Social exchange theory

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between the two exchanges is the level of risks associated with the exchange and the uncertainty these risks create (ref). Negotiated exchange can consist of binding and non-binding negotiations. When comparing the levels of risk within these exchanges, reciprocal exchange has the highest level of risk which in result produces the most uncertainty. An example of a risk that could occur during the reciprocal exchange is the factor that the second party could end up not returning the favor and completing the reciprocal exchange. Binding negotiated exchanges involve the least amount of risks which will result the individuals feeling low levels of uncertainty. Whereas non-binding negotiated exchanges and their level of risks and uncertainty fall in between the amount of risks associated with reciprocal and binding negotiated exchanges. Since there is not a binding agreement involved, one party involved in the exchange could decide to not cooperate with the agreement.

1551:. According to the study, the amount one person rewards another and the comparison levels for alternatives become the most important factors in determining liking and satisfaction. Auld, C. and Alan C. conducted a study to discover what processes occur and what is experienced during social leisure relationships. They use the concept of reciprocity to understand their findings. The study concluded that meeting new people is often given as a major reason for participation in leisure activities, and meeting new people may be conceptualized as an exercise of reciprocity. In this case, reciprocity is perceived as a starting mechanism for new social relationships because people are willing to be helped by others, expecting that the help will eventually be returned. A study conducted by Paul, G., called Exchange and access in field work tries to understand the relationships between the researchers and subjects. This study concludes that 1029:

Under his perspective every individual is trying to maximize his wins. Blau stated that once this concept is understood, it is possible to observe social exchanges everywhere, not only in market relations, but also in other social relations like friendship. Social exchange process brings satisfaction when people receive fair returns for their expenditures. The major difference between social and economic exchange is the nature of the exchange between parties. Neoclassic economic theory views the actor as dealing not with another actor but with a market and environmental parameters, such as market price. Unlike economic exchange, the elements of social exchange are quite varied and cannot be reduced to a single quantitative exchange rate. According to Stafford, social exchanges involve a connection with another person; involve trust and not legal obligations; are more flexible; and rarely involve explicit bargaining.

1340:. When people engage in these behavioral sequences, they are dependent to some extent on their relational partner. In order for behavioral sequences to lead to social exchange, two conditions must be achieved: "It must be oriented towards ends that can only be achieved through interaction with other persons, and it must seek to adapt means to further the achievement of these ends". The concept of reciprocity also derives from this pattern. The reciprocity principle refers to the mutual reinforcement by two parties of each other's actions. The process begins when at least one participant makes a "move", and if the other reciprocates, new rounds of exchange initiate. Once the process is in motion, each consequence can create a self-reinforcing cycle. Even though the norm of reciprocity may be a universally accepted principle, the degree to which people and cultures apply this concept varies. 1328:. According to Thibaut and Kelley, the comparison level (CL) is a standard representing what people feel they should receive in the way of rewards and costs from a particular relationship. An individual's comparison level can be considered the standard by which an outcome seems to satisfy the individual. The comparison level for alternative (CLalt) refers to "the lowest level of relational rewards a person is willing to accept given available rewards from alternative relationships or being alone". In other words, when using this evaluation tool, an individual will consider other alternative payoffs or rewards outside of the current relationship or exchange. CLalt provides a measure of stability rather than satisfaction. If people see no alternative and fear being alone more than being in the relationship, social exchange theory predicts they will stay. 922:(1908–2009). Homans defined social exchange as the exchange of activity, tangible or intangible, and more or less rewarding or costing between at least two persons. After Homans founded the theory, other theorists continued to write about it, particularly Peter M. Blau and Richard M. Emerson, who in addition to Homans are generally thought of as the major developers of the exchange perspective within sociology. Homans' work emphasized the individual behavior of actors in interaction with one another. Although there are various modes of exchange, Homans centered his studies on dyadic exchange. John Thibaut and Harold Kelley are recognized for focusing their studies within the theory on the psychological concepts, the dyad and small group. 1771:

extrapolates that the combinations of stability and uncontrollability elicit different emotions. In social exchange, social connections can be sources of stability and controllability. For example, if an exchange partner is perceived as a stable source of positive feelings, and the exchange partner has control in the acts that elicit those positive feelings, this will strengthen affective attachment. Therefore, affect theory of social exchange proposes that stable and controllable sources of positive feelings (i.e. pleasantness, pride, gratitude) will elicit affective attachments while stable and uncontrollable sources of negative feelings (i.e. unpleasantness, shame, anger) will elicit affective detachment.

1639:. This study examines a model of clear leadership and relational building between head and teachers as antecedents, and organizational citizenship behavior as a consequence of teacher–school exchange. Citizenship behavior can also be shown with employees and their employers.This is shown through organizational identification which plays an important role in organizational citizenship behavior. An employee's identification with their employer plays a significant role in supporting and promoting organized citizenship behavior, serving as a mediating mechanism with citizenship behaviors, perceived organizational justice, and organizational support based on both the social exchange and social identity theory. 981:

different manners, and they could differ depending on the type and amount of the resources exchanged. He poses the idea that power and dependence are the main aspects that define a relationship. According to Emerson, Exchange is not a theory, but a framework from which other theories can converge and be compared to structural functionalism. Emerson's perspective was similar to Blau's since they both focused on the relationship power had with the exchange process. Emerson says that social exchange theory is an approach in sociology that is described for simplicity as an economic analysis of noneconomic social situations. Exchange theory brings a quasi-economic form of analysis into those situations.

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interdependence. The research identified that when individuals receive economic and socioemotional resources from their organization, they feel obliged to respond in kind and repay the organization. This is a description of engagement as a two-way relationship between the employer and employee. One way for individuals to repay their organization is through their level of engagement. The more engaged the employee are to their work, the greater amounts of cognitive, emotional, and physical resources they will devote to perform their job duties. When the organization fails to provide economic or emotional resources, the employees are more likely to withdraw and disengage themselves from their roles.

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benefit of self-disclosure, whereas risk is the foundational cost of self-disclosure. They find that positive social influence to use an online community increases online community self-disclosure; reciprocity increases self-disclosure; online community trust increases self-disclosure; and privacy risk beliefs decrease self-disclosure. Meanwhile, a tendency toward collectivism increases self-disclosure. Similar research also leveraged SET to examine privacy concerns versus desire for interpersonal awareness in driving the use of self-disclosure technologies in the context of instant messaging. This study was also a cross-cultural study, but instead compared US and Chinese participants.

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assumptions. He contributed to the idea of distinguishing between social and economic exchanges and exchange and power. The goal of his theory was to identify complex and simple processes without ignoring emergent properties. Blau's utilitarian focus encouraged the theorist to look forward, as in what they anticipated the reward would be in regards to their next social interaction. Blau felt that if individuals focused too much on the psychological concepts within the theory, they would refrain from learning the developing aspects of social exchange. Blau emphasized technical economic analysis whereas Homans concentrated more on the psychology of instrumental behavior.

1736:(productive, negotiated, reciprocal, or generalized) provides a description of the exchange task. The task features are defined by the degree of interdependence (separability of tasks) and shared responsibility between partners to complete the task. These features influence the strength of the emotion felt. Productive exchanges are interdependent and this high degree of nonseparability generates the strongest emotions. Reciprocal exchanges are separable which reduces the perceptions of shared responsibility. The exchange produces little emotional response, but individuals instead express emotions in response to the asymmetrical transaction. 1627:

with whom. Colleagues who never ´pay back´ and make actual exchange happen (that is, who consume rather than produce and share), risk being left out. The study also points out the possibility of ´negative rewards´: exchange of one's knowledge, materials or otherwise may enable someone else the misuse that what was shared and/or take credit somewhere in the team or organisation. As such, interpersonal relationships and ´fair´ exchange appear important, as does some kind of mechanism for rewards and gratitude (possibly organisation-wide), as these impact on individual professional discretion and the degree and success of exchange.

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marriage patterns has been used to support the idea of a racial hierarchy. Lewis, however, explains that the same patterns of marriage can be accounted for in terms of simple facial attractiveness patterns of the different gender by race groupings. Recent changes have seen an increase in black women marrying white men and a decrease in raw prevalence of interracial marriages when it comes to black women. There has also been a shift in the concentration of interracial marriage from mostly being between those with low education levels to those with higher levels of education.

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developed a theory of power-dependence relations. According to this theory, the dependence a person has on another brings up the concept of power. Power differentiation affects social structures by causing inequalities between members of different groups, such as an individual having superiority over another. Power within the theory is governed by two variables : the structure of power in exchange networks and strategic use. Experimental data show that the position an actor occupies in a social exchange network determines relative dependence and therefore power.

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anthropological perspective have been analyzed using the gift-giving phenomena. The concept of reciprocity under this perspective states that individuals can directly reward his benefactor or another person in the social exchange process. Lévi-Strauss developed the theory of cousin marriage based on the pervasiveness of gift-giving in primitive societies. The basis of this theory is the distinction between restricted exchanges, which is only capable of connecting pairs of social groups, and generalize exchange, which integrates indefinite numbers of groups.

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free-meaning, the propositions themselves can stand alone within the theory. Proposition number six has been identified by scholars as a notion that there is a general assumption of a need for social approval as a reward and can therefore act as a drive force behind actions. Proposition seven will only work if the individual has the freedom to be excluded from outside factors while in a social exchange relationship. The twelfth and final proposition is directed towards the way our society has a heightened value placed on monetary funds.

1127:) a person can receive, those being intangible, tangible, instrumental, and informational. Intangible support can either be social or emotional and can be love, friendship and appreciation that comes with valuable relationships. Tangible support are physical gifts given to someone such as land, gifts, money, transportation, food, and completing chores. Instrumental support are services given to someone in a relationship. Finally, informational support is the delivering of information that is helpful to an individual. 1123:

support, this model uses concentric circles to describe relationships around an individual with the strongest relationships in the closet circle. As a person ages, these relationships form a convoy that moves along with the person and exchanges in support and assistance through different circumstances that occur. It also changes through the directionality of support given to and by the individual with the people within their support network. Within this model, there are different types of support (

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outcomes can be pay, fringe benefits, and power status. The individual will mainly expect an equitable input-outcome ratio. Inequity happens when the individual perceives an unbalanced ratio of their outcomes and other's outcomes. This can occur in a direct exchange of the two parties, or there can be a third party involved. An individual's point of view of equity or inequity can differ depending on the individual.

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partners and resources occurs. This allows a continuation of networking. One may go through this process quite frequently. A study applied this theory to new media (online dating). The study discovers the different factors involved when an individual decides to establish an online relationship. Overall the study followed the social exchange theory's idea, "people are attracted to those who grant them rewards".

1105:, which studies the nature and quality of social exchange and close bonds. It suggests that once the individuals start to give more of their resources to one another, relationships evolve progressively from exchanging superficial goods to other, more meaningful exchanges. It progresses to the point called "self-disclosure", where the individuals share innermost thoughts and feelings with one another. 1754:

Affective attachment occurs when a social unit (partner or group) is the target of positive feelings from exchange; affective detachment (alienation) occurs when a social unit is the target of negative feelings from failure to exchange. Affective attachment increases solidarity. Similar to the attribution of emotion, productive exchange produces the strongest affective attachments,

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exchanges repeat, the strong relationships become visible to other parties, making salient their role as a group and helping to generate a group identity that continues to bind the partners together in a network. Affect theory predicts that networks of negotiated and reciprocal exchange will tend to promote stronger relational ties within partners; productive or

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self-interest is not a negative thing; rather, when self-interest is recognized, it will act as the guiding force of interpersonal relationships for the advancement of both parties' self-interest"—Michael Roloff (1981) Thibaut and Kelley see the mutual interdependence of persons as the central problem for the study of social behavior. They developed a

895:, and ephemeral relationships as simple as exchanging words with a customer at the cash register. Social exchange theory says that if the costs of the relationship are higher than the rewards, such as if a lot of effort or money were put into a relationship and not reciprocated, then the relationship may be terminated or abandoned. 1614:

exchange partners. The initial transaction between companies is crucial to determining whether their relationship will expand, remain the same or will dissolve. Holmen and Pedersen note that social exchange theory has contributed to the understanding of "connected" business relationships between firms.

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Most social exchange models have three basic assumptions in common: behavior in a social sense is based on exchanges, if an individual allows someone to receives a reward the person then feels the need to reciprocate due to social pressure and individuals will try to minimize their cost while gaining

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whereas negative relationships will probably terminate. In a mutually beneficial exchange, each party supplies the wants of the other party at lower cost to self than the value of the resources the other party provides. In such a model, mutual relationship satisfaction ensures relationship stability.

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Homans based his theory on concepts of equilibration, expectancy and distributive justice in dyadic exchange. With this, he tries to explain the social interaction in small groups and the rewards received proportional to their costs and investments. Homans summarizes the system in three propositions:

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Several definitions of power have been offered by exchange theorists. For instance, some theorists view power as distinct from exchanges, some view it as a kind of exchange and others believe power is a medium of exchange. However, the most useful definition of power is that proposed by Emerson, who

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Social exchange theory views exchange as a social behavior that may result both in economic and social outcomes. Social exchange theory has been generally analyzed by comparing human interactions with the marketplace. The study of the theory from the microeconomics perspective is attributed to Blau.

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Repeated exchanges allow a network to evolve into a group. Affect theory highlights the contributions of emotions in producing group properties. Successful interactions generate positive feelings for the involved individuals, which motivates them to interact with the same partners in the future. As

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Lawler also proposes that the persistence (stability) and ability to control acts by the exchange partner (controllability) provide conditions for affective attachment by attributing credit or blame for the success or failure of the exchange. Following Weiner (1985) affect theory of social exchange

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The different types of exchange (productive, reciprocal, and generalized) also impact the solidarity or identification that an individual will feel with their exchange partners or group. The different exchange types help dictate the target of felt emotions and influences an individual's attachment.

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Another more recent study by M. van Houten which took place in institutions for vocational education shows how, in social exchange relationships between teachers, reciprocity and feelings of ownership, affection and interpersonal safety impact on individual professionals´ decisions on what to share

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are the major instrument to build differentiated relationships between organizations and customers. Through the information process, companies identify the customer's own individual needs. From this perspective, a client becomes an investment. If a customer decides to choose another competitor, the

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Social behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods but also non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them. This process of influence tends

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People develop patterns of exchange to cope with power differentials and to deal with the costs associated with exercising power. These patterns describe behavioral rules or norms that indicate how people trade resources in an attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Three different matrices

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Other rewards and costs equal, they are more likely to associate with, marry, and form other relationships with their equals, than those above or below them. (Equality here is viewed as the sum of abilities, performances, characteristics, and statuses that determine one's desirability in the social

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If worth is a positive number, it is a positive relationship. On the contrary, a negative number indicates a negative relationship. The worth of a relationship influences its outcome, or whether people will continue with a relationship or terminate it. Positive relationships are expected to endure,

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Understanding interpersonal disclosure in online social networking is an ideal application of social networking theory. Researchers have leveraged SET to explain self-disclosure in a cross-cultural context of French and British working professionals. They discover that reciprocation is the primary

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have been explained using social exchange theory. Kalmijn suggests that ethnic status is offset against educational or financial resources. This process has been used to explain why there are more marriages between black men and white women than between white men and black women. This asymmetry in

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involves indirect reciprocity between three or more individuals. For example, one person gives to another and the recipient responds by giving to another person other than the first person. Productive exchange means that both actors have to contribute for either one of them to benefit. Both people

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The basis of social exchange theory is to explain social change and stability as a process of negotiating exchanges between parties. These changes can occur over a person's life course through the various relationships, opportunities, and means of support. An example of this is the convoy model of

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and discovered some clues of individuals' interdependence such as the power of a party over each other, also known as the "correspondence" versus "noncorrespondence" of outcomes. Additionally, they suggest that an individual can unilaterally affect her or his own outcomes in a relationship through

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theory that studies the social behavior in the interaction of two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine risks and benefits. The theory also involves economic relationships—the cost-benefit analysis occurs when each party has goods that the other parties value. Social exchange

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Throughout the theory, one can also end up losing relationships that were already established because the feeling of no longer being beneficial. One feels as if there is not longer a need for a relationship or communication due to lack of rewards. Once this happens, the process of looking for new

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Rosenfeld (2005) has noted significant limitations to Social Exchange Theory and its application in the selection of mates/partners. Specifically, Rosenfeld looked at the limitations of interracial couples and the application of social exchange theory. His analysis suggest that in modern society,

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Russell Cropanzano and Marie S. Mitchell discuss how one of the major issues within the social exchange theory is the lack of information within studies on the various exchange rules. Reciprocity is a major exchange rule discussed but, Cropanzano and Mitchell write that the theory would be better

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theory on two conceptualizations: one that focuses on the nature of individuals and one that describes the relationships between two people. Thus, the assumptions they make also fall into these categories. The assumptions that social exchange theory makes about human nature include the following:

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as part of the exchange process. Formalized by Lawler (2001), the affect theory examines the structural conditions of exchange that produce emotions and feelings and then identifies how individuals attribute these emotions to different social units (exchange partners, groups, or networks). These

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relational exchange. According to a study conducted by Lambe, C. Jay, C. Michael Wittmann, and Robert E. Spekman, firms evaluate economic and social outcomes from each transaction and compare them to what they feel they deserve. Firms also look for additional benefits provided by other potential

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In this process, the individuals will compare their rewards with others' in relation to their costs. Equity can be defined as the balance between a person's inputs and outcomes on the job. Some examples of inputs can be qualifications, promotions, interest on the job and how hard one works. Some

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Individuals experience emotions (general feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness) depending on whether their exchange is successful. These emotions are construed as a reward (or punishment) and individuals strive to repeat actions that reproduce positive emotions or avoid negative emotions.

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Another common form of exchange is negotiated exchange which focuses on the negotiation of rules in order for both parties to reach a beneficial agreement. Reciprocal exchanges and negotiated exchanges are often analyzed and compared to discover their essential differences. One major difference

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Social exchange theory is not one theory but a frame of reference within which many theories can speak to another, whether in argument or mutual support. All these theories are built upon several assumptions about human nature and the nature of relationships. Thibaut and Kelley have based their

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One condition for how social (partner or group) attributions can increase solidarity is by reducing self-serving attributions of credit or blame for the success or failure of the exchange. When individuals have group attributions for positive emotions stemming from success, this eliminates any

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The most extensive application of social exchange has been in the area of interpersonal relationships. However, social exchange theory materializes in many different situations with the same idea of the exchange of resources. Self-Interest can encourage individuals to make decisions that will

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approach, a major goal of his work was to explicate the micro-foundations of social structures and social exchange. By studying such forms of behavior he hoped to illuminate the informal sub-institutional bases of more complex social behavior, typically more formal and often institutionalized.

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Emerson was inspired by Homans and Blau's ideas. He focused on the interaction and relationship between individuals and parties. His view of social exchange theory emphasizes the resource availability, power, and dependence as primary dynamics. He thought that relations were organized in

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Individuals will use the exchange task to understand the source (partners, groups, or networks) of their emotions. Individuals are more likely to attribute their emotions to their exchange partners or groups when the task can only be completed with one or more partners, when the task requires

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based on the interdependence of actors. They also highlighted social implications of different forms of interdependence such as reciprocal control. According to their interdependence definition, outcomes are based on a combination of parties' efforts and mutual and complementary arrangements.

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do not occur directly, but interdependence is still high and coordination between partners is difficult. Because there is no direct emotional foundation, emotions produced are low. Negotiated exchanges may produce conflicting emotions due to the mixed-motive nature of negotiations; even when

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Bohannan focuses his theory on economic problems such as multicentrism, and modes of exchange. He contributed to the social exchange theory finding the role and function of markets in tribal subsistence economies, makes a distinction of economic redistribution and market exchange from social

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to explain exchange processes. To him, the meaning of individual self-interest is a combination of economic and psychological needs. Fulfilling self-interest is often common within the economic realm of the social exchange theory where competition and greed can be common. In social exchange,

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is a useful version of social exchange theory. According to this model, investments serve to stabilize relationships. The greater the nontransferable investments a person has in a given relationship, the more stable the relationship is likely to be. The same investment concept is applied in

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As with everything dealing with the social exchange theory, it has as its outcome satisfaction and dependence of relationships. The social-exchange perspective argues that people calculate the overall worth of a particular relationship by subtracting its costs from the rewards it provides.

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Blau's theory is very similar to Homans'. However, he uses more economics terms and it is based principally on emergent social structure in social exchange patterns in small groups. His theory analyzes the development of exchange theory in economics without emphasizing on the psychological

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relationships involve exchanges although the balance of this exchange is not always equal. We cannot achieve our goals alone so as humans sometimes we have to become actors. In the world today we see actors as unemotional people but that is not the case once we reach our goals in the end.

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is a widely used example in game theory that attempts to illustrate why or how two individuals may not cooperate with each other, even if it is in their best interest to do so. It demonstrates that while cooperation would give the best outcome, people might nevertheless act selfishly. All

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In his article published in 1978, Nye originally proposed seven propositions that were common in all types of relationship. A few years later he would expand the propositions to a total of twelve. The first five propositions listed are classified as general propositions and are substance

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A study conducted by A. Saks serves as an example to explain engagement of employees in organizations. This study uses one of the tenets of social exchange theory to explain that obligations are generated through a series of interactions between parties who are in a state of reciprocal

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approach to explain exchanges. To Lévi-Strauss, a social exchange is defined as a regulated form of behavior in the context of societal rules and norms. This contrasts with psychological studies of exchange in which behaviors are studied ignoring the culture. Social exchanges from the

1437:, group gain, status consistency and competition. Meeker points out that within the exchange process, each unit takes into account at least the following elements: reciprocity, rationality, altruism (social responsibility), group gain, status, consistency, and competition (rivalry). 1656:

The actors in social exchange are normally viewed as unemotional beings who have information, cognitively process it, and make decisions concerning the pattern and nature of exchange with others. Affect theory of social exchange complements social exchange theory by incorporating

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states that a benefit should be returned and the one who gives the benefit should not be harmed. This is used to stabilize relationships and to identify egoism. This norm suggests independence in relationships and invite the individual to consider more than one's self-interest.

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to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges. For a person in an exchange, what he gives may be a cost to him, just as what he gets may be a reward, and his behavior changes less as the difference of the two, profit, tends to a maximum ("Theories Used in Research").

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chosen behaviors. They could predict the possible course of a social interaction through the analysis of aspects of power in an encounter. They also experimented on how the outcomes received in a relationship could define a person's attractions to relationships.

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According to Thibaut and Kelley, there are two types of power: fate control and behavior control. Fate control is the ability to affect a partner's outcomes. Behavior control is the power to cause another's behavior to change by changing one's own behavior.

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and enhances both pride in the self and gratitude to the partner. However, group attributions for negative emotions stemming from failure do not eliminate self-serving biases, resulting in more anger toward the partner or group than shame in the self.

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Individuals interpret and exchange their feelings with respect to social relationships (e.g. partners, groups, networks). Positive emotions produced by exchange will increase solidarity in these relationships, while negative emotions will decrease

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are central properties of social exchange. These are the basic forms of interaction when two or more actors have something of value to each other, and they have to decide whether to exchange and in what amounts. Homans uses the concepts of

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Mauss's theory tries to identify the role played by morality and religion in the social exchange. Mauss argues the exchange found in the society is influenced by social behaviors, while morality and religion influence all aspects of life.

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Stolte, John F. and Emerson, Richard M. (1977) "Structural Inequality: Position and Power in Network Structures." pp. 117–138 in Robert Hamblin and John Kunkel (eds.) Behavioral Theory in Sociology. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction

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emerge from elementary forms of behavior. His vision of the underpinnings of social structure and institutional forms is linked to the actions of individuals, for example to their responses to rewarding and punishment circumstances.

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Other rewards and costs equal, they choose to associate with, marry, and form other relationships with those whose values and opinions generally are in agreement with their own and reject or avoid those with whom they chronically

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Liu, Dong; Chen, Xiao-Ping; Holley, Erica (2017). "Help yourself by helping others: The joint impact of group member organizational citizenship behaviors and group cohesiveness on group member objective task performance change".

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Simple social exchange models assume that rewards and costs drive relationship decisions. Both parties in a social exchange take responsibility for one another and depend on each other. The elements of relational life include:

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transactions are successful, individuals may feel like they had the ability to do better, creating emotional ambivalence. Overall, productive exchanges produce the strongest attributions of emotions, generalized (indirect)

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With his Kula exchange, Malinowski drew a sharp differentiation between economic exchange and social exchange. Using his Kula exchange, Malinowski states that the motives of exchange can be mainly social and psychological.

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Affect theory of social exchange shows how the conditions of exchanges promote interpersonal and group relationships through emotions and affective processes. The theoretical arguments center on the following five claims:

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There are three or more individuals who have the opportunity to make exchanges with one another. These actors are able to make decisions about whether to exchange, with whom to exchange, and under what terms to execute an

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to conclude that people pursue rewards to minimize costs. The "satisfactory-ness" of the rewards that a party gains from an exchange relationship is judged relative to some standard, which may vary from party to party.

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Benjamin Lowry, Paul; Cao, Jinwei; Everard, Andrea (2011). "Privacy concerns versus desire for interpersonal awareness in driving the use of self-disclosure technologies: The case of instant messaging in two cultures".

1384:, and Productive Exchange. In a direct exchange, reciprocation is confined to the two actors. One social actor provides value to another one and the other reciprocates. There are three different types of reciprocity: 1194:

Homans developed five key propositions that assist in structuring individuals' behaviors based on rewards and costs. This set of theoretical ideas represents the core of Homans's version of social exchange theory.

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Posey, Clay; Benjamin Lowry, Paul; Roberts, Tom L.; Ellis, Selwyn (2010). "Proposing the online community self-disclosure model: The case of working professionals in France and the UK who use online communities".

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He proposes three principles to create a new idea for socioeconomic change, transforming traditional economies, and political economic development. These principles are: reciprocity, redistribution and marketing.

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Based on economics, Frazer's theory about social exchange emphasizes the importance of power and status differentiations in social exchange. Frazer's theory had a particular interest in the cross-cousin marriage.

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Karen S. Cook and Erick R. W.Rice. Department of Sociology, Stanford University, Stanford California 94305. Handbook of Sociological Theory, edited by Jonathan H. Turner. kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers, New

1530:. Lévi-Strauss is considered as one of the major contributors to the anthropology of exchange. Within this field, self-interest, human sentiment and motivational process are not considered. Lévi–Strauss uses a 1211:

The fifth proposition discusses when emotions occur due to different reward situations. Those who receive more than they expect or do not receive anticipated punishment will be happy and will behave approvingly.

994:, such as kinship systems and gift exchange. He based his kinship systems on Mauss's investigation. As it works in the form of indirect reciprocities, Levi-Strauss suggested the concept of generalized exchange. 989:

Strauss was a social exchange theorist in the context of anthropology. He is recognized for contributing to the emergence of this theoretical perspective from his work on anthropology focused on systems of

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The given matrix represents the behavioral choices and outcomes that are determined by a combination of external factors (environment) and internal factors (the specific skills each interactant possesses).

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investment will be lost. When people find they have invested too much to quit a relationship or enterprise, they devote additional resources to the relationship to salvage their initial investment.

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there is less of a gap between interracial partners education level, socioeconomic status, and social class level which in turn, makes the previously understood application of social exchange moot.

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Costs and other rewards being equal, individuals choose the alternatives that supply or can be expected to supply the most social approval (or those that promise the least social disapproval).

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attributions of emotion, in turn, dictate how strongly individuals feel attached to their partners or groups, which drives collectively oriented behavior and commitment to the relationship.

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are the elements of relational life that have negative value to a person, such as the effort put into a relationship and the negatives of a partner. (Costs can be time, money, effort etc.)

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The theory favors openness as it was developed in the 1970s when ideas of freedom and openness were preferred, but there may be times when openness isn't the best option in a relationship.

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According to Kelley and Thibaut, people engage in behavioral sequence, or a series of actions designed to achieve their goal. This is congruent with their assumption that human beings are

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Settoon, Randall P.; Bennett, Nathan; Liden, Robert C. (1996). "Social exchange in organizations: Perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, and employee reciprocity".

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The third proposition: the value proposition believes that if the result of a behavioral action is considered valuable to the individual, it is more likely for that behavior to occur.

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Lavelle, J. J.; Rupp, D. E.; Brockner, J. (2007). "Taking a Multifoci Approach to the Study of Justice, Social Exchange, and Citizenship Behavior: The Target Similarity Model".

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The fourth proposition: the deprivation-satiation proposition believes that if an individual has received the same reward several times, the value of that reward will diminish.

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Deprivation–satiation proposition: The more often in the recent past a person has received a particular reward, the less valuable any further unit of that reward becomes.

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Another example is Berg's study about development of friendship between roommates. The research found how social exchange processes changed during the year by measuring

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Individuals will try to understand the source or cause of feelings produced by social exchange. In this way, emotions become attributed to the object that caused them.

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The second proposition: the stimulus proposition believes that if an individual's behavior is rewarded in the past, the individual will continue the previous behavior.

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In industrial societies, other costs and rewards equal, individuals choose alternatives that promise the greatest financial gains for the least financial expenditures.

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Social exchange theory has served as a theoretical foundation to explain different situations in business practices. It has contributed to the study of organization-

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Elstad, Eyvind; Christophersen, Knut Andreas; Turmo, Are (2011). "Social exchange theory as an explanation of organizational citizenship behaviour among teachers".

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proposed two comparison standards to differentiate between relationship satisfaction and relationship stability. This evaluation rests on two types of comparisons:

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The effective matrix "which represents an expansion of alternative behaviors and/or outcomes which ultimately determines the behavioral choices in social exchange"

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Social exchange includes "both a notion of a relationship, and some notion of a shared obligation in which both parties perceive responsibilities to each other".

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Murstein, B. I.; Cerreto, M. G.; MacDonald, Marcia G. Mac (1977). "A theory and investigation of the effect of exchange-orientation on marriage and friendship".

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have been described by Thibaut and Kelley to illustrate the patterns people develop. These are given matrix, the effective matrix and the dispositional matrix.

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helps to satisfy the more specific needs of the parties because greater risks are taken to obtain more information. This study also introduces the concept of

2454:"SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY." Encyclopedia of Public Relations. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2005. Credo Reference. 9 Feb. 2010. Web. 2 Nov. 2013. < 959:

Stimulus proposition: The more often a particular stimulus has resulted in a reward in the past, the more likely it is that a person will respond to it.

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Other rewards and costs equal, individuals choose alternatives characterized by the least ambiguity in terms of expected future events and outcomes.

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Lambe, C. Jay; Wittmann, C. Michael; Spekman, Robert E. (2001). "Social Exchange Theory and Research on Business-to-Business Relational Exchange".

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interdependent (nonseparable) contributions, and when there is a shared sense of responsibility for the success or failure of the exchange.

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Katherine Miller outlines several major objections to or problems with the social exchange theory as developed from early seminal works

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The theory places relationships in a linear structure, when some relationships might skip steps or go backwards in terms of intimacy.

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is recognized for contributing to the emergence of this theoretical perspective from his work on anthropology focused on systems of

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are the elements of a relationship that have positive value. (Rewards can be sense of acceptance, support, and companionship etc.)

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the most from the reward. The affect theory of social exchange is based on assumptions that stem from social exchange theory and

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Thibaut and Kelley based their theory on small groups related with dyadic relationships. They used the reward-cost matrices from

3619:"Interpersonal issues in knowledge sharing: the impact of professional discretion in knowledge sharing and learning communities" 1686:

Emotions can be construed as reward or punishment (i.e. feeling good has a positive value and feeling bad has a negative value).

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Stolte, John (June 1983). "The Legitimation of Structural Inequality: Reformulation and Test of the Self-Evaluation Argument".

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The first proposition: the success proposition states that behavior that creates positive outcomes is likely to be repeated.

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Fryer, Roland G (Spring 2007). "Guess Who's Been Coming to Dinner? Trends in Interracial Marriage over the 20th Century".

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Cook, K. S.; Whitmeyer, J. M. (August 1992). "Two Approaches to Social Structure: Exchange Theory and Network Analysis".

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Cook, Karen S., and Richard Marc Emerson. Social exchange theory. Beverly Hills, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1987. Print.

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The mode of exchange determines the features of the exchange task and influences the attribution of the emotion produced

4881: 4477: 4237:"Factors Related to Initiating Interpersonal Contacts on Internet Dating Sites: A View from the Social Exchange Theory" 3335:"Factors Related to Initiating Interpersonal Contacts on Internet Dating Sites: A View from the Social Exchange Theory" 2092: 1749:

The attribution of emotions resulting from different exchange modes impact the solidarity felt with partners or groups

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Costs and other rewards being equal, individuals choose statuses and relationships that provide the most autonomy.

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The theory assumes that the ultimate goal of a relationship is intimacy when this might not always be the case.

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The dispositional matrix represents the way two people believe that rewards ought to be exchanged between them.

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He presents the idea that the economy is a category of behavior instead of just a simple category of culture.

4459: 4041: 816: 470: 4530: 4444: 4389: 4007: 3190:"The Process of Exchange, Solidarity and Sustainable Development in Building a Community of Responsibility" 135: 101: 1145:

Long-term outcomes being perceived as equal, they choose alternatives providing better immediate outcomes.

4673: 4555: 4208: 4186: 779: 105: 55: 4209:"Negotiate, reciprocate, or cooperate? The impact of exchange modes on inter-employee knowledge sharing" 956:

Success proposition: When one finds they are rewarded for their actions, they tend to repeat the action.

4760: 4613: 4449: 4432: 4343: 3371:"Social Exchange Processes in Leisure and Non-leisure Settings: A Review and Exploratory Investigation" 3001:"Social exchange processes in leisure and non-leisure settings: A review and exploratory investigation" 796: 294: 1288:

The assumptions social exchange theory makes about the nature of relationships include the following:

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Immediate outcomes being equal, they choose those alternatives that promise better long-term outcomes.

4896: 4820: 4633: 4570: 4560: 4469: 2889:"Social Exchange Theory Under Scrutiny: A Positive Critique of its Economic-Behaviorist Formulations" 1284:

The standards that humans use to evaluate costs and rewards vary over time and from person to person.

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Ivan Nye came up with twelve theoretical propositions that aid in understanding the exchange theory.

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Sprecher, S., (1998). Social exchange theories and sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 35(1), 32–43.

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The theory reduces human interaction to a purely rational process that arises from economic theory.

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Individuals try to avoid negative emotions and to reproduce positive emotions in social exchange.

1581: 1556: 1465: 855: 595: 585: 555: 435: 420: 385: 305: 300: 200: 2603:"Health Behavior and Health Education | Part Three, Chapter Nine: Key Constructs Social Support" 2296: 4954: 4825: 4663: 4550: 4540: 4525: 4515: 4427: 3972: 3538: 3091:

Cropanzano, R.; Mitchell, M. S. (2005). "Social Exchange Theory: An Interdisciplinary Review".

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The most comprehensive social exchange theories are those of the American social psychologists

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Tinti, Joel; Venelli-Costa, Luciano; Vieira, Almir; Cappellozza, Alexandre (1 November 2017).

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Other costs and rewards equal, they choose alternatives that offer the most security for them.

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Rewards being equal, they choose alternatives from which they anticipate the fewest costs.

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Cook, K. S.; Emerson, R. M. (1978). "Power, Equity and Commitment in Exchange Networks".

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Weiner, Bernard (1985). "An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion".

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Rosenfeld, Michael J. (March 2005). "A Critique of Exchange Theory in Mate Selection".

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Individuals attempt to understand what in a social exchange situation produces emotions

848: 490: 485: 405: 360: 310: 280: 260: 120: 97: 756: 4913: 4770: 4704: 4678: 4648: 4500: 4409: 4171: 4114: 4082: 4075: 4062: 3990: 3949: 3901: 3894: 3868: 3824: 3780: 3679: 3640: 3556: 3511: 3421: 3312: 3273: 3159: 3112: 2945: 2862: 2789: 2760: 2723: 2584: 2477: 2423: 2380: 2334: 2263: 2029: 1859: 1763: 1187: 708: 652: 632: 590: 570: 400: 390: 320: 170: 115: 3820: 3776: 2555:"The Convoy Model: Explaining Social Relations From a Multidisciplinary Perspective" 2197: 672: 4901: 4855: 4850: 4384: 4335: 4300: 4271: 4248: 4223: 4137: 4050: 4036: 4016: 3982: 3924: 3860: 3808: 3764: 3734: 3703: 3667: 3630: 3599: 3548: 3501: 3491: 3444: 3409: 3386: 3382: 3346: 3296: 3261: 3226: 3197: 3147: 3100: 3016: 3012: 2973: 2925: 2748: 2670: 2635: 2574: 2566: 2403: 2368: 2241: 2233: 2175: 2167: 2073: 1854: 1433:

understood if more research programs discussed a variety of exchange rules such as

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Konovsky, M. A.; Pugh, S. D. (1994). "Citizenship Behavior and Social Exchange".

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Generalization theory explaining social behaviour regarding society and economics

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as evidenced in an article by Harumi Befu, which discusses cultural ideas and

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success, stimulus, and deprivation–satiation proposition, described below.

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Saks, A.M. (2006). "Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement".

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Contemporary human behavior theory: a critical perspective for social work

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benefit themselves overall. Homans once summarized the theory by stating:

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Social exchange theory: its structure and influence in social psychology

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Through these emotional processes, networks can develop group properties

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Other applications that developed the idea of exchange include field of

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McDonell, J.; Strom-Gottfried, K. J.; Burton, D. L.; Yaffe, J. (2006).

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Engaging theories in interpersonal communication:Multiple perspectives

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Antonucci, T. C.; Ajrouch, K. J.; Birditt, K. S. (1 February 2014).

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the weakest, and negotiated and reciprocal exchange are in between.

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the weakest, with negotiated and reciprocal exchanges in between.

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Reciprocity as a transactional pattern of interdependent exchanges

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http://www.credoreference.com/entry/sagepr/social_exchange_theory

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Emotions produced by exchange are involuntary, internal responses

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Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships

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Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships

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Social exchange produces emotions that are positive to negative

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Knowledge and Ignorance of Connections between Relationships

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List of virtual communities with more than 1 million users

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Interpersonal communication: The social exchange approach

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Interpersonal communication: The social exchange approach

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Interpersonal communication: The social exchange approach

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Social exchange theory is a theoretical explanation for

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(1976). 1738:Generalized exchanges 1186:According to Homans, 1017:theoretical framework 566:Conversation analysis 141:Social stratification 4872:Friendship recession 4811:Information overload 4720:Influencer marketing 4609:Account verification 4516:Interpersonal bridge 4511:Attention inequality 4189:. AcademicEarth.org. 4003:Gouldner, Alvin Ward 3853:Psychological Review 3769:10.1057/ejis.2010.15 3696:Personnel Psychology 3131:Collins, R. (2010). 1936:. Mission Bell Media 1928:Mcray, Jeni (2015). 1805:Generalized exchange 1782:generalized exchange 1756:generalized exchange 1631:Citizenship behavior 1611:business-to-business 1569:interracial marriage 1563:Interracial marriage 1473:improve this article 1400:generalized exchange 1382:Generalized Exchange 992:generalized exchange 928:generalized exchange 4841:Social network game 4836:Social invisibility 4684:Structural cohesion 4629:Collaboration graph 4586:Structural endogamy 4566:Social media mining 4170:. New York: Wiley. 4081:. Allyn and Bacon. 3900:. New York: Wiley. 3623:Teacher Development 3553:10.1257/jep.21.2.71 3488:2012PLoSO...731703L 3449:10.1093/sf/72.1.119 1901:Roeckelein, Jon E. 1764:self-serving biases 1588:relationships, and 1109:Equity and inequity 920:Claude Lévi-Strauss 151:Social cycle theory 22:Part of a series on 4806:Internet addiction 4801:Influence-for-hire 4796:Friendship paradox 4786:Friend of a friend 4776:Computer addiction 4639:Giant Global Graph 4506:Assortative mixing 3708:10.1111/peps.12209 1845:Social interaction 1795:Complexity science 1301:prisoner's dilemma 934:Thibaut and Kelley 837:Society portal 460:History of science 441:Race and ethnicity 121:Social environment 4922: 4921: 4914:Virtual community 4771:Complex contagion 4705:Attention economy 4679:Social television 4649:Reputation system 4501:Ambient awareness 4185:Thomas Bradbury. 4177:978-0-88738-633-6 4120:978-0-574-17501-4 4088:978-0-205-05961-4 4037:Homans, George C. 3907:978-0-88738-628-2 2795:978-0-07-338502-0 2728:. New York Wiley. 2607:www.med.upenn.edu 2559:The Gerontologist 2035:978-0-387-36921-1 1860:Value (economics) 1505: 1504: 1497: 1332:Modes of exchange 1308:Comparison levels 1188:social structures 873: 872: 591:Social experiment 471:Social psychology 116:Social complexity 4962: 4902:Social profiling 4856:Viral phenomenon 4619:Change detection 4360: 4353: 4346: 4337: 4336: 4316: 4287: 4258: 4256: 4231: 4213: 4203: 4190: 4181: 4153: 4124: 4112: 4101: 4092: 4080: 4066: 4032: 3998: 3980: 3959: 3940: 3911: 3899: 3877: 3876: 3848: 3842: 3839: 3833: 3832: 3795: 3789: 3788: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3638: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3587: 3581: 3574: 3565: 3564: 3546: 3526: 3520: 3519: 3509: 3499: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3366: 3357: 3356: 3354: 3330: 3321: 3320: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3260:(5): 1284–1325. 3249: 3243: 3242: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3137: 3128: 3117: 3116: 3088: 3075: 3074: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3036: 3030: 3027: 3021: 3020: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2961: 2950: 2949: 2924:(4): 1229–1242. 2913: 2907: 2906: 2904: 2898:. 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Beverly Hills. 2311: 2305: 2304: 2292: 2283: 2277: 2268: 2267: 2249: 2217: 2202: 2201: 2183: 2151: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2141: 2130: 2124: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2099: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2061: 2040: 2039: 2013: 1990: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1971: 1965: 1964: 1952: 1946: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1898: 1855:Value conversion 1734:mode of exchange 1594:investment model 1500: 1493: 1489: 1486: 1480: 1457: 1449: 1322:comparison level 1090:reciprocity norm 1084:Reciprocity norm 1071: 1060: 1033:Cost and rewards 917: 908:George C. Homans 904:Harold H. Kelley 902:(1917–1986) and 865: 858: 851: 835: 834: 586:Network analysis 476:Sociocybernetics 466:Social movements 196:Social darwinism 146:Social structure 38: 19: 18: 4970: 4969: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4892:Online identity 4860: 4749: 4745:Viral marketing 4735:Social commerce 4730:Sharing economy 4715:Creator economy 4688: 4601: 4595: 4493: 4487: 4464: 4416: 4373: 4367:Social networks 4364: 4327: 4305:10.2307/2095226 4276:10.2307/2095834 4211: 4178: 4121: 4089: 4021:10.2307/2092623 3978:10.1.1.460.7204 3956: 3929:10.2307/2094546 3908: 3885: 3883:Further reading 3880: 3849: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3796: 3792: 3752: 3748: 3719: 3715: 3691: 3687: 3656: 3652: 3615: 3611: 3588: 3584: 3575: 3568: 3544:10.1.1.169.3004 3527: 3523: 3468: 3464: 3433: 3429: 3398: 3394: 3367: 3360: 3331: 3324: 3285: 3281: 3250: 3246: 3231:10.2307/2093088 3215: 3211: 3186: 3182: 3171: 3167: 3135: 3129: 3120: 3089: 3078: 3067: 3063: 3052: 3048: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3024: 2997: 2993: 2962: 2953: 2930:10.2307/1954536 2914: 2910: 2902: 2891: 2885: 2876: 2869: 2861:. Transaction. 2855: 2851: 2840: 2833: 2822: 2818: 2807: 2803: 2796: 2781: 2775: 2768: 2737: 2733: 2720: 2716: 2705: 2690: 2659: 2655: 2624: 2620: 2611: 2609: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2551: 2547: 2538: 2536: 2530: 2521: 2510: 2506: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2466: 2462: 2453: 2440: 2435: 2431: 2392: 2388: 2357: 2346: 2327: 2323: 2312: 2308: 2293: 2286: 2278: 2271: 2218: 2205: 2152: 2148: 2139: 2137: 2131: 2127: 2118: 2116: 2110: 2106: 2097: 2095: 2089: 2085: 2062: 2043: 2036: 2022:DeLamater, John 2014: 1993: 1987: 1983: 1972: 1968: 1953: 1949: 1939: 1937: 1934:Credo Reference 1926: 1922: 1912: 1910: 1907:Credo Reference 1899: 1888: 1884: 1879: 1850:Social networks 1820:Open innovation 1815:Interdependence 1790: 1703: 1668: 1654: 1645: 1633: 1620: 1584:relationships, 1578: 1565: 1549:self disclosure 1541: 1520: 1501: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1470: 1458: 1447: 1413: 1359: 1346: 1334: 1310: 1271: 1263: 1254: 1248:relationships. 1245: 1236: 1227: 1218: 1183:individualistic 1179: 1133: 1120: 1111: 1099: 1086: 1069: 1058: 1035: 1026: 1007:interdependence 1000: 987: 978: 969: 949: 936: 900:John W. Thibaut 891:, friendships, 869: 829: 822: 821: 782: 772: 771: 699: 625: 611: 609:Major theorists 601: 600: 536: 526: 525: 216: 206: 205: 176:Critical theory 171:Conflict theory 166: 156: 155: 126:Social equality 67: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4968: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4935:Value (ethics) 4920: 4919: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4909:Viral messages 4906: 4905: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4868: 4866: 4865:Related topics 4862: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4740:Social sorting 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4700:Affinity fraud 4696: 4694: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4605: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4536:Social capital 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4497: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4474: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4430: 4424: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4412: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4381: 4379: 4375: 4374: 4363: 4362: 4355: 4348: 4340: 4334: 4333: 4326: 4325:External links 4323: 4322: 4321: 4317: 4299:(3): 331–342. 4288: 4270:(6): 774–784. 4259: 4232: 4222:(4): 687–712. 4204: 4191: 4182: 4176: 4158:Thibaut, J. W. 4154: 4142:10.2307/350908 4136:(3): 543–548. 4125: 4119: 4102: 4093: 4087: 4071:Knapp, Mark L. 4067: 4055:10.1086/222355 4049:(6): 597–606. 4033: 4015:(2): 161–178. 3999: 3971:(3): 219–227. 3960: 3954: 3941: 3923:(5): 721–739. 3912: 3906: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3878: 3843: 3834: 3807:(4): 163–200. 3790: 3763:(2): 181–195. 3746: 3733:(6): 636–653. 3713: 3702:(4): 809–842. 3685: 3666:(4): 405–421. 3650: 3609: 3582: 3566: 3521: 3462: 3443:(1): 119–146. 3427: 3408:(3): 309–331. 3392: 3358: 3322: 3301:10.2307/256704 3279: 3266:10.1086/428441 3244: 3225:(3): 485–495. 3209: 3180: 3165: 3118: 3099:(6): 874–900. 3076: 3061: 3046: 3031: 3022: 2991: 2951: 2908: 2905:on 2015-09-24. 2874: 2867: 2849: 2831: 2816: 2801: 2794: 2766: 2747:(6): 841–866. 2731: 2714: 2688: 2669:(1): 109–127. 2653: 2640:10.2307/350754 2634:(2): 219–233. 2618: 2594: 2545: 2519: 2504: 2489: 2482: 2460: 2438: 2429: 2402:(3): 188–208. 2386: 2344: 2321: 2306: 2284: 2269: 2256:10.1086/324071 2238:10.1086/324071 2232:(2): 321–352. 2203: 2146: 2125: 2104: 2083: 2041: 2034: 1991: 1981: 1966: 1947: 1920: 1909:. Elsevier B.V 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1830:Rational agent 1827: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1667: 1664: 1653: 1650: 1644: 1641: 1632: 1629: 1619: 1616: 1586:supply network 1577: 1574: 1564: 1561: 1540: 1537: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1514: 1503: 1502: 1461: 1459: 1452: 1446: 1443: 1430: 1429: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1412: 1409: 1396: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1358: 1355: 1345: 1342: 1333: 1330: 1309: 1306: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1270: 1267: 1262: 1259: 1253: 1250: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1232: 1226: 1223: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1178: 1175: 1170: 1169: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1132: 1129: 1125:social support 1119: 1116: 1110: 1107: 1098: 1095: 1085: 1082: 1073: 1072: 1062: 1061: 1034: 1031: 1025: 1024:Basic concepts 1022: 999: 996: 986: 983: 977: 974: 968: 965: 964: 963: 960: 957: 948: 945: 935: 932: 871: 870: 868: 867: 860: 853: 845: 842: 841: 840: 839: 824: 823: 820: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 783: 778: 777: 774: 773: 627: 626: 612: 607: 606: 603: 602: 599: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 537: 532: 531: 528: 527: 524: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 236:Astrosociology 233: 228: 223: 217: 212: 211: 208: 207: 204: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 167: 162: 161: 158: 157: 154: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 94: 89: 84: 82:Human behavior 79: 74: 68: 65: 64: 61: 60: 59: 58: 53: 48: 40: 39: 31: 30: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4967: 4956: 4955:Social status 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4877:Peer pressure 4875: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4752: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4725:Narrowcasting 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4691: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4624:Blockmodeling 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4606: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4498: 4496: 4490: 4484: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4467: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4419: 4411: 4408: 4407: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4382: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4361: 4356: 4354: 4349: 4347: 4342: 4341: 4338: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4169: 4168: 4163: 4162:Kelley, H. H. 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4111: 4110: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4079: 4078: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3898: 3897: 3891: 3887: 3886: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3859:(4): 548–73. 3858: 3854: 3847: 3838: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3750: 3741: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3598:(7): 600–19. 3597: 3593: 3586: 3579: 3573: 3571: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3525: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3437:Social Forces 3431: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3396: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3363: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3327: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3295:(3): 656–69. 3294: 3290: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3176: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3072: 3065: 3057: 3050: 3042: 3035: 3026: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2995: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2912: 2901: 2897: 2890: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2870: 2868:9780887386282 2864: 2860: 2853: 2845: 2838: 2836: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2805: 2797: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2773: 2771: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2735: 2727: 2726: 2718: 2710: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2657: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2622: 2608: 2604: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2549: 2535: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2515: 2508: 2500: 2493: 2485: 2483:9781412938525 2479: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2457: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2433: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2390: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2325: 2317: 2310: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2289: 2281: 2276: 2274: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2216: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2136: 2129: 2115: 2108: 2094: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2037: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1985: 1977: 1970: 1962: 1958: 1951: 1935: 1931: 1924: 1908: 1904: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1886: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1865:Value network 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1835:Social action 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1810:Institutional 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1800:Equity theory 1798: 1796: 1793: 1792: 1785: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1759: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1746: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1730: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1674: 1673:affect theory 1663: 1660: 1652:Affect theory 1649: 1640: 1638: 1628: 1624: 1618:Work settings 1615: 1612: 1607: 1604: 1599: 1598:Caryl Rusbult 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1573: 1570: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1539:Relationships 1536: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1511: 1510: 1509: 1499: 1496: 1488: 1478: 1474: 1468: 1467: 1462:This section 1460: 1456: 1451: 1450: 1442: 1438: 1436: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1408: 1404: 1401: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1354: 1350: 1341: 1339: 1329: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1318:Harold Kelley 1315: 1305: 1302: 1294: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1266: 1258: 1249: 1240: 1231: 1222: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1184: 1174: 1167: 1165:marketplace.) 1163: 1159: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1128: 1126: 1115: 1106: 1104: 1094: 1091: 1081: 1078: 1068: 1067: 1066: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1030: 1021: 1018: 1013: 1012:individualism 1008: 1004: 1003:Self-interest 995: 993: 982: 973: 961: 958: 955: 954: 953: 944: 941: 931: 929: 925: 921: 913: 912:Peter M. Blau 910:(1910–1989), 909: 905: 901: 896: 894: 890: 885: 884:psychological 881: 877: 866: 861: 859: 854: 852: 847: 846: 844: 843: 838: 833: 828: 827: 826: 825: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 802:Organizations 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 784: 781: 776: 775: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 751: · 750: 747: · 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 707: · 706: 703: 700: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 639: · 638: 634: 631: 624: 620: 617: 614: 613: 610: 605: 604: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 556:Computational 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 538: 535: 530: 529: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 461: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 301:Environmental 299: 296: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 251:Consciousness 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 218: 215: 210: 209: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 168: 165: 160: 159: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 131:Social equity 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 103: 99: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 77:Globalization 75: 73: 70: 69: 63: 62: 57: 54: 52: 49: 47: 44: 43: 42: 41: 37: 33: 32: 29: 26: 25: 21: 20: 4887:User profile 4659:Social graph 4545: 4492:Concepts and 4437: 4390:Professional 4371:social media 4296: 4292: 4267: 4263: 4244: 4240: 4219: 4215: 4199: 4166: 4133: 4129: 4108: 4097: 4076: 4046: 4040: 4012: 4006: 3968: 3964: 3945: 3920: 3916: 3895: 3856: 3852: 3846: 3837: 3804: 3800: 3793: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3663: 3659: 3653: 3626: 3622: 3612: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3537:(2): 71–90. 3534: 3530: 3524: 3482:(2): 31703. 3479: 3475: 3465: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3378: 3374: 3342: 3338: 3292: 3288: 3282: 3257: 3253: 3247: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3193: 3183: 3174: 3168: 3143: 3139: 3096: 3092: 3070: 3064: 3055: 3049: 3040: 3034: 3025: 3008: 3004: 2994: 2969: 2965: 2921: 2917: 2911: 2900:the original 2895: 2858: 2852: 2843: 2825: 2819: 2810: 2804: 2785: 2744: 2740: 2734: 2724: 2717: 2708: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2631: 2627: 2621: 2610:. 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The 1216:Frazer 1177:Homans 947:Homans 807:People 745:Bauman 725:Nisbet 721:Merton 713:Gehlen 709:Adorno 702:1900s: 677:Addams 669:Simmel 665:Veblen 657:Pareto 649:Le Bon 630:1800s: 623:Sieyès 616:1700s: 596:Survey 521:Visual 431:Public 336:Health 326:Gender 316:Fiscal 306:Family 4851:Tribe 4400:Value 4378:Types 4309:JSTOR 4280:JSTOR 4212:(PDF) 4146:JSTOR 4059:S2CID 4025:JSTOR 3933:JSTOR 3817:S2CID 3773:S2CID 3676:S2CID 3453:JSTOR 3418:S2CID 3305:JSTOR 3270:S2CID 3235:JSTOR 3156:S2CID 3136:(PDF) 3109:S2CID 2982:JSTOR 2942:S2CID 2934:JSTOR 2903:(PDF) 2892:(PDF) 2782:(PDF) 2757:S2CID 2679:JSTOR 2644:JSTOR 2458:>. 2420:S2CID 2412:JSTOR 2377:S2CID 2260:S2CID 2252:JSTOR 2194:S2CID 2186:JSTOR 2020:. 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