1081:
carbon and risk cost of carbon. This technique involves accounting for the cost of risk on climate change goals. Matsuo and
Schmidt suggest that carbon policies revolve around two renewable energy targets. They focus on bringing the cost down of renewable energy and growth of the industry. The prioblem with these objectives in policy is that prioritization can affect how the policy plays out. This can result in a negative impact on the social cost of carbon by affecting how renewable energy is incorporated into society. Newbery, Reiner, and Ritz discuss a carbon price floor as a means of attributing to the social cost of carbon. They discuss how incorporating a CPF in SCC can have a long-term effect of less coal usage, an increase in electricity pricing, and more innovation and investment in low-carbon alternatives. Yang et al. estimated the social cost of carbon under alternative socioeconomic pathways. According to their results, regional rivalries with increased trade friction can increase the social cost of carbon by a factor of 2 to 4.
1235:. The Interagency Working Group analyzed and advised that policy surrounding the social cost of carbon must be implemented based on global impacts instead of domestic. Support for this expansion in scope stems from theories that climate change may lead to global migration and political and environmental destabilization that affects both the national security and economy of the United States, as well as its allies and trading partners. The social cost of carbon In the United States Government should be seen as a way to continuously update estimates with an end goal of public and scientific approval in order to make efficient environmental policy.
1192:(OMB) and the Council of Economic Advisers established the Interagency Working Group on the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases (IWG) in an attempt to develop standards estimates of SCC for the use of federal agencies considering regulatory policies. This establishment was formerly named Interagency Working Group on the Social Cost of Carbon, but has now extended to include multiple greenhouse gasses. The IWG works closely with the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine when researching and creating an up to date report on the SCC.
4834:
4858:
1130:
4770:
4758:
4794:
4782:
4846:
4822:
42:
866:, propose a much smaller discount rate because "normal" discount rates are skewed when applied over the time scales over which climate change acts. A 2015 survey of 1,100 economists who had published on climate change found that those who estimated discount rates preferred that they decline over time and that explicit ethical considerations be factored in.
838:
being used for climate change that betters or worsens the environment. This is where the fourth value comes into play, because there can be lower-probability, but higher-impact outcomes from climate change. The fourth value zones in on the 3% discounts rate and is set to the 95th percentile when distributing the frequency estimates.
1287:
move to a "target-consistent‟ or "abatement cost" approach to carbon valuation rather than a "social cost of carbon" (SCC) approach. Following a cross-government review during 2020 and 2021, UK carbon valuation are further updated to reflect consistency to the global 1.5 °C goal and its domestic targets.
1261:
Calculating the SCC brings about a degree of uncertainty particularly due to unknown future economic growth and socioeconomic development paths. Societal preferences over development, international trade, and the potential for technological innovation, as well as national preferences regarding energy
1238:
The price being set for the social cost of carbon is dependent upon the administration in charge. While Obama was in office, the administration paved the way for the first estimate of putting a price on carbon emissions. The administration estimated that the cost would be $ 36 per tonne in 2015, $ 42
1175:
requires agencies to consider the costs and benefits of any potential regulations and, bearing in mind that some factors may be difficult to assign monetary value, only propose regulations whose benefits would justify the cost. Social cost of carbon estimates allow agencies to bring considerations of
837:
The
Interagency Working Group in the United States usually uses four values when calculating the cost. The values come from using a discount rate of 2.5%, 3%, and 5% from the integrated assessment models. The SCC that is being found must include the different probabilities based on what mitigation is
1286:
suggested £19/tCO2 within a range of £10 to £38/tCO2. This cost was set to rise at a rate of £0.27/tCO2 per year to reflect the increasing marginal cost of emissions. In 2009 the UK government conducted a review of the approach taken to developing carbon values. The conclusion of the review was to
1112:
or regional-level social cost of carbon is also calculated. Yang et al. calculated the regional social cost of carbon using regional cost-benefit IAM (RICE). Generally, SCCs in developing countries are much more sensitive to socioeconomic uncertainty and risk valuation - average SCCs in developing
1108:
The SCC is highly sensitive to socioeconomic narratives. Because carbon dioxide is a global externality, a rational, coordinated human society (or what economists might call "the social planner") would never want to set policy based on anything other than the global aggregate value. However, given
1089:
Organizations that take an integrated management approach are using the social cost of carbon to help evaluate investment decisions and guide long-term planning in order to consider the full extent of how their operations impact society and the environment. By placing a value on carbon emissions,
1080:
This equation represents how one additional tonne of carbon dioxide impacts the environment and incorporates equity and social impact. Chen, Van der Beek, and Cloud inquire upon the benefits of incorporating a second measure of the externalities of carbon by accounting for both the social cost of
1168:
In
February 2021 the US government set the social cost of carbon to $ 51 per tonne, based on a 3% discount rate, but it plans a more thorough review of the issue. However, in February 2022 a court ruled against the government and said the figure was invalid as only damage within the US could be
841:
In "The U.S. Government's Social Cost of Carbon
Estimates after Their First Two Years: Pathways for Improvement", Kopp and Mignone suggest that these calculation rates do not reflect the multiple ways that humans can respond to climate change. They propose an alternative approach that should be
861:
What discount rate to use is "consequential and contentious" because it defines the relative value of present costs and future damages, an inherently ethical and political judgment. A 2015 survey of 200 general economists found that most preferred a rate between 1% and 3%. Some, like
Nordhaus,
818:
In the United States, the Trump
Administration was criticised for using existing IAMs to calculate the SCC that lacked appropriate calculations for interactions between regions. For instance, climate catastrophes caused by climate change in one region may have a domino impact on the economy of
1094:
a step further and promotes an integrated bottom line (IBL) approach. Prioritising an IBL approach begins with changing the way we think about traditional financial measurements as these do not take into consideration the full extent of the short and long-term impacts of a decision or action.
1265:
Furthermore, the figures produced from the SCC cause calculations to be produced on a range with the most commonly utilised number being the central case value (an average over the entire data set at a given discount rate). The SCC is no longer used for policy appraisal in the UK or the EU.
1278:
in 1981. Federal agencies such as the
Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Transportation began to develop other forms of social cost calculations from carbon during the George H. W. Bush administration. Furthermore, economic social cost from carbon was judicially mandated in
862:
advocate for a time discount rate that is pegged to the current average rate of time discount as estimated from market interest rates–this is spurious reasoning because intragenerational interest rates have nothing to do with the intergenerational ones in question. Others, like
1203:
alongside of existing academic works, studies, and models. These created estimates for the social costs and benefits that government agencies could use when creating environmental policies. Members of the public are able to comment on the developed social cost of carbon.
757:. From a technological cost perspective, the 2018 IPCC report suggested that limiting global warming below 1.5 °C requires technology costs around $ 135 to $ 5500 in 2030 and $ 245 to $ 13000/tCO2 in 2050. This is more than three times higher than for a 2 °C limit.
1242:
The Trump administration estimated between $ 1–$ 7 in economic damage in 2020. Trump's
Executive Order 13783 mandated that SCC estimates be calculated based on guidelines from the 2003 OMB Circular A-4, rather than guidelines based on more recent climate science.
1075:
776:
Calculating the SCC requires estimating the impacts of climate change. This includes impacts on human health and the environment, as measured by the amount of damage done and the cost to remedy it. Valuations can be difficult because the
3064:
Supplementary
Material for the Regulatory Impact Analysis for the Final Rulemaking, "Standards of Performance for New, Reconstructed, and Modified Sources and Emissions Guidelines for Existing Sources: Oil and Natural Gas Sector Climate
1279:
cost-benefit analysis for new policy in 2008 following a decision by a federal appellate court. The year following in 2009 there was a call for a uniform calculation of social cost from carbon to be utilised by the government.
1116:
calculate the social cost of carbon based on discounted future damage. Their estimation shows countries that incur large fractions of the global cost consistently include India, China, Saudi Arabia and the United States.
1322:. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. Archived from
894:
in 2022. From a technological cost perspective, the 2018 IPCC report suggested that limiting global warming below 1.5 °C requires technology costs around $ 135 to $ 5500 in 2030 and $ 245 to $ 13000 per tonne of
814:
Other popular IAMs used to calculate the social cost of carbon include the Policy
Analysis for Greenhouse Effect Model (PAGE) and the Climate Framework for Uncertainty, Negotiation, and Distribution (FUND).
1090:
decision makers can use this value to expand upon traditional financial decision-making tools and create new metrics for measuring the short and long-term outcomes of their actions. This means taking the
1169:
included. In March 2022, a three-judge panel of the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals stayed his injunction, permitting continued use of the interim figure. The social cost of carbon is used in policymaking.
1099:
can be expanded to return on integration, internal rate of return can evolve into integrated rate of return and instead of focusing on net present value, companies can plan for integrated future value.
3013:
807:, makes provisions for the calculation of a social cost of carbon. The DICE model defines the SCC to be "equal to the economic impact of a unit of emissions in terms of t-period consumption as a
718:
of carbon is a calculation focused on taking corrective measures on climate change which can be deemed a form of market failure. The only governments which use the SCC are in North America. The
1254:
The SCC has been criticised as being extremely uncertain, having to change over time and according to the level of emissions, and is claimed to be useless to policymakers as the
4494:
950:
842:
considered by calculating through a cost-benefit optimization analysis based on if the public "panics" about climate change and implement mitigation policies accordingly.
902:
In 2021, the study "The social cost of carbon dioxide under climate-economy feedbacks and temperature variability" estimated even costs of more than $ 300 per tonne of CO
1316:
Yohe, G.W.; et al. (2007). "20.6 Global and aggregate impacts; 20.6.1 History and present state of aggregate impact estimates". In M.L. Parry; et al. (eds.).
3183:
1282:
The UK government has not used the SCC since 2009. The UK government has estimated social cost of carbon since 2002, when a Government Economic Service working paper
4670:
2659:
The updated estimates herein are identical to those adopted by the U.S. EPA in their draft technical update, converted to Canadian currency in constant 2021 dollars.
1401:
Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
4338:
3795:
858:. These rates determine the weight placed on impacts occurring at different times, applying a theoretical model of inter-generational welfare developed by Ramsey.
886:
only cover a limited number of countries and sectors, which is vastly below the optimal SCC. The social cost of carbon ranges from −$ 13 to $ 2387 per tonne of CO
796:(IAM) which predict the effects of climate change under various scenarios and allow for calculation of monetised damages. One of the most widely used IAMs is the
2383:
1185:. The U.S. government struggled to implement greenhouse gas emission requirements due to the lack of an accurate social cost on carbon to guide policy making.
1113:
regions are 20 times higher than developed regions. Cost-benefit IAM requires more computational resources to provide SCC at the country level, so Ricke et al.
4511:
2793:
2899:
3947:
3763:
3003:
2642:
749:
only cover a limited number of countries and sectors, which is vastly below the optimal SCC. In 2024 the social cost of carbon ranges to over $ 1000/tCO
3942:
3810:
685:
710:
of the impacts caused by emitting one extra tonne of carbon emissions at any point in time. The purpose of putting a price on a tonne of emitted CO
3790:
3737:
1317:
851:
782:
3446:
2724:
1212:
765:
3679:
2426:
Yang, Pu; Yao, Yun-Fei; Mi, Zhifu; Cao, Yun-Fei; Liao, Hua; Yu, Bi-Ying; Liang, Qiao-Mei; Coffman, D'Maris; Wei, Yi-Ming (November 2018).
3563:
3157:
1262:
development should be taken into account. The discount rate, damage and pending climate system response also contribute to uncertainty.
3832:
3780:
1769:
1228:
4711:
3827:
3402:
1770:"Technical Support Document: Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis Under Executive Order 1286"
719:
2698:
1568:
1445:
4042:
3753:
3471:
3248:
1963:
1232:
863:
2628:
1211:(OMB) and the Council of Economic Advisers, six federal agencies worked in the working group. The agencies involved included, The
4398:
4187:
3345:
1216:
1399:
1179:
The United States government was not required to implement greenhouse gas emission requirements until after the 2007 court case
4047:
4010:
3864:
3849:
3758:
3407:
3351:
2334:
4706:
3844:
2900:"Technical Support Document: Social Cost of Carbon, Methane, and Nitrous Oxide Interim Estimates under Executive Order 13990"
2484:
2309:
714:
is to aid policymakers or other legislators in evaluating whether a policy designed to curb climate change is justified. The
678:
3036:
1911:
4728:
3674:
3669:
3182:
Evans, Stuart; Knoedler-Thoma, Fabian; Mortlock, Christian; Thomas, Kansy; Dietz, Simon; Fankhauser, Sam (September 2021).
2672:
1220:
822:
The wide range of estimates is explained mostly by underlying uncertainties in the science of climate change including the
4209:
3987:
3805:
3727:
3717:
3700:
3607:
3414:
1993:
Kikstra, Jarmo S.; Waidelich, Paul; Rising, James; Yumashev, Dmitry; Hope, Chris; Brierley, Chris M. (6 September 2021).
1296:
947:
According to David Anthoff and Johannes Emmerling, the social cost of carbon can be expressed by the following equation:
778:
3732:
2172:
Wang, P.; Deng, X.; Zhou, H.; Yu, S. (2019). "Estimates of the social cost of carbon: A review based on meta-analysis".
1601:
4638:
4499:
4456:
3952:
1224:
599:
257:
1767:
4565:
4441:
4258:
3451:
3209:
3063:
1550:
2846:
Regulatory impact analysis, development of social cost of carbon estimates : report to congressional requesters
2509:
4798:
4436:
4416:
4363:
4315:
3367:
1196:
927:. Both those studies subsume wide ranges; the latter is a meta-study whose source estimates range from -$ 13.36/tCO
826:, which is a measure of the amount of global warming expected for a doubling in the atmospheric concentration of CO
671:
25:
4555:
4506:
3932:
3894:
3839:
3299:
2780:
1208:
1189:
793:
1246:
In November 2022, the EPA issued an estimate of $ 190 per tonne for 2020, and published a detailed methodology.
4623:
3907:
3654:
2822:
768:
recommended value of around $ 190 per tonne, which is in turn much more than the US government value of $ 51.
428:
1140: with: for example explain why Canada also has a carbon price and why they are different. You can help by
4826:
4733:
4268:
3800:
1795:"The U.S. Government's Social Cost of Carbon Estimates after Their First Two Years: Pathways for Improvement"
453:
376:
152:
1141:
4716:
4388:
3917:
3912:
3817:
3684:
3241:
1937:
627:
443:
2286:
1419:
4883:
3927:
3770:
396:
381:
262:
2973:"Integrated Assessment Models and the Social Cost of Carbon: A Review and Assessment of U.S. Experience"
1373:
4812:
4786:
4550:
4353:
4310:
4083:
4005:
3859:
1551:"EPA Report on the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases: Estimates Incorporating Recent Scientific Advances"
734:
366:
361:
346:
2582:
2535:
1887:"Discounting disentangled: an expert survey on the determinants of the long-term social discount rate"
1348:
1070:{\displaystyle SCCx=(\partial w/\partial cx0)^{-}1\sum _{t=0}^{T}\sum _{r=1}^{R}\partial w/\partial c}
4655:
4330:
4305:
4278:
4240:
4157:
3975:
3822:
3775:
3525:
3294:
3289:
3284:
2747:
1732:
1702:
Estimating the Social Cost of Carbon for Use in U.S. Federal Rulemakings a Summary and Interpretation
1323:
1176:
the impact of increased carbon dioxide emissions into cost-benefit analyses of proposed regulations.
498:
391:
129:
4170:
2229:
943:. Each tonne of carbon dioxide consists of about 0.27 tonnes of carbon and 0.73 tonnes of oxygen.
4665:
4660:
4650:
4591:
4431:
3937:
3902:
3785:
3712:
3553:
3382:
3318:
3279:
727:
569:
468:
401:
247:
237:
212:
167:
2581:
Yang, Pu; Mi, Zhifu; Coffman, D'Maris; Cao, Yun-Fei; Yao, Yun-Fei; Li, Jinkai (1 September 2021).
2534:
Yang, Pu; Mi, Zhifu; Coffman, D'Maris; Cao, Yun-Fei; Yao, Yun-Fei; Li, Jinkai (1 September 2021).
2042:
Rennert, Kevin; Errickson, Frank; Prest, Brian C.; Rennels, Lisa; et al. (1 September 2022).
4878:
4774:
4696:
4606:
4348:
4320:
4000:
3649:
3627:
3234:
2972:
883:
746:
642:
493:
448:
433:
418:
413:
356:
279:
96:
66:
61:
33:
3107:
2466:
1478:
4373:
4193:
4135:
4052:
4037:
3922:
3558:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
2287:"Hypothesis for a Risk Cost of Carbon: Revising the Externalities and Ethics of Climate Change"
1995:"The social cost of carbon dioxide under climate-economy feedbacks and temperature variability"
1768:
Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases, United States Government (2016).
579:
483:
478:
473:
423:
284:
267:
4838:
4762:
4408:
4285:
4093:
3543:
3466:
3081:
2335:"Managing tradeoffs in green industrial policies: The role of renewable energy policy design"
1172:
637:
584:
513:
252:
1274:
The concept of a social cost of carbon was first mooted by the Reagan administration of the
4601:
4479:
4140:
3705:
3632:
2117:
2006:
1647:
1181:
1096:
741:. According to economic theory, a carbon price should be set equal to the SCC. In reality,
632:
503:
242:
222:
207:
202:
2938:
2921:
1811:
1794:
8:
4618:
4393:
3617:
3612:
2105:
823:
564:
508:
463:
232:
227:
2673:"Biden is hiking the cost of carbon. It will change how the U.S. tackles global warming"
2207:
2121:
2010:
1971:
1651:
919:
Large studies in the late 2010s estimated the social cost of carbon as high as $ 417/tCO
760:
A 2024 study estimated the social cost of carbon (SCC) to be over $ 1000 per tonne of CO
4862:
4446:
4378:
4295:
4145:
4110:
4067:
4062:
4057:
3622:
2953:
2610:
2563:
2490:
2447:
2403:
2364:
2315:
2267:
2189:
2151:
2081:
2068:
2043:
1886:
1824:
1678:
1635:
1091:
831:
604:
589:
488:
458:
438:
890:, while the carbon pricing at present only ranges from $ 0.50 to $ 137 per tonne of CO
4680:
4343:
4088:
3854:
3637:
3600:
3387:
3341:
2850:
2755:
2629:"The latest political skirmish over the carbon tax left out the most important facts"
2614:
2602:
2567:
2555:
2480:
2451:
2368:
2319:
2305:
2259:
2193:
2155:
2143:
2085:
2073:
2024:
1828:
1816:
1740:
1683:
1665:
1609:
1576:
1453:
559:
548:
371:
299:
91:
86:
2494:
2443:
2407:
2271:
1860:
1160:
In 2023 the SCC was estimated as 261 Canadian dollars/tCO2, the same as the US SCC.
4723:
4290:
4273:
4214:
4105:
3869:
3583:
3456:
3392:
3008:
2984:
2957:
2943:
2933:
2788:
2594:
2547:
2472:
2439:
2395:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2297:
2249:
2241:
2181:
2133:
2125:
2063:
2055:
2014:
1806:
1673:
1655:
1526:
916:—3.6 times higher than the U.S. government's then-current value of $ 51 per tonne.
908:
804:
553:
351:
289:
157:
124:
2598:
2551:
2427:
2185:
789:. This rate determines the weight placed on impacts occurring at different times.
4675:
4596:
4560:
4489:
4463:
4451:
4368:
4300:
4175:
4032:
3644:
3595:
3573:
3132:
1255:
855:
786:
781:
do not have a market price. In economics, comparing impacts over time involves a
520:
319:
274:
162:
4833:
2301:
4850:
4628:
4484:
4426:
4421:
4263:
4152:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3722:
3659:
3397:
3377:
3336:
3257:
2842:
2399:
2359:
2059:
2019:
1994:
940:
657:
652:
647:
622:
574:
530:
408:
386:
329:
294:
192:
182:
71:
2129:
4872:
4857:
4701:
4633:
4358:
4180:
4165:
4100:
3995:
3041:
2854:
2759:
2725:"Fifth Circuit: Biden administration can quantify costs of harmful emissions"
2606:
2559:
2263:
2147:
2028:
1820:
1744:
1669:
1613:
1580:
1457:
1407:. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press. p. 37.
1275:
1200:
707:
339:
334:
324:
304:
217:
197:
177:
76:
56:
2874:
2583:"The impact of climate risk valuation on the regional mitigation strategies"
2536:"The impact of climate risk valuation on the regional mitigation strategies"
1660:
4586:
4383:
4027:
4017:
3664:
3548:
3461:
2077:
1687:
1569:"Economic damage from climate change six times worse than thought – report"
1446:"Economic damage from climate change six times worse than thought – report"
899:
in 2050. This is more than three times higher than for a 2 °C limit.
875:
738:
594:
309:
187:
101:
2988:
2508:
Portfolio, Behavioural and Social Sciences at Nature (26 September 2018).
2476:
2104:
Ricke, Katharine; Drouet, Laurent; Caldeira, Ken; Tavoni, Massimo (2018).
808:
4613:
4130:
4122:
3372:
3208:
de Coninck, H.; Revi, A.; Babiker, M.; Bertoldi, P.; et al. (2018).
2138:
1718:
Valuing Climate Damages: Updating Estimation of the Social Cost of Carbon
715:
2468:
Integrated Management: How Sustainability Creates Value for Any Business
2254:
1522:
The Macroeconomic Impact of Climate Change: Global vs. Local Temperature
1188:
Due to the varying estimates of the social cost of carbon, in 2009, the
1129:
4645:
4022:
2948:
1195:
When developing the 2010 and 2013 social cost of carbon estimates, the
879:
797:
742:
134:
81:
16:
Monetary damage caused by a tonne of greenhouse gas from North America
3590:
2872:
2844:
1912:"Discount rates: A boring thing you should know about (with otters!)"
1704:. Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2011. Print.
1520:
912:
estimated the social cost of carbon (SCC) to be $ 185 per tonne of CO
850:
It has been popular to compare rates of saving over time involving a
525:
314:
2922:"Climate Risks and Carbon Prices:Revising the Social Cost of Carbon"
2384:"The political economy of a carbon price floor for power generation"
2208:"Why do carbon dioxide emissions weigh more than the original fuel?"
2245:
2234:
Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists
1530:
172:
2699:"Trump-appointed judge blocks Biden administration climate metric"
2294:
Understanding Risks and Uncertainties in Energy and Climate Policy
3568:
3226:
3181:
3001:
2748:"Trump Put a Low Cost on Carbon Emissions. Here's Why It Matters"
2180:. Journal of Cleaner Production 209 (2019) 1494-1507: 1494–1507.
1733:"Trump Put a Low Cost on Carbon Emissions. Here's Why It Matters"
41:
4821:
4581:
3210:"Chapter 4: Strengthening and Implementing the Global Response"
3037:"The tricky business of putting a dollar value on a human life"
2823:"Updating the United States Government's Social Cost of Carbon"
1720:. Washington DC: The National Academies Press. 2017. p. 9.
936:
2171:
1992:
1109:
the de-globalization trend around the world, the country-level
4495:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
3578:
3158:"Carbon valuation in UK policy appraisal: a revised approach"
2044:"Comprehensive Evidence Implies a Higher Social Cost of CO2"
2041:
2792:(Report). Vol. 58. National Archives. 4 October 1993.
2428:"Social cost of carbon under shared socioeconomic pathways"
1700:
Greenstone, Michael, Elizabeth Kopits, and Ann Wolverton.
798:
Dynamic Integrated model of Climate and the Economy (DICE)
4671:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
2103:
753:, while the carbon pricing only ranges to about $ 160/tCO
2897:
2843:
United States. Government Accountability Office (2014).
1879:
1502:
1500:
834:, and how potential catastrophic impacts are estimated.
1793:
Kopp, Robert E.; Mignone, Bryan K. (1 December 2012).
722:
suggested that a carbon price of $ 100 per tonne of CO
4810:
4512:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2926:
Economics: The Open-Access, Open-Assessment e-Journal
2821:
Carleton, Tamma; Greenstone, Michael (January 2021).
2284:
1938:"Expert Consensus on the Economics of Climate Change"
1930:
1799:
Economics: The Open-Access, Open-Assessment e-Journal
1497:
953:
2920:
Ackerman, Frank; Stanton, Elizabeth (4 April 2012).
2830:
Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago
2671:
Eilperin, Juliet; Dennis, Brady (26 February 2021).
2228:
Anthoff, David; Emmerling, Johannes (2 March 2019).
3004:"Promoting Energy Independence and Economic Growth"
3002:Executive Office of the President (31 March 2017).
2873:U.S. Government Accountability Office (July 2014).
2514:
Behavioural and Social Sciences at Nature Portfolio
830:, different choices of discount rate, treatment of
2820:
1069:
935:. Note that the costs derive not from the element
3082:"The social cost of carbon; it's time to kill it"
2697:agencies, Guardian staff and (12 February 2022).
2381:
1319:Perspectives on climate change and sustainability
869:
4870:
4712:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2971:Metcalf, Gilbert; Stock, James (11 March 2017).
2875:"Development of Social Cost of Carbon Estimates"
2580:
2533:
2382:Newbery, D.M.; Reiner, D.M.; Ritz, R.A. (2019).
2285:Chen, D.B.; Van Der Beek, J.; Cloud, J. (2019).
2227:
2919:
2035:
1640:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2670:
1284:Estimating the social cost of carbon emissions
1084:
3447:History of climate change policy and politics
3242:
3207:
2907:Interim Estimates Under Executive Order 13990
2332:
2099:
2097:
2095:
1506:
766:United States Environmental Protection Agency
679:
2970:
2425:
1844:Human Well-Being and the Natural Environment
1519:Bilal, Adrien; Känzig, Diego R. (May 2024),
878:should be set equal to the SCC. In reality,
3564:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
2781:Executive Order 12866 of September 30, 1993
1792:
1518:
1258:has a goal of 2 °C temperature rise.
4793:
4781:
4238:
3249:
3235:
2898:United States Government (February 2021).
2230:"Inequality and the Social Cost of Carbon"
2167:
2165:
2092:
1315:
1229:United States Department of Transportation
686:
672:
4533:
4339:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
3472:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2947:
2937:
2643:"Social cost of greenhouse gas emissions"
2507:
2358:
2253:
2137:
2067:
2018:
1810:
1677:
1659:
1634:Nordhaus, William D. (14 February 2017).
1398:IPCC (2022). "Summary for Policymakers".
906:. A study published in September 2022 in
819:neighboring regions or trading partners.
730:by at least half the 2019 level by 2030.
720:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
4043:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
3034:
2722:
2696:
1841:
1633:
4399:National Adaptation Programme of Action
4188:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
2162:
1986:
1525:(Working Paper), Working Paper Series,
1417:
1217:United States Department of Agriculture
4871:
4048:Economics of climate change mitigation
4011:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
3524:
3352:Scientific consensus on climate change
2893:
2891:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2816:
2814:
2745:
2464:
2200:
1961:
1846:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
1763:
1761:
1730:
1712:
1710:
1636:"Revisiting the social cost of carbon"
1566:
1443:
4707:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
4532:
4237:
3973:
3523:
3435:
3316:
3268:
3230:
2939:10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2012-10
2799:from the original on 17 December 2022
2510:"Country-level social cost of carbon"
2421:
2419:
2417:
2106:"Country-level social cost of carbon"
1855:
1853:
1812:10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2012-15
1199:used a consensus-based approach with
1197:U.S. Government Accountability Office
4729:Representative Concentration Pathway
3670:Tipping points in the climate system
3346:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
3191:BEIS Research Paper Number: 2021/049
3035:Matthews, Dylan (22 December 2022).
1861:"Q&A: The social cost of carbon"
1397:
1374:"What is the social cost of carbon?"
1343:
1341:
1233:United States Department of Treasury
1221:United States Department of Commerce
1124:
792:Best estimates of the SCC come from
4500:Nationally determined contributions
4210:Individual action on climate change
3415:World energy supply and consumption
3133:"The true cost of carbon pollution"
2888:
2861:
2811:
2723:Langford, Cameron (17 March 2022).
1835:
1758:
1707:
1602:"The many prices of carbon dioxide"
1297:Economic analysis of climate change
13:
4639:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
3256:
3016:from the original on 31 March 2017
2471:. Emerald Publishing. p. 20.
2414:
2333:Matsuo, T.; Schmidt, T.S. (2019).
1955:
1850:
1225:United States Department of Energy
1061:
1050:
983:
972:
600:Renewable energy commercialization
14:
4895:
4566:Satellite temperature measurement
4171:forestry for carbon sequestration
3452:History of climate change science
3184:"Carbon values literature review"
1338:
4856:
4844:
4832:
4820:
4792:
4780:
4769:
4768:
4756:
4417:Climate Change Performance Index
3796:Destruction of cultural heritage
1163:
1128:
874:According to economic theory, a
845:
40:
4556:Instrumental temperature record
4507:Sustainable Development Goal 13
3175:
3150:
3125:
3100:
3074:
3056:
3028:
2995:
2977:The University of Chicago Press
2964:
2913:
2836:
2773:
2746:Plumer, Brad (23 August 2018).
2739:
2716:
2690:
2664:
2635:
2621:
2574:
2527:
2501:
2458:
2444:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.10.001
2375:
2326:
2278:
2221:
1904:
1786:
1731:Plumer, Brad (23 August 2018).
1724:
1694:
1627:
1594:
1560:
1543:
1213:Environmental Protection Agency
1209:Office of Management and Budget
1190:Office of Management and Budget
771:
4624:Climate variability and change
3974:
3655:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
2351:10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.005
1999:Environmental Research Letters
1567:Milman, Oliver (17 May 2024).
1512:
1471:
1444:Milman, Oliver (17 May 2024).
1437:
1411:
1391:
1366:
1309:
996:
969:
870:Carbon pricing recommendations
1:
4734:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
4269:Climate emergency declaration
2599:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127786
2587:Journal of Cleaner Production
2552:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127786
2540:Journal of Cleaner Production
2186:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.058
2174:Journal of Cleaner Production
1418:Cordeau, Hugo (6 June 2023).
1302:
1103:
803:The DICE model, developed by
377:Socially responsible business
153:Bright green environmentalism
4717:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
3943:Middle East and North Africa
3269:
1249:
794:integrated assessment models
737:the SCC is different from a
628:Environmental pricing reform
7:
3791:Depopulation of settlements
3436:
2432:Global Environmental Change
2302:10.1007/978-3-030-03152-7_8
1420:"The social cost of carbon"
1349:"Social Cost of Carbon 101"
1290:
1239:in 2020, and $ 46 in 2025.
1085:Use in investment decisions
382:Social return on investment
10:
4900:
4551:Global surface temperature
4442:Popular culture depictions
4354:Ecosystem-based adaptation
4084:Carbon capture and storage
4006:Carbon offsets and credits
3317:
3201:
3137:Environmental Defense Fund
2882:Regulatory Impact Analysis
2400:10.5547/01956574.40.1.dnew
2060:10.1038/s41586-022-05224-9
1424:Canada's National Observer
1269:
764:—more than five times the
367:Pollution haven hypothesis
362:Natural resource economics
347:High-performance buildings
4763:Climate change portal
4750:
4689:
4656:Extreme event attribution
4574:
4543:
4539:
4528:
4472:
4407:
4329:
4279:School Strike for Climate
4251:
4247:
4233:
4202:
4158:Climate-smart agriculture
4119:
4076:
3986:
3982:
3969:
3893:
3746:
3693:
3536:
3532:
3519:
3442:
3431:
3360:
3329:
3325:
3312:
3295:Climate change adaptation
3290:Climate change mitigation
3285:Effects of climate change
3275:
3264:
2130:10.1038/s41558-018-0282-y
1842:Dasgupta, Partha (2001).
1120:
130:Climate change mitigation
4666:Global warming potential
4473:International agreements
4120:Preserving and enhancing
3554:Arctic methane emissions
3476:Years in climate change
3383:Greenhouse gas emissions
3280:Causes of climate change
3217:Global Warming of 1.5 °C
2020:10.1088/1748-9326/ac1d0b
1968:Carbon Pricing Dashboard
1964:"ETS & Carbon Taxes"
1483:Carbon Pricing Dashboard
1353:Resources for the Future
570:Environmental technology
213:Ecological modernization
168:Corporate sustainability
4697:Climate change scenario
4349:Disaster risk reduction
4001:Carbon emission trading
3811:U.S. insurance industry
3781:Civilizational collapse
3628:sea surface temperature
2465:Sroufe, Robert (2018).
1661:10.1073/pnas.1609244114
884:carbon emission trading
747:carbon emission trading
643:Green industrial policy
357:Marginal abatement cost
280:Fiscal environmentalism
97:Personal carbon trading
67:Carbon fee and dividend
62:Carbon emission trading
34:Environmental economics
4827:Business and economics
4690:Research and modelling
4374:Nature-based solutions
4194:Nature-based solutions
4136:Carbon dioxide removal
4053:Fossil fuel divestment
4038:Climate risk insurance
3948:Small island countries
3559:Arctic sea ice decline
3086:Cambridge Econometrics
1071:
1049:
1028:
580:Fossil fuel divestment
4651:Earth's energy budget
4534:Background and theory
4422:Climate crisis (term)
4094:Fossil fuel phase-out
3988:Economics and finance
3953:by individual country
3895:By country and region
3870:Security and conflict
3865:Psychological impacts
3544:Abrupt climate change
3467:Charles David Keeling
3300:By country and region
2477:10.1108/9781787145610
2110:Nature Climate Change
1173:Executive Order 12866
1072:
1029:
1008:
923:or as low as $ 54/tCO
700:social cost of carbon
638:Free public transport
585:Fossil fuel phase-out
107:Social cost of carbon
4480:Glasgow Climate Pact
4141:Carbon sequestration
3706:Mass mortality event
2296:. pp. 183–222.
1182:Massachusetts v. EPA
1097:return on investment
951:
726:could reduce global
633:Environmental tariff
258:full-cost accounting
223:Efficient energy use
208:Ecological footprint
203:Ecological economics
4619:Climate sensitivity
4394:The Adaptation Fund
3850:Infectious diseases
3747:Social and economic
3219:. pp. 313–443.
2989:10.1093/reep/rew014
2677:The Washington Post
2360:20.500.11850/345073
2122:2018NatCC...8..895R
2011:2021ERL....16i4037K
1918:. 24 September 2012
1652:2017PNAS..114.1518N
939:, but the molecule
824:climate sensitivity
565:Carbon-neutral fuel
228:Energy conservation
4884:Low-carbon economy
4190:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
4162:Forest management
4146:Direct air capture
4111:Sustainable energy
4068:Net zero emissions
4063:Low-carbon economy
4058:Green Climate Fund
3845:Indigenous peoples
3738:Plant biodiversity
3526:Effects and issues
3108:"Carbon valuation"
2752:The New York Times
2388:The Energy Journal
1867:. 14 February 2017
1737:The New York Times
1507:IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018
1326:on 7 November 2011
1092:triple bottom line
1067:
605:Sustainable energy
590:Low-carbon economy
429:consumer behaviour
4808:
4807:
4746:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4681:Radiative forcing
4524:
4523:
4520:
4519:
4344:Adaptive capacity
4229:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4089:Energy transition
3965:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3675:Tropical cyclones
3601:Urban heat island
3515:
3514:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3388:Carbon accounting
3342:Greenhouse effect
3308:
3307:
3088:. 4 December 2018
2727:. Courthouse News
2486:978-1-78714-562-7
2339:World Development
2311:978-3-030-03151-0
2054:(7933): 687–692.
1485:. 30 October 2023
1158:
1157:
931:to $ 2,386.91/tCO
779:impacts on biomes
696:
695:
560:Carbon neutrality
549:2000-watt society
543:Energy transition
454:development goals
372:Social accounting
92:Environmental tax
87:Emissions trading
4891:
4861:
4860:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4837:
4836:
4825:
4824:
4816:
4796:
4795:
4784:
4783:
4772:
4771:
4761:
4760:
4759:
4724:Paleoclimatology
4541:
4540:
4530:
4529:
4291:Ecological grief
4274:Climate movement
4249:
4248:
4235:
4234:
4215:Plant-based diet
4106:Renewable energy
3984:
3983:
3971:
3970:
3806:Economic impacts
3728:Invasive species
3584:Coastal flooding
3534:
3533:
3521:
3520:
3457:Svante Arrhenius
3433:
3432:
3403:from agriculture
3393:Carbon footprint
3378:Greenhouse gases
3327:
3326:
3314:
3313:
3266:
3265:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3228:
3227:
3220:
3214:
3195:
3194:
3188:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3129:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3009:Federal Register
2999:
2993:
2992:
2968:
2962:
2961:
2951:
2941:
2917:
2911:
2910:
2904:
2895:
2886:
2885:
2879:
2870:
2859:
2858:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2827:
2818:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2798:
2789:Federal Register
2785:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2656:
2654:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2423:
2412:
2411:
2379:
2373:
2372:
2362:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2291:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2257:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2141:
2101:
2090:
2089:
2071:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2022:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1974:on 22 March 2023
1970:. Archived from
1959:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1942:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1891:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1857:
1848:
1847:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1814:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1774:
1765:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1714:
1705:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1663:
1646:(7): 1518–1523.
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1537:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1490:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1345:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1313:
1153:
1150:
1132:
1125:
1076:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1060:
1048:
1043:
1027:
1022:
1004:
1003:
982:
805:William Nordhaus
688:
681:
674:
554:Alternative fuel
444:design standards
352:Impact investing
158:Circular economy
125:Carbon footprint
44:
21:
20:
4899:
4898:
4894:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4869:
4868:
4867:
4855:
4845:
4843:
4831:
4819:
4811:
4809:
4804:
4757:
4755:
4738:
4685:
4676:Orbital forcing
4570:
4535:
4516:
4490:Paris Agreement
4468:
4464:Warming stripes
4403:
4369:Managed retreat
4364:Loss and damage
4325:
4259:Business action
4243:
4221:
4198:
4121:
4115:
4072:
4033:Climate finance
3978:
3957:
3889:
3742:
3718:Extinction risk
3694:Flora and fauna
3689:
3650:Permafrost thaw
3645:Ozone depletion
3574:Extreme weather
3528:
3511:
3438:
3419:
3356:
3321:
3304:
3271:
3260:
3255:
3224:
3212:
3204:
3199:
3198:
3186:
3180:
3176:
3166:
3164:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3141:
3139:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3116:
3114:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3091:
3089:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3045:
3033:
3029:
3019:
3017:
3000:
2996:
2969:
2965:
2918:
2914:
2902:
2896:
2889:
2877:
2871:
2862:
2841:
2837:
2825:
2819:
2812:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2764:
2762:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2721:
2717:
2707:
2705:
2695:
2691:
2681:
2679:
2669:
2665:
2652:
2650:
2649:. 20 April 2023
2641:
2640:
2636:
2627:
2626:
2622:
2579:
2575:
2532:
2528:
2518:
2516:
2506:
2502:
2487:
2463:
2459:
2424:
2415:
2380:
2376:
2331:
2327:
2312:
2289:
2283:
2279:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2170:
2163:
2116:(10): 895–900.
2102:
2093:
2040:
2036:
1991:
1987:
1977:
1975:
1960:
1956:
1946:
1944:
1943:. December 2015
1940:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1919:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1870:
1868:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1840:
1836:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1766:
1759:
1749:
1747:
1729:
1725:
1716:
1715:
1708:
1699:
1695:
1632:
1628:
1618:
1616:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1585:
1583:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1535:
1533:
1517:
1513:
1505:
1498:
1488:
1486:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1462:
1460:
1442:
1438:
1428:
1426:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1380:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1329:
1327:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1293:
1272:
1256:Paris Agreement
1252:
1231:(DOT), and the
1207:Along with the
1166:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1138:needs expansion
1123:
1106:
1087:
1056:
1044:
1033:
1023:
1012:
999:
995:
978:
952:
949:
948:
946:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
905:
898:
893:
889:
872:
856:time preference
848:
829:
787:time preference
774:
763:
756:
752:
725:
713:
692:
663:
662:
618:
610:
609:
544:
536:
535:
521:Thermoeconomics
275:Ethical banking
163:Climate finance
148:
140:
139:
120:
112:
111:
52:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4897:
4887:
4886:
4881:
4879:Carbon finance
4866:
4865:
4853:
4841:
4839:Global warming
4829:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4802:
4790:
4778:
4766:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4744:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4720:
4719:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4631:
4629:Cloud feedback
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4610:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4584:
4578:
4576:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4547:
4545:
4537:
4536:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4487:
4485:Kyoto Protocol
4482:
4476:
4474:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4461:
4460:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4439:
4437:Media coverage
4434:
4429:
4427:Climate spiral
4424:
4419:
4413:
4411:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4335:
4333:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4316:Public opinion
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4282:
4281:
4271:
4266:
4264:Climate action
4261:
4255:
4253:
4245:
4244:
4231:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4206:
4204:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4191:
4185:
4184:
4183:
4178:
4176:REDD and REDD+
4173:
4168:
4160:
4155:
4153:Carbon farming
4150:
4149:
4148:
4143:
4133:
4127:
4125:
4117:
4116:
4114:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4097:
4096:
4086:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4003:
3998:
3992:
3990:
3980:
3979:
3967:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3899:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3887:
3885:Water security
3882:
3880:Water scarcity
3877:
3875:Urban flooding
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3836:
3835:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3761:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3723:Forest dieback
3720:
3715:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3660:Sea level rise
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3641:
3640:
3635:
3633:stratification
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3605:
3604:
3603:
3598:
3588:
3587:
3586:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3540:
3538:
3530:
3529:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3443:
3440:
3439:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3412:
3411:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3398:Carbon leakage
3395:
3390:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3339:
3337:Climate system
3333:
3331:
3323:
3322:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3262:
3261:
3258:Climate change
3254:
3253:
3246:
3239:
3231:
3222:
3221:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3174:
3149:
3124:
3099:
3073:
3055:
3027:
2994:
2963:
2912:
2887:
2860:
2835:
2810:
2772:
2738:
2715:
2689:
2663:
2634:
2620:
2573:
2526:
2500:
2485:
2457:
2413:
2374:
2325:
2310:
2277:
2246:10.1086/701900
2240:(2): 243–273.
2220:
2199:
2161:
2091:
2034:
1985:
1954:
1929:
1903:
1878:
1849:
1834:
1785:
1757:
1723:
1706:
1693:
1626:
1593:
1559:
1542:
1531:10.3386/w32450
1511:
1496:
1470:
1436:
1410:
1390:
1365:
1337:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1271:
1268:
1251:
1248:
1201:working groups
1165:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1135:
1133:
1122:
1119:
1105:
1102:
1086:
1083:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
998:
994:
991:
988:
985:
981:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
959:
956:
941:carbon dioxide
932:
928:
924:
920:
913:
903:
896:
891:
887:
871:
868:
847:
844:
827:
773:
770:
761:
754:
750:
723:
711:
694:
693:
691:
690:
683:
676:
668:
665:
664:
661:
660:
658:Rail subsidies
655:
653:Green politics
650:
648:Green New Deal
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
623:Carbon leakage
619:
616:
615:
612:
611:
608:
607:
602:
597:
592:
587:
582:
577:
575:Feed-in tariff
572:
567:
562:
557:
551:
545:
542:
541:
538:
537:
534:
533:
531:Value of Earth
528:
523:
518:
517:
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
406:
405:
404:
399:
394:
387:Sustainability
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
343:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
282:
277:
272:
271:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
193:Eco-innovation
190:
185:
183:Eco-capitalism
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
149:
146:
145:
142:
141:
138:
137:
132:
127:
121:
119:Climate change
118:
117:
114:
113:
110:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
72:Carbon finance
69:
64:
59:
53:
50:
49:
46:
45:
37:
36:
30:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4896:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4852:
4842:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4817:
4814:
4801:
4800:
4791:
4789:
4788:
4779:
4777:
4776:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4753:
4752:
4749:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4718:
4715:
4714:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4702:Climate model
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4635:
4634:Cloud forcing
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4577:
4573:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4531:
4527:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4477:
4475:
4471:
4465:
4462:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4409:Communication
4406:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4389:Vulnerability
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4359:Flood control
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4332:
4328:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4236:
4232:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4182:
4181:reforestation
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4166:afforestation
4164:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4118:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4101:Nuclear power
4099:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3996:Carbon budget
3994:
3993:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3972:
3968:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3833:Mental health
3831:
3830:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3765:
3764:United States
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3707:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3699:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3618:deoxygenation
3616:
3614:
3613:acidification
3611:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3592:
3589:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3441:
3434:
3430:
3416:
3413:
3409:
3408:from wetlands
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3368:Deforestation
3366:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3274:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3252:
3247:
3245:
3240:
3238:
3233:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3218:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3066:
3059:
3044:
3043:
3038:
3031:
3015:
3011:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2901:
2894:
2892:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2839:
2831:
2824:
2817:
2815:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2782:
2776:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2726:
2719:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2648:
2647:www.canada.ca
2644:
2638:
2630:
2624:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2469:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2209:
2203:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2166:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2139:11311/1099986
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2005:(9): 094037.
2004:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1939:
1933:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1888:
1882:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1854:
1845:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1771:
1764:
1762:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1719:
1713:
1711:
1703:
1697:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1606:The Economist
1603:
1597:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1552:
1546:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1515:
1509:, p. 374
1508:
1503:
1501:
1484:
1480:
1474:
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4544:Measurements
4239:Society and
4123:carbon sinks
4028:Climate debt
4018:Carbon price
3840:Human rights
3665:Season creep
3623:heat content
3549:Anoxic event
3462:James Hansen
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469:food systems
397:organization
188:Eco commerce
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102:Pigovian tax
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4863:Environment
4614:Carbon sink
4592:atmospheric
4457:video games
4131:Blue carbon
3754:Agriculture
3733:Marine life
3680:Water cycle
3638:temperature
3373:Fossil fuel
3048:22 December
2949:10419/49935
2708:13 February
2682:26 February
2653:12 December
2438:: 225–232.
1429:15 December
1383:15 December
733:Because of
716:social cost
494:procurement
449:development
434:consumption
419:agriculture
414:advertising
409:Sustainable
300:development
4873:Categories
4646:Cryosphere
4607:permafrost
4379:Resilience
4331:Adaptation
4306:Litigation
4296:Governance
4241:adaptation
4023:Carbon tax
3976:Mitigation
3913:Antarctica
3801:Disability
3117:7 November
3092:7 November
3020:4 November
2803:4 November
2765:7 November
2593:: 127786.
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1892:. May 2015
1871:7 November
1330:12 October
1303:References
1104:By country
880:carbon tax
743:carbon tax
484:management
479:livelihood
474:industries
424:capitalism
392:accounting
290:accounting
248:enterprise
238:accounting
135:Food miles
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4661:Feedbacks
4432:Education
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3928:Australia
3855:Migration
3818:Fisheries
3759:Livestock
3685:Wildfires
3591:Heat wave
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4597:biologic
4311:Politics
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3270:Overview
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330:recovery
295:building
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509:tourism
464:finance
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