805:“The distinction hitherto made in admitting new members has been removed because former classifications of social status have lost or are losing their original meaning. Both before the Seventh Congress and for a considerable period afterward it was essential to have different admission procedures for applicants of different social status; this served a very good purpose then. In recent years, however, the situation has basically changed. The difference between workers and office employees is now only a matter of division of labor within the same class. Coolies and farm laborers have disappeared. Poor and middle peasants have all become members of agricultural producers' co-operatives, and before long the distinction between them will become merely a matter of historical interest. With the introduction of the conscription system, revolutionary soldiers no longer constitute an independent social stratum. The vast majority of intellectuals have now come over politically to the side of the working class, and a rapid change is taking place in their family background. The conditions under which the urban poor and professional people existed as independent social strata have virtually been eliminated. Every year large numbers of peasants and students become workers, large numbers of workers, peasants and their sons and daughters join the ranks of intellectuals and office workers, large numbers of peasants, students, workers and office workers join the army and become revolutionary soldiers, while large numbers of revolutionary soldiers return to civilian life as peasants, students, workers or office workers. What is the point, then, of classifying these social strata into two different categories? Even if we were to try to devise a classification, how could we make it clear and unambiguous?”
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acknowledging the middle class as a fundamental element within the state. The
Chinese middle class encompasses individuals who are private entrepreneurs as well as those who belong to the managerial and professional sectors. According to surveys, it has been observed that around 66% of private entrepreneurs have prior experience working within the party-state apparatus. Additionally, approximately 20% of these entrepreneurs have previously held official positions or leadership roles within either the party or the government. Approximately 40 percent of entrepreneurs are affiliated with the Chinese Communist Party, engaging in various political endeavors such as assuming positions in representative bodies and participating in local government associations. Numerous studies on the middle classes in China consistently reveal the absence of political opposition towards the government and a level of endorsement for a party-state.
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of the peasant class, working class, and the intellectual stratum. During this time, the number of individuals who were part of the working class increased greatly. Media also began to spread propaganda about the urban working class that painted them as superior, naming them the "leading class". Soon after, people in society began to mirror this sentiment as the respect for the proletariat increased. In terms of the peasant class, the number of farmers increased year by year, despite the industrialization going on in China. The intellectual stratum consisted of those with high school or university education, making up a small portion of the population. Due to the vague definition of "intellectual", it is difficult to know exactly how many people were in this stratum. However, it is estimated that there were around 5 million people.
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general downward trend in the 1960s and the 1970s. Income and consumption of the urban population increased faster than rural dwellers until the late 1970s. From the late 1950s to the mid-1970s, the income and consumption gap was widened significantly. Economist Thomas Rawski estimates the ratio of urban-rural per capita income to be 3.4 to 1 or 5.9 to 1 in 1978. Economist Carl Riskin estimates the ratio to be between 2.5 and 3. Rural people generally had to acquire a more austere taste for luxury products such as bikes, wristwatches, and sewing machines. The World Bank reports the income ratio to be 2.2 to 1 and the consumption ratio to be about 2.6 to 1 with higher ratios for luxury goods, such as watches, bicycles, and television sets.
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they gave birth. In big water constructions, rural women had to do heavy manual labor and, at the same time, took housework responsibilities. The party forcefully transformed rural women into productive roles while overlooking their reproductive responsibilities and health. Even when the state sought to monopolize the cotton industry under the unified purchase and sale system, rural women continuously engaged in handicraft, weaving and spanning to make cloths for household usage as they had been historically doing. Apart from working for the collective farms and other construction work, they crouched the shoulders and worked overtime late in the night after their husbands and children went to sleep.
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structure was disintegrated during the first half of the twentieth century as the
Nationalist government expanded its fiscal power over local communities by establishing new state agencies to collect the tax. Confronted with the heavy burden of the various taxes, the protective brokerage, the gentry who used to collect tax in a sustainable way, retreated from the rural governance and gave their way to the entrepreneurial brokerage, i.e., the local bullies, who collected tax for-profit and impaired the ecology of the rural economy. This process destroyed the alliance among the state, local elites, and rural people without establishing a new system to replace the long-existing power nexus.
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working in the collectively owned enterprises increased. The Labor
Department identified three categories of workers: workers under long-term employment, temporary urban workers, and peasant-workers. Similar to urban workers on temporary contracts, peasant-workers were also recruited to work in the short term, but the state considered the peasant-workers as part of the rural community. The government set low wages for peasant-workers and prohibited them from joining the permanent urban workforce. In the 1960s, the group of temporary workers, including both urban temporary workers and peasant-workers, kept growing. The number of permanent workers reached 33 million in 1965.
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authority as a social problem impeding the agenda of social development. Wu
Guanyin, an official at Beiyang government and former international student in Japan, harshly criticized the inequality in large families and its disadvantages for the whole society. In an article published in 1915, he pointed out that in large families where adult sons and their core family members still lived together with their brothers without dividing family property, the male elders had considerable authority to manage family affairs and enjoyed various privileges in social and legal life. He blamed large families for corruption and bribes, claiming that profiting one's own family (
431:. Emperor Taizu had 26 sons and 19 of them had offspring. With the line of Prince Jingjiang, the royal house consists of 20 different cadet branches. Members of the royal house were not allowed to have an ordinary life by laboring. All the expenditures of the royal house were paid by the money taken from the annual tax revenue collected from commoners. Additional perks such as legal privileges and luxury items were given as gifts by the imperial court. In the middle of the 17th century, the population of the royal house was so large that their living expenditures had taken up to 225.79% of the annual tax revenue causing a virtual bankruptcy of the government.
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rise of a bureaucratic class who were detached from workers and peasants and betrayed the revolution. Mao's hostility towards party leaders motivated a more systematic and violent attack on the party officials later in the
Cultural Revolution. Just as the new social class of the technocrats was emerging from the converge of the old and new elites, the leveling efforts destabilized the consolidation of this new class. Later, the Cultural Revolution completely disturbed the growth of the technocratic class. In the late Mao era, they were not mature or powerful but after the Cultural Revolution they became the dominating power of the state.
354:). The policy divided commoners according to their occupation. Farmers, soldiers, craftsmen, hunters, physicians, messengers, and Confucian scholars are some of the categories under this policy. The farmers had the largest population among all the commoners in the Yuan dynasty. These categories are hereditary. One soldier will give birth to a son who will later become a soldier. In comparison with other commoners, craftsmen were treated more fairly since the Mongols deemed the skills of making weapons necessary for their conquest of the world. The Mongols routinely massacred Chinese civilians with the exception of Craftsmen.
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knowledge and skills. The political power structure was Red-over-Expert. People with various managerial knowledge and technical expertise were subordinate to the leadership of red cadres. The two groups of elites were of different social origins, but they also had overlaps, such as the party members who held a college degree. Both the old and new elites only consisted of a small proportion of the entire population. The new elites made up less than 1 percent of the population. The old rural elites made up 4.3 percent, and the old urban elites made up 1.4 percent. Yet, they both stayed at the top of the social hierarchy.
265:; by participating and passing the imperial exam, one could be qualified as a member of Guan Hu. In addition, relatives of a government official can become Guan Hu through the system of En Yin. In some rarer cases, a commoner can become Guan Hu by donating a large amount of money, grain, or industrial materials to the imperial court. In 1006, Guan Hu accounted for 1.3% of the entire population. The percentage of Guan Hu increased to 2.8% by the year 1190. The growing population of Guan Hu was partly due to the system of En Yin which allowed a relatively easy entry into the stratum of Guan Hu.
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promoted an equal relationship between parents and children. The marriage law reinforced the mutual legal bonds for both parents and children. Not only did it stipulate the children's obligation to provide old-age support to their parents but it also emphasized parents' legal duty of raising and supporting their children. Meanwhile, the new social systems that re-arranged people into work units or communes altered the parent-child relations and weakened the historically significant parental authority. Remunerated by work points, family members became less financially dependent on each other.
370:
579:, whose participants were primarily landless people squeezed out because of commercialization, and the consequent battles destroyed the local agricultural economy. The rebellion at the same time stimulated the Qing government to initiate local militarization. The military organization was funded on its own and stayed autonomous from the central. This militarization process led to the rise of the “military-predatory elite class,” which impeded the funding of industrial firms and sucked a considerable amount of surplus in funding on military means. Furthermore, rebellions, including the
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threatened to change them into a new class of privileged bureaucrats and technicians, mere descendants of the pre-revolutionary ruling class of cadre technocrats and elected representatives of the old proletariat. Whereas in the past, their position had been accessed primarily through acceptance to the best schools, now cadre status came to give them access to materials and options not fairly distributed amongst all. Housing had always been in demand in China, particularly in the larger cities, and cadres were protected from the intense competition for living space.
836:) classified Chinese citizens into the agricultural and non-agricultural population. The system made all migration from the countryside to the city require approval. People with urban registrations enjoyed a series of privileged access to social welfare that the general agricultural population could not get, including better access to food and other consumer goods, low-cost accommodation, education, and other public welfare. However, these urban privileges were based on the state's extraction of resources from the countryside. The state organized rural people into
280:, the phenomenon of land annexation became increasingly obvious. By land annexation, the wealthy commoners and government officials privatized lands that were public or owned by poorer people. In the late Song dynasty, the society's two ends were polarized. Wealthy landowners devoured most of the cultivable lands, leaving others in extreme poverty. Even the imperial court's profit was curbed. Taxation was illegally avoided by wealthy landowners and the court eventually found itself collecting much less amount of taxes than ever before. Xie Fangshu, an
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documents of the Yuan dynasty provide extremely limited information about the social strata of
Mongols. Despite the lack of historical records, it is safe to say that Mongols enjoyed privileges that other ethnic groups did not. During their reign, the Mongols converted a large number of rice fields into pastures because agriculture was foreign to them. Both the government and Mongol nobles opened up pastures in China by taking the rice fields away from ordinary farmers.
440:
814:, class line and class struggle in China were radicalized. The evil “Four Elements” targeted “landlords,” “rich peasants,” “counterrevolutionaries,” and “bad elements.” Despite that, people in practice sometimes held that class status could be inherited from the fathers. During the 1960s, people from bad class background, such as landlords and rich peasants, found it hard to get married. During the Cultural Revolution, although the party publicly refuted the
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451:, the population could be divided into five classes. The top class was the emperor and his immediate family. After that came the gentry (officials of the government). Next came the agriculturalists, landlords, farmers and peasants. Then the artisans and merchants. In last place came the lower classes of vagabonds and criminals. For centuries China had developed its system of social stratification based on the theoretical principles of Confucian philosophy.
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in the city. There has been a major shift in the thinking of the youth, seen through the older ages of those working in farming. Finding individuals under the age of 40 still working in agriculture is now much more difficult than it was before. Prior to the 21st century, social class was primarily determined by identity rather than employment and education. This reform presented citizens, especially rural workers, with more social mobility and choice.
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559:, Servants, Prostitutes, Entertainers, Low Level Government Employees and Military Forces were part of the mean class. The soldiers were called a necessary evil, and civilians were placed in command to keep the military from dominating society. Those who worked in entertainment were given a special status that allowed for them to be punished severely without consequence. The mean people were heavily discriminated against, forbidden to take the
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459:”. The vast majority of candidates wasted their years on expensive preparation as they failed again and again. Only wealthy families could afford the investment, and for the great majority it did not pay off. Increasingly the richest families instead purchased their certificates of high status. The elite was closed for practical purposes, and those who failed became often very frustrated and even led rebellions. For example,
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Tianjin, and
Liaoning) from the calculation, variation in GDP per capita decreased from 0.36 to 0.26. Although still substantial by 1978, spatial disparity among the remaining provinces improved. Growth rates of many inland provinces which benefitted from rural industrialization and the Third Front Construction, such as Gansu, Xinjiang, Heilongjiang, Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia, exceeded the average.
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increasing the landownership by poor peasants. Still, to improve the overall rural incomes, the party helped protect and preserve the rich peasant economy. According to a rural income survey by China's
National Bureau of Statistics, the amount of agricultural capital for different classes generally increased from the Land Reform to 1954. For rich peasants, arable land increased from 25.1 to 31.1
538:
newspapers and instructional pamphlets for farmers set, up agricultural schools, held local training sessions, as well as agricultural exhibitions,. Programs to continue water conservation and forest station projects continued. The reforms in agriculture were one dimension of a vigorous last-minute effort by the Qing government to rapidly reform education, the military, and local administration.
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urban population. During the process of downsizing, some urban residents tried to avoid leaving the cities by feigning medical issues or threatening to die. Still, from late 1960 to 1963, the total population dispatched from urban to rural areas was up to 26 million in total. The readjustment of the urban-rural population reinforced the existing urban-biased social dynamic.
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The highest level was known as the “gentry” or the literati. Their numbers grew from 1.1 million in 1850 to 1.5 million in 1900. The exams were the route whereby Han
Chinese had access to high government office, which was otherwise largely monopolized by the small Manchu governing minority. The exams became more difficult, and more arbitrary as shown by the notorious “
1013:("the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie". Mao made the claim that these classes had been unified by the revolution, but severe class stratification still existed in post 1949 China, especially when comparing the rights ordinary citizen to the extreme privileges afforded to the elites of the Chinese Communist party.
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background of university students became more diversified. The party recruited more students from poor family backgrounds to higher education. Based on sociologist
Deborah Davis's interview, of the sixteen people who were professional workers back in the 1950s, over half of them came from the rural household, urban working-class families, and small business families.
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1960s, the compulsory state procurement of grain under the unified purchase and sale system prioritized urban over rural areas in allocating basic necessities. The net state procurement kept increasing from 14.9 percent in 1956 to 28 percent in 1959. The urban-biased system of food production and rationing system left a much-starved countryside. This is known as the
678:) in the Republican period. Exposed to the Western ideal of conjugal families, radicals actively promoted the transformation of family structure. They urged damping the large families where members relied heavily on one another and were placed into an unequal generational hierarchy in an effort to advocate small conjugal families to comply with the Western model.
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role of women, to meet various economic and labor situations. In urban areas, women and men nominally were remunerated equally, but in reality, men often secured jobs with better payment and more social prestige. In rural areas, more women were mobilized to participate in agricultural production. Historians show that in China's collective farm, women were
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longer than European feudal dynasties. From the Song on, however, official posts were usually filled by a much larger but less cohesive class of gentry who married and owned property in their home provinces and who rose to prominence through the examination system. Scholarly explanations for the demise of the old class and the rise of the new include
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arbitrarily labeled them. Cadres also assigned class labels based on the conditions of one's earlier generations. Lineage relations were also a critical consideration for cadres and villagers to label their neighbors as “rich peasants” or “landlords.” Overall, the practical implementation of class labeling still remains under-researched for now.
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resources. The second one was the broad area centering Shanghai, including the Zhejiang-Jiangsu region, which was also historically advantaged. The third concentration included Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and western Sichuan, which was largely historically marginalized but gained fast development through the party's Third Front policy.
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state-owned enterprises enjoyed more social benefits and better job security than those working in collectively owned enterprises. Likewise, heavy industry was prioritized over the light industry, and manual labor over intellectual labor. Workers with longer working experience enjoyed higher salaries and better retirement benefits.
755:)” may or may not possess land, although most of them do, and they possess a considerable amount of production tools. “Middle peasants” live on their own labor entirely or almost entirely and have a decent amount of production tools. As a result, they slightly exploit or do not exploit others at all. In comparison, “poor peasants (
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negotiate their interests in marriage and family. Women were entitled to inherit property from their fathers for the first time. The law also elevated mothers to the equal status of fathers in terms of rights over children. In legal practice, many female litigants utilized the new legal codes to defend their personal interests.
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743:)” refer to people who possess land but do not work by themselves or who only do labor incidentally and live primarily on exploiting other people's labor. The category of “landlords” also includes the butlers of landlord households because they helped the rich “landlords” collect money and exploit others. “Rich peasants (
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entrepreneurs with high influence and wealth. They were assumed to thrive by unethical business practices. They would bribe government officials or use profit-sharing to gain funding. Merchant families could use this wealth to pay for their sons' training for the civil service exams and thus jump to the high levels.
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The 21st century also saw a decrease in the percentage of peasants in proportion to the overall working class as the economic reform gave them more freedom in their professional lives. Many young people living in rural communities also began to find it more appealing to attend university or find jobs
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The working class at this time was still divided, but a new stratum soon came into existence. This consisted of those who had lost their jobs, those who had retired, as well as migrant workers. Migrant workers were generally underpaid and had poor living conditions, but there were some that were able
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was targeted at making education more accessible to a broader range of the population. The efforts to level cultural capitals peaked during the Cultural Revolution. In terms of political leveling, the party targeted not only the old elites but also the cadres. In the mid-1960s, Mao himself warned the
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In a speech made shortly after the communist's victory in 1949, Mao Zedong claimed that Chinese society had four distinct social classes; this is often cited as the reason why the Chinese flag has four small stars on it. The large fifth star, which is surrounded by the four smaller stars, is meant to
969:
The Maoist state generally did not outlaw third genders, but officially it also ignored LGBTQ. However, homosexuality in practice was usually demoralized and could face severe political consequences. In some struggle sessions during the Cultural Revolution or self-reflections, homosexuality was often
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There are two general trends from 1963 to 1978. First, regional disparities overall increased. Variation in GDP per capita for all jurisdictions increased from 0.71 to 0.99. Beijing and Shanghai grew more than two times than western provinces. Second, if excluding the large cities (Beijing, Shanghai,
864:
The “dual” social structure pushed people to migrate internally from the countryside to the urban areas. Yet, after the famine, the state imposed stricter migration control. There were limited choices for people to realize the upward mobility from rural to urban registration through military service,
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and implemented the Unified Purchase and Sale system to compel the rural people to sell grain at a fixed low price to the state. The unequal distribution ultimately led to significant differences in people's living standards and social welfare between urban and rural areas. In the late 1950s to early
685:
Women also made up for a considerable proportion of the entire workforce in urban areas. In Shanghai, most cotton-mill workers were women. Female labor was also important workforce in other industries, including flour mills, carpet making, and cigarette rolling. There were also native-place divisions
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After suppressing the Taiping rebellion by the mid-1860s, the national government worked to relieve distress, stabilize society and improve farming. It reduced taxes and required corvée labor, reclaimed land, and promoting irrigation. After 1900 the government set up rural associations that published
304:
reformed the empire's legal system and abolished the Begile during the reform of Tianjuan. The reform eliminated the aboriginal Jurchen conventions and substituted them with the conventions of the Song and Liao dynasties. During the Jin dynasty, Minggan Moumuke, groups of Jurchen soldiers who settled
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social strata were clearly divided and enforced by the law. At the bottom of the pyramid were the commoners who were categorized into two groups: Fangguo Hu (city dwellers) and Xiangcun Hu (rural population). Fangguo Hu and Xiangcun Hu had ranks. The first rank, commoners (both Fangguo and Xiangcun),
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Since 2002, China has been actively engaged in the deliberate expansion of its middle class. As of 2020, there are approximately 400 million middle income citizens of China. This endeavor has been motivated by various aims, encompassing the promotion of consumption, maintaining social stability, and
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In cities, the workplace was also hierarchical. In the early 1950s, most workforce was employed by the private sector. Later by 1956, The party eliminated the private-owned enterprises and transferred them into the state-owned and collectively owned enterprises. Generally speaking, people working in
272:
During the Song dynasty, slave trading was forbidden and punished by law. However, slavery was not entirely absent from the history of the Song dynasty. To some extent, there were slave traders who illegally kidnapped commoners and sold them as slaves. Criminals were sometimes converted to slaves by
269:
owned by the emperor), the basic food supplies of the royal house were satisfied. Luxury items in the imperial court also had their sources. Tea, for example, was provided by the imperial tea plantation. Annually, local products from various regions of China were paid as tributes to the royal house.
172:
In the Confucian view of the economy, agricultural work was morally superior. The point was work was the embodiment of a social contract. The emperor and his officials worked to ensure the welfare of the people (or "min") envisaged as peasant families. The male miners worked in the fields to produce
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accumulated through education. The “old elites” were better-educated people from wealthy families. They were under serious attack in the first a few years after 1949 and were usually labeled as the exploiting class. Although politically despised, the old elites still kept considerable advantages in
1016:
Before the economic reform of 1978, the time period between the mid-1950s to 1977 saw a shift in China's focus as they began to remove outdated labels and thousands were granted working class status. The concept of "two classes and one stratum", a Soviet theory, was soon introduced and was composed
960:
Women's liberation was an important political agenda of the party. Particularly, the party emphasized women's participation in production in achieving gender equality. The state depicted divergent, even conflicting images of women, with some emphasizing the productive skills while some the domestic
718:
became the new upper class. Those who were included in this social class made up approximately 20% of the urban working class. Not only were they given benefits, but also provided with special training for their careers. The misuse and manipulation of the ration system by members of the cadre class
598:
Many laborers were hired to work on the various construction projects at this time. A small portion of the working class were apprentices. They were trained to work in the trades by masters, but were treated similarly to slave girls. Upon reaching the end of the apprenticeship, they were allowed to
454:
By the late 18th century, the system was largely fixed, giving political power at the national, provincial and local levels as well as status to a small number of men who after spending years in elaborate, expensive study, were able to pass extremely difficult written tests in Confucian philosophy.
268:
At the top of the social pyramid was the royal house of the Song dynasty. The royal house consists of the Emperor, Empress, concubines, princes, and princesses. The royal house enjoys the highest quality of life with everything provided by other social strata. With imperial fields (fields that were
1093:
The years leading up to the 21st century brought great economic growth and industrialization for China, but this growth did not translate to the rate of social development as the income gap between urban and rural areas of China continued to widen. By 1993, approximately 22.4% of the working class
1034:
In the first years of the PRC era, the two had sharp conflicts, but gradually converged when they were reproducing their elite positions. People from the new elite families could easily reproduce their social status by passing on their political credentials and background to their children. At the
902:
Still, the state's stricter control over migration and household registration made social mobility from the countryside to cities less plausible. Before the strict migration control, it was easier for rural migrants to gradually establish themselves from the beginning as temporary workers or small
894:
After the Famine, to reduce the burden of state payroll, a dual system in the workplace was established through building a “second-class” system of workers with less pay and other benefits. From 1960 to 1963, the number of workers in the state-owned enterprises decreased, while the number of those
809:
The party's emphasis on class line corresponded to Mao's criticism of the Khrushchev regime's “restoration of capitalism” in a famous news article published in 1964. One crucial aspect of the Khrushchev regime's “restoration of capitalism” was that it forgot the class struggle. In contrast, during
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instituted a process of collectivization in response to the selling of land by peasants to the new generation of rich landowners. Afraid of creating a new landlord class, Mao instituted a system of communes where land was supposed to be worked equally by peasants. His idea was to capitalize on the
770:
During the Land Reform Movement, China substantially improved income inequality by redistributing land and other property. This was accompanied by social chaos and the consequent mass repression of chaos and killings. The Land Reform targeted eradicating landlords and taking over their land, while
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Family structure went through a significant transformation during the Republican era. Since the late Qing, and especially during the May Fourth Movement, scholars and social activists cast doubts on the utility of the existing large family structure. Some theorized families of big sizes and senior
651:
In the urban workplace, native-place origins of workers were closely related to the job opportunities. In Shanghai, people with different native-place origins fell into different industries and occupations. Examples were carpenters from Canton and coppersmith from Ningbo. For refugee migrants from
642:
Peasant economy also persisted throughout the Republic era. According to Hung, Despite all the economic and social changes happening in the late Qing and Republican era, the peasant economy, particularly in the form of handicraft and household cotton industry, continued to prevail and dominate the
396:
The policy of Colored population statistics of the Yuan dynasty was inherited by Ming and reformed. The numerous categories of commoners were reduced into only 3 categories. Soldier, Commoners, and Craftsmen. These castes were hereditary and fixed. Moving from one category to another was virtually
331:
Contrary to the situation of the gentry, commoners of the Yuan dynasty found themselves less protected by the law. Mongol rulers did not seem to make the interests of commoners a priority. A great number of ordinary farmers were converted to plantation workers working for the gentries. The wealthy
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at this time was seen to be the leading class as they gained more economic resources and production power. With the increase of people in the working class, they were seen to be representative of China's productive forces as well as the people who would improve the overall economy of the country.
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on the one hand, mobilized to cultivate grain and cotton under the notion of gender equality and, on the other hand, constrained by gendered division of labor, were burdened with domestic labor. Some women had to bear physical suffering as a result of having to continue working hard shortly after
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Spatial disparities among regions persisted from 1963 onward. Particularly, provinces with higher industrial investment rates and better-established industrial bases had the fastest growth rates. Many of these provinces' advantages came from history. Examples are Liaoning, the city formerly under
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One notable feature of the urban structure was the spatial imbalance. The early 1950s witnessed a decrease in spatial inequality as the party endeavored to close the gap of income among different regions. For example, the party built most of the industrial plants, under the Soviet help, in inland
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business holders. After the state systematically imposed household registration, rural migrants had fewer chances to gain footholds in cities and achieve upward social mobility through migration. The birthplace, in cities or the countryside, became crucial to one's status in the social hierarchy.
860:
realized that food consumption of the urban population had been putting too much pressure on the grain production in the countryside. As a result, the party implemented the downsizing policy to send migrants and unwanted urban populations back to communes and successfully limited and deceased the
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However, in practice, the use of the class labels often deviated from its definitions in Land Reform law and policies and often carried highly politicized purposes. During the Land Reform, people classified as “rich peasants” or “landlords” sometimes did not really meet the definition, but cadres
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coins the cultural nexus of power to characterize the power dynamics in rural North China. The network of rural cultural institutions, including lineage and religions, legitimized local gentry to institutionalize their interpersonal privileges and achieved grassroots autonomy. However, this power
525:
Far below the Mandarins/literati came the 90% of the population who lived by agriculture, from poor tenant farmers to rich landlords. Many were very poor tenants or day laborers, however others, especially in the southern provinces, were better off and more secure by owning their land. Confucians
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In 1992, social inequality became a large topic of debate, as wealth continued to accumulate within a small minority population of the country. This was a result of the corruption of bureaucratic capitalism which, in turn, lead to the middle working class having access to very few resources. The
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People in the urban work units were also divided into workers and cadres. College students fell into the category of professional cadres. In the Republic era, most university students were from wealthy families closely tied to the gentry or merchant class. After the establishment of the PRC, the
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Apart from unequal access to social welfare and basic necessities, urban bias also lay in the pattern of state investment. The state targeted less at the development of agriculture than industrialization. Although the state investment in agriculture increased during the Famine, it went through a
681:
Gender equality was also a popular topic among radicals during the May Fourth and New Culture Movement. The Kuomintang party further promoted marriage freedom and gender equality in Legal Reforms. The 1930 Civil Code perceived both men and women as equal citizens and granted women more agency to
1110:
The current social structure of China relies on strata, which are defined by an individual's economic and social status. There are a total of ten strata which, in a general sense, include government officials, private and small business owners, industrial workers, agricultural laborers, and the
1025:
Social elites in the Mao era generally fell into two different groups. The "new elites" mostly gained their social status as the “revolutionary cadres.” The new elite group also included revolutionary soldiers and children of revolutionary martyrs. They mostly came from poor rural families with
956:
Family structure during the Mao era also changed. The marriage law in 1950 granted more agency to women for marriage and divorce and advocated equal relations between husbands and wives. It prohibited concubinage and child brides. Following the path of the Nationalist government, the state also
224:
The Tang and the Song dynasty saw a major transition in the composition of China's ruling elites. From the Han through the Tang, official posts filled by an aristocratic network of several hundred intermarried families based in the capital. Many of them were prominent for 500 years or more, far
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906:
Meanwhile, under the state monology over economic and social capitals, upper-middle classes in cities lost most of their access to resources to achieve mobility. Under the urban work units, social life was closely tied to the workplace. The former upper middle classes were no longer allowed to
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Similar to the gender line, generational hierarchy also went through significant transformation under the Legal Reforms. Instead of preaching “parents can never be wrong,” the new criminal and civil codes granted children more agency and treated both children and parents as equal citizens. The
510:
Social-bureaucrats were the officialdom of Qing China. They had the responsibilities of organizing public works projects and had a crucial role in the management of society. Social-bureaucrats wore distinctive clothing, including black gowns with blue borders and a multitude of rank insignia.
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Data from Chinese National Statistical Bureau show that at the end of the Mao era, China's industrialization largely focused on three regions. Manchuria, the former Japanese colony, inherited a considerable industrial base from the Republic era and continued benefitting from its rich natural
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The Mongols in the Yuan dynasty belong to numerous clans. Tao Zongyi first provided a list of all the Mongol clans which was later falsified by Japanese historian Yanai Watari. However, Tao's account was one of the few contemporary accounts of Mongols during the Yuan dynasty. The records and
546:
Despite the workers' lower status, they often earned more than peasants. Artisans and workers often worked directly for the state or gentry. Merchants were ranked lower because they were seen as unproductive leeches by the Confucians. Merchants could include anyone from street peddlers to
419:
Craftsmen were severely exploited by the government. They had to provide free services upon the demand of the imperial court without any reward. The two groups of Craftsmen are: Official craftsmen who directly worked for the court and Common craftsmen who provide paid services for others.
1083:" because of their expense and inefficiency. The previous "two classes and one stratum" theory underwent many changes during this time as both the working and peasant class were divided further. However, the peasant class decreased in size while the working class saw significant growth.
1035:
same time, political origins and family background provided the new elites with better access to education due to the political consideration behind school admissions. Also, old elites with more cultural capital also gained advantages in political recruitment into the party membership,
595:. During this time, industrialization was slow to non-existent; between the years 1920 and 1949, the industrial sector had only increased by less than three million members, mainly women, and children working in cotton mills. The main changes in the social structure were the military.
216:
when wealthy and powerful families emerged with large amounts of land and huge numbers of semi-serfs. They dominated important civilian and military positions of the government, making the positions available to members of their own families and clans. The Tang dynasty extended the
168:
For dynasties that used Confucianism (not Legalism), the first noted person(s) in the relationship was always superior and had to act as a guide and leader/ role model to the second noted person(s), as the second person was to follow. For example: Father, 1st noted; Son, 2nd noted.
526:
praised agriculturalists as honest men who provided the nation's food. Famines and floods were serious risks. To forestall local rebellions the Qing government established an elaborate system to protect against famines and other disasters such as epidemics. It was built around a
869:
system, and many of them traveled between urban and rural boundary. Some people managed to get away from rural registration in the countryside by working on state-owned farms or utilizing their personal relations to stay in the urban areas even without urban registration.
104:
saw a decrease in the number of categories for commoners, in comparison to the policy implemented during the Yuan dynasty. The three categories that remained were hereditary, making it nearly impossible to move between them. Gentry was also divided into two types. By the
928:. Such efforts to level spatial inequality continued during the Great Leap Forward, but the regional inequality persisted. Compared with the 1952 provincial ranking, the richest provinces maintained their top rankings in 1964, while the poorest stayed at the bottom.
501:
or Mandarins were government officials. Most Gentry owned land, which was where most of their income came from. For other gentry the main source of income was from their government service. There was a large increase in the gentry class following the victory of the
747:)” are those who often depend on the exploitation of the other's labor as part of or a significant part of their sources of living. They usually have relatively high-quality production tools. One important indicator is that “rich peasants” hire long-term laborers (
706:
and collectivization. Instead of judging through the amount of owned property, the state imposed new standards to determine one's social status. The standards included one's political class, urban or rural household registration, gender, and ethnic classification.
3934:
463:(1813-1864) repeatedly failed, despite innate talents that enabled him to study Christianity in serious fashion and go on to form and lead the greatest rebellion in the 19th century world. Some of his top officials had also failed the exams such as
415:
Farmers during the Ming dynasty had two groups. Self-sustained farmers accounted for 10% of all farmers while tenants farmers of wealthy landlords made up as much as 90%. They had more burdens and gained less harvest than self-sustained farmers.
881:
and barefoot teachers. The life expectancy of peasants increased from less than forty years before 1949 to more than sixty years in the 1970s. At the same time, peasants were still the most illiterate, most powerless, and poorest social class.
877:, the composition of society changed again. Schools were closed and many youths were sent down to the countryside putatively to learn from the peasants. Concern for peasants was reflected in the rural medical and educational services known as
299:
coexisted with the Song dynasty after the Jingkang incident. The Jurchen Empire ruled the northern part of China. Under the Jurchen rule, the conventional code Begile was introduced. Under this code, an emperor and his courtiers were equal.
343:, Hanren, and Nanren existed under the rule of Mongols. Hanren refers to dwellers of Northern China, Korea, and Sichuan. Nanren refers to citizens of the Song dynasty (excluding people from Sichuan, although the region was a part of Song).
2319:
This is my own translation. For the original text, see “The Central People's Government's Decision to Divide Rural Classes” (Zhongyang renmin zhengfu guangyu huafen nongcun jieji chengfen de jueding), August 21, 1950, retrieved from
3877:
173:
grain for their own food and for taxes; their wives made clothing for everyone. Agriculture was thus fundamental. Crafts and trade were secondary, and typically pernicious by diverting productive labor and promoting extravagance.
4312:
475:
came from a literary elite but he failed his exams; his family purchased a military command for him and he rose to the top of the military and in 1912 became president of China. The civil service exams were almost ended in the
821:
The official administration system was of four hierarchical tiers: provincial municipalities, districts, counties, and townships, from top to down. County-level cadres mostly did not get paid from the official payroll system.
566:
During the early Qing dynasty, hereditary slavery was a common practice that declined quickly. Slave girls(婢女), were largely sold and bought through contractual agreements where they would serve for a certain number of years.
360:
was common during the Yuan dynasty. The main sources of slaves include captives, criminals, kidnapped commoners, buying and selling of human lives. Slave status was also hereditary. A slave will give birth to slave children.
727:
In the countryside, the landlord class was eliminated during the land reform. In 1959, there were ten million state cadres, thirty-five million state workers, and two hundred million peasants. Chinese society was typical of
656:
marked one substantial increase in labor strikes in Shanghai and later culminated again in 1937 at the beginning of the Japanese invasion. Strikes again increased during the Civil War period because of the rising inflation.
1075:) policy was implemented in the late 1970s, the Communist system Mao had instituted disintegrated in the face of economic development. In the countryside, communes had disappeared by 1984. State-run enterprises known as
397:
impossible. Subcategories of the three main categories were more specific and profession-based. According to Taiwanese historian Cai Shishan, there were also salt refiners which were independent from other 3 categories.
328:. After the defeat of the Song dynasty by the Yuan, making friends with the local elites of Song became important. As a consequence, the most wealthy ones in the Song social strata remained wealthy in the Yuan dynasty.
4322:
801:
officially acknowledged that the existing definition of class status no longer fit the practical situations and thus re-defined the class system according to both economic status as well as political background:
4236:
506:
over Taiping in 1864, as many people were given quasi-official titles. Many took official local administrative positions. Others used their military rewards to purchase land and also join the gentry class.
1111:
unemployed. By 2016, agricultural laborers made up only approximately 40% of China's working class. Service workers made up the largest portion of China's working class, surpassing the industrial workers.
205:. Landlords and peasants constituted the two major classes, while merchants and craftsmen were collected into the two minor. Theoretically, except for the position of the Emperor, nothing was hereditary.
4281:
702:(CCP), adopting the Soviet style, transformed the state economy into the centrally planned economy. Both urban and rural areas underwent significant social, political, and economic changes brought by
1026:
limited education experience and mostly rose to power during the wartime. Scholars find that 80 percent of the party members in 1949 came from peasant households and that most of them were of little
3095:(Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2011), 169; Xiaoxian Gao and Yuanxi Ma, “‘The Silver Flower Contest’: Rural Women in 1950s China and the Gendered Division of Labour,”
393:. Ming government formalized the registration with the yellow booklet which records every member of a given family. In addition, there was the white booklet which records the taxation of a family.
81:
was primarily defined by an individual's identity. To rise required passing a very difficult written exam. The great majority failed, but for those who passed their entire family rose in status.
4071:
1059:
Unlike the Soviet where Russians made up less than half of the population, in China, Han Chinese people made up more than 90 percent of the entire population. The party extended the concept of
273:
the government. However, traditional slavery was not a common practice during the Song dynasty. Servants of the wealthy gentry usually kept a contract-like relationship with the lords served.
4317:
3866:
4276:
4181:
932:
Japanese colonial rule, and Shanghai, the city with an exceptional economic foundation in the nineteenth century. Even with the party's effort to bridge the developmental gap through the
385:. The imperial court of Ming kept a nationwide register of every subject---Ji (籍). This practice of registering population was inherited from the previous Yuan dynasty. Venetian traveler
4286:
652:
the countryside who had fewer native-place bonds and skillsets, they often found affiliation in gang activities and developed community solidarity. Strikes often happened in waves. The
4231:
4196:
4151:
128:
began to increase significantly. In 21st-century China, social structure is more reliant on employment and education, which allows citizens to have more social mobility and freedoms.
4121:
4116:
4011:
714:, Chinese society experienced massive upheaval. The communist revolutionaries who had eschewed capitalism and elitism now became the rich ruling class they had sought to overthrow.
1966:
4241:
4216:
4131:
4111:
4061:
4031:
4021:
4327:
4201:
4081:
1046:
Mao and other top party leaders made efforts to level class differences in three aspects. Land Reform was a systematic endeavor to remove unequal property ownership. The nation
4271:
4221:
4176:
4156:
4146:
4046:
1047:
811:
4246:
4161:
4141:
4026:
4016:
261:
On the other hand, gentry and government officials were not commoners. They and their families belong to Guan Hu (Gentry). Guan Hu was not an exclusive social stratum like
4291:
4226:
4191:
4126:
4106:
4096:
4056:
4041:
4036:
1119:
There was also a positive viewpoint in China surrounding the middle class as they were seen to earn a decent amount of money and were well qualified for their positions.
4332:
4251:
4211:
4186:
4166:
4101:
4076:
4066:
3929:
Wu, Xiaogang. "Higher education, elite formation and social stratification in contemporary China: Preliminary findings from the Beijing College Students Panel Survey."
4171:
4136:
4091:
4086:
1102:
to start small businesses. Due to the difference in financial and career circumstances of different migrant workers, migrant workers spanned across multiple classes.
865:
urban employment, marriage, and the college entrance exam. Yet, despite strict control, hidden and illicit migrations were still ongoing. People negotiated with the
852:
Another important aspect of the rural-urban divide during the Mao era was the reduction of urban population after the Famine. High-ranking party leaders, including
907:
establish independent associations or other professional organizations to expand professional social networks and set their distinct class boundaries. During the
739:) in the context of early PRC history carried both economic and political connotations. According to the party's official document about rural class, “landlords (
1094:
population accounted for 51.8% of China's GDP. By this point, the social structure was no longer as hierarchical in comparison to the early years of the reform.
2333:
Philip C.C. Huang, “Rural Class Struggle in the Chinese Revolution: Representational and Objective Realities from the Land Reform to the Cultural Revolution,”
818:
of class status (that the family from which a person was born in decided one's class status), people still closely associated class status with family origin.
782:, argue that rural stratification is largely based on generations and is thus a demographic question, which is different from the Marxist definition of class.
690:
Kuomintang party-state changed the former generational hierarchy, backed by the principle of filial piety, to mutual legal bonds between parents and children.
100:, as the slave status became hereditary. The new policy for commoners at this time also made the various categories within the commoner status hereditary. The
4716:
1819:
Kathryn Jean, Edgerton-Tarpley, "From 'Nourish the People' to 'Sacrifice for the Nation': Changing Responses to Disaster in Late Imperial and Modern China."
96:, there was a decrease in protection by the law for commoners. The gentry, however, were given more privileges. The Yuan dynasty also saw an increase in
3578:
3835:
3629:
From 1958 to 1977, the figure of peasant workers was around 20 million. However, China's official statistics had begun to count them only from 1978.
1090:
and that scientists were workers. These statements had a significant impact in lifting the class stigma associated with intellectuals since 1949.
400:
Gentries during the Ming dynasty belong to the caste of commoners. There were two types of gentries. Those who passed the entry-level exam of the
3347:(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991), 45. Quoted from Andreas, “Reconfiguring China's Class Order after the 1949 Revolution,” 29.
18:
3872:
Fang, Yiping, Zhilin Liu, and Yulin Chen. "Housing Inequality in Urban China: Theoretical Debates, Empirical Evidences, and Future Directions."
534:
of the 1850s, leaving the population vulnerable. The introduction of sweet potatoes reduced excess hunger and reduced the propensity to revolt.
3827:
Tackett, Nicolas. "Violence and the 1 Percent: The Fall of the Medieval Chinese Aristocracy in Comparison to the Fall of the French Nobility."
3313:
1750:
1182:
Nicolas Tackett, "Violence and the 1 Percent: The Fall of the Medieval Chinese Aristocracy in Comparison to the Fall of the French Nobility."
970:
referred to as a crime or serious problem. For example, a young cadre in a factory accused of homosexuality faced fierce political criticism.
2853:
Deborah S. Davis, “Social Class Transformation in Urban China: Training, Hiring, and Promoting Urban Professionals and Managers after 1949,”
2512:
555:
The lower classes of ordinary people were divided into two categories: one of them the good "commoner" people, the other the "mean" people.
88:
could move up in society through the acquirement of wealth. Through passing the imperial exam or donating resources, people could enter the
3662:
Chan, K. Y. (2001). "A Turning Point in China's Comprador System: KMA's Changing Marketing Structure in the Lower Yangzi Region, 1912-25".
43:
373:
Palace gate of Prince Jingjiang in Guilin. The palace-city of Ming princes is the symbol of privilege they enjoyed during the Ming dynasty
5444:
5319:
715:
3834:
Tackett, Nicolas Olivier, "The Transformation Of Medieval Chinese Elites (850–1000 C.E.)" (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2006)
258:
were the wealthiest. The ranks of commoners could change over time, as one who acquired more wealth could be promoted to a higher rank.
5329:
994:
5587:
3339:
J. Townsend, “Intra-party conflict in China: Disintegration in an established one-party system,” in S. Huntington and C. Moore eds.,
1147:
5669:
4485:
1824:
3911:
Monkkonen, Paavo, Andre Comandon, and Jiren Zhu. "Economic segregation in transition China: evidence from the 20 largest cities."
5436:
5374:
4261:
423:
In the Ming dynasty, the Royal house was a large and special social stratum. The royal house of Ming includes any descendants of
408:(生員). All Shengyuan receive a fixed amount of allowance from the imperial court. The average amount of allowance ranges from 18
5416:
4747:
4393:
1043:. As the two groups started to converge, a new class emerged as technocrats. They enjoyed both political and cultural capital.
797:
Theoretically speaking, classes differences should be eliminated after the Land Reform. On the eighth Party Congress in 1956,
5411:
3789:
Hung, Ho-fung. "Agricultural Revolution and Elite Reproduction in Qing China: The Transition to Capitalism Debate Revisited"
3516:
3289:
2304:
1976:
1875:
1726:
3222:"On the People's Democratic Dictatorship: In Commemoration of the Twenty-eighth Anniversary of the Communist Party of China"
1933:
790:
sheer number of peasants and effectively produce a surplus harvest that would help industrialization. This was known as the
5421:
3988:
2032:
1604:
3906:
1198:
Benjamin A. Elman, "Political, social, and cultural reproduction via civil service examinations in late imperial China."
1171:
73:
or classes, with the emperor ruling over them. Throughout this time period, there were attempts to eradicate this system.
5454:
3736:
Elman, Benjamin A. "Political, social, and cultural reproduction via civil service examinations in late imperial China."
156:
3755:
The rural economy of pre-liberation China: trade expansion and peasant livelihood in Jiangsu and Guangdong, 1870 to 1937
5602:
5582:
5561:
3561:
2814:
908:
2218:
Dynamics Vs. Tradition in Chinese Foreign Policy Motivation: Beijing's Fifth Column Policy in Hong Kong as a Test Case
5566:
5449:
5292:
3903:
3422:
2042:
2009:
1943:
1910:
1638:
1550:
1491:
1439:
1371:
1318:
1245:
997:
speech he defined the Chinese people as consisting of four social classes, also referred to in Asian cultures as the
511:
Commoners addressed them with honorific titles and they received a high status along with favorable legal treatment.
2549:
5, no. 1 (1979): 41–77; Zedong Mao, “On Khrushchov's Phoney Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World,” in
5314:
1098:
imbalance of social structure at this time became evident as both the working and peasant class were marginalized.
1063:
with only five races to fifty-six ethnic groups. Most non-Han minorities lived in rural and less developing areas.
937:
3963:- 2006 PBS documentary. KQED Public Television and Granada Television for PBS, Granada International, and the BBC.
3108:
Micah S Muscolino, “‘Water Has Aroused the Girls’ Hearts’: Gendering Water and Soil Conservation in 1950s China,”
1040:
520:
5304:
3235:
2225:
1999:
763:)” barely have any land or production tools and need to trade the entire or most of their labor for a living.
5597:
5369:
5364:
4848:
4206:
1692:
Elman, "Political, social, and cultural reproduction via civil service examinations in late imperial China."
830:
The early PRC era saw a widened urban-rural disparity. The enforcement of the household registration system (
530:
system, distributing free or subsidized grain during distress. This system was largely destroyed during the
284:
famously described the situation as "The flesh of the poor ones becomes the food of the strong ones" (弱肉强食).
237:
rebellion, and decisions taken by the families themselves in the Song dynasty to build up local power bases.
3172:"China's Class Structure: Changes, Problems, and Policy Suggestions—A Study of Class Development since 1978"
412:
to 12 taels. The rest of the gentries mainly earned their living by teaching in private schools as mentors.
305:
down in Northern China, changed their nomadic lifestyle to the agricultural lifestyle of Chinese commoners.
84:
During the Song dynasty, there was a clear division in social structure which was enforced by law. However,
5592:
5426:
5391:
5342:
5066:
925:
703:
3760:
Guo, Yongqin, et al. "A View of the Occupational Structure in Imperial and Republican China (1640–1952)."
5546:
5536:
5403:
4611:
296:
59:
674:
Wu's claim was one of the major intellectual efforts to point out and attempt to solve family problems (
5526:
4865:
4386:
3948:
3612:
2037:. Vol. 16 of The New Encyclopædia Britannica (15 ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 122.
2529:
2206:, New Approaches to Asian History (Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 2–18.
5664:
5551:
3553:
5496:
5486:
4843:
4655:
4003:
3981:
3883:
Goodman, David S. G. "Locating China's Middle Classes: social intermediaries and the Party-state."
3414:
3847:
Zhang, Qing. "The discursive construction of the social stratification order in reforming China."
3326:
Joel Andreas, “Reconfiguring China's Class Order after the 1949 Revolution,” in Yingjie Guo, ed.,
2473:
39:
5674:
5643:
5541:
5476:
3508:
3221:
2630:
2249:
1036:
912:
699:
477:
121:
3632:
From 1979 to 1993, the number of cadres increased from eighteen million to thirty-seven million.
3496:
3411:
People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War
5501:
5130:
4872:
2988:
Chinese Statistical Bureau, “The dispersion of per capita GDP by province and municipality” in
2971:
Chinese Statistical Bureau, “The dispersion of per capita GDP by province and municipality” in
498:
493:
381:
was the second to the last imperial dynasty of China established in 1368 following the fall of
137:
58:, the powerful government offices were not hereditary. Instead, they were selected through the
369:
5556:
5531:
5521:
5511:
5506:
5359:
4427:
4379:
3916:
1388:
576:
489:
424:
324:, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, notably gave many financial privileges to the gentries of
301:
2629:
1344:
5617:
5612:
5516:
5386:
5337:
4731:
4697:
4682:
4518:
4465:
3396:
Kjeld Erik Brødsgaard, Mads Kirkebæk, "China and Denmark: Relations Since 1674", NIAS, 2000
2528:
DengXiaoping,“Report on the Revision of the Constitution of the Communist Party of China,”
978:
842:
560:
281:
218:
3121:
Jacob Eyferth, “Women's Work and the Politics of Homespun in Socialist China, 1949–1980,”
189:(221 B.C.E.- C.E. 1840), the Chinese government divided Chinese people into four classes:
8:
5001:
4806:
4781:
4761:
4665:
4301:
3974:
3765:
1679:
E. A. Kracke, "Family vs Merit in Chinese Civil Service Examinations Under the Empire."
933:
874:
837:
653:
615:
924:
areas instead of coastal areas, and the former treaty ports were not prioritized in the
5158:
5140:
5135:
5123:
4957:
4776:
4756:
4726:
4508:
4480:
3940:
3776:
3727:
3712:
3695:
3679:
3522:
3477:
3469:
3307:
3225:
3199:
2651:
2504:
2496:
2277:
1881:
1744:
794:, which was a failure and resulted in the deaths of twenty to thirty million peasants.
791:
779:
614:, GMT, and KMT military force, most notably through the Military Academy, an island on
456:
332:
entered upon the properties of commoners while making them essentially slave peasants.
3782:
Heijdra, Martin J. "The socioeconomic development of rural China during the Ming," in
1789:
Ruixue Jia, "Weather shocks, sweet potatoes and peasant revolts in historical China."
982:
Flag of China, with each of the small stars representing one of the four occupations (
276:
In reality, the Song society's structure had evolved and changed over time. After the
5163:
5081:
4818:
4771:
4709:
4538:
4356:
3899:
3683:
3557:
3526:
3512:
3481:
3461:
3418:
3295:
3285:
3241:
3231:
3203:
3191:
2828:
2820:
2810:
2508:
2300:
2281:
2269:
2221:
2038:
2005:
1972:
1939:
1906:
1885:
1871:
1732:
1722:
1634:
1546:
1487:
1435:
1367:
1314:
1241:
1087:
711:
580:
531:
277:
262:
3626:
The figures of cadre from 1966–1970, as well as 2002–2003 are estimated.
2655:
2093:, Contemporary Asia in the World (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 40–41.
759:)” have less or no land, fewer production tools, and are often exploited. “Workers (
245:
5607:
5481:
5381:
5211:
5019:
4909:
4860:
4833:
4586:
4581:
4434:
3671:
3504:
3453:
3441:"From 'Class' to 'Social Strata': Grasping the Social Totality in Reform-Era China"
3183:
3171:
2643:
2488:
2261:
2180:
Hershatter, “State of the Field: Women in China's Long Twentieth Century,” 1018–19.
1863:
1718:
Civilizing the Chinese, competing with the West: study societies in late Qing China
1136:
1027:
998:
815:
729:
622:. Many military leaders of the following decades were Huangpu graduates, including
556:
347:
97:
70:
47:
3187:
3018:
Chinese Statistical Bureau, “Industrial employment in 1982 by county and city” in
2545:
Joseph W. Esherick, “On the ‘Restoration of Capitalism’: Mao and Marxist Theory,”
1214:
R. Bin Wong, "The political economy of agrarian empire and its modern legacy," in
775:
per household, and draft animals increased from 114.9 to 184.1 per 100 household.
480:
of 1898 but the reactionaries won out. The system was finally abolished in 1905.
5352:
5044:
4855:
4601:
4591:
3545:
3249:
2836:
2804:
1572:
1406:
Zheng, Kesheng (1989). "Jiangnan Gentries and the Society of late Yuan dynasty".
1227:
Dr. Yi Li, "The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification", (2005)
911:, the distinct lifestyle of upper middle classes was labeled “bourgeois crimes.”
878:
635:
74:
23:
3074:
Gail Hershatter, “State of the Field: Women in China's Long Twentieth Century,”
2169:
Intolerable Cruelty: Marriage, Law, and Society in Early Twentieth-Century China
2158:, ACLS Humanities E-Book. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 3–4.
1511:
5309:
5253:
5092:
5049:
4977:
4721:
4692:
4617:
4571:
4513:
4470:
3692:
The Chinese gentry: studies on their role in nineteenth-century Chinese society
2647:
1080:
1060:
293:
35:
3784:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 8 The Ming Dynasty, 1368 - 1644, Part 2
3457:
3374:
Andreas, “Reconfiguring China's Class Order after the 1949 Revolution,” 30-40.
3356:
Andreas, “Reconfiguring China's Class Order after the 1949 Revolution,” 29-32.
3299:
2832:
2806:
Governance of Life in Chinese Moral Experience: The Quest for an Adequate Life
2321:
1736:
5658:
5150:
4947:
4736:
4606:
4596:
4554:
4528:
4523:
4460:
4420:
4350:
3822:
The Cambridge History of China Volume 9 Part One: The Ch’ing Empire to 1800,
3465:
3195:
2273:
1072:
798:
401:
125:
2840:
2492:
1763:
Chuzo Ichiko, "The role of the gentry: an hypothesis." in Mary Wright, ed.,
5183:
5110:
4889:
4879:
4798:
4548:
4455:
4405:
3966:
3365:
Andreas, “Reconfiguring China's Class Order after the 1949 Revolution,” 32.
3253:
1857:
1716:
1141:
1115:
988:) and the large star in the middle representing the Chinese Communist Party
603:
464:
460:
448:
428:
382:
378:
254:
186:
106:
101:
93:
78:
55:
51:
2265:
1867:
229:'s decision to promote newly risen bureaucrats, reforms that followed the
5347:
5178:
5168:
5118:
5100:
5011:
4972:
4766:
4677:
4660:
4360:
3090:
2726:
Unending Capitalism: How Consumerism Negated China's Communist Revolution
1808:
Nourish the people: The state civilian granary system in China, 1650–1850
857:
607:
592:
472:
468:
439:
321:
209:
182:
3960:
3794:
3473:
3440:
2500:
1794:
5193:
4533:
3773:
The comprador in nineteenth century China: bridge between East and West
3741:
3217:
2694:
Thomas Rawski, “The Simple Arithmetic of Chinese Income Distribution,”
1218:
ed. by Timothy Brook and Gregory Blue, (Cambridge UP, 2002) pp 191–192.
1203:
786:
611:
503:
386:
234:
226:
3748:
China and Capitalism: A History of Business Enterprise in Modern China
3731:
3675:
583:, harmed the entrepreneurial class, such as merchants' local network.
66:
thought, thereby undermining the power of the hereditary aristocracy.
5239:
5234:
5201:
5173:
5061:
5056:
4992:
4967:
4914:
4828:
4543:
4475:
3720:
State Involution: A Study of Local Finances in North China, 1911-1935
3654:
Chan, Wellington K. K. "Government, merchants and industry to 1911."
1905:(reprint, illustrated ed.). Yale University Press. p. 117.
1216:
China and Historical Capitalism: Genealogies Of Sinological Knowledge
1187:
619:
405:
346:
Yuan dynasty introduced the policy of Colored population statistics (
230:
213:
143:
63:
2553:, trans. Doak A. Barnett (Princeton University Press, 1967), 123–95.
313:
249:
A Song dynasty gentry and his servant depicted by Ma Yuan circa 1225
124:, the social structure in the country underwent many changes as the
5248:
5220:
5206:
5073:
5039:
4997:
4982:
4942:
4687:
3943:. "Higher education expansion and social stratification in China."
3861:
Bian, Yanjie. "Chinese social stratification and social mobility."
2530:
https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/deng-xiaoping/1956/8.htm
853:
732:
because the peasant class composed the majority of the population.
623:
390:
325:
202:
190:
114:
85:
3840:
Wang, Di. "Study on family rules in the Ming and Qing dynasties."
3786:
edited by Denis Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote (1998) pp 417–578.
2824:
1965:
Britannica Educational Publishing (2010). Kenneth Pletcher (ed.).
1898:
22:
Metropolitan Civil Examination Records from the Sixth Year of the
5244:
5229:
5225:
4987:
4937:
4929:
4919:
4823:
4811:
4670:
4566:
4560:
3550:
China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict
2445:, (Beijing: Jingji kexue chubanshe), 160-1. Quoted from Bramall,
1964:
527:
357:
198:
194:
146:(551 BCE – 479 BCE) taught of five basic relationships in life:
110:
3282:
Social Structure and Social Stratification in Contemporary China
3245:
2248:
Bian, Y.; Breiger, R.; Galaskiewicz, J.; Davis, D. (June 2005).
2204:
A Social History of Maoist China: Conflict and Change, 1949-1976
915:
intensified the tendency of demoralizing the refined lifestyle.
5216:
5029:
4962:
4902:
4897:
4704:
4371:
2413:
China's Political Economy: The Quest for Development since 1949
1653:
John King Fairbank, Edwin O. Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig,
1076:
1020:
89:
3707:
Ch'u T'ung-tsu. "Chinese Class Structure and its Ideology" in
2778:
City versus Countryside in Mao's China: Negotiating the Divide
117:
were far lower in status unless they purchased gentry status.
5024:
4952:
4503:
2474:"The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961"
832:
77:
was difficult, or sometimes nearly impossible, to achieve as
3896:
The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification
2923:
Davis, “Social Class Transformation in Urban China,” 270-71.
2914:
Davis, “Social Class Transformation in Urban China,” 267-68.
2905:
Davis, “Social Class Transformation in Urban China,” 264-65.
2247:
2030:
1997:
1168:
The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification
693:
212:(202 B.C.E. - 220 C.E.), there was a partial restoration of
5034:
4576:
3345:
From Revolutionary Cadres to Technocrats in Socialist China
3022:(Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe). Quoted from Bramall,
2975:(Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe). Quoted from Bramall,
2078:
Culture, Power, and the State: Rural North China, 1900-1942
409:
340:
233:
rebellion, the destruction of aristocratic families in the
3820:
Rowe, William T. "Social Stability and Social Change" in
2896:, 27; Davis, “Social Class Transformation in Urban China.”
2322:
https://zh.m.wikisource.org/zh-hans/中央人民政府政务院关於划分农村阶级成份的决定
2171:(Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2012), Introduction.
1703:
State versus Gentry in Early Qing Dynasty China, 1644-1699
3647:
Bastid-Bruguiere, Marianne. "Currents of social change."
3151:(Guangdong: Guangzhou renmin chubanshe, 2016), chapter 2.
2106:(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), ch1.
1591:
State versus Gentry in Late Ming Dynasty China, 1572–1644
3924:
Class and social stratification in post-revolution China
3808:
Mandarins: The Circulation of Elites in China, 1600-1900
1238:
Mandarins: The Circulation of Elites in China, 1600-1900
722:
3579:"Why China's middle class supports the Communist Party"
2780:, 1st pbk ed (New York: Cambridge Univ Press, 2014), 5.
2389:(Taylor & Francis e-Library: Routledge, 2008), 105.
2250:"Occupation, Class, and Social Networks in Urban China"
698:
Entering the People's Republic of China (PRC) era, the
563:, and mean and good people could not marry each other.
443:
Diagram of the social structure during the Qing dynasty
3801:
Local merchants and the Chinese bureaucracy, 1750-1950
2803:
Zhang, Everett; Kleinman, Arthur; Tu, Weiming (2011).
1668:
China's cultural heritage. The Qing dynasty, 1644-1912
918:
2728:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 66–67.
2004:(15 ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 122.
1938:(15 ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 122.
710:
In 1949, in the wake of the communist victory in the
3328:
Handbook of Class and Social Stratification in China
2294:
2001:
The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 8; Volume 16
3343:(New York: Basic Books, 1970), 303; Hong Yung Lee,
3065:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 247.
570:
3439:
2359:Edward Friedman, Paul Pickowicz, and Mark Selden,
885:
586:
541:
221:system as an attempt to eradicate this feudalism.
3824:edited by Willard J. Peterson (2002) pp 473–562.
3750:(Hong Kong UP, 2006), covers 1500 to 1999; 136pp
3618:China Statistical Yearbook 2004, 126-127 and 150.
3606:China Cadre Statistics Fifty Years, 1949–1998, 1.
2104:Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor
2091:The China Boom: Why China Will Not Rule the World
1765:China in Revolution: The First Phase 1900 to 1913
1086:In 1978, Deng Xiaoping stated that science was a
599:leave their masters and find work by themselves.
5656:
2532:, (accessed Dec 8, 2021). Quoted from Wemheuer,
2080:(Stanford University Press, 1991), Introduction.
1837:China from the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution
1313:. Renmin University of China. pp. 247–256.
3813:Naquim, Susan and Evelyn Sakakida Rawski, eds.
3621:People's Daily Overseas Edition, 10/11/2002, 1.
2802:
2297:Environmental Change and Food Security in China
2295:Huang McBeath, Jenifer; McBeath, Jerry (2010).
34:has an expansive history which begins from the
3609:China Labor Statistical Yearbook 1998, 9., 17.
2156:Chinese Visions of Family and State, 1915-1953
1931:
785:Following the implementation of land reforms,
4387:
3982:
2471:
2363:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 25.
1899:Susan Naquin; Evelyn Sakakida Rawski (1989).
1170:(University Press of America. 2005) pp 1–55.
1066:
1008:
1002:
983:
389:noticed a similar policy during his visit to
317:Kublai Khan hunts while accompanied by others
5291:
5071:
3996:
2990:Xin Zhongguo wushinian tongji ziliao huibian
2973:Xin Zhongguo wushinian tongji ziliao huibian
2462:(Columbus: Ohio State University, 1991), 25.
2415:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 50.
1021:Social elites and the emergence of new class
208:During the 361 years of civil war after the
3404:
3402:
2034:The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Marcopædia
1971:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 226.
1256:The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 13, 30
670:) is in opposition to profiting the state (
626:, as well as nationalist Chinese generals.
4394:
4380:
3989:
3975:
3724:Comparative Studies in Society and History
3509:10.1332/policypress/9781529205473.003.0011
3312:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2141:Guanyi Wu, “Gai liang jia zu zhi du lun,”
1935:The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 16
1749:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1293:
1278:
3815:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century
3656:The Cambridge History of China: 1800-1911
3649:The Cambridge History of China: 1800-1911
3497:"The Anxious Middle Class of Urban China"
1902:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century
1855:
1655:East Asia: Tradition & Transformation
1148:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
940:, regional economic disparity continued.
694:Mao Era and the transition (1949 to 1978)
5279:
3437:
3399:
3341:Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society
1602:
1079:began to lay off workers, "smashing the
977:
438:
368:
312:
244:
176:
69:Imperial China divided the country into
17:
3330:(Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016), 28-29.
3230:. Vol. IV. Pergamon. p. 411.
1566:
1564:
1562:
1267:The Chinese Imperial Examination System
995:On the People's Democratic Dictatorship
113:were seen as the most respected class.
5657:
3495:Lui, Tai-lok; Liu, Shuo (2019-07-01),
3494:
3408:
3275:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3165:
3163:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3123:International Review of Social History
2791:City versus Countryside in Mao's China
2472:Meng, X.; Qian, N.; Yared, P. (2015).
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
1778:Agricultural Development in Qing China
1536:
1534:
1505:
1503:
993:represent the Communist Party. In his
951:
751:) to work for them. “Middle peasants (
5278:
4635:
4375:
3970:
2031:Encyclopædia Britannica, inc (1991).
1998:Encyclopædia Britannica, inc (1998).
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1810:(University of Michigan Press, 2020).
1806:Pierre-Etienne Will and R. Bin Wong,
1605:"PRINCELY COURTS OF THE MING DYNASTY"
1405:
825:
723:Political class and rural land reform
3898:(University Press of America. 2005.
3661:
3538:
2627:
2621:
2337:21, no. 1 (January 1, 1995): 105–43.
2215:
1714:
1570:
1559:
1429:
1308:
660:
575:In the Qing dynasty, the widespread
3658:vol 11. Part 2 (1980) pp: 416–462.
3576:
3260:
3216:
3154:
2460:The Theory of Peasant Co-operatives
2234:
1628:
1540:
1531:
1509:
1500:
1481:
1361:
1296:The Rise and Fall of Imperial China
1281:The Rise and Fall of Imperial China
1071:After the Chinese economic reform (
973:
919:Provincial level spatial inequality
62:, of written examinations based on
13:
4637:
4636:
3762:Australian Economic History Review
3726:, 29#1 (1987), pp. 132–161,
3636:
3544:
3503:, Policy Press, pp. 207–230,
3279:
3169:
3125:57, no. 3 (December 2012): 365–91.
2518:from the original on 5 March 2020.
1842:
1681:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
1386:
1342:
1188:https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhz317
646:
14:
5686:
3954:
3651:vol 11 part 2 (1980): pp 535–602.
2857:26, no. 3 (July 1, 2000): 251–75.
909:Three-anti and Five-anti Movement
287:
5639:
5638:
4401:
4355:
4346:
4345:
3849:Journal of Language and Politics
3709:Chinese Thought and Institutions
3570:
3488:
3431:
3390:
3385:A Social History of Maoist China
3377:
3368:
3359:
3350:
3333:
3320:
3210:
3141:
3136:A Social History of Maoist China
3128:
3115:
3102:
3081:
3068:
3055:
3050:A Social History of Maoist China
3042:
3029:
3012:
2999:
2982:
2965:
2952:
2939:
2926:
2917:
2894:A Social History of Maoist China
2881:A Social History of Maoist China
2868:A Social History of Maoist China
2765:A Social History of Maoist China
2752:A Social History of Maoist China
2683:A Social History of Maoist China
2670:A Social History of Maoist China
2636:Eurasian Geography and Economics
2631:"The Chinese Hukou System at 50"
2616:A Social History of Maoist China
2603:A Social History of Maoist China
2590:A Social History of Maoist China
2577:A Social History of Maoist China
2564:A Social History of Maoist China
2534:A Social History of Maoist China
2400:A Social History of Maoist China
2374:A Social History of Maoist China
2361:Chinese Village, Socialist State
2348:A Social History of Maoist China
938:Down to the Countryside Movement
778:Some soviet scholars, including
629:
571:Military Class and the Merchants
550:
427:and his nephew Prince Jingjiang
153:Older sibling to younger sibling
5670:History of agriculture in China
3842:Open Journal of Social Sciences
2908:
2899:
2886:
2873:
2860:
2847:
2796:
2783:
2770:
2757:
2744:
2731:
2718:
2705:
2698:22, no. 1. Quoted from Riskin,
2688:
2675:
2662:
2608:
2595:
2582:
2569:
2556:
2539:
2522:
2465:
2452:
2435:
2418:
2405:
2392:
2379:
2366:
2353:
2340:
2327:
2313:
2288:
2209:
2196:
2183:
2174:
2161:
2148:
2135:
2122:
2109:
2096:
2083:
2070:
2057:
2024:
1991:
1958:
1925:
1892:
1829:
1813:
1800:
1783:
1770:
1757:
1708:
1695:
1686:
1673:
1660:
1647:
1622:
1603:Robinson, David (Summer 2012).
1596:
1583:
1522:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1448:
1423:
1414:
1399:
1380:
1355:
1336:
1327:
1302:
1287:
1240:, Ayer (June 1980), hardcover,
1105:
886:Social stratification in cities
587:The Republic Era (1911 to 1949)
542:Artisans, merchants and workers
521:History of agriculture in China
434:
364:
308:
240:
131:
122:China's economic reform of 1978
5280:
4313:British Indian Ocean Territory
3874:Journal of Planning Literature
3227:Selected works of Mao Tse-tung
3176:International Critical Thought
1571:Chen, Baoliang (Winter 2016).
1272:
1259:
1250:
1230:
1221:
1208:
1192:
1176:
1160:
591:After 1911, China entered the
514:
339:Other social castes including
1:
3885:Journal of Contemporary China
3855:
3793:(2008) 73#4 pp. 569–588
3641:
3600:
3583:The Christian Science Monitor
3188:10.1080/21598282.2018.1539906
3170:Li, Peilin (2 October 2018).
1862:. Stanford University Press.
1839:(Pantheon, 1976) pp. 344-359.
1573:"明代社会各阶层的收入及其构成 ——兼论明代人的生活质量"
1510:Gao, Shouxian (Summer 2013).
1432:Social castes of Yuan dynasty
1311:Social Strata of Song Dynasty
812:Socialist Education Campaigns
3931:Chinese Journal of Sociology
3791:American Sociological Review
3711:, ed. J. K. Fairbank, 1957,
3076:The Journal of Asian Studies
3037:Chinese Economic Development
3024:Chinese Economic Development
3007:Chinese Economic Development
2994:Chinese Economic Development
2977:Chinese Economic Development
2960:Chinese Economic Development
2947:Chinese Economic Development
2934:Chinese Economic Development
2447:Chinese Economic Development
2426:Chinese Economic Development
2387:Chinese Economic Development
2145:, juan.1, qi.3 (1915): 1-11.
1298:. Princeton. pp. 94–96.
1054:
1048:Socialist Education Campaign
686:among urban female workers.
7:
3945:Chinese Sociological Review
3704:(Washington U. Press, 1972)
3093:and China's Collective Past
3078:63, no. 4 (2004): 991–1065.
2443:Zhongguo xiaofei jiegou xue
2220:. Nova Science Publishers.
1856:Stapleton, Kristin (2020).
1705:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
1463:History of Yuan vol.119,120
1130:
1009:
60:imperial examination system
10:
5691:
4486:Weberian (three-component)
3863:Annual Review of Sociology
3829:American Historical Review
3613:China Statistical Yearbook
3554:W. W. Norton & Company
3099:18, no. 3 (2006): 594–612.
2648:10.2747/1539-7216.50.2.197
2481:Review of Economic Studies
2324:. Accessed on Dec 8, 2021.
1780:(Brill, 2017). Pp 425-434.
1184:American Historical Review
1067:Post Reform (1978 to 2000)
518:
487:
135:
5634:
5575:
5467:
5435:
5402:
5328:
5300:
5287:
5274:
5192:
5149:
5109:
5091:
5010:
4928:
4888:
4797:
4790:
4745:
4648:
4644:
4631:
4494:
4448:
4444:
4415:
4341:
4300:
4260:
4002:
3458:10.1080/01436590801931488
3063:State and Family in China
2739:China's Political Economy
2713:China's Political Economy
2700:China's Political Economy
2642:(2). Routledge: 197–221.
2430:China's Political Economy
2299:. Netherlands: Springer.
2191:State and Family in China
1545:. Zhonghua Book Company.
1486:. Zhonghua Book company.
1387:Li, Yujun (Summer 2016).
1003:
984:
483:
351:
32:social structure of China
5608:Pre-industrial East Asia
4062:East Timor (Timor-Leste)
3997:Social structure of Asia
3844:2.11 (2014): 132+ online
3806:Marsh, Robert Mortimer.
3738:Journal of Asian Studies
3415:Cornell University Press
3409:Minami, Kazushi (2024).
1821:Journal of Asian Studies
1364:General History of China
1283:. Princeton. p. 40.
1200:Journal of Asian Studies
1153:
610:rebuild the Nationalist
4656:Administrative detainee
4323:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
3915:38.7 (2017): 1039-1061
2992:. Quoted from Bramall,
2628:Chan, Kam Wing (2009).
1932:Jacob E. Safra (2003).
1793:124.575 (2014): 92-118
1236:Robert Mortimer Marsh,
913:The Cultural Revolution
700:Chinese Communist Party
5072:
3922:Watson, James L., ed.
3831:124.3 (2019): 933–937.
3438:Anagnost, Ann (2008).
2428:, 106–8, 545; Riskin,
1715:Chen, Hon Fai (2017).
1633:. 法律出版社. p. 104.
1528:History of Ming vol.77
1186:124.3 (2019): 933-937
1010:shi, nong, gong, shang
989:
807:
494:Landed gentry in China
444:
374:
318:
250:
138:Rectification of Names
54:. However, after the
27:
5613:Pre-industrial Europe
3961:China from the Inside
3926:(Cambridge UP, 1984).
3764:59.2 (2019): 134-158
3446:Third World Quarterly
2809:. London: Routledge.
2493:10.1093/restud/rdv016
2266:10.1353/sof.2005.0053
1868:10.1515/9780804799737
1835:Jean Chesneux et al.
1670:(1983) pp 1-2, 73-75.
1629:Jin, Guantao (2011).
1543:Women in Ming dynasty
1541:Cai, Shishan (2011).
1434:. Shanghai: 上海人民出版社.
1430:Meng, Siming (2006).
1343:Lü, Yuezhong (2014).
981:
803:
577:White Lotus Rebellion
519:Further information:
490:Mandarin (bureaucrat)
442:
425:Emperor Taizu of Ming
372:
316:
302:Emperor Xizong of Jin
248:
177:Early Imperial Period
136:Further information:
50:, beginning with the
21:
5470: or countries
5281:By country or region
4519:Class discrimination
4237:United Arab Emirates
3947:45.4 (2013): 54–80.
3865:28.1 (2002): 91-116
3851:9.4 (2010): 508–527.
3803:(Stanford UP, 1987).
3702:Han Social Structure
3097:Gender & History
2102:Elizabeth J. Perry,
1968:The History of China
1482:Tao, Zongyi (2006).
1362:Fan, Wenlan (2009).
1309:Wang, Zenyu (2010).
926:First five-year plan
561:Imperial Examination
478:Hundred Days' Reform
282:investigating censor
219:Imperial examination
5002:Vanniar (Chieftain)
4264:limited recognition
3941:Yeung, Wei-Jun Jean
3887:25.97 (2016): 1-13
3876:35.1 (2020): 41-53
3775:(Harvard UP. 1970)
1767:(1968) pp: 297–318.
1294:Yuhua Wang (2022).
1279:Yuhua Wang (2022).
936:investment and the
875:Cultural Revolution
654:May Fourth Movement
5583:18th-century Spain
5437:Standard of living
5141:Upper middle class
5136:Lower middle class
4727:Political prisoner
4509:Chattering classes
4481:Spoon class theory
3757:(Oxford UP, 1989).
3718:Duara, Prasenjit,
3280:Lu, Xueyi (2020).
3149:Bianyuan ren jishi
3110:Past & Present
3089:Gender of Memory:
2216:Qian, Yin (1999).
2154:Susan L. Glosser,
2130:Shanghai on Strike
2117:Shanghai on Strike
1683:10 (1947): 102-121
990:
826:Urban-rural divide
792:Great Leap Forward
730:agrarian societies
457:Eight-legged essay
445:
375:
319:
251:
164:Ruler to structure
28:
5652:
5651:
5630:
5629:
5626:
5625:
5463:
5462:
5270:
5269:
5266:
5265:
5262:
5261:
5164:Lumpenproletariat
4666:illegal immigrant
4627:
4626:
4539:Classless society
4369:
4368:
4306:other territories
3933:3.1 (2017): 3-31
3690:Chang, Chung-li.
3676:10.1080/713999222
3518:978-1-5292-0547-3
3501:The City in China
3291:978-0-429-35602-5
3112:(September 2021).
3087:Gail Hershatter,
2306:978-1-4020-9180-3
2076:Prasenjit Duara,
1978:978-1-61530-181-2
1877:978-0-8047-9973-7
1823:(2014): 447-469.
1728:978-988-237-716-5
1593:(Springer, 2008).
952:Family and gender
838:people's communes
712:Chinese civil war
661:Family and Gender
581:Taiping Rebellion
532:Taiping rebellion
278:Jingkang incident
263:European nobility
5682:
5665:Society of China
5642:
5641:
5469:
5370:Mexican-American
5298:
5297:
5289:
5288:
5276:
5275:
5077:
5020:Business magnate
4910:Knowledge worker
4795:
4794:
4683:dual or multiple
4646:
4645:
4633:
4632:
4587:Social exclusion
4582:Social cleansing
4496:
4446:
4445:
4435:Economic classes
4396:
4389:
4382:
4373:
4372:
4359:
4349:
4348:
4318:Christmas Island
4004:Sovereign states
3991:
3984:
3977:
3968:
3967:
3817:(Yale UP, 1989).
3771:Hao, Yen-p'ing.
3700:Ch'u T'ung-tsu.
3687:
3664:Business History
3594:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3577:Goodman, David.
3574:
3568:
3567:
3552:. New York, NY:
3546:Li, David Daokui
3542:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3533:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3443:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3406:
3397:
3394:
3388:
3381:
3375:
3372:
3366:
3363:
3357:
3354:
3348:
3337:
3331:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3311:
3303:
3277:
3258:
3257:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3167:
3152:
3145:
3139:
3132:
3126:
3119:
3113:
3106:
3100:
3085:
3079:
3072:
3066:
3059:
3053:
3046:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3016:
3010:
3003:
2997:
2986:
2980:
2969:
2963:
2956:
2950:
2943:
2937:
2930:
2924:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2897:
2890:
2884:
2877:
2871:
2864:
2858:
2851:
2845:
2844:
2800:
2794:
2787:
2781:
2774:
2768:
2761:
2755:
2748:
2742:
2735:
2729:
2722:
2716:
2709:
2703:
2692:
2686:
2679:
2673:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2633:
2625:
2619:
2612:
2606:
2599:
2593:
2586:
2580:
2573:
2567:
2560:
2554:
2543:
2537:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2487:(4): 1568–1611.
2478:
2469:
2463:
2456:
2450:
2439:
2433:
2422:
2416:
2409:
2403:
2396:
2390:
2383:
2377:
2370:
2364:
2357:
2351:
2344:
2338:
2331:
2325:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2260:(4): 1443–1468.
2245:
2232:
2231:
2213:
2207:
2202:Felix Wemheuer,
2200:
2194:
2187:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2165:
2159:
2152:
2146:
2139:
2133:
2126:
2120:
2113:
2107:
2100:
2094:
2087:
2081:
2074:
2068:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2019:
2018:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1853:
1840:
1833:
1827:
1817:
1811:
1804:
1798:
1791:Economic Journal
1787:
1781:
1774:
1768:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1748:
1740:
1712:
1706:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1684:
1677:
1671:
1664:
1658:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1609:
1600:
1594:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1568:
1557:
1556:
1538:
1529:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1516:北京联合大学学报：人文社会科学版
1507:
1498:
1497:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1427:
1421:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1276:
1270:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1234:
1228:
1225:
1219:
1212:
1206:
1196:
1190:
1180:
1174:
1164:
1144:, business owner
1137:Four occupations
1088:productive force
1028:cultural capital
1012:
1006:
1005:
999:four occupations
987:
986:
974:Four occupations
879:barefoot doctors
816:bloodline theory
353:
161:Friend to friend
142:The teaching of
71:four occupations
48:Chinese nobility
44:contemporary era
5690:
5689:
5685:
5684:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5679:
5655:
5654:
5653:
5648:
5622:
5571:
5459:
5431:
5398:
5382:Underprivileged
5324:
5283:
5282:
5258:
5188:
5145:
5105:
5087:
5006:
4924:
4884:
4786:
4741:
4640:
4639:
4623:
4602:Social position
4592:Social mobility
4490:
4440:
4411:
4410:
4400:
4370:
4365:
4337:
4305:
4296:
4277:Northern Cyprus
4263:
4256:
3998:
3995:
3957:
3913:Urban Geography
3858:
3644:
3639:
3637:Further reading
3603:
3598:
3597:
3587:
3585:
3575:
3571:
3564:
3543:
3539:
3531:
3529:
3519:
3493:
3489:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3407:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3351:
3338:
3334:
3325:
3321:
3305:
3304:
3292:
3278:
3261:
3238:
3215:
3211:
3168:
3155:
3146:
3142:
3133:
3129:
3120:
3116:
3107:
3103:
3086:
3082:
3073:
3069:
3060:
3056:
3047:
3043:
3034:
3030:
3017:
3013:
3004:
3000:
2987:
2983:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2953:
2944:
2940:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2891:
2887:
2878:
2874:
2865:
2861:
2852:
2848:
2817:
2801:
2797:
2788:
2784:
2775:
2771:
2762:
2758:
2749:
2745:
2736:
2732:
2723:
2719:
2710:
2706:
2693:
2689:
2680:
2676:
2667:
2663:
2626:
2622:
2613:
2609:
2600:
2596:
2587:
2583:
2574:
2570:
2561:
2557:
2551:China After Mao
2544:
2540:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2476:
2470:
2466:
2458:A.V. Chaianov,
2457:
2453:
2440:
2436:
2423:
2419:
2410:
2406:
2397:
2393:
2385:Chris Bramall,
2384:
2380:
2371:
2367:
2358:
2354:
2345:
2341:
2332:
2328:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2293:
2289:
2246:
2235:
2228:
2214:
2210:
2201:
2197:
2193:, Introduction.
2188:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2166:
2162:
2153:
2149:
2140:
2136:
2127:
2123:
2114:
2110:
2101:
2097:
2088:
2084:
2075:
2071:
2067:, Introduction.
2062:
2058:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2029:
2025:
2016:
2014:
2012:
1996:
1992:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1963:
1959:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1930:
1926:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1897:
1893:
1878:
1859:Fact in Fiction
1854:
1843:
1834:
1830:
1818:
1814:
1805:
1801:
1788:
1784:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1758:
1742:
1741:
1729:
1713:
1709:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1687:
1678:
1674:
1666:Richard Smith,
1665:
1661:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1627:
1623:
1607:
1601:
1597:
1588:
1584:
1569:
1560:
1553:
1539:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1508:
1501:
1494:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1404:
1400:
1389:"金代法制变革与民族文化认同"
1385:
1381:
1374:
1360:
1356:
1351:– via 知网.
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1307:
1303:
1292:
1288:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1222:
1213:
1209:
1197:
1193:
1181:
1177:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1142:Comprador#China
1133:
1108:
1069:
1057:
1023:
976:
954:
921:
888:
828:
725:
696:
663:
649:
647:Urban Workforce
636:Prasenjit Duara
632:
589:
573:
553:
544:
523:
517:
496:
488:Main articles:
486:
437:
367:
326:Jiangnan region
311:
290:
243:
179:
157:Husband to wife
140:
134:
75:Social mobility
46:. There was a
12:
11:
5:
5688:
5678:
5677:
5675:Social systems
5672:
5667:
5650:
5649:
5647:
5646:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5628:
5627:
5624:
5623:
5621:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5603:Ottoman Empire
5600:
5595:
5590:
5588:Ancient Greece
5585:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5572:
5570:
5569:
5564:
5562:United Kingdom
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5473:
5471:
5465:
5464:
5461:
5460:
5458:
5457:
5455:Home-ownership
5452:
5447:
5441:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5408:
5406:
5400:
5399:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5389:
5379:
5378:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5357:
5356:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5334:
5332:
5326:
5325:
5323:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5310:American Dream
5307:
5301:
5295:
5285:
5284:
5272:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5264:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5223:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5198:
5196:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5155:
5153:
5147:
5146:
5144:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5115:
5113:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5103:
5097:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5078:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5053:
5052:
5047:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5016:
5014:
5008:
5007:
5005:
5004:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4934:
4932:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4906:
4905:
4894:
4892:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4876:
4875:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4846:
4838:
4837:
4836:
4826:
4821:
4816:
4815:
4814:
4803:
4801:
4792:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4753:
4751:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4722:Migrant worker
4719:
4714:
4713:
4712:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4675:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4658:
4652:
4650:
4642:
4641:
4638:By demographic
4629:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4618:Status Anxiety
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4572:Ranked society
4569:
4564:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4514:Class conflict
4511:
4506:
4500:
4498:
4497: topics
4492:
4491:
4489:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4471:Mudsill theory
4468:
4463:
4458:
4452:
4450:
4442:
4441:
4439:
4438:
4431:
4424:
4416:
4413:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4402:
4399:
4398:
4391:
4384:
4376:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4363:
4353:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4309:
4307:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4268:
4266:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4008:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3994:
3993:
3986:
3979:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3956:
3955:External links
3953:
3952:
3951:
3938:
3927:
3920:
3909:
3892:
3881:
3870:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3845:
3838:
3832:
3825:
3818:
3811:
3804:
3797:
3787:
3780:
3769:
3758:
3753:Faure, David.
3751:
3746:Faure, David.
3744:
3740:(1991): 7-28.
3734:
3716:
3705:
3698:
3688:
3659:
3652:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3627:
3623:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3615:2002, 120–121.
3610:
3607:
3602:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3569:
3563:978-0393292398
3562:
3537:
3517:
3487:
3452:(3): 497–519.
3430:
3423:
3413:. Ithaca, NY:
3398:
3389:
3376:
3367:
3358:
3349:
3332:
3319:
3290:
3259:
3236:
3220:(July 1977) .
3209:
3182:(4): 574–595.
3153:
3147:Yang Kuisong,
3140:
3127:
3114:
3101:
3080:
3067:
3054:
3041:
3028:
3011:
2998:
2981:
2964:
2951:
2938:
2925:
2916:
2907:
2898:
2885:
2872:
2859:
2846:
2816:978-0415597197
2815:
2795:
2782:
2776:Jeremy Brown,
2769:
2756:
2743:
2730:
2717:
2704:
2687:
2674:
2661:
2620:
2607:
2594:
2581:
2568:
2555:
2538:
2521:
2464:
2451:
2434:
2417:
2411:Carl. Riskin,
2404:
2391:
2378:
2365:
2352:
2339:
2326:
2312:
2305:
2287:
2233:
2226:
2208:
2195:
2182:
2173:
2167:Margaret Kuo,
2160:
2147:
2134:
2121:
2108:
2095:
2089:Ho-fung Hung,
2082:
2069:
2065:The China Boom
2056:
2043:
2023:
2010:
1990:
1977:
1957:
1944:
1924:
1911:
1891:
1876:
1841:
1828:
1812:
1799:
1782:
1769:
1756:
1727:
1707:
1701:Harry Miller,
1694:
1685:
1672:
1659:
1646:
1639:
1621:
1595:
1589:Harry Miller,
1582:
1558:
1551:
1530:
1521:
1512:"关于明朝的籍贯与户籍问题"
1499:
1492:
1474:
1465:
1456:
1447:
1440:
1422:
1413:
1398:
1379:
1372:
1354:
1335:
1326:
1319:
1301:
1286:
1271:
1258:
1249:
1229:
1220:
1207:
1202:(1991): 7-28.
1191:
1175:
1158:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1132:
1129:
1107:
1104:
1081:iron rice bowl
1068:
1065:
1061:Chinese nation
1056:
1053:
1037:Youth Pioneers
1022:
1019:
975:
972:
953:
950:
920:
917:
887:
884:
827:
824:
724:
721:
695:
692:
662:
659:
648:
645:
631:
628:
588:
585:
572:
569:
552:
549:
543:
540:
516:
513:
485:
482:
436:
433:
366:
363:
310:
307:
289:
288:Jurchen Empire
286:
242:
239:
178:
175:
166:
165:
162:
159:
154:
151:
133:
130:
40:Imperial China
36:feudal society
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5687:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5645:
5637:
5636:
5633:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5580:
5578:
5574:
5568:
5567:United States
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5474:
5472:
5468:Other regions
5466:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5405:
5401:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5383:
5380:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5358:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5331:
5327:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5293:United States
5290:
5286:
5277:
5273:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5114:
5112:
5108:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5084:
5083:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5013:
5009:
5003:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4927:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4859:
4858:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4835:
4832:
4831:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4789:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4744:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4732:Socioeconomic
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4706:
4703:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4680:
4679:
4676:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4663:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4634:
4630:
4620:
4619:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4607:Social stigma
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4597:Social orphan
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4557:
4556:
4555:Nouveau riche
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4529:Class traitor
4527:
4525:
4524:Class society
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4493:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4461:Gilbert model
4459:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4397:
4392:
4390:
4385:
4383:
4378:
4377:
4374:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4352:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4303:
4299:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4287:South Ossetia
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4265:
4259:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3992:
3987:
3985:
3980:
3978:
3973:
3972:
3969:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3904:0-7618-3331-5
3901:
3897:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3859:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3839:
3837:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3823:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3810:(Ayer, 1980).
3809:
3805:
3802:
3799:Mann, Susan.
3798:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3749:
3745:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3703:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3660:
3657:
3653:
3650:
3646:
3645:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3620:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3565:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3491:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3442:
3434:
3426:
3424:9781501774157
3420:
3416:
3412:
3405:
3403:
3393:
3386:
3380:
3371:
3362:
3353:
3346:
3342:
3336:
3329:
3323:
3315:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3219:
3218:Mao, Tse-tung
3213:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3150:
3144:
3137:
3131:
3124:
3118:
3111:
3105:
3098:
3094:
3092:
3084:
3077:
3071:
3064:
3058:
3051:
3045:
3038:
3032:
3025:
3021:
3020:1988 Yearbook
3015:
3008:
3002:
2995:
2991:
2985:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2961:
2955:
2948:
2942:
2935:
2929:
2920:
2911:
2902:
2895:
2889:
2882:
2876:
2869:
2863:
2856:
2850:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2799:
2792:
2786:
2779:
2773:
2766:
2760:
2753:
2747:
2740:
2734:
2727:
2721:
2714:
2708:
2701:
2697:
2696:Keizai kenkyu
2691:
2684:
2678:
2671:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2624:
2617:
2611:
2604:
2598:
2591:
2585:
2578:
2572:
2566:, 107, 178-9.
2565:
2559:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2455:
2448:
2444:
2438:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2414:
2408:
2401:
2395:
2388:
2382:
2375:
2369:
2362:
2356:
2349:
2343:
2336:
2330:
2323:
2316:
2308:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2254:Social Forces
2251:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2205:
2199:
2192:
2186:
2177:
2170:
2164:
2157:
2151:
2144:
2138:
2131:
2125:
2118:
2112:
2105:
2099:
2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2046:
2044:0-85229-529-4
2040:
2036:
2035:
2027:
2013:
2011:0-85229-633-9
2007:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1980:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1961:
1947:
1945:0-85229-961-3
1941:
1937:
1936:
1928:
1914:
1912:0-300-04602-2
1908:
1904:
1903:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1860:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1809:
1803:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1779:
1776:Zhihong Shi,
1773:
1766:
1760:
1752:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1721:. Hong Kong.
1720:
1719:
1711:
1704:
1698:
1689:
1682:
1676:
1669:
1663:
1656:
1650:
1642:
1640:9787511812346
1636:
1632:
1625:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1599:
1592:
1586:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1554:
1552:9787101080711
1548:
1544:
1537:
1535:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1504:
1495:
1493:9787101017274
1489:
1485:
1478:
1469:
1460:
1451:
1443:
1441:9787208063914
1437:
1433:
1426:
1417:
1409:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1383:
1375:
1373:9787010020297
1369:
1365:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1330:
1322:
1320:9787300115207
1316:
1312:
1305:
1297:
1290:
1282:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1253:
1247:
1246:0-405-12981-5
1243:
1239:
1233:
1224:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:Gaige Kaifang
1064:
1062:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1029:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1000:
996:
980:
971:
967:
964:
958:
949:
945:
941:
939:
935:
929:
927:
916:
914:
910:
904:
900:
896:
892:
883:
880:
876:
871:
868:
862:
859:
855:
850:
846:
844:
839:
835:
834:
823:
819:
817:
813:
806:
802:
800:
799:Deng Xiaoping
795:
793:
788:
783:
781:
776:
774:
768:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
733:
731:
720:
717:
713:
708:
705:
701:
691:
687:
683:
679:
677:
676:jiating wenti
673:
669:
658:
655:
644:
643:rural areas.
640:
637:
630:Rural Society
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
602:In 1924, the
600:
596:
594:
584:
582:
578:
568:
564:
562:
558:
551:Lower classes
548:
539:
535:
533:
529:
522:
512:
508:
505:
500:
495:
491:
481:
479:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
452:
450:
441:
432:
430:
426:
421:
417:
413:
411:
407:
403:
402:imperial exam
398:
394:
392:
388:
384:
380:
371:
362:
359:
355:
349:
344:
342:
337:
333:
329:
327:
323:
315:
306:
303:
298:
295:
285:
283:
279:
274:
270:
266:
264:
259:
256:
247:
238:
236:
232:
228:
222:
220:
215:
211:
206:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
174:
170:
163:
160:
158:
155:
152:
150:Father to son
149:
148:
147:
145:
139:
129:
127:
126:working class
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
25:
20:
16:
5618:Soviet Union
5593:Ancient Rome
5491:
5450:Homelessness
5375:Upper Middle
5247: /
5228: /
5219: /
5184:Working poor
5080:
5067:Robber baron
4890:Intellectual
4880:Royal family
4844:Ancient Rome
4698:second-class
4616:
4559:
4558: /
4553:
4549:High society
4456:Elite theory
4433:
4426:
4419:
4406:Social class
4302:Dependencies
4232:Turkmenistan
4197:Saudi Arabia
4051:
3944:
3930:
3923:
3912:
3895:
3884:
3873:
3862:
3848:
3841:
3828:
3821:
3814:
3807:
3800:
3790:
3783:
3772:
3761:
3754:
3747:
3737:
3723:
3719:
3708:
3701:
3691:
3670:(2): 51–72.
3667:
3663:
3655:
3648:
3588:11 September
3586:. Retrieved
3582:
3572:
3549:
3540:
3530:, retrieved
3500:
3490:
3449:
3445:
3433:
3410:
3392:
3384:
3379:
3370:
3361:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3327:
3322:
3281:
3226:
3212:
3179:
3175:
3148:
3143:
3135:
3130:
3122:
3117:
3109:
3104:
3096:
3088:
3083:
3075:
3070:
3062:
3057:
3049:
3044:
3036:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3006:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2959:
2954:
2946:
2941:
2933:
2928:
2919:
2910:
2901:
2893:
2888:
2880:
2875:
2867:
2862:
2855:Modern China
2854:
2849:
2805:
2798:
2790:
2785:
2777:
2772:
2764:
2759:
2751:
2746:
2738:
2733:
2725:
2724:Karl Gerth,
2720:
2712:
2707:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2682:
2677:
2669:
2664:
2639:
2635:
2623:
2615:
2610:
2602:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2576:
2571:
2563:
2558:
2550:
2547:Modern China
2546:
2541:
2533:
2524:
2484:
2480:
2467:
2459:
2454:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2412:
2407:
2399:
2394:
2386:
2381:
2373:
2368:
2360:
2355:
2347:
2342:
2335:Modern China
2334:
2329:
2315:
2296:
2290:
2257:
2253:
2217:
2211:
2203:
2198:
2190:
2185:
2176:
2168:
2163:
2155:
2150:
2143:Da zhong hua
2142:
2137:
2129:
2124:
2116:
2111:
2103:
2098:
2090:
2085:
2077:
2072:
2064:
2059:
2048:. Retrieved
2033:
2026:
2015:. Retrieved
2000:
1993:
1982:. Retrieved
1967:
1960:
1949:. Retrieved
1934:
1927:
1916:. Retrieved
1901:
1894:
1858:
1836:
1831:
1820:
1815:
1807:
1802:
1790:
1785:
1777:
1772:
1764:
1759:
1717:
1710:
1702:
1697:
1688:
1680:
1675:
1667:
1662:
1657:(1989) p 570
1654:
1649:
1630:
1624:
1615:
1612:Ming Studies
1611:
1598:
1590:
1585:
1576:
1542:
1524:
1515:
1483:
1477:
1472:Meng 179-182
1468:
1459:
1450:
1431:
1425:
1416:
1407:
1401:
1392:
1382:
1363:
1357:
1348:
1338:
1329:
1310:
1304:
1295:
1289:
1280:
1274:
1269:(2013) p. 3.
1266:
1261:
1252:
1237:
1232:
1223:
1215:
1210:
1199:
1194:
1183:
1178:
1167:
1162:
1125:
1121:
1116:middle class
1114:The working
1113:
1109:
1106:21st century
1100:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1070:
1058:
1045:
1041:Youth League
1033:
1024:
1015:
991:
968:
962:
959:
955:
946:
942:
930:
922:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
872:
866:
863:
858:Li Xiannnian
851:
847:
843:Great Famine
831:
829:
820:
808:
804:
796:
784:
777:
772:
769:
765:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
734:
726:
709:
697:
688:
684:
680:
675:
671:
667:
664:
650:
641:
633:
604:Soviet Union
601:
597:
590:
574:
565:
554:
545:
536:
524:
509:
497:
465:Feng Yunshan
461:Hong Xiuquan
453:
449:Qing dynasty
446:
435:Qing dynasty
429:Zhu Shouqian
422:
418:
414:
404:were called
399:
395:
383:Yuan dynasty
379:Ming dynasty
376:
365:Ming dynasty
356:
345:
338:
334:
330:
320:
309:Yuan dynasty
291:
275:
271:
267:
260:
255:Song dynasty
252:
241:Song dynasty
223:
207:
187:Qing dynasty
185:to the late
180:
171:
167:
141:
132:Confucianism
119:
107:Qing dynasty
102:Ming dynasty
94:Yuan dynasty
83:
79:social class
68:
56:Song dynasty
52:Zhou dynasty
31:
29:
26:Reign (1493)
15:
5537:New Zealand
5254:Untouchable
5179:Proletariat
5169:Pea-pickers
5119:Bourgeoisie
4807:Aristocracy
4693:naturalized
4688:native-born
4361:Asia portal
4262:States with
4182:Philippines
4122:South Korea
4117:North Korea
4012:Afghanistan
3715:pp 235–250.
3091:Rural women
1345:"贾似道的公田法研究"
934:Third Front
873:During the
704:land reform
616:Pearl River
608:Sun Yat-sen
593:Warlord Era
515:Agriculture
473:Yuan Shikai
469:Hong Rengan
297:Jin dynasty
253:During the
210:Han dynasty
183:Qin dynasty
5659:Categories
5527:Luxembourg
5417:Inequality
5082:Superclass
4873:Hereditary
4849:Post-Roman
4840:Patrician
4710:adolescent
4534:Classicide
4242:Uzbekistan
4217:Tajikistan
4132:Kyrgyzstan
4112:Kazakhstan
4032:Bangladesh
4022:Azerbaijan
3856:Since 1949
3642:Historical
3601:References
3532:2020-12-17
3383:Wemheuer,
3300:1111652756
3284:. London.
3237:0080222625
3134:Wemheuer,
3048:Wemheuer,
2962:, 278-282.
2892:Wemheuer,
2879:Wemheuer,
2866:Wemheuer,
2833:1100462075
2825:2010026786
2763:Wemheuer,
2750:Wemheuer,
2681:Wemheuer,
2672:, 103-106.
2668:Wemheuer,
2614:Wemheuer,
2605:, 206-208.
2601:Wemheuer,
2588:Wemheuer,
2575:Wemheuer,
2562:Wemheuer,
2398:Wemheuer,
2372:Wemheuer,
2346:Wemheuer,
2227:1560726962
2050:2011-11-07
2017:2011-11-07
1984:2011-11-07
1951:2011-11-07
1918:2011-10-31
1737:1011626438
1454:Meng p.172
1420:Meng p.155
1333:Wang p.501
1265:Rui Wang,
716:CCP cadres
634:Historian
612:Kuomintang
504:Hunan Army
387:Marco Polo
235:Huang Chao
227:Empress Wu
5552:Sri Lanka
5445:Education
5412:Household
5305:Affluence
5240:Rat tribe
5202:Ant tribe
5174:Precariat
5159:Lazzaroni
5101:Bohemians
5062:Overclass
5057:Old money
4993:Spartiate
4968:Kshatriya
4958:Hashashin
4915:Professor
4856:Political
4829:Oligarchy
4819:Hanseaten
4737:Stateless
4717:Convicted
4649:By status
4612:Subaltern
4544:Euthenics
4476:New class
4328:Hong Kong
4282:Palestine
4207:Sri Lanka
4202:Singapore
4082:Indonesia
3684:154838376
3527:213476927
3482:145356528
3466:0143-6597
3308:cite book
3204:219597215
3196:2159-8282
3039:, 278-82.
3035:Bramall,
3005:Bramall,
2958:Bramall,
2949:, 136-37.
2945:Bramall,
2936:, 110-11.
2932:Bramall,
2841:24539488M
2741:, 240-42.
2509:154826643
2441:H Zhang,
2424:Bramall,
2282:146367869
2274:0037-7732
1886:241024667
1745:cite book
1366:. 人民出版社.
1055:Ethnicity
753:zhongnong
749:changgong
672:mou guo).
620:Guangzhou
406:Shengyuan
231:An Lushan
214:feudalism
199:craftsmen
181:From the
144:Confucius
115:Merchants
92:. By the
86:commoners
64:Confucian
5644:Category
5576:Historic
5497:Colombia
5487:Cambodia
5422:Personal
5320:Mobility
5249:Freedman
5235:Plebeian
5221:Prisoner
5207:Commoner
5093:Creative
5074:Seigneur
5040:Nobility
4998:Vanniyar
4983:Pendekar
4943:Cossacks
4577:Snobbery
4449:Theories
4351:Category
4272:Abkhazia
4222:Thailand
4177:Pakistan
4157:Mongolia
4152:Maldives
4147:Malaysia
4047:Cambodia
3548:(2024).
3474:20455054
3387:, 35-39.
3254:4559373M
3246:77030658
3061:Yue Du,
3009:, 300-1.
2754:, 164-8.
2737:Riskin,
2711:Riskin,
2656:53549312
2513:Archived
2501:43869477
2132:, 66-68.
1131:See also
1039:and the
854:Chen Yun
810:various
780:Chaianov
624:Lin Biao
391:Hangzhou
203:merchant
191:landlord
111:peasants
5547:Romania
5542:Nigeria
5427:Poverty
5330:Classes
5315:History
5226:Peasant
5212:Outcast
5151:Working
5131:Burgher
4988:Samurai
4978:Ocēlōtl
4938:Chhetri
4930:Warrior
4920:Scholar
4834:Russian
4824:Magnate
4812:Aristoi
4791:By type
4678:Citizen
4671:refugee
4567:Poverty
4561:Parvenu
4495:Related
4466:Marxian
4428:Stratum
4247:Vietnam
4162:Myanmar
4142:Lebanon
4072:Georgia
4027:Bahrain
4017:Armenia
3907:excerpt
3894:Li Yi.
3694:(1955)
3052:, 71-2.
2793:, ch 7.
2789:Brown,
2402:, 66-68
2128:Perry,
2115:Perry,
1577:中国社会科学网
1172:excerpt
1166:Li Yi,
1077:danweis
761:gongren
757:pinnong
735:Class (
668:mou jia
606:helped
528:granary
447:In the
358:Slavery
348:Chinese
294:Jurchen
195:peasant
120:During
98:slavery
42:to the
24:Hongzhi
5502:France
5482:Belize
5477:Africa
5404:Income
5360:Middle
5353:Gentry
5217:Outlaw
5124:Petite
5111:Middle
5045:Landed
5030:Gentry
4963:Knight
4903:Priest
4898:Clergy
4861:Family
4799:Ruling
4748:collar
4705:Clique
4421:Status
4292:Taiwan
4227:Turkey
4192:Russia
4127:Kuwait
4107:Jordan
4097:Israel
4057:Cyprus
4042:Brunei
4037:Bhutan
3949:online
3935:online
3917:online
3902:
3889:online
3878:online
3867:online
3836:online
3795:online
3777:online
3766:online
3742:online
3732:178784
3730:
3713:online
3696:online
3682:
3560:
3525:
3515:
3480:
3472:
3464:
3421:
3298:
3288:
3252:
3244:
3234:
3202:
3194:
3026:, 282.
2996:, 301.
2979:, 301.
2883:, 171.
2839:
2831:
2823:
2813:
2715:, 240.
2702:, 240.
2685:, 135.
2654:
2592:, 184.
2536:, 107.
2507:
2499:
2303:
2280:
2272:
2224:
2119:, ch3.
2063:Hung,
2041:
2008:
1975:
1942:
1909:
1884:
1874:
1825:online
1795:online
1735:
1725:
1637:
1549:
1490:
1438:
1410:: 1–2.
1370:
1317:
1244:
1204:online
745:funong
557:Slaves
499:Gentry
484:Gentry
350::
322:Kublai
201:, and
109:, the
90:gentry
5598:Aztec
5557:Tibet
5532:Nepal
5522:Italy
5512:India
5507:Haiti
5492:China
5392:Under
5387:Lower
5365:Black
5348:Donor
5343:Black
5338:Upper
5245:Slave
5194:Under
5050:Petty
5025:Elite
5012:Upper
4953:Harii
4948:Cuāuh
4782:White
4762:Green
4661:Alien
4504:Caste
4333:Macau
4252:Yemen
4212:Syria
4187:Qatar
4167:Nepal
4102:Japan
4077:India
4067:Egypt
4052:China
3728:JSTOR
3722:, in
3680:S2CID
3523:S2CID
3478:S2CID
3470:JSTOR
3200:S2CID
3138:, 31.
2870:, 28.
2767:, 25.
2652:S2CID
2618:, 26.
2579:, 40.
2516:(PDF)
2505:S2CID
2497:JSTOR
2477:(PDF)
2449:, 107
2432:, 49.
2376:, 63.
2350:, 60.
2278:S2CID
1882:S2CID
1631:兴盛与危机
1608:(PDF)
1484:南村辍耕录
1393:学习与探索
1154:Notes
867:hukou
833:hukou
741:dizhu
737:jieji
618:near
5517:Iran
5230:Serf
5035:Lord
4973:Nair
4866:List
4777:Pink
4767:Grey
4757:Blue
4746:By "
4172:Oman
4137:Laos
4092:Iraq
4087:Iran
3900:ISBN
3590:2023
3558:ISBN
3513:ISBN
3462:ISSN
3419:ISBN
3314:link
3296:OCLC
3286:ISBN
3242:LCCN
3232:ISBN
3192:ISSN
2829:OCLC
2821:LCCN
2811:ISBN
2301:ISBN
2270:ISSN
2222:ISBN
2189:Du,
2039:ISBN
2006:ISBN
1973:ISBN
1940:ISBN
1907:ISBN
1872:ISBN
1751:link
1733:OCLC
1723:ISBN
1635:ISBN
1547:ISBN
1488:ISBN
1436:ISBN
1368:ISBN
1315:ISBN
1242:ISBN
1004:士農工商
985:士農工商
856:and
492:and
467:and
410:tael
377:The
352:諸色戶計
341:Semu
292:The
30:The
4772:New
4304:and
3672:doi
3505:doi
3454:doi
3184:doi
2644:doi
2489:doi
2262:doi
1864:doi
1408:开史学
1349:波大学
787:Mao
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