 10730: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10708: 10707: 10697: 10692: 10687: 10682: 10677: 10676: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10639: 10637: 10633: 10632: 10630: 10629: 10624: 10623: 10622: 10617: 10612: 10611: 10610: 10600: 10595: 10590: 10585: 10580: 10570: 10564: 10562: 10558: 10557: 10555: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10524: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10508: 10507: 10498:Charles Darwin 10495: 10494: 10493: 10481: 10476: 10470: 10468: 10462: 10461: 10459: 10458: 10453: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10436:Non-ecological 10433: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10397: 10395: 10389: 10388: 10386: 10385: 10376: 10367: 10353: 10351: 10345: 10344: 10342: 10341: 10336: 10335: 10334: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10314: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10253: 10252: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10209: 10207: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10189: 10187:nervous system 10184: 10179: 10174: 10166: 10165: 10164: 10159: 10154: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10113: 10111: 10104: 10103: 10101: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10079: 10078: 10068: 10067: 10066: 10061: 10060: 10059: 10054: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10023: 10022: 10017: 10007: 9997: 9992: 9991: 9990: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9964: 9963: 9953: 9948: 9947: 9946: 9936: 9930: 9928: 9921: 9920: 9918: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9902: 9897: 9892: 9886: 9884: 9880: 9879: 9877: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9854: 9849: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9818: 9817: 9812: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9791: 9790: 9780: 9775: 9770: 9765: 9759: 9757: 9749: 9748: 9746: 9745: 9744: 9743: 9733: 9728: 9727: 9726: 9721: 9711: 9710: 9709: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9687:Origin of life 9684: 9679: 9674: 9672:Microevolution 9669: 9667:Macroevolution 9664: 9659: 9654: 9653: 9652: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9605:Common descent 9602: 9601: 9600: 9590: 9585: 9583:Baldwin effect 9580: 9579: 9578: 9573: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9547: 9545: 9539: 9538: 9536: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9498: 9497: 9490: 9483: 9475: 9469: 9468: 9449: 9448:External links 9446: 9445: 9444: 9443: 9442: 9412:Zirkle, Conway 9408: 9386: 9361: 9360: 9359: 9337: 9315: 9293: 9273: 9239:(3): 212–230. 9223: 9201: 9179: 9157: 9142: 9120: 9095: 9094: 9093: 9071: 9055: 9033: 9017:, ed. (1994). 9015:Sober, Elliott 9011: 8993:(3): 291–315. 8973: 8935: 8913: 8891: 8869: 8847: 8825: 8810: 8788: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8755: 8733: 8713: 8691: 8675: 8653: 8635: 8602: 8580: 8564:Sober, Elliott 8560: 8526: 8504: 8491: 8469: 8451:Pinker, Steven 8447: 8425: 8403: 8381: 8359: 8337: 8322: 8300: 8283: 8253: 8207: 8185: 8163: 8133: 8111: 8098: 8076: 8060: 8038: 8018:Lear, Jonathan 8014: 7984: 7962: 7946: 7914: 7880: 7858: 7838: 7816: 7794: 7760: 7746: 7724: 7695:J.B.S. Haldane 7681: 7659: 7643: 7599: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7500: 7478: 7459: 7437: 7415: 7393: 7375: 7344: 7325: 7298: 7259: 7236: 7211: 7189: 7166: 7144: 7115: 7091: 7069: 7052: 7030: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7004: 7003: 6976: 6950: 6939: 6928: 6917: 6899: 6860:(6): 151–154. 6840: 6801:(6): 147–151. 6778: 6767: 6755: 6744: 6733: 6684: 6673: 6650:(3 May 2010). 6639: 6628: 6590: 6576: 6555:10.1086/413216 6549:(2): 185–207. 6530: 6483:Eigen, Manfred 6474: 6459: 6439: 6428: 6400: 6385: 6338:Otto, Sarah P. 6325: 6281: 6252:(8): 345–352. 6232: 6217: 6184: 6169: 6145: 6130: 6109: 6088:10.1086/406755 6063: 6015: 5978:(3): 474–498. 5958: 5899: 5884: 5873: 5846: 5827: 5821: 5803: 5751: 5710: 5651:Duboule, Denis 5641: 5592: 5563:(2): 891–900. 5541: 5473: 5430: 5409:(7): 666–674. 5389: 5336: 5291: 5267: 5246:10.1086/431022 5222: 5179: 5142:(2): R62–R65. 5119: 5116:Andersson 1994 5108: 5097: 5045: 5030: 4973: 4958: 4899: 4868: 4857: 4842: 4822: 4810: 4799: 4758: 4737:10.1086/282697 4702: 4691: 4658: 4629:(4): 544–547. 4600: 4589: 4538: 4467: 4410: 4369: 4347: 4318:(8): 531–539. 4298: 4249: 4198: 4172: 4145: 4134: 4123: 4084:Lande, Russell 4075: 4064: 4053: 4042: 4035: 4017: 3974: 3953:(2): 357–372. 3933: 3899: 3856: 3805: 3794: 3787: 3769: 3758: 3747: 3730:Wright, Sewall 3721: 3702:(3): 511–524. 3674: 3663: 3649: 3634: 3609: 3586:Huxley, Julian 3577: 3546: 3518:10.1086/288865 3509:10.1.1.332.697 3502:(2): 263–286. 3477: 3461: 3424: 3398: 3387: 3376: 3362: 3326: 3311: 3296: 3285: 3270: 3255: 3244: 3229: 3209: 3194: 3179: 3164: 3127: 3116: 3101: 3073: 3041: 3027: 3015: 2992:Zirkle, Conway 2983: 2965: 2950: 2939: 2920:(3): 425–455. 2900: 2885: 2867: 2857:Lucretius 1916 2849: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2820: 2806: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2773:Main article: 2770: 2767: 2728:thermodynamics 2720:Howard T. Odum 2711: 2708: 2700:Daniel Dennett 2624:Francis Galton 2620:animal kingdom 2600:Main article: 2597: 2594: 2569: 2566: 2554:RNA replicator 2534:Main article: 2531: 2530:Origin of life 2528: 2492:Daniel Dennett 2469:Main article: 2466: 2463: 2420:founder effect 2389: 2386: 2350:Some forms of 2303:Main article: 2300: 2297: 2272:Main article: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2216:Main article: 2213: 2210: 2202:blind mole-rat 2167:non-coding DNA 2131: 2128: 2081:microorganisms 2054: 2051: 2029:loop called a 1946: 1943: 1927:Gene selection 1918: 1915: 1894: 1891: 1839: 1836: 1811: 1808: 1755: 1754:Classification 1752: 1696: 1690: 1687: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1659: 1656: 1651: 1648: 1628:logistic model 1558:Main article: 1555: 1552: 1540:Richard Lenski 1528:Main article: 1525: 1522: 1461:Main article: 1443:dark (melanic) 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1400: 1397: 1373:W. D. Hamilton 1352:Main article: 1330: 1327: 1271:Main article: 1268: 1265: 1202:Charles Darwin 1144: 1130:arithmetically 1091:Thomas Malthus 1054: 1051: 1036:Trofim Lysenko 1022:suggested the 981:Erasmus Darwin 940: 918: 893:in his biology 881:in Book II of 847: 844: 839:Main article: 836: 833: 757:macroevolution 753:microevolution 711:Charles Darwin 686: 685: 683: 682: 675: 668: 660: 657: 656: 655: 654: 641: 624: 623: 620: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 592:Social effects 589: 584: 579: 573: 570: 569: 566: 565: 562: 561: 556: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 435: 432: 431: 428: 427: 423: 422: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 375: 370: 365: 360: 354: 353: 350: 349: 346: 345: 341: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 318:Classification 315: 310: 305: 300: 299: 298: 288: 283: 278: 276:Common descent 273: 271:Origin of life 267: 266: 263: 262: 259: 258: 254: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 157: 156: 153: 152: 149: 148: 146: 145: 140: 135: 129: 128: 123: 118: 113: 107: 104: 103: 94: 86: 85: 79: 78: 64:Charles Darwin 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12550: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12526: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12514: 12511: 12509: 12506: 12504: 12501: 12499: 12496: 12494: 12491: 12490: 12488: 12478: 12473: 12468: 12467: 12464: 12451: 12448: 12447: 12444: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12414: 12411: 12409: 12406: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12385: 12383: 12379: 12373: 12372:Sewall Wright 12370: 12368: 12365: 12363: 12360: 12359: 12357: 12353: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12327: 12324: 12323: 12321: 12319: 12318:Genetic drift 12315: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12300: 12298: 12290: 12284: 12281: 12279: 12276: 12274: 12271: 12269: 12266: 12265: 12263: 12261: 12257: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12241: 12238: 12236: 12233: 12231: 12228: 12226: 12223: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12206: 12203: 12201: 12198: 12196: 12193: 12191: 12188: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12178: 12177: 12175: 12171: 12167: 12160: 12155: 12153: 12148: 12146: 12141: 12140: 12137: 12125: 12124: 12118: 12114: 12112: 12111: 12105: 12101: 12099: 12098: 12088: 12086: 12085: 12081: 12080: 12077: 12067: 12064: 12062: 12059: 12057: 12054: 12052: 12051:Neo-Darwinism 12049: 12047: 12044: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12036:Functionalism 12034: 12030: 12027: 12025: 12022: 12020: 12017: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12007: 12005: 12002: 12000: 11997: 11995: 11994:Connectionism 11992: 11990: 11987: 11986: 11985: 11984:indeterminism 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11972: 11970: 11966: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11889: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11855: 11854: 11852: 11848: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11792: 11789: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11779: 11777: 11773: 11769: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11747: 11744: 11743: 11741: 11737: 11734: 11730: 11720: 11717: 11715: 11712: 11710: 11707: 11705: 11704:Schizophrenia 11702: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11689:Mental health 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11670: 11667: 11665: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11645: 11642: 11640: 11637: 11636: 11634: 11632: 11628: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11612: 11608: 11604: 11601: 11599: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11567: 11565: 11564:Mate guarding 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11524:Age disparity 11522: 11520: 11517: 11515: 11512: 11511: 11509: 11507: 11503: 11495: 11492: 11490: 11487: 11485: 11482: 11480: 11477: 11476: 11475: 11472: 11470: 11467: 11465: 11462: 11460: 11457: 11455: 11454:Schizophrenia 11452: 11450: 11447: 11445: 11442: 11440: 11437: 11435: 11432: 11430: 11427: 11425: 11422: 11420: 11417: 11413: 11410: 11408: 11405: 11403: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11389: 11388: 11385: 11384: 11382: 11380: 11379:Mental health 11375: 11374:Human factors 11371: 11365: 11364:Socialization 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11345: 11342: 11340: 11337: 11335: 11332: 11330: 11327: 11325: 11324:paternal bond 11321: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11303: 11301: 11299: 11295: 11289: 11286: 11282: 11279: 11278: 11277: 11274: 11270: 11267: 11266: 11265: 11262: 11258: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11248: 11245: 11244: 11243: 11240: 11238: 11235: 11231: 11228: 11227: 11226: 11223: 11219: 11216: 11214: 11211: 11210: 11209: 11206: 11205: 11203: 11201: 11197: 11189: 11188:Naïve physics 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11161: 11159: 11155: 11154:Motor control 11152: 11148: 11145: 11143: 11140: 11139: 11138: 11135: 11133: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11120: 11117: 11113: 11112:Ophidiophobia 11110: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11102:Arachnophobia 11100: 11099: 11098: 11095: 11093: 11090: 11088: 11085: 11083: 11080: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11056: 11053: 11052: 11051: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11035: 11032: 11030: 11029:Display rules 11027: 11025: 11022: 11021: 11020: 11017: 11016: 11014: 11012: 11007: 11003: 11000: 10996: 10990: 10987: 10983: 10980: 10978: 10975: 10973: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10960: 10959: 10956: 10952: 10949: 10948: 10947: 10944: 10942: 10939: 10937: 10934: 10932: 10931:Kin selection 10929: 10925: 10922: 10921: 10920: 10917: 10915: 10912: 10910: 10907: 10905: 10902: 10900: 10897: 10893: 10890: 10888: 10885: 10883: 10880: 10879: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10869: 10867: 10865: 10859: 10853: 10850: 10846: 10843: 10841: 10838: 10836: 10833: 10831: 10828: 10826: 10825:Adaptationism 10823: 10822: 10821: 10818: 10814: 10811: 10810: 10809: 10806: 10805: 10802: 10798: 10791: 10786: 10784: 10779: 10777: 10772: 10771: 10768: 10756: 10752: 10748: 10746: 10738: 10737: 10734: 10728: 10725: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10710: 10706: 10703: 10702: 10701: 10700:Phylogenetics 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10678: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10660: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10640: 10638: 10634: 10628: 10625: 10621: 10618: 10616: 10613: 10609: 10606: 10605: 10604: 10603:Structuralism 10601: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10579: 10578:Catastrophism 10576: 10575: 10574: 10571: 10569: 10566: 10565: 10563: 10559: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10537:Neo-Darwinism 10535: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10506: 10505: 10501: 10500: 10499: 10496: 10492: 10491: 10487: 10486: 10485: 10482: 10480: 10477: 10475: 10472: 10471: 10469: 10467: 10463: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10451:Reinforcement 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10398: 10396: 10394: 10390: 10384: 10383:Catastrophism 10380: 10377: 10375: 10374:Macromutation 10371: 10370:Micromutation 10368: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10355: 10354: 10352: 10350: 10346: 10340: 10337: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10309: 10308: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10277:Immune system 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10251: 10248: 10247: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10215: 10214: 10211: 10210: 10208: 10206: 10201: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10169: 10167: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10148: 10145: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10137:symbiogenesis 10135: 10134: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10114: 10112: 10110: 10105: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10077: 10074: 10073: 10072: 10069: 10065: 10062: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10049: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10012: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10002: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9989: 9986: 9985: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9962: 9959: 9958: 9957: 9954: 9952: 9949: 9945: 9942: 9941: 9940: 9937: 9935: 9932: 9931: 9929: 9927: 9922: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9887: 9885: 9881: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9844: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9807: 9806: 9805:Kin selection 9803: 9801: 9800:Genetic drift 9798: 9796: 9793: 9789: 9786: 9785: 9784: 9781: 9779: 9776: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9760: 9758: 9756: 9750: 9742: 9739: 9738: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9716: 9715: 9712: 9708: 9705: 9704: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9651: 9648: 9647: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9599: 9596: 9595: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9568: 9567: 9564: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9549: 9548: 9546: 9544: 9540: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9510: 9507: 9503: 9496: 9491: 9489: 9484: 9482: 9477: 9476: 9473: 9464: 9460: 9456: 9452: 9451: 9439: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9424:(1): 71–123. 9423: 9419: 9418: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9393: 9389: 9383: 9379: 9375: 9371: 9367: 9366: 9365: 9362: 9356: 9352: 9348: 9344: 9340: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9325: 9320: 9316: 9312: 9308: 9304: 9300: 9296: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9270: 9266: 9262: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9234: 9233: 9228: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9198: 9194: 9190: 9189: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9154: 9150: 9149: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9131: 9127: 9123: 9117: 9112: 9111: 9105: 9101: 9100: 9099: 9096: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9078: 9074: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9030: 9026: 9022: 9021: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9004: 9000: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8987: 8979: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8950: 8949: 8944: 8940: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8920: 8916: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8901: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8872: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8857: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8828: 8822: 8818: 8817: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8768: 8767: 8764: 8763: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8736: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8710: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8694: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8646: 8645: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8617: 8613: 8612: 8607: 8603: 8599: 8595: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8558: 8555: at the 8554: 8549: 8545: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8531: 8530:Roux, Wilhelm 8527: 8523: 8519: 8515: 8511: 8507: 8501: 8497: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8457: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8413: 8408: 8404: 8400: 8396: 8392: 8388: 8384: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8369: 8364: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8334: 8330: 8329: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8303: 8297: 8293: 8289: 8284: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8268: 8264: 8263: 8258: 8254: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8240: 8234: 8230: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8217: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8188: 8182: 8178: 8177: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8147: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8114: 8108: 8104: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8079: 8073: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8035: 8031: 8026: 8025: 8019: 8015: 8012: 8009: at the 8008: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7994: 7989: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7959: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7919: 7915: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7895: 7891: 7890: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7813: 7809: 7805: 7804: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7770: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7734: 7729: 7725: 7722: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7691: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7641: 7638: at the 7637: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7571:Eisley, Loren 7568: 7562: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7545: 7539: 7538: 7535: 7531: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7510: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7475: 7471: 7467: 7466: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7434: 7430: 7426: 7425: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7400: 7396: 7390: 7386: 7385: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7351: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7332: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7305: 7299: 7296: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7269: 7264: 7260: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7145: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7097: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7014: 7013: 6991: 6987: 6980: 6964: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6947:Mitchell 1996 6943: 6937: 6936:Goldberg 1989 6932: 6926: 6925:Kauffman 1993 6921: 6913: 6909: 6903: 6895: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6844: 6836: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6789:(June 1922). 6788: 6782: 6776: 6771: 6765:, p. 192 6764: 6759: 6753: 6748: 6742: 6737: 6730: 6729:Konrad Lorenz 6726: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6699: 6694: 6688: 6682: 6677: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6632: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6583: 6581: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6537: 6535: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6478: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6456: 6452: 6451: 6443: 6437: 6432: 6424: 6420: 6419: 6414: 6410: 6404: 6398: 6394: 6389: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6329: 6321: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6285: 6277: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6236: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6201: 6200: 6194: 6188: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6149: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6118:Kimura, Motoo 6113: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6067: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6030: 6025: 6019: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5962: 5954: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5903: 5896: 5891: 5889: 5882: 5877: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5842: 5838: 5831: 5824: 5818: 5814: 5807: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5755: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5727: 5721: 5720:Nevo, Eviatar 5714: 5706: 5702: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5658: 5652: 5645: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5545: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5484: 5477: 5469: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5446: 5441: 5434: 5426: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5354:(5835): 214. 5353: 5349: 5348: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5304: 5295: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5277: 5276:Harvey, Fiona 5271: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5234: 5226: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5183: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5126: 5124: 5117: 5112: 5106: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5050: 5043: 5037: 5035: 5026: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4970: 4965: 4963: 4954: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4872: 4866: 4861: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4834: 4826: 4819: 4814: 4808: 4803: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4784:(in French). 4783: 4779: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4721:-Selection". 4720: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4695: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4670: 4662: 4654: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4605: 4598: 4593: 4585: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4542: 4534: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4480: 4471: 4463: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4406: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4373: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4351: 4343: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4312:Nat Rev Genet 4309: 4302: 4294: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4187:. 18 May 2003 4186: 4182: 4176: 4160: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4143: 4138: 4132: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4090: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4068: 4062: 4057: 4051: 4050:Williams 1966 4046: 4038: 4032: 4028: 4021: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3903: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3803: 3798: 3790: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3767: 3762: 3756: 3751: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3696: 3688: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3667: 3661: 3656: 3654: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3631: 3626: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3592: 3587: 3581: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3550: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3496: 3488: 3481: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3458: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3428: 3412: 3409: 3402: 3396: 3391: 3385: 3380: 3374: 3369: 3367: 3351:. Letter 2931 3350: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3294: 3289: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3268: 3264: 3259: 3253: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3213: 3207: 3203: 3198: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3145:(1): 85–104. 3144: 3140: 3139: 3131: 3125: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3058: 3051: 3045: 3037: 3031: 3024: 3019: 3011: 3007: 3004:(1): 71–123. 3003: 2999: 2998: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2948: 2943: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2904: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2883: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2847: 2845: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2817: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2783: 2782:Samuel Butler 2776: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2707: 2705: 2704:consciousness 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2668:Steven Pinker 2666:and later by 2665: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2650: 2645: 2641: 2640:Konrad Lorenz 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2603: 2593: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2537: 2527: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2472: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2412:genetic drift 2409: 2405: 2399: 2398:Genetic drift 2395: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2306: 2296: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2275: 2263:Genetic basis 2260: 2258: 2257:reinforcement 2254: 2250: 2246: 2241: 2240:E. B. Poulton 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2198:preadaptation 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2159:noncoding DNA 2156: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2137: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2096: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2064: 2059: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2035:Ronald Fisher 2032: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2017: 2013: 2012:chooses mates 2009: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1931:kin selection 1928: 1924: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1854: 1849: 1845: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1807: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1783: 1775: 1769: 1765: 1760: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1694: 1688: 1685: 1680: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1657: 1654: 1649: 1646: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1595: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1561: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1531: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1490:peppered moth 1486: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1464: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1447:peppered moth 1445:morph of the 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1406: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1377:kin selection 1375:conceived of 1374: 1370: 1369: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1309:Sewall Wright 1306: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1291:Mendel's laws 1288: 1287:Gregor Mendel 1284: 1280: 1274: 1264: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1190:in 1813, and 1189: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1174: 1169: 1165: 1164:Charles Lyell 1161: 1152: 1151: 1143: 1138: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1122: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1092: 1087: 1083: 1081: 1076: 1070: 1064: 1060: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1009: 1005: 1004:created kinds 1001: 997: 993: 989: 984: 982: 978: 973: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 946: 939: 935: 933: 924: 917: 912: 910: 909: 904: 903: 898: 897:monstrosities 894: 890: 886: 885: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 863:classical era 856: 852: 842: 832: 830: 826: 825:genetic drift 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 797: 792: 788: 784: 779: 777: 773: 769: 764: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 681: 676: 674: 669: 667: 662: 661: 659: 658: 652: 642: 639: 634: 628: 627: 626: 625: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 588: 585: 583: 580: 578: 575: 574: 568: 567: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 524:Phylogenetics 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 436: 430: 429: 420: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 380: 376: 374: 371: 369: 368:Before Darwin 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 355: 348: 347: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 297: 294: 293: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 268: 261: 260: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 196:Genetic drift 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 158: 151: 150: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 130: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 108: 106: 105: 101: 97: 92: 88: 87: 84: 81: 80: 76: 75: 69: 65: 60: 54: 50: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 12388:Biogeography 12362:R. A. Fisher 12267: 12259: 12240:Heritability 12173:Key concepts 12121: 12108: 12095: 12082: 11841:Sociobiology 11699:Neuroscience 11679:Intelligence 11225:Anthropology 11178:Color vision 11163:Multitasking 11142:Flynn effect 11137:Intelligence 11119:Folk biology 10940: 10862:Evolutionary 10712:Polymorphism 10695:Astrobiology 10643:Biogeography 10598:Saltationism 10588:Orthogenesis 10573:Alternatives 10502: 10488: 10421:Cospeciation 10416:Cladogenesis 10365:Saltationism 10322:Mating types 10245:Color vision 10230:Avian flight 10152:mitochondria 9890:Canalisation 9831: 9768:Biodiversity 9513:Introduction 9463:the original 9421: 9415: 9373: 9363: 9323: 9280: 9236: 9230: 9193:Random House 9187: 9183:Jones, Steve 9147: 9109: 9097: 9062: 9019: 8990: 8984: 8952: 8946: 8939:Popper, Karl 8899: 8855: 8815: 8775: 8772:Bell, Graham 8765: 8724: 8717:Zimmer, Carl 8682: 8643: 8610: 8567: 8534: 8495: 8455: 8411: 8367: 8327: 8287: 8261: 8215: 8175: 8145: 8102: 8067: 8023: 7992: 7953: 7929: 7925: 7888: 7845: 7802: 7768: 7732: 7689: 7650: 7614: 7607:"Empedokles" 7574: 7543: 7516:. New York: 7508: 7468:. New York: 7464: 7423: 7383: 7349: 7330: 7303: 7267: 7219: 7175: 7152: 7137:the original 7102: 7056: 7017: 6994:. Retrieved 6989: 6979: 6967:. Retrieved 6962: 6953: 6942: 6931: 6920: 6911: 6902: 6857: 6853: 6843: 6798: 6794: 6781: 6775:Dennett 1991 6770: 6763:Dawkins 1976 6758: 6747: 6736: 6724: 6702: 6696: 6687: 6676: 6664:. Retrieved 6660:the original 6655: 6642: 6631: 6606: 6602: 6593: 6546: 6542: 6500: 6496: 6490: 6477: 6449: 6442: 6436:Dennett 1995 6431: 6422: 6416: 6403: 6388: 6347: 6341: 6328: 6304:(1): 23–35. 6301: 6297: 6284: 6249: 6245: 6235: 6198: 6187: 6160: 6148: 6121: 6112: 6082:(1): 35–57. 6079: 6075: 6066: 6036:(1): 17–52. 6033: 6027: 6018: 5975: 5971: 5961: 5916: 5912: 5902: 5876: 5864:. Retrieved 5859: 5849: 5840: 5836: 5830: 5812: 5806: 5771: 5767: 5754: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5713: 5668: 5662: 5656: 5644: 5614:(1): 19–26. 5611: 5605: 5601: 5595: 5560: 5554: 5544: 5493: 5489: 5476: 5449: 5443: 5433: 5406: 5402: 5392: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5312: 5308: 5302: 5294: 5285:The Guardian 5283: 5270: 5240:(1): 28–35. 5237: 5231: 5225: 5192: 5188: 5182: 5139: 5135: 5111: 5100: 5065: 5061: 4990: 4986: 4976: 4916: 4912: 4902: 4881: 4871: 4860: 4832: 4825: 4813: 4802: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4728: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4705: 4694: 4667: 4661: 4626: 4620: 4592: 4555: 4551: 4541: 4488: 4484: 4478: 4470: 4427: 4423: 4413: 4386: 4382: 4372: 4363: 4359: 4350: 4315: 4311: 4301: 4266: 4262: 4252: 4211: 4207: 4201: 4189:. Retrieved 4184: 4175: 4163:. Retrieved 4137: 4131:Futuyma 2005 4126: 4093: 4087: 4078: 4072:Haldane 1954 4067: 4056: 4045: 4026: 4020: 3987: 3983: 3977: 3950: 3946: 3936: 3919: 3915: 3902: 3872:(1): 17–52. 3869: 3865: 3859: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3797: 3778: 3772: 3761: 3750: 3741: 3737: 3724: 3699: 3693: 3677: 3671:Haldane 1932 3666: 3623: 3612: 3590: 3580: 3568:. Retrieved 3564:the original 3549: 3537:. Retrieved 3530:the original 3499: 3493: 3480: 3464: 3454: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3427: 3415:. Retrieved 3410: 3401: 3390: 3379: 3353:. Retrieved 3342: 3329: 3314: 3299: 3293:Wallace 1871 3288: 3273: 3258: 3252:Malthus 1798 3247: 3219: 3212: 3197: 3182: 3167: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124:Lamarck 1809 3119: 3083: 3076: 3067: 3056: 3044: 3035: 3030: 3025:, p. 43 3018: 3001: 2995: 2986: 2977: 2968: 2953: 2942: 2917: 2913: 2903: 2888: 2879: 2870: 2861: 2852: 2843: 2834: 2810: 2785: 2778: 2743:optimisation 2732: 2713: 2688:gender roles 2664:Noam Chomsky 2656:sociobiology 2653: 2619: 2605: 2581: 2577: 2574:Wilhelm Roux 2571: 2539: 2489: 2474: 2456: 2429: 2404:Motoo Kimura 2401: 2360:heterozygous 2349: 2308: 2293: 2277: 2249:H. Allen Orr 2221: 2208:perception. 2182:cervical rib 2171: 2143: 2117: 2111: 2094: 2074: 2020: 2016:Syngnathidae 2007: 2003: 1997: 1982: 1920: 1896: 1862: 1852: 1841: 1813: 1804: 1792: 1743: 1731: 1723: 1719: 1711: 1636: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1604:E. O. Wilson 1593: 1590: 1563: 1544: 1533: 1516:of moths to 1487: 1466: 1413: 1410:selected for 1409: 1404: 1402: 1366: 1357: 1312: 1298: 1276: 1261:tautological 1255: 1249: 1236: 1234: 1227: 1181: 1171: 1166:. Lyell and 1156: 1148: 1140: 1119: 1110: 1106: 1098: 1093:'s table of 1072: 1046: 1043:Edward Blyth 1040: 1017: 985: 974: 966: 951: 944: 937: 929: 922: 914: 906: 900: 882: 865:, including 860: 794: 780: 765: 719: 690: 689: 544:Sociobiology 529:Paleontology 377: 313:Biogeography 308:Biodiversity 226:Coextinction 216:Co-operation 191:Polymorphism 180: 116:Introduction 40: 12508:Competition 12341:Coalescence 11980:Determinism 11892:Coevolution 11836:Primatology 11674:Gender role 11579:Orientation 11459:Screen time 11316:Affectional 11298:Development 10977:Mate choice 10904:By-products 10872:Adaptations 10835:Cognitivism 10722:Systematics 10593:Mutationism 10411:Catagenesis 10339:Snake venom 10272:Eusociality 10250:in primates 10240:Cooperation 10168:In animals 9988:butterflies 9961:Cephalopods 9951:Brachiopods 9883:Development 9857:Mate choice 9610:Convergence 9593:Coevolution 9551:Abiogenesis 9370:Kohn, Marek 9277:Mayr, Ernst 8623:agr04000394 8538:. Leipzig: 8257:Mayr, Ernst 7273:John Murray 6986:"Evolution" 6908:Odum, H. T. 6752:Pinker 1995 6741:Wilson 2002 6705:(9): 1760. 6681:Engels 1964 6587:Michod 1999 6393:Darwin 1859 5843:(3): 60–93. 4820:, p. 8 4818:Miller 2000 4061:Endler 1986 3821:(1): 1–16. 3660:Fisher 1930 3469:Darwin 1872 3384:Eisley 1958 3373:Darwin 1859 3319:Darwin 1859 3304:Darwin 1861 3280:, pp. 3278:Darwin 1859 3263:Darwin 1958 3202:Darwin 1859 3187:Darwin 1859 3172:Darwin 1859 3091:. pp. 2958:Darwin 1872 2792:H. G. Wells 2676:grammatical 2628:colonialism 2610:, a German 2536:Abiogenesis 2378:game theory 2316:stabilizing 2312:directional 2287:blood type 2206:photoperiod 2186:polydactyly 2155:chromosomes 2089:antibiotics 2008:intersexual 2004:intrasexual 1993:infanticide 1971:mate choice 1913:formation. 1799:competition 1740:probability 1716:growth rate 1606:'s work on 1554:Competition 1542:'s classic 1433:During the 1399:Terminology 1241:progressive 1204:noted that 943:Aristotle, 921:Aristotle, 815:has led to 807:formed the 554:Systematics 363:Renaissance 241:Convergence 231:Contingency 221:Coevolution 66:'s work on 12487:Categories 12283:Ecological 12273:Artificial 11927:Population 11922:Lamarckism 11768:behavioral 11746:Behavioral 11694:Narcissism 11639:Aggression 11429:Hypophobia 11419:Depression 11306:Attachment 11288:Universals 11252:Psychology 11230:Biological 11218:Musicology 11208:Aesthetics 11107:Basophobia 10914:Exaptation 10892:Reciprocal 10583:Lamarckism 10561:Philosophy 10484:David Hume 10446:Peripatric 10441:Parapatric 10426:Ecological 10406:Anagenesis 10401:Allopatric 10393:Speciation 10357:Gradualism 10282:Metabolism 10142:chromosome 10132:Eukaryotes 9910:Modularity 9827:Population 9753:Population 9714:Speciation 9692:Panspermia 9645:Extinction 9640:Exaptation 9615:Divergence 9588:Cladistics 9576:Reciprocal 9556:Adaptation 9396:2005360890 9376:. London: 9364:Historical 9303:2001036562 8948:Dialectica 8879:2001043556 8798:2007039692 8743:2012025118 8701:2002017375 8514:2004008054 8310:2005046652 8121:2009464132 7826:2004029808 7772:. Oxford: 7603:Empedocles 7353:. London: 7125:2002020184 7040:2008933269 6992:. Gollancz 6969:7 November 6469:1088022023 6395:, p. 6227:3138680061 6207:. p. 6179:3373856121 5866:7 November 4165:9 November 4142:Sober 1993 3744:: 356–366. 3471:, p. 3417:12 January 3321:, p. 3306:, p. 3265:, p. 3204:, p. 3189:, p. 3174:, p. 2960:, p. 2947:Ariew 2002 2895:, p. 2826:References 2794:imagined " 2769:In fiction 2576:published 2477:Adam Smith 2236:allopatric 2218:Speciation 2212:Speciation 2085:penicillin 2053:Arms races 1967:coloration 1899:life cycle 1832:speciation 1828:univariate 1514:camouflage 1502:Manchester 1455:camouflage 1359:Ernst Mayr 1216:(13), and 1134:naturalist 1118:, who, in 1075:adaptation 1032:Lamarckism 867:Empedocles 729:phenotypic 707:population 328:Cladistics 251:Extinction 236:Divergence 206:Speciation 186:Adaptation 100:John Gould 12533:Selection 12523:Evolution 12393:Evolution 12260:Selection 11772:cognitive 11764:Affective 11649:Cognition 11603:Sexuality 11589:Pair bond 11349:Education 11006:Cognition 10924:Inclusive 10864:processes 10852:Criticism 10717:Protocell 10568:Darwinism 10456:Sympatric 10205:processes 10093:Tetrapods 10042:Kangaroos 9968:Dinosaurs 9905:Inversion 9874:Variation 9795:Gene flow 9788:Inclusive 9598:Mutualism 9543:Evolution 9430:0003-049X 9311:248107061 9279:(2002) . 9261:0036-8733 9089:228136567 9025:MIT Press 9007:1460-8545 8969:0012-2017 8897:(1993) . 8806:170034792 8751:767565909 8631:809350209 8608:(1871) . 8598:896826726 8566:(1993) . 8487:670524593 8453:(1995) . 8417:MIT Press 8373:Doubleday 8173:(2001) . 8137:Lucretius 8129:295002266 7803:Evolution 7790:493745635 7756:824656731 7715:807047245 7687:(1964) . 7579:Doubleday 7371:869541868 7289:741260650 7148:Aristotle 7048:304561132 6666:11 August 6656:SciTopics 6636:Roux 1881 6501:et passim 5972:Evolution 5895:Rice 2004 5760:Orr, H.A. 5506:CiteSeerX 5105:Mayr 2006 5062:Evolution 4894:310450541 4852:937342534 4794:490225808 4089:Evolution 3802:Mayr 1942 3504:CiteSeerX 3395:Kuhn 1996 3239:796450355 2973:Aristotle 2893:Lear 1988 2875:Aristotle 2846:, Book II 2844:On Nature 2714:In 1922, 2678:rules of 2616:communism 2481:Karl Marx 2448:haplotype 2329:conserves 2190:vestigial 2178:HOX genes 2151:karyotype 2140:Darwinism 2136:Evolution 2119:Wolbachia 2087:in 1928, 2023:displayed 1770:favoured. 1768:phenotype 1681:− 1570:territory 1518:predation 1479:purposive 1470:heritable 1451:predation 1420:Mechanism 1403:The term 1346:gap genes 1212:(1, 12), 1080:heritable 889:teleology 879:Aristotle 875:Lucretius 855:Aristotle 821:genotypes 733:organisms 725:genotypic 721:Variation 699:evolution 695:phenotype 587:Dysgenics 303:Phylogeny 201:Gene flow 171:Diversity 166:Variation 68:evolution 53:selection 12518:Ethology 12417:genomics 12355:Founders 12041:Memetics 11801:Ethology 11759:genetics 11594:Physical 11559:Jealousy 11514:Activity 11320:maternal 11276:Religion 11264:Morality 11242:Language 11123:taxonomy 10936:Mismatch 10882:Cheating 10877:Altruism 10745:Category 10620:Vitalism 10615:Theistic 10608:Spandrel 10292:Morality 10287:Monogamy 10162:plastids 10127:Flagella 10083:Reptiles 10064:sea cows 10047:primates 9956:Molluscs 9934:Bacteria 9822:Mutation 9755:genetics 9731:Taxonomy 9677:Mismatch 9657:Homology 9571:Cheating 9566:Altruism 9404:57200626 9372:(2004). 9355:29029572 9347:93036755 9321:(1994). 9219:42690131 9211:99053246 9185:(2000). 9167:77022504 9138:34633422 9130:34633422 9106:(1996). 9081:91038938 9061:(1992). 9051:28150417 9043:93008199 8931:27676642 8923:93020358 8887:47869352 8853:(2002). 8835:76008175 8774:(2008). 8723:(2013). 8709:48777441 8681:(2002). 8671:35230452 8663:65017164 8641:(1966). 8590:93010367 8532:(1881). 8522:54988554 8479:94039138 8443:42854439 8435:95024489 8409:(1996). 8399:43648482 8391:00022673 8365:(2000). 8355:38948118 8347:98004166 8318:62857839 8271:43001098 8259:(1942). 8242:Archived 8233:65344349 8225:46038215 8213:(1798). 8203:45202069 8195:00051495 8159:33233743 8094:34548541 8086:96013195 8066:(1996). 8056:16352317 8048:87020284 8020:(1988). 7990:(1809). 7980:23253930 7972:91011148 7952:(1993). 7920:(1954). 7901:32033284 7886:(1932). 7876:17674450 7868:88006276 7844:(1989). 7834:57311264 7800:(2005). 7782:30029177 7766:(1930). 7707:66044448 7677:12262762 7669:85042683 7649:(1986). 7623:03031810 7605:(1898). 7587:58006638 7573:(1958). 7553:51014816 7526:37033383 7506:(1937). 7496:31867409 7488:94049158 7455:23648691 7447:91015614 7421:(1991). 7403:76029168 7381:(1976). 7363:93017940 7313:04001284 7281:06017473 7265:(1859). 7254:12586581 7246:85106855 7207:32893848 7199:95024627 7173:(1996). 7162:54350394 7133:48965141 7087:28891551 7079:93033276 6894:16576643 6835:16576642 6719:16135651 6609:: 9–16. 6571:83956410 6372:16957730 6276:20594608 6195:(1996). 6161:Genetics 6120:(1983). 6104:19027999 6010:27361293 6002:28568049 5953:12221290 5768:Genetics 5762:(1996). 5636:10327647 5587:16547091 5556:Genetics 5528:15131266 5468:15994173 5425:16914702 5384:45723069 5376:17626876 5331:16445718 5262:44774132 5254:15884733 5217:20732874 5209:11074317 5174:18470445 5166:21256434 5084:25308282 5025:20164866 4953:25946124 4913:PLOS ONE 4772:(1838). 4753:83933177 4653:20106856 4584:22371564 4533:18524956 4515:25462703 4462:27609891 4405:25244620 4342:19546856 4293:30271998 4236:27251284 4118:28556011 4012:19264907 4004:17984972 3928:14756322 3732:(1932). 3716:32233460 3644:43803228 3620:(1999). 3539:4 August 3526:38015862 3355:1 August 3111:43091892 3052:(1746). 2934:85671523 2864:, Book V 2632:eugenics 2562:ribozyme 2343:through 2295:values. 2289:antigens 1985:resource 1969:through 1855:mutation 1780:X-axis: 1371:(1942). 1317:(1937), 1303:(1930). 1283:Moravian 1279:genetics 1220:(14) by 1214:Fantails 1210:Tumblers 1145:— 1089:Part of 962:Al-Jahiz 941:— 919:— 737:survival 651:Category 577:Eugenics 419:timeline 400:Evo-devo 358:Overview 176:Mutation 138:Evidence 133:Glossary 49:mutation 12268:Natural 12235:Fitness 11942:Species 11714:Suicide 11549:Fantasy 11529:Arousal 11311:Bonding 11200:Culture 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