Shang dynasty - Knowledge

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There was a basic system of bureaucracy in place, with references to positions such as the "Many Dog officers", "Many horse officers", the "Many Artisans", the "Many Archers" or court titles like "Junior Servitor for Cultivation" or "Junior Servitor for labourers". Members of the royal family would be assigned personal estates; the king provided them with pre-determined public works such as walling cities in their regions, distributed materials and issued commands to them. In turn, their estates belonged ultimately to the king's land, and they paid tribute to the king as well as reporting to him about conquered lands. More distant rulers were known as marquess or count, who sometimes provided tribute and support to the Shang King in exchange for military aid and augury services. However these alliances were unstable, as indicated by the frequent royal divinations about the sustainability of such relations.

3205:, the early Shang dynasty engaged in large-scale production of bronzeware vessels and weapons. This production required a large labour force that could handle the mining, refining, and transportation of the necessary copper, tin, and lead ores. This in turn created a need for official managers that could oversee both labourers and skilled artisans and craftsmen. The Shang royal court and aristocrats required a vast number of different bronze vessels for various ceremonial purposes and events of religious divination. Ceremonial rules even decreed how many bronze containers of each type a noble of a certain rank could own. With the increased amount of bronze available, the army could also better equip itself with an assortment of bronze weaponry. Bronze was also used for the fittings of spoke-wheeled 3216: 3290: 1101: 2559: 3268: 3043: 3232: 3094: 474: 3132: 99: 3317: 2877: 2814: 3370:. The oracle bones do not contain king lists, but they do record the sacrifices to previous kings and the ancestors of the current king, which follow a standard schedule that scholars have reconstructed. From this evidence, scholars have assembled the implied king list and genealogy, finding that it is in substantial agreement with the later accounts, especially for later kings. According to this implied king list, Wu Ding was the twenty-first Shang king. 72: 3051: 2994: 3248: 2741:. It has been determined that the earth walls at Zhengzhou, erected in the 15th century BC, would have been 20 m (66 ft) wide at the base, rising to a height of 8 m (26 ft), and formed a roughly rectangular wall 7 km (4 mi) around the ancient city. The rammed earth construction of these walls was an inherited tradition, since much older fortifications of this type have been found at Chinese 2630: 2646: 2566: 2614: 2598: 2582: 3337:

garrisons with all necessary equipment, armour, and armaments. The Shang king maintained a force of about a thousand troops at his capital and would personally lead this force into battle. A rudimentary military bureaucracy was also needed in order to muster forces ranging from three to five thousand troops for border campaigns to thirteen thousand troops for suppressing rebellions.

2921:. Attempts to establish earlier dates have been plagued by doubts about the origin and transmission of traditional texts and the difficulties in their interpretation. More recent attempts have compared the traditional histories with archaeological and astronomical data. At least 44 dates for the end of the dynasty have been proposed, ranging from 1130 to 1018 BC. 2138:. More than 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientific excavations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over four times as many have been found since. The inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of the early stages of 2865:. Western scholars are hesitant to designate such settlements as belonging to the Shang. Also unlike the Shang, there is no known evidence that the Sanxingdui culture had a system of writing. The late Shang state at Anyang is thus generally considered the first verifiable civilization in Chinese history. 3179:

The Shang also seem to have believed in an afterlife, as evidenced by the elaborate burial tombs built for deceased rulers. Often "carriages, utensils, sacrificial vessels, weapons" would be included in the tomb. A king's burial involved the burial of up to a few hundred humans and horses as well to

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Although the Shang depended upon the military skills of their nobility, Shang rulers could mobilize the masses of town-dwelling and rural commoners as conscript labourers and soldiers for both campaigns of defence and conquest. Aristocrats and other state rulers were obligated to furnish their local

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A line of hereditary Shang kings ruled over much of northern China, and Shang troops fought frequent wars with neighbouring settlements and nomadic herdsmen from the inner Asian steppes. The Shang king, in his oracular divinations, repeatedly showed concern about the barbarians living outside of the

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Many Shang royal tombs had been tunnelled into and ravaged by grave robbers in ancient times, but in the spring of 1976, the discovery of Tomb 5 at Yinxu revealed a tomb that was not only undisturbed, but one of the most richly furnished Shang tombs that archaeologists had yet come across. With over

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The King appointed officials to manage certain activities, usually in a specified region. These included agricultural official, pastors, dog officers, and guards. These officers led their own retinues in the conduct of their duties, and some grew more independent and emerged as rulers of their own.

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The Erligang culture centred on the Zhengzhou site is found across a wide area of China, even as far northeast as the area of modern Beijing, where at least one burial in this region during this period contained both Erligang-style bronze utensils and local-style gold jewellery. The discovery of a

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The Eastern Han dynasty bestowed the title of Duke of Song and 'Duke Who Continues and Honours the Yin' upon Kong An, because he was part of the legacy of the Shang. This branch of the Confucius family is a separate branch from the line that held the title of Marquis of Fengsheng village and later

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Enough northern bronze knives, tools, and fittings have been recovered from royal burials at the Shang capital of Anyang to suggest that people of northern heritage mingled with the Chinese in their capital city. These artifacts must have entered Shang domain through trade, war, intermarriage, or

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The Shang believed that their ancestors held power over them and performed divination rituals to secure their approval for planned actions. Divination involved cracking a turtle carapace or ox scapula to answer a question, and to then record the response to that question on the bone itself. It is

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and a small number of other writings on pottery, jade and other stones, horn, etc., but most prolifically on oracle bones. The complexity and sophistication of this writing system indicates an earlier period of development, but direct evidence of such is still lacking. Other advances included the

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cult. Often, the king would even perform oracle bone divinations himself, especially near the end of the dynasty. Evidence from excavations of the royal tombs indicates that royalty were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps for the same reason, hundreds of

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and other archaeologists realized they had stumbled across the tomb of Fu Hao, Wu Ding's most famous consort also renowned as a military general, and mentioned in 170 to 180 oracle bone inscriptions. Along with bronze vessels, stoneware and pottery vessels, bronze weapons, jade figures and hair

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Apart from their role as the head military commanders, Shang kings also asserted their social supremacy by acting as the high priests of society and leading the divination ceremonies. As the oracle bone texts reveal, the Shang kings were viewed as the best qualified members of society to offer

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The Shang religion was highly bureaucratic and meticulously ordered. Oracle bones contained descriptions of the date, ritual, person, ancestor, and questions associated with the divination. Tombs displayed highly ordered arrangements of bones, with groups of skeletons laid out facing the same

4653:《汉书·杨胡朱梅云传》：初，武帝时，始封周后姬嘉为周子南君，至元帝时，尊周子南君为周承休侯，位次诸侯王。使诸大夫博士求殷后，分散为十余姓，郡国往往得其大家，推求子孙，绝不能纪。时，匡衡议，以为"王者存二王后，所以尊其先王而通三统也。其犯诛绝之罪者绝，而更封他亲为始封君，上承其王者之始祖。《春秋》之义，诸侯不能守其社稷者绝。今宋国已不守其统而失国矣，则宜更立殷后为始封君，而上承汤统，非当继宋之绝侯也，宜明得殷后而已。今之故宋，推求其嫡，久远不可得；虽得其嫡，嫡之先已绝，不当得立。《礼记》孔子曰：'丘，殷人也。'先师所共传，宜以孔子世为汤后。"上以其语不经，遂见寝。 3025:

shells were also excavated at Anyang, suggesting trade with coast-dwellers, but there was very limited sea trade since China was isolated from other large civilizations during the Shang period. Trade relations and diplomatic ties with other formidable powers via the

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was discovered 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) north-east of the Erlitou site in Yanshi's Shixianggou Township. This was a large walled city dating from 1600 BC. It had an area of nearly 200 hectares (490 acres) and featured pottery characteristic of the

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After the collapse of the Shang dynasty, Zhou's rulers forcibly relocated "Yin diehards" and scattered them throughout Zhou territory. Some surviving members of the Shang royal family collectively changed their surname from the ancestral name

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predating Anyang have yielded pottery fragments containing short sequences of symbols, suggesting that they may be a form of writing quite different in form from oracle bone characters, but the sample is too small for decipherment.

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Bronze weapons were an integral part of Shang society. Shang infantry were armed with a variety of stone and bronze weaponry, including spears, pole-axes, pole-based dagger-axes, composite bows, and bronze or leather helmets.

2829:, who established the successor state of the Shang, are known to have existed at the same time as the Shang. It has also been suggested the Xia legend originated as a Shang myth of an earlier people who were their opposites. 3381:, which also denoted the day of the 10-day Shang week on which sacrifices would be offered to that ancestor within the ritual schedule. There were more kings than stems, so the names have distinguishing prefixes such as 2222:

in the 3rd century AD, "Yin" has been frequently used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang. It is also the name predominantly used for the dynasty in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, being rendered as

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combs, and bone hairpins were found. The archaeological team argue that the large assortment of weapons and ritual vessels in her tomb correlate with the oracle bone accounts of her military and ritual activities.

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accompany the king into the afterlife, in some cases even numbering four hundred. Finally, tombs included ornaments such as jade, which the Shang may have believed to protect against decay or confer immortality.

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Pietrusewsky, Michael (2005). "The physical anthropology of the Pacific, East Asia and Southeast Asia: a multivariate craniometric analysis". In Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (eds.).

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to the name of their fallen dynasty, Yin. The family retained an aristocratic standing and often provided needed administrative services to the succeeding Zhou dynasty. King Wu of Zhou ennobled Lin Jian

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of traditional histories. The actual political situation in early China may have been more complicated, with the Xia and Shang being political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early

2193:). Sima describes some Shang-era events in detail, while others are only mentioned as taking place during the reign of a particular king. A slightly different account of the Shang is given in the 2698: 3001:

The oldest extant direct records date from approximately 1250 BC at Anyang, covering the reigns of the last nine Shang kings. The Shang had a fully developed system of writing, preserved on

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The status of Qiang Jia varies over the history of the oracle bones. During the reigns of Wu Ding, Di Yi and Di Xin, he was not included in the main line of descent, a position also held by the

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In 1899, several scholars noticed that Chinese pharmacists were selling "dragon bones" marked with curious and archaic characters. These were finally traced back in 1928 to what is now called

2378:, but the rest of the Shang rulers are merely mentioned by name. In the last century, Wang Guowei demonstrated that the succession to the Shang throne matched the list of kings in Sima Qian's 2115:, uncovered eleven major royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites, containing weapons of war and remains from both animal and human sacrifices. Tens of thousands of bronze, 4557:

Confucius is believed to have been a descendant of the royal house of the Shang Dynasty and his family lived in the state of Song until his grandfather was forced to move to the state of Lu.

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have Xiao Jia as the son of Da Geng (known as Tai Geng) in the "Annals of Yin", but as a younger brother (as implied by the oracle bones) in the "Genealogical Table of the Three Ages".

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to rule the Shang as a vassal kingdom. However, Zhou Wu sent three of his brothers and an army to ensure that Wu Geng would not rebel. After Zhou Wu's death, the Shang joined the

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The capital was the centre of court life. Over time, court rituals to appease spirits developed, and in addition to his secular duties, the king would serve as the head of the

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Chinese bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang, with bronze typically being used for ritually significant, rather than primarily utilitarian, items. As early as

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David Pankenier, by attempting to identify astronomical events mentioned in Zhou texts, dated the beginning of the dynasty at 1554 BC and its overthrow at 1046 BC.

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Liu, Kexin; Wu, Xiaohong; Guo, Zhiyu; Yuan, Sixun; Ding, Xingfang; Fu, Dongpo; Pan, Yan (2021), "Radiocarbon dating of oracle bones of late Shang period in ancient China",

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Accidental finds elsewhere in China have revealed advanced civilizations contemporaneous with but culturally unlike the settlement at Anyang, such as the walled city of

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Shang dynasty curved bronze knives with turquoise inlays and animal pommel. 12th-11th century BC. Such knives may be the result of contacts with northern people.

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Yuan, Jing and Rowan Flad. “Two issues concerning domesticated horses in China.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, vol. 75, 2003, pp. 110–126

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Chinese historians were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, and readily identified the Erligang and Erlitou sites with the early Shang and

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The kings, in the order of succession derived from the oracle bones, are here grouped by generation. Later reigns were assigned to oracle bone diviner groups by

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culture during the Western Zhou period. These clans maintained an elite status and continued practising the sacrificial and burial traditions of the Shang.

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The Awakening of China in Archaeology; Further Discoveries in Ho-Nan Province, Royal Tombs of the Shang Dynasty, Dated Traditionally from 1766 to 1122 B.C.

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statuette depicting a standing dignitary, dating between the 12th and 11th centuries BC, housed at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum at Harvard University

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foundations and platforms, which according to Fairbank, were "as hard as cement". These foundations in turn originally supported 53 buildings of wooden

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The term here refers to the period in the historiographical sense, starting from Pan Geng who is traditionally said to have moved the Shang capital to

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construction. In close proximity to the main palatial complex, there were underground pits used for storage, servants' quarters, and housing quarters.

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Loewe M. and Shaughnessy E.L., eds., The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C., New York, Cambridge, 1999,

2493:. This practice was known as 'enfeoffment of three generations for two kings'. The dukes of Song would maintain rites honouring the Shang kings until 2420: 2199:, a text whose history is complex: while originally interred in 296 BC, the authenticity of the manuscripts that have survived is controversial. 2100:. Modern scholarship dates the dynasty between the 16th and 11th centuries BC, with more agreement surrounding the end date than beginning date. 2661: 3358: 7481: 6888:

Duan, Chang-Qun; Gan, Xue-Chun; Wang, Jeanny; Chien, Paul K. (1998), "Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors",

4052:, Da Ding (there called Tai Ding) died before he could ascend to the throne. However in the oracle bones he receives rituals like any other king. 2730:

in 1937. Archaeologists focused on the Yellow River valley in Henan as the most likely site of the states described in the traditional histories.

7391: 5473: 2957:. The project also arrived at an end date of 1046 BC, based on a combination of the astronomical evidence considered by David Pankenier and 7008: 3352: 2846:

at Xiaohenan demonstrates that even at this early stage of Chinese history, there were some ties between the distant areas of north China. The

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Before the 20th century, the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) was the earliest that could be verified from its own records. However, during the

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There are no ancestral sacrifices to the last two kings on the oracles bones, due to the fall of Shang. Their names, including the character

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The existence of records regarding enemy kills, prisoners and booty taken point to the existence of a proto-bureaucracy of written documents.

2810:, it features most prominently sacrificial pits with articulated skeletons of cattle, a quintessential part of the late Shang ritual complex. 2558: 2316:

and for his service to have been granted a place called Shang as a fief. The period before the Shang dynasty was established is known as the "

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unknown what criteria the diviners used to determine the response, but it is believed to be the sound or pattern of the cracks on the bone.

2386:, the Shang moved their capital five times, with the final move to Yin in the reign of Pan Geng inaugurating the golden age of the dynasty. 98: 7466: 7423: 4504: 3009:

Their civilization was based on agriculture and augmented by hunting and animal husbandry. In addition to war, the Shang also practised

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Cheung, Kwong-yue (1983), "Recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of Chinese characters", in Keightley, David N. (ed.),

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retells the story of the war between Shang and Zhou as a conflict with rival factions of gods supporting different sides in the war.

1054: 771: 7066: 2806:, about 20 km northwest of Zhengzhou. Covering an intermediary period between the Zhengzhou site and the late capitals on the 2539:, who had refused to cede power to the Zhou, left China with a small army. According to these legends, he founded a state known as 5248: 3110:

sacrifices to their royal ancestors and to the high god Di, who in their beliefs was responsible for the rain, wind, and thunder.

4072:(not mentioned in the oracle bones) were younger brothers of Dai Ting and preceded Da Jia (also known as Dai Jia). However the 1647: 7407: 6954: 6824: 6800: 6773: 6696: 6648: 6585: 6566: 6500: 6468: 6320: 6301: 6282: 6168: 6149: 6126: 6107: 6088: 6066: 6030: 5918: 5905: 5740: 5680: 5509: 5310: 5280: 5206: 5124: 5057: 4638: 4611: 4436: 4411: 3013:. Skulls of sacrificial victims have been found to be similar to modern Chinese ones (based on comparisons with remains from 1947: 757: 5297:

Howells, William (1983). "Origins of the Chinese People: Interpretations of recent evidence". In Keightley, David N. (ed.).

7379: 7375: 1520: 1510: 6311:——— (2004), "The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and Its Legacy", in Lagerwey, John (ed.), 4466: 7367: 3977: 1989: 1151: 6459:(2011), "Religious formations and intercultural contacts in early China", in Krech, Volkhard; Steinicke, Marian (eds.), 2329: 1141: 7476: 6932: 6878: 6706:

Sun, Yan (2006), "Colonizing China's Northern Frontier: Yan and Her Neighbors During the Early Western Zhou Period",

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can also refer to the historical polity as the earliest known literate civilization in China, starting from Wu Ding.

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and the oracle bones, but there are some differences in genealogy, as described in the articles on individual kings.

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invention of many musical instruments and celestial observations of Mars and various comets by Shang astronomers.

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Radiocarbon dating of oracle bones has yielded an end date of 1041 BC, with an uncertainty of about 10 years.

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Dynamics in the History of Religions between Asia and Europe: Encounters, Notions, and Comparative Perspectives

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Lerner, Martin; Murck, Alfreda; Ford, Barbara B.; Hearn, Maxwell; Valenstein, Suzanne G. (1985), "Asian Art",

4665: 3289: 7403: 6814: 5114: 3324:. Shang chariots were introduced around 1200 BCE through the northern steppes, probably from the area of the 3298: 3126: 2440: 1984: 1910: 1845: 1033: 736: 2393:. Legends say that his army and his equipped slaves betrayed him by joining the Zhou rebels in the decisive 7059: 7026: 4779: 3967: 3247: 1920: 6909: 2241:

in Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese respectively. The name seems to have originated during the subsequent

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Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1988). "Historical Perspectives on The Introduction of The Chariot Into China".

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civilized regions, which made up the centre of Shang territory. In particular, the group living in the

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identified the establishment of the dynasty with the foundation of an Erligang culture walled city at

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destroyed. Many Shang clans that migrated northeast after the dynasty's collapse were integrated into

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period of ancient Korean history. However, scholars debate the historical accuracy of these legends.

2003: 1940: 1905: 1478: 1174: 1084: 39:"Yin dynasty" redirects here. For the dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, see 2794:

The remains of a walled city of about 470 hectares (1,200 acres) were discovered in 1999 across the

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to 1800 BC. They built large palaces, suggesting the existence of an organized state. In 1983,

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Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999).

2338:, Sima Qian writes that the dynasty was founded 13 generations after Xie, when Xie's descendant 7446: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7399: 7395: 7387: 7351: 6478: 3193: 1952: 1930: 1915: 1401: 1120: 47: 33: 5110: 4628: 4603: 4542: 3366:

The earliest records are the oracle bones inscribed during the reigns of the Shang kings from

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collected bronze ritual vessels attributed to the Shang era, some of which bore inscriptions.

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Di Xin, the last Shang king, is said to have committed suicide after his army was defeated by

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The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045 B.C.)

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The Shang dynasty entered into prolonged conflicts with northern frontier tribes called the

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At the excavated royal palace in Yinxu, large stone pillar bases were found along with

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Major archaeological sites of the second millennium BC in north and central China

2245:; it does not appear in oracle bone inscriptions—which refer to the state as "Shang" ( 1019: 722: 7247: 7084: 6950: 6928: 6874: 6853:, vol. 27, no. 3, translated by Allen, Herbert J., pp. 601–615, 1895, 6820: 6796: 6769: 6727: 6692: 6644: 6628: 6581: 6562: 6546: 6496: 6464: 6316: 6297: 6278: 6198: 6186: 6164: 6145: 6122: 6103: 6084: 6062: 6026: 5914: 5814: 5783: 5757: 5736: 5676: 5656: 5505: 5306: 5299: 5276: 5269: 5227: 5202: 5120: 5053: 4958: 4634: 4607: 4596: 4574: 4546: 4535: 4432: 4407: 4305: 4078: 3962: 3719: 3031: 2926: 2898: 2783: 2671: 2317: 2283: 2156: 2084: 1863: 1431: 1411: 1186: 927: 919: 630: 622: 414: 206: 6363: 2925:

The traditional dates of the dynasty, from 1766 to 1122 BC, were calculated by

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Thorp, Robert L. (1981), "The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article",

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The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC

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The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC

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There is no firm evidence of oracle bone inscriptions before the reign of Wu Ding.

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firmly supported by archaeological evidence. Excavation at the last Shang capital

6598:(1988), "Historical Perspectives on The Introduction of The Chariot into China", 6268: 6178: 6052: 5271:

The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics

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Shang religious rituals featured divination and sacrifice. The degree to which

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Jade deer dating to the Shang dynasty, in the collection of the Shanghai Museum

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commoners, who may have been slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.

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each use this name for both the dynasty, as well as its final capital. Since

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Calendars and Years II: Astronomy and time in the ancient and medieval world

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and oracle bones of succeeding reigns, but not those of the last two kings.

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A pit at Yinxu containing oracle bones ceremonially buried after divination

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Lee, Yun Kuen (2002), "Building the chronology of early Chinese history",

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Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China

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The kings from Zhong Ding to Nan Geng are placed in the same order by the

4129:, Lü Ji (there called Yong Ji) reigned before Da Wu (there called Tai Wu). 3316: 3162:

Former lords, deceased humans who had been added to the dynastic pantheon,

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valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the

7310: 7019: 6251: 6121:, trans. Noel Barnard, University of California Press, pp. 323–391, 6018: 3892: 3425: 3030:

and Chinese voyages to the Indian Ocean did not exist until the reign of

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The earliest securely dated event in Chinese history is the start of the

2902: 2822: 2687: 2540: 2521: 2399: 2173: 2131: 2075: 1716: 1587: 1421: 1389: 1376: 1210: 1047: 750: 487: 400: 355: 179: 6538: 6447: 4630:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

4086:

state that he reigned after Da Jia, as also implied by the oracle bones.

2501:

was possibly a descendant of the Shang Kings through the Dukes of Song.

2288:

The founding myth of the Shang dynasty is described by Sima Qian in the

7337: 7217: 7207: 6901: 6756: 6675: 6619: 6388: 6354: 6234: 5826: 5157: 4979:

Poster: Preliminary Research on Hereditary Features of Yinxu Population

3630: 3601: 2988: 2917:

in 841 BC, early in the Zhou dynasty, a date first established by

2858: 2843: 2807: 2795: 2636: 2494: 2343: 2297: 2215: 2127: 2082:

dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the

1468: 1257: 936: 639: 283: 6417: 2971:

argue for an end date of 1045 BC, based on their analysis of the

804: 507: 7300: 7107: 6640: 6629:"The Chinese Sexagenary Cycle and the Ritual Origins of the Calendar" 6554: 5970: 4282:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006).

4155:, but in the intervening reigns he was included as a direct ancestor. 4069: 3840: 3146: 3027: 2918: 2742: 2738: 2498: 2177: 2168: 957: 660: 269: 124: 6748: 6611: 6380: 6226: 5994: 5810: 5732:

Chariots in Early China: Origins, cultural interaction, and identity

5617: 5615: 5613: 5455: 5453: 5451: 5149: 5047: 4946: 3050: 7270: 7265: 7242: 7192: 7187: 7102: 6409: 4977: 4662: 4571:

Confucianism and Christianity: A Comparative Study of Jen and Agape

3739: 3729: 3704: 3549: 3539: 3034:

during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 221 AD).

2993: 2703: 2544: 2513: 2490: 2363: 2202:

Throughout history, the Shang have also been referred to as "Yin" (

978: 861: 681: 564: 363: 199: 103:

Approximate territory of the Shang dynasty within present-day China

71: 6136:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),

5415: 5049:

Astrology and Cosmology in Early China: Conforming Earth to Heaven

4976:

Zeng, Wen; Li, Jiawei; Yue, Hongbin; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (2013).

2901:

from Yinxu commoner graves showed similarity with modern northern

7295: 7280: 7237: 7212: 7202: 7182: 7177: 7172: 5610: 5518: 5448: 4100: 3830: 3772: 3694: 3611: 3580: 3518: 3508: 3485: 3367: 3349:

List of monarchs of China § Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE)

3305: 2862: 2839: 2799: 2768: 2572: 2436: 2404: 2367: 2355: 2135: 1611: 1462: 1456: 1016: 719: 250: 5164: 4841:"Survey and Test Excavation of the Huanbei Shang City in Anyang" 4797: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4727: 4725: 4723: 2249:), and to its capital as "Great Settlement of Shang" ( 7290: 7232: 7227: 7197: 6658:

Smith, Howard (1961), "Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty",

5842:"Wheeled Vehicles in the Chinese Bronze Age (c. 2000-741 B.C.)" 4839:

Tang, Jigen; Jing, Zhichun; Liu, Zhongfu; Yue, Zhanwei (2004).

4284:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States" 3806: 3673: 3663: 3570: 3258: 3149:

was a central aspect of Shang religion is a subject of debate.

3074: 3018: 3014: 2947: 2881: 2719: 2375: 2359: 2293: 2112: 2043: 161: 149: 120: 5144:. Vol. 43. Harvard-Yenching Institute. pp. 481–580. 4000:. The oracle bones also identify six pre-dynastic ancestors: 2180:

assembled a chronological account of the Shang as part of the

7333: 7315: 7222: 6023:

The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China

5319: 4745: 4720: 4182: 3915: 3640: 3321: 3022: 2733:

After 1950, the remnants of the earlier walled settlement of

2711: 2620: 2509: 2508:

Another remnant of the Shang established the vassal state of

2466: 2424:

Bronze water vessel with coiling dragon pattern, late Shang (

2108: 1038: 1024: 741: 727: 452: 155: 7457:

States and territories disestablished in the 11th century BC

5655:, "Science". Moscow: Наука. Гл. ред. вост. лит. p. 10. 5571: 5027: 3353:

Family tree of ancient Chinese emperors § Shang dynasty

2435:

After the Shang were defeated, King Wu allowed Di Xin's son

6964:

Shen, Sinyan (1987), "Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells",

6313:

Chinese Religion and Society: The Transformation of a Field

5948: 5946: 5046:

Pankenier, David W. (2015). "The cosmo-political mandate".

5017: 5015: 5013: 4328: 2536: 2408: 2116: 142: 6100:

Maritime Silk Route and Chinese-Foreign Cultural Exchanges

5982: 5871: 5859: 5710: 5649:

Materials on history of nomadic tribes in China 3rd-5th cc

4762: 4357: 4355: 4168:, Nan Geng was the son of Qiang Jia (there called Wo Jia). 3097:

Late Shang oracle bone inscriptions about breeding horses.

2854:

was an important regional centre of the Erligang culture.

2798:

from the well explored Yinxu site. The city, now known as

2527:

Both Korean and Chinese legends, including reports in the

7452:

States and territories established in the 16th century BC

6081:

The Power of Culture: Studies in Chinese Cultural History

5391: 5379: 5116:

Sources of Western Zhou History: Inscribed Bronze Vessels

4890: 4878: 3241:, the heaviest piece of bronze work found in China so far 2905:, but significant differences from southern Han Chinese. 2103:

The Shang dynasty is the earliest dynasty of traditional

1059: 997: 983: 969: 776: 762: 700: 686: 672: 6079:(1994), "Shang Shamans", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), 5943: 5931: 5686: 5530: 5010: 4902: 4445: 4367: 3373:

The Shang kings were referred to in the oracle bones by

2450: 948: 651: 6396:

Li, Chu-tsing (1980), "The Great Bronze Age of China",

6083:, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, pp. 10–36, 5140:

Nivison, David S. (1983). "The Dates of Western Chou".

4352: 2122:

The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body of

6910:"The Annals of the Bamboo Books: The Dynasty of Shang" 6315:, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, pp. 3–63, 5331: 5221: 5066: 3159:

Natural forces, such as that of the sun and mountains,

2884:(d.c.1200 BCE). Probably derived from a design of the 2224: 2119:, stone, bone, and ceramic artefacts have been found. 6918:, translated by Legge, James, 1865, pp. 128–141. 5583: 5559: 5403: 5343: 4340: 924: 910: 894: 880: 866: 852: 627: 613: 597: 583: 569: 555: 6370: 6140:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

5958: 5913:. Seattle: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 35–36. 5600: 5598: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5493:

The Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Huayuanzhuang East

5427: 5421: 5367: 5355: 5305:. University of California Press. pp. 312–313. 5119:. University of California Press. pp. 217–236. 5090: 4986: 4914: 4316: 2767:

was found in Yanshi, south of the Yellow River near

2230: 1828: 1750: 1630: 1563: 1493: 1367: 46:"Shang Yin" redirects here. For the footballer, see 6947:

Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3

6135: 5621: 5459: 4866: 3377:. The last character of each name is one of the 10 6784: 6137: 4926: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4702: 3279:, a type of ritual bronze vessel used to hold wine 3171:Royal wives who were ancestors of the present king 3106:were regularly mentioned as hostile to the Shang. 3073:200 bronze ritual vessels and 109 inscriptions of 6660:International Review for the History of Religions 5595: 5542: 5176: 5078: 4998: 4626: 7438: 6373:Recent Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art) 6197:A 1985 paperback 2nd edition is still in print, 5907:Traders and raiders on China's northern frontier 5698: 4388:, p. 233, with additional details from the 4281: 2477:, with the support of his regent and uncle, the 2236: 2154:discuss the history of the Shang, including the 6708:International Journal of Historical Archaeology 6576:Sawyer, Ralph D.; Sawyer, Mei-chün Lee (1994), 6158: 5637:. The University of Chicago Press. p. 232. 5325: 4947:"Seima-Turbino Culture and the Proto-Silk Road" 4803: 4756: 4739: 4699: 4593: 3209:, which appeared in China around 1200 BC. 2550: 7074: 6512:"Astronomical Dates in Shang and Western Zhou" 6509: 6246:, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 763–831, 5033: 4838: 4221:; 'emperor', come from the much later 2726:undertook archaeological excavation until the 2535:, state that a disgruntled Shang prince named 2304:) and subsequently gave birth miraculously to 7060: 6662:, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 142–150, 4975: 4620: 4401: 3152:There were six main recipients of sacrifice: 2932:A calculation based on the "old text" of the 2775:suggests that the Erlitou culture flourished 2011: 802: 505: 63: 6575: 6424: 6185:, Berkeley: University of California Press, 6159:Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), 5877: 5865: 5839: 5716: 5692: 5265: 5170: 4598:Confucius & Confucianism: The Essentials 2300:, swallowed an egg dropped by a black bird ( 32:"Shang" redirects here. For other uses, see 6819:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Asia Center, 6594: 5796: 5108: 5052:. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. 4816:Harrington, Spencer P. M. (May–June 2000). 3046:Tortoise shell with divinatory inscriptions 344:1,250,000 km (480,000 sq mi) 7067: 7053: 6208: 6177: 6163:(2nd ed.), Harvard University Press, 6000: 5988: 5840:Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. (February 2000). 4815: 4492:(Bei, Yong, Wei – looking at the research) 4426: 4373: 4346: 2737:were discovered within the modern city of 2172:. From the sources available to him, the 2018: 2004: 472: 97: 6809: 6490: 6446: 6353: 6310: 6291: 6258: 6241: 5976: 5952: 5937: 5773: 5589: 5577: 5565: 5536: 5524: 5045: 5021: 4908: 4828:(3). Archaeological Institute of America. 4451: 4431:. Columbia University Press. p. 73. 4404:The Magic Square: Cities in Ancient China 4385: 4361: 4334: 4322: 4299: 3471: 2407:the battle was very bloody. The classic, 5903: 5489: 5111:"The Date of the Zhou Conquest of Shang" 4684:(unlocking the ancient mystery of Guzhu) 3926: 3877: 3421:), as well as other, more obscure ones. 3357: 3315: 3288: 3130: 3092: 3049: 3041: 2992: 2875: 2868:In contrast, the earliest layers of the 2812: 2697: 2419: 2354:recount events from the reigns of Tang, 7482:16th-century BC establishments in China 6477: 5296: 5139: 5072: 3996:The first king is known as Tang in the 2982: 2485:), a brother of Di Xin, as the Duke of 2145: 27:Chinese royal dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) 14: 7439: 6923:Lee, Yuan-Yuan; Shen, Sin-yan (1999), 6915:The Chinese Classics, volume 3, part 1 6763: 6689:History of Navigation in Ancient China 6116: 6039: 6025:, State University of New York Press, 5904:So, Jenny F.; Bunker, Emma C. (1995). 5755: 5646: 5224:World History: Patterns of Interaction 4932: 4920: 4896: 4884: 4627:Rafe de Crespigny (28 December 2006). 4541:. Cambridge University Press. p. 4065:, Bu Bing (there called Wai Bing) and 2908: 2693: 999: 926: 702: 629: 7048: 6734: 6657: 6626: 6075: 6017: 5964: 5604: 5553: 5433: 5397: 5385: 5373: 5361: 4872: 4573:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 29. 3135:Shang-era face masks made of bronze, 2936:yields dates of 1523 to 1027 BC. 2451:Descendants of the Shang royal family 6851:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6782: 6455: 6209:——— (1978b), "The 6102:, Beijing: Peking University Press, 6097: 5704: 5471: 5349: 5246: 5194: 4511:(breaking ground on Kangshu problem) 3293:A bronze axe head dated to the Shang 2597: 7467:Former countries in Chinese history 6705: 6682: 6553: 6329: 6119:The Origins of Chinese Civilization 5897: 5622:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 5460:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 5337: 5301:The Origins of Chinese Civilization 5240: 5215: 5182: 5096: 5084: 5004: 4992: 4944: 4714: 4568: 4532: 3978:Women in ancient and imperial China 3347:For a more comprehensive list, see 24: 6986:10.1038/scientificamerican0487-104 6835: 6600:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6395: 6215:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5799:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 5728: 5635:The Origins of Statecraft in China 5409: 5226:. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. 5142:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 4778:Yi, Yan, ed. (19 September 2022). 4777: 4198:Lin Xin is named as a king in the 4103:not mentioned in the oracle bones. 2892: 2629: 2330:Periodization of the Shang dynasty 2323: 25: 7493: 7002: 6793:The Origins of Chinese Characters 6510:Pankenier, David W. (1981–1982), 6481:(2018), Schwartz, Adam C. (ed.), 4523:(Exploited by the presence of...) 4288:Journal of World-Systems Research 4256:) in front of any of these names. 3187: 2944:Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project 2880:Shang jade human figure, tomb of 2581: 6847:, Chapter III – The Yin Dynasty" 6043:(1999), "Shang archaeology", in 5275:. RoutledgeCurzon. p. 203. 5247:Flad, Rowan (28 February 2010). 4672:(Chinese Guzhu Cultural Network) 4234: 4205: 4192: 4171: 4158: 4145: 4132: 4119: 4106: 4089: 3266: 3246: 3230: 3214: 3140: 16th–14th century BC 2644: 2628: 2612: 2596: 2580: 2564: 2557: 2342:overthrew the impious and cruel 2277: 2274: – 771 BC). 2259:)—nor does it appear in any 1099: 432: 407: 393: 70: 6766:Iron and Steel in Ancient China 5883: 5833: 5790: 5749: 5722: 5669: 5640: 5627: 5483: 5465: 5439: 5290: 5259: 5249:"Shang Dynasty Human Sacrifice" 5188: 5133: 5109:Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1992). 5102: 5039: 4969: 4938: 4832: 4809: 4771: 4687: 4675: 4656: 4647: 4587: 4562: 4537:An Introduction to Confucianism 4526: 4514: 4495: 4476: 4457: 4055: 4036: 4027: 3990: 2645: 2565: 2497:conquered Song in 286 BC. 1060: 1039: 1025: 998: 984: 970: 949: 777: 763: 742: 728: 701: 687: 673: 652: 265: – 1046 BC 246: – 1191 BC 6949:, Cambridge University Press, 6580:, New York: Barnes and Noble, 6292:——— (2000), 6010: 4768:Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 43. 4420: 4395: 4379: 4275: 4217: 3275: 3054:Bronzeware from the excavated 2832: 2678:History of Chinese archaeology 2613: 2543:in northwest Korea during the 2471:Records of the Grand Historian 2469:, as the Duke of Bo'ling. The 2384:Records of the Grand Historian 2380:Records of the Grand Historian 2352:Records of the Grand Historian 2255: 2208:Records of the Grand Historian 2183:Records of the Grand Historian 2134:– usually turtle shells or ox 2097:Records of the Grand Historian 2062: 2048: 1958:Science and technology history 925: 911: 895: 881: 867: 853: 803: 628: 614: 598: 584: 570: 556: 506: 13: 1: 7392:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms 6993:Timperley, Harold J. (1936), 6816:Chinese History: A New Manual 6691:], Beijing: Ocean Press, 5756:Rawson, Jessica (June 2020). 5474:"History G380: Shang Society" 5326:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 4804:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 4757:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 4740:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 4473:(Bei, Yong two national test) 4429:China: A New Cultural History 4263: 3299:Military of the Shang dynasty 3199: 3136: 3127:Religion of the Shang dynasty 3037: 2951: 2776: 2750: 2441:Rebellion of the Three Guards 2425: 2308:. Xie is said to have helped 2296:, who was the second wife of 2292:. In the text, a woman named 2268: 2220:Records of Emperors and Kings 2187: 1328: 1287: 1263: 1240: 1216: 1157: 336: 317: 299: 259: 240: 222: 87: 80: 7027:Dynasties in Chinese history 6795:], Beijing: Sinolingua, 6783:Wang Hongyuan (王宏源) (1993), 6631:, in Steele, John M. (ed.), 6213:and Shang-Chou Chronology", 6144:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 5979:, pp. 234–235, 240–241. 4268: 3968:Historical capitals of China 3931: 3905: 3882: 3856: 3851: 3822: 3817: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3762: 3715: 3684: 3653: 3622: 3591: 3560: 3536: 3529: 3498: 3475: 3450: 2551:Early Bronze Age archaeology 2374:and the depraved final king 7: 6925:Chinese Musical Instruments 6627:Smith, Adam Daniel (2011), 5762:Journal of World Prehistory 4696:(Guzhu analysis identified) 4502:"三监"人物疆地及其地望辨析 ——兼论康叔的始封地问题 4406:. Axel Menges. p. 27. 3956: 3284: 3120: 2231: 2225: 41:Yin (Five Dynasties period) 10: 7498: 6764:Wagner, Donald B. (1993), 6463:, Brill, pp. 85–110, 6275:Cambridge University Press 6059:Cambridge University Press 5878:Sawyer & Sawyer (1994) 5866:Sawyer & Sawyer (1994) 5775:10.1007/s10963-020-09142-4 5717:Sawyer & Sawyer (1994) 5693:Sawyer & Sawyer (1994) 5651:(in Russian). Vol. 3 5633:Creel, Herrlee G. (1970). 5490:Schwartz, Adam C. (2020). 4240:also referred to as Zhòu ( 3346: 3296: 3191: 3124: 2986: 2675: 2669: 2327: 2281: 45: 38: 31: 7329: 7256: 7158: 7149: 7083: 7033: 7024: 7016: 7009:Zhengzhou Shang City Site 6873:, Yale University Press, 6859:10.1017/S0035869X00145083 6720:10.1007/s10761-006-0005-3 6531:10.1017/S0362502800005599 6003:, pp. 187, 207, 209. 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4212: 4186: 4181:include an older brother 4177:The oracle bones and the 4066: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3945: 3919: 3896: 3870: 3844: 3834: 3810: 3800: 3776: 3753: 3743: 3733: 3723: 3708: 3698: 3677: 3667: 3644: 3634: 3615: 3605: 3584: 3574: 3553: 3543: 3522: 3512: 3489: 3464: 3436: 3418: 3410: 3402: 3394: 3386: 2961:of archaeological layers. 2763:In 1959, the site of the 2482: 2462: 2301: 2250: 2246: 2203: 2057: 2039: 1832: 1754: 1634: 1567: 1497: 1371: 1074: 1053: 1046: 1032: 1015: 1008: 991: 977: 963: 956: 942: 935: 918: 904: 888: 874: 860: 846: 839: 834: 830: 826: 816: 812: 796: 791: 770: 756: 749: 735: 718: 711: 694: 680: 666: 659: 645: 638: 621: 607: 591: 577: 563: 549: 542: 537: 533: 529: 519: 515: 499: 471: 467: 462: 448: 372: 348: 335: 330: 326: 308: 293: 289: 279: 275: 256: 237: 219: 215: 205: 195: 185: 175: 138: 134:) (near modern Zhengzhou) 131: 116: 108: 96: 79: 64: 57: 7477:11th century BC in China 7031:c. 1600–c. 1046 BC 6786: 6635:, Oxbow, pp. 1–37, 6578:Sun Tzu's The Art of War 5527:, pp. 272–273, 286. 5201:. Oldcastle. p. 3. 5198:A Short History of China 4594:Lee Dian Rainey (2010). 4252:) or by adding "Shang" ( 3983: 3340: 2728:Second Sino-Japanese War 2429: 1300–1050 BC 792:Alternative Chinese name 6668:10.1163/156852761x00090 4957:(1–2): 255, Figure 15. 4951:Chinese Cultural Relics 4860:10.1515/CHAR.2004.4.1.1 3168:Dynastic ancestors, and 3165:Pre-dynastic ancestors, 2929:during the Han dynasty. 6596:Shaughnessy, Edward L. 6265:Shaughnessy, Edward L. 6049:Shaughnessy, Edward L. 5729:Wu, Hsiao-yun (2013). 5255:. National Geographic. 4818:"Shang City Uncovered" 4633:. Brill. p. 389. 4569:Yao, Xinzhong (1997). 4533:Yao, Xinzhong (2000). 4402:Alfred Schinz (1996). 3363: 3333: 3294: 3194:Chinese ritual bronzes 3142: 3098: 3058: 3047: 2998: 2889: 2818: 2707: 2489:, with its capital at 2432: 2320:" (or "Proto-Shang"). 2263:securely dated to the 2237: 48:Shang Yin (footballer) 34:Shang (disambiguation) 6683:Sun, Guangqi (1989), 6492:10.1515/9781501505393 6485:, De Gruyter Mouton, 6346:10.1353/asi.2002.0006 5893:. The British Museum. 5647:Taskin, V.S. (1992). 5479:. Indiana University. 5195:Kerr, Gordon (2013). 5034:Pankenier (1981–1982) 4301:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369 3440:Main line of descent 3361: 3319: 3292: 3225:dating from the Shang 3134: 3096: 3053: 3045: 2996: 2886:Seima-Turbino culture 2879: 2816: 2701: 2676:Further information: 2481:, enfeoffed Weiziqi ( 2465:), the son of Prince 2423: 2068:Chinese royal dynasty 2052:), also known as the 1823:(mainland, 1912–1949) 176:Common languages 6375:(1985/1986): 72–88, 6277:, pp. 232–291, 6252:10.5169/seals-147432 6161:China: A New History 6061:, pp. 124–231, 5926:other circumstances. 5849:Sino-Platonic Papers 5472:Eno, Robert (2010). 5422:Lerner et al. (1985) 5400:, pp. 242, 245. 5388:, pp. 240, 245. 5173:, pp. 165, 169. 4945:Lin, Meicun (2016). 4668:1 April 2010 at the 4488:26 July 2008 at the 4469:17 June 2011 at the 4189:) who did not reign. 2983:Late Shang at Anyang 2735:Zhengzhou Shang City 2686:(960–1279 AD), 2662:class=notpageimage| 2146:Traditional accounts 2078:and followed by the 1055:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 772:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 494:(bottom right) forms 190:Shang state religion 158:(near modern Anyang) 6978:1987SciAm.256d.104S 6966:Scientific American 6811:Wilkinson, Endymion 6448:10.1017/RDC.2020.90 6439:2021Radcb..63..155L 6179:Keightley, David N. 5580:, pp. 253–254. 5412:, pp. 393–394. 5340:, pp. 161–167. 4899:, pp. 124–125. 4887:, pp. 168–171. 4848:Chinese Archaeology 4427:Zhuoyun Xu (2012). 4337:, pp. 233–235. 3852:1187-1135 BC (III) 3330:deer stones culture 3203: 1500 BC 3156:Di, the "High God", 3003:bronze inscriptions 2955: 1600 BC 2909:Absolute chronology 2850:site in the middle 2780: 2100 BC 2758: 2000 BC 2694:Yellow River valley 2397:. According to the 2382:. According to the 2261:bronze inscriptions 490:(bottom left), and 340: 1122 BC 321: 1046 BC 303: 1600 BC 295:• Established 226: 1600 BC 148:Xiang (near modern 91: 1046 BC 84: 1600 BC 7462:Dynasties of China 6871:Shang Civilization 6845:Historical Records 6483:The Nivison Annals 6333:Asian Perspectives 6244:Asiatische Studien 6098:Chen, Yan (2002), 5502:20.500.12657/23217 4507:9 May 2011 at the 4390:Historical Records 4229:Historical Records 4200:Historical Records 4179:Historical Records 4166:Historical Records 4153:Historical Records 4140:Historical Records 4127:Historical Records 4114:Historical Records 4097:Historical Records 4063:Historical Records 4044:Historical Records 3998:Historical Records 3878:1157–1110 BC (IV) 3818:1206-1177 BC (II) 3364: 3334: 3295: 3143: 3099: 3059: 3048: 2999: 2969:Edward Shaughnessy 2959:radiocarbon dating 2890: 2819: 2773:Radiocarbon dating 2708: 2475:King Cheng of Zhou 2433: 2348:Battle of Mingtiao 2111:, near modern-day 2070:that ruled in the 1838: 1648:Five Dynasties and 1640: 1575:Southern dynasties 1503: 1402:Chu–Han Contention 480:oracle bone script 7434: 7433: 7085:Predynastic Shang 7043: 7042: 7034:Succeeded by 6956:978-0-521-07060-7 6867:Chang, Kwang-Chih 6826:978-0-674-06715-8 6802:978-7-80052-243-7 6775:978-90-04-09632-5 6698:978-7-5027-0532-9 6650:978-1-84217-987-1 6587:978-1-56619-297-2 6568:978-1-55729-071-7 6502:978-1-5015-1454-8 6479:Nivison, David S. 6470:978-90-04-22535-0 6322:978-962-996-123-7 6303:978-1-55729-070-0 6284:978-0-521-47030-8 6170:978-0-674-03665-9 6151:978-0-618-13384-0 6128:978-0-520-04229-2 6109:978-7-301-03029-5 6090:978-962-201-596-8 6077:Chang, Kwang-Chih 6068:978-0-521-47030-8 6032:978-0-7914-9449-3 6001:Keightley (1978a) 5989:Keightley (1978a) 5920:978-0-295-97473-6 5742:978-1-4073-1065-7 5681:978-0-521-47030-8 5511:978-1-5015-0533-1 5352:, pp. 67–71. 5312:978-0-520-04229-2 5282:978-0-415-32242-3 5208:978-1-84243-969-2 5171:Liu et al. (2021) 5126:978-0-520-07028-8 5099:, pp. 31–34. 5059:978-1-107-53901-3 4995:, pp. 16–17. 4806:, pp. 34–35. 4640:978-90-474-1184-0 4613:978-1-4051-8841-8 4602:. Wiley. p. 4438:978-0-231-15920-3 4413:978-3-930698-02-8 4374:Keightley (1978a) 4347:Keightley (1978b) 4164:According to the 4125:According to the 4079:Commentary of Zuo 4061:According to the 4042:According to the 3963:Chinese sovereign 3954: 3953: 3927:1121–1041 BC (V) 3784:1254-1197 BC (I) 3446:Divination phase 3443:Younger brothers 3253:A late Shang-era 2899:mitochondrial DNA 2784:Yanshi Shang City 2672:Shang archaeology 2529:Book of Documents 2336:Annals of the Yin 2318:Predynastic Shang 2290:Annals of the Yin 2284:Predynastic Shang 2191: 91 BC 2157:Book of Documents 2085:Book of Documents 2028: 2027: 1985:Transport history 1911:Education history 1883: 1882: 1878: 1877: 1864:Republic of China 1846:People's Republic 1819:Republic of China 1798: 1797: 1747: 1746: 1742: 1741: 1627: 1626: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1554: 1491: 1490: 1394:(206 BC – 220 AD) 1324:Spring and Autumn 1187:Liao civilization 1078: 1077: 1070: 1069: 965:Yale Romanization 841:Standard Mandarin 787: 786: 668:Yale Romanization 544:Standard Mandarin 458: 457: 444: 443: 440: 439: 420: 419: 415:Predynastic Shang 119:) (either modern 16:(Redirected from 7489: 7341: 7153: 7069: 7062: 7055: 7046: 7045: 7017:Preceded by 7014: 7013: 6998: 6989: 6960: 6938: 6919: 6905: 6884: 6862: 6843:"Ssŭma Ch'ien's 6830: 6806: 6790: 6779: 6760: 6731: 6702: 6679: 6654: 6641:10.7916/D8891CDX 6623: 6591: 6572: 6550: 6516: 6506: 6494: 6474: 6452: 6450: 6421: 6404:(1/2): 390–395, 6392: 6367: 6357: 6326: 6307: 6288: 6255: 6238: 6196: 6174: 6155: 6143: 6132: 6113: 6094: 6072: 6036: 6004: 5998: 5992: 5986: 5980: 5977:Keightley (1999) 5974: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5953:Keightley (1999) 5950: 5941: 5938:Wilkinson (2013) 5935: 5929: 5928: 5912: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5887: 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5856: 5846: 5837: 5831: 5830: 5794: 5788: 5787: 5777: 5753: 5747: 5746: 5726: 5720: 5714: 5708: 5702: 5696: 5690: 5684: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5644: 5638: 5631: 5625: 5619: 5608: 5602: 5593: 5590:Keightley (2004) 5587: 5581: 5578:Keightley (1999) 5575: 5569: 5566:Keightley (1998) 5563: 5557: 5551: 5540: 5537:Keightley (1999) 5534: 5528: 5525:Keightley (1999) 5522: 5516: 5515: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5469: 5463: 5457: 5446: 5443: 5437: 5431: 5425: 5419: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5304: 5294: 5288: 5286: 5274: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5192: 5186: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5022:Keightley (1999) 5019: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4909:Wilkinson (2013) 4906: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4882: 4876: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4845: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4775: 4769: 4766: 4760: 4754: 4743: 4737: 4718: 4712: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4673: 4660: 4654: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4601: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4540: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4499: 4493: 4483:周初"三监"与邶、鄘、卫地望研究 4480: 4474: 4461: 4455: 4452:Keightley (1999) 4449: 4443: 4442: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4399: 4393: 4386:Keightley (1999) 4383: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4362:Keightley (1999) 4359: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4335:Keightley (1999) 4332: 4326: 4323:Keightley (2000) 4320: 4314: 4313: 4303: 4279: 4257: 4255: 4251: 4248:) or Zhou Wang ( 4247: 4243: 4238: 4232: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4203: 4196: 4190: 4188: 4175: 4169: 4162: 4156: 4149: 4143: 4136: 4130: 4123: 4117: 4110: 4104: 4093: 4087: 4068: 4059: 4053: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4025: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3994: 3973:Predynastic Zhou 3947: 3921: 3898: 3872: 3846: 3836: 3812: 3802: 3778: 3755: 3745: 3735: 3725: 3710: 3700: 3679: 3669: 3646: 3636: 3617: 3607: 3586: 3576: 3555: 3545: 3524: 3514: 3491: 3466: 3431: 3430: 3420: 3412: 3404: 3396: 3388: 3375:posthumous names 3320:War chariots at 3277: 3270: 3250: 3234: 3218: 3204: 3201: 3141: 3138: 3087:ancestor worship 2956: 2953: 2789:Erligang culture 2781: 2778: 2759: 2755: 2752: 2747:Longshan culture 2648: 2647: 2632: 2631: 2616: 2615: 2600: 2599: 2584: 2583: 2568: 2567: 2561: 2484: 2464: 2430: 2427: 2303: 2273: 2270: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2205: 2192: 2189: 2152:Chinese classics 2064: 2059: 2050: 2041: 2020: 2013: 2006: 1948:Military history 1906:Economic history 1894:Related articles 1871: 1853: 1835: 1834: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1791: 1778: 1765: 1752: 1751: 1735: 1722: 1709: 1690: 1680: 1668: 1655: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1616: 1606: 1593: 1580: 1565: 1564: 1548: 1543:Sixteen Kingdoms 1526: 1516: 1500: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1484: 1450: 1437: 1427: 1417: 1407: 1395: 1382: 1369: 1368: 1347: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1330: 1320: 1310: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1289: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1265: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1242: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1218: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1103: 1093:History of China 1080: 1079: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1042: 1041: 1028: 1027: 1004: 1003: 1002: 987: 986: 973: 972: 952: 951: 931: 930: 929: 914: 913: 900: 899: 898: 884: 883: 870: 869: 856: 855: 832: 831: 808: 807: 783: 782: 781: 766: 765: 745: 744: 731: 730: 707: 706: 705: 690: 689: 676: 675: 655: 654: 634: 633: 632: 617: 616: 603: 602: 601: 587: 586: 573: 572: 559: 558: 535: 534: 511: 510: 476: 460: 459: 436: 435: 424: 423: 411: 410: 397: 396: 390: 389: 374: 373: 341: 338: 322: 319: 304: 301: 264: 261: 245: 242: 227: 224: 140: 133: 118: 101: 92: 89: 85: 82: 74: 68: 67: 66: 55: 54: 21: 7497: 7496: 7492: 7491: 7490: 7488: 7487: 7486: 7472:11th century BC 7437: 7436: 7435: 7430: 7342: 7331: 7325: 7252: 7154: 7151: 7147: 7079: 7073: 7039: 7030: 7022: 7005: 6992: 6963: 6957: 6943:Needham, Joseph 6941: 6935: 6922: 6908: 6887: 6881: 6865: 6841: 6838: 6836:Further reading 6833: 6827: 6803: 6788: 6776: 6749:10.2307/3249839 6699: 6651: 6612:10.2307/2719276 6588: 6569: 6559:Chinese writing 6514: 6503: 6471: 6457:Mair, Victor H. 6381:10.2307/1513695 6323: 6304: 6285: 6227:10.2307/2718906 6193: 6171: 6152: 6129: 6110: 6091: 6069: 6033: 6013: 6008: 6007: 5999: 5995: 5987: 5983: 5975: 5971: 5967:, pp. 3–5. 5963: 5959: 5951: 5944: 5936: 5932: 5921: 5910: 5902: 5898: 5889: 5888: 5884: 5876: 5872: 5864: 5860: 5844: 5838: 5834: 5811:10.2307/2719276 5795: 5791: 5754: 5750: 5743: 5727: 5723: 5715: 5711: 5703: 5699: 5691: 5687: 5674: 5670: 5663: 5645: 5641: 5632: 5628: 5620: 5611: 5603: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5576: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5552: 5543: 5539:, pp. 287. 5535: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5512: 5488: 5484: 5476: 5470: 5466: 5458: 5449: 5444: 5440: 5432: 5428: 5420: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5336: 5332: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5295: 5291: 5283: 5264: 5260: 5245: 5241: 5234: 5220: 5216: 5209: 5193: 5189: 5181: 5177: 5169: 5165: 5150:10.2307/2719108 5138: 5134: 5127: 5107: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4974: 4970: 4943: 4939: 4931: 4927: 4919: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4895: 4891: 4883: 4879: 4871: 4867: 4843: 4837: 4833: 4814: 4810: 4802: 4798: 4788: 4786: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4763: 4755: 4746: 4738: 4721: 4713: 4700: 4692: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4670:Wayback Machine 4661: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4592: 4588: 4581: 4567: 4563: 4553: 4531: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4509:Wayback Machine 4500: 4496: 4490:Wayback Machine 4481: 4477: 4471:Wayback Machine 4462: 4458: 4450: 4446: 4439: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4400: 4396: 4384: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4360: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4333: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4280: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4260: 4239: 4235: 4210: 4206: 4197: 4193: 4176: 4172: 4163: 4159: 4150: 4146: 4137: 4133: 4124: 4120: 4111: 4107: 4099:include a king 4094: 4090: 4084:Book of History 4060: 4056: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4028: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3959: 3437:Older brothers 3379:celestial stems 3356: 3343: 3326:Karasuk culture 3301: 3287: 3280: 3271: 3262: 3251: 3242: 3235: 3226: 3219: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3139: 3129: 3123: 3079:Zheng Zhenxiang 3040: 3011:human sacrifice 2991: 2985: 2954: 2911: 2895: 2893:Genetic studies 2870:Wucheng culture 2835: 2779: 2765:Erlitou culture 2757: 2753: 2724:Academia Sinica 2714:, north of the 2696: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2656: 2655: 2649: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2633: 2625: 2624: 2623: 2617: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2601: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2585: 2577: 2576: 2575: 2569: 2553: 2518:Duke Huan of Qi 2505:Duke Yansheng. 2453: 2428: 2344:final Xia ruler 2332: 2326: 2324:Dynastic course 2312:to control the 2286: 2280: 2271: 2190: 2150:Several of the 2148: 2140:Chinese history 2124:Chinese writing 2105:Chinese history 2024: 1995: 1994: 1990:Women's history 1896: 1895: 1886: 1885: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1867: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1827: 1822: 1813: 1812: 1801: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1781: 1776: 1768: 1763: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1725: 1720: 1712: 1707: 1699: 1693: 1688: 1678: 1666: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1614: 1604: 1596: 1591: 1583: 1578: 1574: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1546: 1538: 1535: 1529: 1524: 1514: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1474: 1448: 1440: 1435: 1425: 1416:(202 BC – 9 AD) 1415: 1405: 1393: 1385: 1380: 1365: 1364: 1353: 1352: 1345: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1318: 1308: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1277: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1247: 1243: 1238: 1230: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1205: 1204: 1193: 1192: 1164: 1160: 1155: 1147: 1136: 1135: 906:Tongyong Pinyin 896: 876:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 609:Tongyong Pinyin 599: 579:Gwoyeu Romatzyh 495: 433: 408: 394: 368: 339: 320: 314: 302: 296: 266: 262: 247: 243: 228: 225: 171: 166:Qi County, Hebi 141:) (near modern 104: 90: 83: 75: 69: 62: 60: 51: 44: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7495: 7485: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7432: 7431: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7324: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7262: 7260: 7254: 7253: 7251: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7164: 7162: 7156: 7155: 7150: 7148: 7146: 7145: 7140: 7137: 7134: 7131: 7128: 7125: 7122: 7119: 7116: 7113: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7089: 7087: 7081: 7080: 7072: 7071: 7064: 7057: 7049: 7041: 7040: 7035: 7032: 7023: 7018: 7012: 7011: 7004: 7003:External links 7001: 7000: 6999: 6990: 6961: 6955: 6939: 6933: 6920: 6906: 6896:(7): 572–575, 6885: 6879: 6863: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6831: 6825: 6807: 6801: 6780: 6774: 6761: 6743:(3): 239–246, 6732: 6714:(2): 159–177, 6703: 6697: 6680: 6655: 6649: 6624: 6606:(1): 189–237, 6592: 6586: 6573: 6567: 6551: 6507: 6501: 6475: 6469: 6453: 6433:(1): 155–175, 6422: 6410:10.2307/776607 6393: 6368: 6327: 6321: 6308: 6302: 6289: 6283: 6261:Loewe, Michael 6256: 6239: 6221:(2): 423–438, 6206: 6191: 6175: 6169: 6156: 6150: 6133: 6127: 6114: 6108: 6095: 6089: 6073: 6067: 6045:Loewe, Michael 6041:Bagley, Robert 6037: 6031: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6006: 6005: 5993: 5991:, p. 187. 5981: 5969: 5957: 5955:, p. 235. 5942: 5940:, p. 684. 5930: 5919: 5896: 5882: 5870: 5858: 5832: 5805:(1): 189–237. 5789: 5768:(2): 135–168. 5748: 5741: 5721: 5709: 5697: 5685: 5683:, p. 269. 5668: 5661: 5639: 5626: 5609: 5594: 5582: 5570: 5558: 5541: 5529: 5517: 5510: 5496:. De Gruyter. 5482: 5464: 5447: 5438: 5436:, p. 245. 5426: 5414: 5402: 5390: 5378: 5376:, p. 240. 5366: 5364:, p. 239. 5354: 5342: 5330: 5318: 5311: 5289: 5281: 5258: 5239: 5232: 5214: 5207: 5187: 5175: 5163: 5132: 5125: 5101: 5089: 5077: 5075:, p. 165. 5073:Nivison (2018) 5065: 5058: 5038: 5026: 5024:, p. 248. 5009: 4997: 4985: 4968: 4937: 4925: 4913: 4911:, p. 669. 4901: 4889: 4877: 4865: 4831: 4808: 4796: 4770: 4761: 4744: 4719: 4698: 4686: 4674: 4655: 4646: 4639: 4619: 4612: 4586: 4579: 4561: 4551: 4525: 4513: 4494: 4475: 4456: 4454:, p. 233. 4444: 4437: 4419: 4412: 4394: 4378: 4376:, p. xiv. 4366: 4364:, p. 232. 4351: 4339: 4327: 4315: 4294:(2): 219–229. 4273: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4259: 4258: 4233: 4204: 4191: 4170: 4157: 4144: 4131: 4118: 4105: 4088: 4054: 4035: 4026: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3958: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3929: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3902: 3900: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3880: 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2940: 2937: 2930: 2915:Gonghe Regency 2910: 2907: 2894: 2891: 2852:Yangtze valley 2834: 2831: 2804:Xiaoshuangqiao 2695: 2692: 2670:Main article: 2660: 2659: 2651: 2650: 2643: 2642: 2635: 2634: 2627: 2626: 2619: 2618: 2611: 2610: 2603: 2602: 2595: 2594: 2587: 2586: 2579: 2578: 2571: 2570: 2563: 2562: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2452: 2449: 2414:Fengshen Yanyi 2395:Battle of Muye 2325: 2322: 2279: 2276: 2147: 2144: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2022: 2015: 2008: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1970: 1965: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1921:Jewish history 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1888: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1876: 1875: 1873: 1872: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1854: 1852:(1949–present) 1841: 1839: 1833: 1826: 1825: 1814: 1808: 1807: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1792: 1780: 1779: 1767: 1766: 1755: 1745: 1744: 1740: 1739: 1737: 1736: 1726: 1723: 1713: 1710: 1700: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1691: 1681: 1670: 1669: 1657: 1656: 1643: 1641: 1635: 1625: 1624: 1622: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1595: 1594: 1582: 1581: 1568: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1552: 1550: 1549: 1539: 1536: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1527: 1517: 1506: 1504: 1498: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1473: 1472: 1452: 1451: 1445:Three Kingdoms 1439: 1438: 1428: 1418: 1408: 1397: 1396: 1384: 1383: 1372: 1366: 1360: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1343:Warring States 1340: 1311: 1300: 1299: 1276: 1275: 1253: 1252: 1248: 1046 BC 1229: 1228: 1224: 1600 BC 1206: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1170: 1169: 1165: 2000 BC 1146: 1145: 1137: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1121:Historiography 1118: 1113: 1105: 1104: 1096: 1095: 1089: 1088: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1044: 1043: 1036: 1030: 1029: 1022: 1013: 1012: 1006: 1005: 995: 989: 988: 981: 975: 974: 967: 961: 960: 958:Yue: Cantonese 954: 953: 946: 940: 939: 933: 932: 922: 916: 915: 908: 902: 901: 892: 886: 885: 878: 872: 871: 864: 858: 857: 850: 844: 843: 837: 836: 835:Transcriptions 828: 827: 824: 823: 820: 814: 813: 810: 809: 800: 794: 793: 789: 788: 785: 784: 774: 768: 767: 760: 754: 753: 747: 746: 739: 733: 732: 725: 716: 715: 709: 708: 698: 692: 691: 684: 678: 677: 670: 664: 663: 661:Yue: Cantonese 657: 656: 649: 643: 642: 636: 635: 625: 619: 618: 611: 605: 604: 595: 589: 588: 581: 575: 574: 567: 561: 560: 553: 547: 546: 540: 539: 538:Transcriptions 531: 530: 527: 526: 523: 517: 516: 513: 512: 503: 497: 496: 492:regular script 477: 469: 468: 465: 464: 456: 455: 450: 446: 445: 442: 441: 438: 437: 430: 421: 418: 417: 412: 404: 403: 398: 386: 385: 380: 370: 369: 367: 366: 361: 358: 352: 350: 346: 345: 342: 333: 332: 328: 327: 324: 323: 315: 312:Battle of Muye 309: 306: 305: 297: 294: 291: 290: 287: 286: 281: 280:Historical era 277: 276: 273: 272: 267: 257: 254: 253: 248: 238: 235: 234: 229: 220: 217: 216: 213: 212: 209: 203: 202: 197: 193: 192: 187: 183: 182: 177: 173: 172: 170: 169: 159: 153: 146: 135: 128: 112: 110: 106: 105: 102: 94: 93: 77: 76: 61: 58: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7494: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7447:Shang dynasty 7445: 7444: 7442: 7429: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7339: 7335: 7328: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7263: 7261: 7259: 7255: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7161: 7157: 7144: 7141: 7138: 7135: 7132: 7129: 7126: 7123: 7120: 7117: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7090: 7088: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7077:Shang dynasty 7075:Kings of the 7070: 7065: 7063: 7058: 7056: 7051: 7050: 7047: 7038: 7029: 7028: 7021: 7015: 7010: 7007: 7006: 6996: 6991: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6934:1-880464-03-9 6930: 6926: 6921: 6917: 6916: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6886: 6882: 6880:0-300-02885-7 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6846: 6840: 6839: 6828: 6822: 6818: 6817: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6798: 6794: 6789: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6767: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6737:Artibus Asiae 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6704: 6700: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6656: 6652: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6583: 6579: 6574: 6570: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6508: 6504: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6334: 6328: 6324: 6318: 6314: 6309: 6305: 6299: 6295: 6290: 6286: 6280: 6276: 6273:, Cambridge: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6211:Bamboo Annals 6207: 6204: 6203:0-520-05455-5 6200: 6194: 6192:0-520-02969-0 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6153: 6147: 6142: 6141: 6134: 6130: 6124: 6120: 6115: 6111: 6105: 6101: 6096: 6092: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6064: 6060: 6057:, Cambridge: 6056: 6055: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6015: 6002: 5997: 5990: 5985: 5978: 5973: 5966: 5961: 5954: 5949: 5947: 5939: 5934: 5927: 5922: 5916: 5909: 5908: 5900: 5892: 5891:"Shang knife" 5886: 5880:, p. 34. 5879: 5874: 5868:, p. 33. 5867: 5862: 5854: 5850: 5843: 5836: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5793: 5785: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5752: 5744: 5738: 5734: 5733: 5725: 5719:, p. 35. 5718: 5713: 5706: 5701: 5694: 5689: 5682: 5678: 5672: 5664: 5662:5-02-016746-0 5658: 5654: 5650: 5643: 5636: 5630: 5624:, p. 17. 5623: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5606: 5601: 5599: 5591: 5586: 5579: 5574: 5567: 5562: 5555: 5550: 5548: 5546: 5538: 5533: 5526: 5521: 5513: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5494: 5486: 5475: 5468: 5462:, p. 14. 5461: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5442: 5435: 5430: 5424:, p. 77. 5423: 5418: 5411: 5406: 5399: 5394: 5387: 5382: 5375: 5370: 5363: 5358: 5351: 5346: 5339: 5334: 5328:, p. 35. 5327: 5322: 5314: 5308: 5303: 5302: 5293: 5284: 5278: 5273: 5272: 5262: 5254: 5250: 5243: 5235: 5233:0-395-87274-X 5229: 5225: 5218: 5210: 5204: 5200: 5199: 5191: 5185:, p. 60. 5184: 5179: 5172: 5167: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5136: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5105: 5098: 5093: 5087:, p. 28. 5086: 5081: 5074: 5069: 5061: 5055: 5051: 5050: 5042: 5036:, p. 23. 5035: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5007:, p. 32. 5006: 5001: 4994: 4989: 4981: 4980: 4972: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4941: 4934: 4933:Cheung (1983) 4929: 4923:, p. 20. 4922: 4921:Wagner (1993) 4917: 4910: 4905: 4898: 4897:Bagley (1999) 4893: 4886: 4885:Bagley (1999) 4881: 4875:, p. 63. 4874: 4869: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4842: 4835: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4805: 4800: 4785: 4781: 4774: 4765: 4759:, p. 34. 4758: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4742:, p. 33. 4741: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4724: 4716: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4695: 4690: 4683: 4682:解开神秘古国 ——孤竹之谜 4678: 4671: 4667: 4664: 4659: 4650: 4642: 4636: 4632: 4631: 4623: 4615: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4599: 4590: 4582: 4580:1-898723-76-1 4576: 4572: 4565: 4558: 4554: 4552:0-521-64430-5 4548: 4544: 4539: 4538: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4498: 4491: 4487: 4484: 4479: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4460: 4453: 4448: 4440: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4415: 4409: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4375: 4370: 4363: 4358: 4356: 4348: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4278: 4274: 4244:), Zhòu Xīn ( 4237: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4224:Bamboo Annals 4220: 4208: 4201: 4195: 4184: 4180: 4174: 4167: 4161: 4154: 4148: 4141: 4135: 4128: 4122: 4115: 4109: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4085: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4051: 4050: 4045: 4039: 4030: 3999: 3993: 3989: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3960: 3950: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3924: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3901: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3881: 3875: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3842: 3839: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3821: 3815: 3808: 3805: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3781: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3761: 3758: 3751: 3748: 3741: 3738: 3731: 3728: 3721: 3718: 3714: 3706: 3703: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3683: 3675: 3672: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3652: 3649: 3642: 3639: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3613: 3610: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3590: 3582: 3579: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3548: 3541: 3538: 3534: 3532: 3528: 3520: 3517: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3494: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3422: 3417:('ancestor', 3416: 3408: 3400: 3392: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3369: 3360: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3338: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3308: 3307: 3300: 3291: 3278: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3212: 3211: 3210: 3208: 3195: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3155: 3154: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3133: 3128: 3118: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3105: 3104:Yan Mountains 3095: 3091: 3088: 3083: 3080: 3076: 3070: 3068: 3067:post-and-beam 3064: 3057: 3052: 3044: 3035: 3033: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3004: 2995: 2990: 2977: 2974: 2973:Bamboo Annals 2970: 2966: 2965:David Nivison 2963: 2960: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2934:Bamboo Annals 2931: 2928: 2924: 2923: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2874: 2871: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2830: 2828: 2824: 2815: 2811: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2785: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2748: 2745:sites of the 2744: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2705: 2700: 2691: 2689: 2685: 2679: 2673: 2663: 2654: 2638: 2622: 2606: 2590: 2574: 2560: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2533:Bamboo Annals 2530: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2512:(present-day 2511: 2506: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2459: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2422: 2418: 2416: 2415: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2331: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2278:Founding myth 2275: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2244: 2239: 2233: 2227: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2212:Bamboo Annals 2209: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2196:Bamboo Annals 2185: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2170: 2165: 2164: 2159: 2158: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2130:inscribed on 2129: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2093: 2092: 2091:Bamboo Annals 2087: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2055: 2051: 2045: 2037: 2033: 2032:Shang dynasty 2021: 2016: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2002: 2001: 1999: 1998: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1960: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1953:Naval history 1951: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1937: 1936:Music history 1934: 1932: 1931:Media history 1929: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1916:Legal history 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1898: 1890: 1889: 1870:1949–present) 1866: 1865: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1850: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1821: 1820: 1816: 1815: 1811: 1805: 1804: 1788: 1787: 1783: 1782: 1775: 1774: 1770: 1769: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1756: 1753: 1732: 1731: 1727: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1706: 1705: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1695: 1687: 1686: 1685:Southern Song 1682: 1677: 1676: 1675:Northern Song 1672: 1671: 1665: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1652: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1603: 1602: 1598: 1597: 1590: 1589: 1585: 1584: 1577: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1566: 1545: 1544: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1531: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1512: 1508: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1501: 1496: 1481: 1480: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1470: 1465: 1464: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1453: 1447: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1434: 1433: 1429: 1424: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1403: 1399: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1363: 1357: 1356: 1344: 1341: 1336: 476 BC 1325: 1322: 1321: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1309:(1046–771 BC) 1307: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1295: 256 BC 1284: 1283: 1279: 1278: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1254: 1237: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1213: 1212: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1189: 1188: 1183: 1182: 1177: 1176: 1172: 1171: 1154: 1153: 1149: 1148: 1144: 1143: 1139: 1138: 1134: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1107: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1073: 1058: 1056: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1001: 996: 994: 990: 982: 980: 976: 968: 966: 962: 959: 955: 947: 945: 941: 938: 934: 928: 923: 921: 917: 909: 907: 903: 893: 891: 887: 879: 877: 873: 865: 863: 859: 851: 849: 845: 842: 838: 833: 829: 825: 821: 819: 815: 811: 806: 801: 799: 795: 790: 775: 773: 769: 761: 759: 758:Baxter (1992) 755: 752: 748: 740: 738: 734: 726: 724: 721: 717: 714: 710: 704: 699: 697: 693: 685: 683: 679: 671: 669: 665: 662: 658: 650: 648: 644: 641: 637: 631: 626: 624: 620: 612: 610: 606: 596: 594: 590: 582: 580: 576: 568: 566: 562: 554: 552: 548: 545: 541: 536: 532: 528: 524: 522: 518: 514: 509: 504: 502: 498: 493: 489: 486:(top right), 485: 484:bronze script 481: 475: 470: 466: 461: 454: 451: 449:Today part of 447: 431: 429: 426: 425: 422: 416: 413: 406: 405: 402: 399: 392: 391: 388: 387: 384: 381: 379: 376: 375: 371: 365: 362: 360:Shell mussels 359: 357: 354: 353: 351: 347: 343: 334: 329: 325: 316: 313: 307: 298: 292: 288: 285: 282: 278: 274: 271: 268: 255: 252: 249: 236: 233: 230: 218: 214: 210: 208: 204: 201: 198: 194: 191: 188: 184: 181: 178: 174: 167: 164:(near modern 163: 160: 157: 154: 151: 147: 144: 136: 129: 126: 122: 114: 113: 111: 107: 100: 95: 78: 73: 56: 53: 49: 42: 35: 30: 19: 7380:N. Dynasties 7376:S. Dynasties 7076: 7037:Zhou dynasty 7025: 6994: 6969: 6965: 6946: 6924: 6914: 6893: 6889: 6870: 6850: 6844: 6815: 6792: 6765: 6740: 6736: 6711: 6707: 6688: 6684: 6659: 6632: 6603: 6599: 6577: 6558: 6522: 6518: 6482: 6460: 6430: 6426: 6401: 6397: 6372: 6340:(1): 15–42, 6337: 6331: 6312: 6293: 6269: 6243: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6182: 6160: 6139: 6118: 6099: 6080: 6053: 6022: 6019:Allan, Sarah 5996: 5984: 5972: 5965:Smith (2011) 5960: 5933: 5924: 5906: 5899: 5885: 5873: 5861: 5852: 5848: 5835: 5802: 5798: 5792: 5765: 5761: 5751: 5731: 5724: 5712: 5700: 5688: 5671: 5652: 5648: 5642: 5634: 5629: 5605:Smith (1961) 5585: 5573: 5561: 5554:Chang (1994) 5532: 5520: 5492: 5485: 5467: 5441: 5434:Thorp (1981) 5429: 5417: 5405: 5398:Thorp (1981) 5393: 5386:Thorp (1981) 5381: 5374:Thorp (1981) 5369: 5362:Thorp (1981) 5357: 5345: 5333: 5321: 5300: 5292: 5270: 5261: 5253:NGC Presents 5252: 5242: 5223: 5217: 5197: 5190: 5178: 5166: 5141: 5135: 5115: 5104: 5092: 5080: 5068: 5048: 5041: 5029: 5000: 4988: 4978: 4971: 4954: 4950: 4940: 4928: 4916: 4904: 4892: 4880: 4873:Allan (1991) 4868: 4851: 4847: 4834: 4825: 4821: 4811: 4799: 4787:. 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