1227:
its ability to act in concert with the nomadic lifestyle of the
Mongols. Most of the Mongol people were herders and moved constantly from southern regions in the winter months to the northern steppes in summer as well as moving periodically to fresh pastures. The yurts' size and the felt walls made them relatively cool in the summers and warm in the winters allowing the Mongols to live in the same dwelling year-round. Disassembling the yurts only took about an hour, as did putting them back up in a new location. This is why there are still some doubts today about the assumption that the yurts have ever been really put on carts pulled by oxen for transporting them from camp to camp, without disassembling them, or if these carts are just a legend. Some travelers, like Marco Polo, did mention them in their writings: "They have circular houses made of wood and covered with felt, which they carry about with them on four wheeled wagons wherever they go. For the framework of rods is so neatly constructed that it is light to carry." (Polo, 97) Yurts could be heated with dried dung, found in abundance with the traveling herds, so no timber was needed. The felt for the covering was made from wool that was taken from sheep also present in most Mongol herds. The wooden frame was handed down from one generation to the next and seldom had to be replaced.
795:
caftans had a square collar but the majority overlapped in the front to fasten under the arm creating a slanting collar. The skirt of the caftan was sewn on separately, and sometimes ruffles were added depending on the purpose and class of the person wearing it. Men and unmarried women tied their caftans with two belts, one thin, leather one beneath a large, broad sash that covered the stomach. Once a woman became married, she stopped wearing the sash. Instead she wore a very full caftan and some had a short-sleeved jacket that opened in the front. For women of higher rank, the overlapping collar of their caftan was decorated with elaborate brocade and they wore full sleeves and a train that servants had to carry. For both genders, trousers were worn under the caftan probably because of the nomadic traditions of the Mongol people.
900:: "It is apparent that in many cases, for example in family instructions, the yasa tacitly accepted the principles of customary law and avoided any interference with them. For example, Riasanovsky said that killing the man or the woman in case of adultery is a good illustration. Yasa permitted the institutions of polygamy and concubinage so characteristic of southerly nomadic peoples. Children born of concubines were legitimate. Seniority of children derived their status from their mother. Eldest son received more than the youngest after the death of father. But the latter inherited the household of the father. Children of concubines also received a share in the inheritance, in accordance with the instructions of their father (or with custom)"
1219:, and during the Mongol Empire they consisted of a round, collapsible wooden frame covered in felt. The roof was formed from about 80 wooden rods attached at one end to the wall frame and at the other to an iron ring in the center, providing a sturdy base for the felt roof. Without the roof in place, this frame would have resembled a large wooden wheel with the wooden spokes converging at the iron ring. The top of the roof was usually about five feet higher than the walls so precipitation would run to the ground. The ring at the peak of the yurt could be left open as a vent for smoke and a window for sunlight, or it could be closed with a piece of felt. Doors were made from a felt flap or, for richer families, out of wood.
725:
looking for grass to feed off of. Almost every family possessed at least one horse, and in some cases, horses were buried with their owners to serve with them in the next life. Mongolian horses were probably the most important factor of the Mongol Empire. Without the extremely skilled, not to mention famous, cavalry, the
Mongols would not have been able to raid and capture the huge area they did and the Mongols would not be known, even today, as skilled horsemen. It also served as an animal that Mongols could drink blood from, by cutting into a vein in the neck and drinking it, especially on harsh, long rides from place to place. For additional sustenance, horse mare's milk was made into an alcoholic beverage, known as
217:
896:. Likewise, each son inherited a part of the family's camping lands and pastures, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands and pastures, and each son in turn inherited camping lands and pastures closer to the family tent until the youngest son inherited the camping lands and pastures immediately surrounding the family tent. Family units would often remain near each other and in close cooperation, though extended families would inevitably break up after a few generations. It is probable that the Yasa simply put into written law the principles of customary law. NilgĂŒn Dalkesen wrote in
63:
914:
another. The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor. It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched.
880:. Wives were brought for each of the sons, while daughters were married off to other clans. Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority to wife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were considered "elder" or "bigger" in relation to wife-taking clans, who were considered "younger" or "smaller". This distinction, symbolized in terms of "elder" and "younger" or "bigger" and "smaller", was carried into the clan and family as well, and all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior.
820:
prepared them for the military life that awaited them when they turned fifteen years old. Once these boys became soldiers, four to seven horses were given to them to alternate between. This large number of horses ensured that some were always rested and ready to fight. Because of this, a soldier had little excuse to fall behind in his tasks. Overall, the Mongol society adored these animals because of their gentleness and loyalty to their masters. Anyone who abused or neglected to feed these horses properly was subjected to punishment by the government.
88:
854:
411:
294:(merchant partner) arrangement. As the Empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization, received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade, resulting in some dramatic stories of those who traveled what became known as the Silk Road. One of the best-known travelers from West to East was
787:
1157:
the husband had the opportunity to choose where he wanted to sleep each night. Visitors to this region found it remarkable that marital complications did not arise. The location of the yurts between the wives differed depending on who married first. The first wife placed her yurt to the east and the other wives placed their yurts to the west. Even though a husband remained attached to his first wife, the women were "docile, diligent, and lacked jealousy" towards one another.
444:
dramatically increased circulation. With the defeat of the Song, their currency was taken out of circulation and could be exchanged with Mongol currency at a relatively high exchange rate. Regardless of persistent inflation after 1272, paper currency backed by limited releases of coins remained as the standard means of currency until 1345. Around 1345, rebellions, economic crisis, and financial mismanagement of paper currency destroyed the public's confidence in the bills.
985:
841:. Along with these necessities, the military provided their soldiers with leather sacks and files. The leather sacks were used to carry and keep items such as weapons dry. They also could be inflated and used as floats during river crossings. The files were for sharpening the arrows. Any soldier found missing his weapons would be punished. Methods of punishment included whippings, doing very hard physical activities, or possibly having to leave the army.
1197:
1129:
20:
1149:
assistance from his mother. He honored the advice women in his life offered. Genghis Khan permitted his wives to sit with him and encouraged them to voice their opinions. Because of their help, Genghis was able to choose his successor. Furthermore, Mongol women were riding horseback, they fought in battles, tended their herds and influenced their men on important decisions for the
Mongolian Empire.
244:
Mongol government issued paper currency backed by silk reserves and founded a department that was responsible for destroying old notes. In 1253, Möngke established a
Department of Monetary affairs to control the issuance of paper money to eliminate the overissue of the currency by Mongol and non-Mongol nobles since the reign of Great Khan Ăgedei. His authority established a united measure based on
434:
day Iran. Paper currency was used in China, continuing the practice established by the
Chinese several hundred years before. The Chinese had mastered the technology of printmaking and therefore it was relatively simple for them to print bills. Paper currency was used in China since 960 A.D., when the Song dynasty started replacing their copper coinage with paper currency. When the Mongols invaded
704:
1208:
755:
273:, who was supportive of the Yuan leadership in other ways, failed to adopt the monetary experiment in his Middle East realm in 1294. As did the khanates of the Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate minted their coins in gold, silver, and copper. Ghazan's fiscal reforms enabled the inauguration of a unified bimetallic currency in the Ilkhanate. Chagatai Khan
34:(1206â1368) maintained their own culture, not necessarily reflective of the majority population of the historical Mongolian empire, as most of the non-Mongol peoples inside it were allowed to continue their own social customs. The Mongol class largely lead separate lives, although over time there was a considerable cultural influence, especially in
921:, in which relatives are grouped together under separate terms that crosscut generations, age, and even sexual difference. Thus, a man's father's sister's children, his sister's children, and his daughter's children are all called by another term. A further attribute is strict terminological differentiation of siblings according to seniority.
1161:
father" to society. The women devoted their lives to their daily tasks, which included physical work outside the household. Women worked by loading the yurts, herding and milking all the livestock, and making felt for the yurt. Along with these chores, they were expected to cook and sew for their husband, their children, and their elders.
1088:
predicted a Mongol conqueror. He was initially pleased with Wahid-ud-Din but then dismissed him from his service saying "I used to consider you a wise and prudent man, but from this speech of yours, it has become evident to me that you do not possess complete understanding and that your comprehension
762:
Camels, along with cattle, were also used as beasts of burden. As they were domesticated (between 4000 and 3000 BC), they became one of the most important animals for land based trade in Asia. The reasons for this were that they did not require roads to travel on, they could carry up to 500 pounds of
350:
The fall of the Mongol Empire led to the collapse of the political unity along the Silk Road. Also falling victim were the cultural and economic aspects of its unity. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the Silk Road from the decaying
Byzantine Empire, and sowed the seeds of a Turkic culture that
260:
under Kublai Khan issued paper money backed by silver, and again banknotes supplemented by cash and copper cash. Marco Polo wrote that the money was made of mulberry bark. The standardization of paper currency allowed the Yuan court to monetize taxes and reduce the carrying costs of taxes on goods as
1222:
The
Turkish word for ger, "yurt", means "homeland" in Turkish and it was probably never used to describe the tent. When the dwelling made its way to Mongolia, it adopted the name "ger" which means "home" in Mongolian. They were always set up with the door facing the south and tended to have an altar
887:
family, each son received a part of the family herd as he married, with the elder son receiving more than the younger son. The youngest son would remain in the parental tent caring for his parents, and after their death he would inherit the parental tent in addition to his own part of the herd. This
828:
made from birch, sinew and the horns of sheep. This made sturdy but light bows. Three types of arrows were created for different purposes. The most common arrow used for warfare was the pointed iron head, which could travel as far as 200 metres. If a soldier wanted to slice the flesh of the opposing
807:
to create the sole of the boot then separately made uppers were attached. The upper sections of the boots were usually dark in colour and the soles were light. Light strips of fabric were sewn over the seams to make them more durable. Boots usually had a pointed or upturned toe but lacked a heel.
806:
The footwear of the traditional Mongol Empire consisted mainly of boots or leather sandals made out of cow fur. This footwear was thick and often smelled of cow dung. Both the left foot and the right foot were identical and they were made of leather, cotton, or silk. Many layers were sewn together
798:
The materials used to create caftans varied according to status and wealth. They ranged anywhere from silk, brocade, cotton, and valuable furs for richer groups, to leather, wool, and felt for those less well off. Season also dictated the type of fabric worn, especially for those that could afford
433:
considered the use of paper currency in the Mongol Empire one of the marvels of the world. Paper currency was not used in the entire empire. The
Chinese silver ingot was accepted universally as currency throughout the empire, while local coins were also used in some western areas, such as the modern
426:
One of the most impressive discoveries that Marco Polo made on his visit to
Mongolia is how the empire's monetary system worked. He was not impressed by the silver Akçe that the empire used for a unified currency, or that some realms of the empire still used local currency, but he was most surprised
243:
Paper money was authorized in 1227. It was backed by precious metals and silk. The
Mongols used Chinese silver ingot as unified money of public account while circulating paper money in China and coins in the western areas of the empire such as Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanate. Under Ăgedei Khan the
175:
Meal etiquette during large gatherings and ceremonies involved a meat meal cut up into small pieces. Guests were served their meat on skewers and the host determined the order of serving. People of different social classes were assigned to different parts of the meat and it was the responsibility of
1226:
The first known yurt was seen engraved on a bronze bowl that was found in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran, dating back to 600 BC, but the felt tent probably did not arrive in Mongolia for another thousand years. When the yurt did arrive, however, it quickly came into widespread use because of
802:
Color was an important characteristic of clothing because it had symbolic meaning. During large festivities held by the Khan, he would give his important diplomats special robes to wear with specific colors according to what was being celebrated. These were worn only during the specific festival,
794:
During the Mongol Empire, there was a uniform type of Mongol dress though variations according to wealth, status, and gender did occur. These differences included the design, colour, cut, and elaborateness of the outfit. The first layer consisted of a long, ankle length robe called a caftan. Some
771:
Sheep and goats were most valued for their milk, meat, and wool. The wool of sheep in particular was very valuable. The shearing was usually done in the spring before the herds were moved to mountain pastures. Most importantly, it was used for making felt to insulate Mongolian homes, called gers,
739:
Cattle were used mainly as beasts of burden but they were also valued for their milk, though not as much so for their meat. They lived on the open range and were fairly easy to maintain. They were released early in the morning to graze without a herder or overseer and wandered back on their own in
334:
exclusive rights to hold Caffa and Azov in 1267. The Golden Horde permitted German merchants to trade in all of its territories including Russian principalities in the 1270s. The Mongols developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongolâortoq partnerships, promoting
199:
In the Mongolian Empire the office of baâurchi, generally translated as âcook,â or sometimes as âstewardâ or âcommissary,â had a closeness to the ruler and his right to act on his behalf. Cooks were officers in the imperial guard (keshig), one formation of which, the night guard (kebteâĂŒl), oversaw
1156:
Marriages in the Mongol Empire were arranged, however Genghis Khan's later nokoger (literally "women friends" but seen as wives usually and later) and those of his officers were not ever paid for with any bride price, but men were permitted to practice polygamy. Since each wife had their own yurt,
819:
The Mongol Empire utilized the swiftness and strength of the horses to their advantage. Despite being only 12 to 13 hands high, the Mongols respected these small animals. At a young age, boys trained with the horses by hunting and herding with them. Eventually they became experienced riders, which
480:
custom duties and the revenues were divided among all Chingisid princes in Mongol Empire accordance with the appanage system. As loyal allies, the Kublaids in East Asia and the Ilkahnids in Persia sent clerics, doctors, artisans, scholars, engineers and administrators to and received revenues from
321:
Policies changed under the Great Khan Möngke. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the auto businesses. He decreed all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high-ranking
715:
The five domestic animals most important in the Mongol Empire were horses (most important), cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. All of these animals were valued for their milk and all of the animalsâ hides were used for clothing and shelter. Though often considered unattractive by other cultures,
467:
In 1206, Genghis Khan gave large lands with people as share to his family and loyal companions, of whom most were people of common origin. Shares of booty were distributed much more widely. Empresses, princesses and meritorious servants, as well as children of concubines, all received full shares
289:
The Mongols had a strong history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided him with information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and
280:
Mongol government and elites invested in commercial enterprises using metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots, and tradable wares for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. A paper money investment was not possible in the western Mongol empire.
1160:
After the husband had slept with one of his wives, the others congregated in her yurt to share drinks with the couple. The wives of the Mongol Empire were not bothered by the presence of the other women in their household. As a married woman, she displayed her "maturity and independence from her
1152:
Before a marriage could proceed, the bride's family was required to offer "a dowry of clothing or household ornaments" to the groom's mother. To avoid paying the dowry, families could exchange daughters or the groom could work for his future father-in-law. Once the dowry was settled, the bride's
815:
From 1206 to 1405 the Mongol Empire displayed their military strength by conquering land between the Yellow Sea and the Eastern European border. This would not have been possible without their specialized horses, bows and arrows, and swords. They conquered numerous neighboring territories, which
248:
or silver ingot, however, the Mongols allowed their foreign subjects to mint coins in the denominations and use the weight they traditionally used. During the reigns of Ăgedei, GĂŒyĂŒk, and Möngke, Mongol coinage increased with gold and silver coinage in Central Asia and copper and silver coins in
183:
was first presented with grape wine in 1204 where he dismissed it as dangerously strong. Drunkenness was common at festivals and gatherings. Singing and dancing were also common after the consumption of alcohol. Due to Turkestani and Middle Eastern influences, noodles started to appear in Mongol
149:
Winter meat was usually from sheep and less commonly horses. Ice fishing also occurred. Meat was preserved by cutting the meat into strips and then letting it dry by the sun and the wind, freezing, jerking, and smoking, or less commonly eaten fresh. During the winter sheep were the only domestic
1223:
across from the door whether the inhabitant were Buddhist or shamanist. The floors were dirt, but richer families were able to cover the floors with felt rugs. Sometimes beds were used, but most people slept on the floor between hides, around the fire pit that was in the center of the dwelling.
1148:
Compared to other civilizations, Mongolian women had the power to influence society and enjoyed much more freedom in general. Even though men were dominant in society, many turned to women in their lives for advice. While developing organizations within the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan asked for
845:
well-to-do were also protected to their knees with iron armor and a head plate. The majority of the soldiers in the Mongol Empire were poor. Therefore, many walked into battle with minimal protection, although all of the soldiers had very little armor compared to the knights in armor of Europe.
844:
Even though the military of the Mongol Empire provided weapons for every soldier, armor was available only to the wealthier soldiers. These individuals wore iron chains or scales, protected their arms and legs with leather strips, wore iron helmets, and used iron shields. The horses of the more
724:
Horses were by far the most important animal to the ancient Mongols. Not only were they fairly self-sufficient, but they were hardy and fast. Smaller than most, these animals could travel long distances without fatigue. They were also well adapted to the harsh winters and dug through the snow
443:
created the Yuan Mongol's first unified paper currency with notes that did not have any expiration date. To validate the currency, it was made fully exchangeable to silver and gold and was accepted as tax payments. Currency distribution was small at first, but the war against the southern Song
317:
After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ăgedei and GĂŒyĂŒk. Merchants brought clothing, food, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return, the Great Khans gave the merchant's tax exemptions and allowed them to use the official relay
53:
tents and herding livestock, to living in cities as the imposed rulers of a local population backed up by the Mongol army. But where possible they tended to retain their habits and customs, especially in matters to do with the family. They were given lavish grants of land and sometimes other
913:
had three different modes. It was organized on the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each
200:
the provision and preparation of drink and food (undan ideâen) during the reigns of Chinggis Qan and Ăgödei; in addition to their titular duties these officers often held active military commands. Some high-ranking officials, such as Bolad, Bolad's father, and RashÄ«d al-DÄ«n began as cooks.
73:
Mongol governments would regularly appoint regional administrators from disparate places in the empire to rule other areas, sending Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, and importing Central Asians to serve as
402:. Along the Silk Road, it was quite the opposite: failure to maintain the level of integration of the Mongol Empire, and a resulting decline in trade, partially exacerbated by the increase in European maritime trade. By 1400, the Silk Road no longer served as a shipping route for silk.
695:. H. H. Howorth noted that Ozbeg's envoy required his master's shares from the Yuan court, the headquarters of the Mongol world, for the establishment of new post stations in 1336. This communication ceased only with the breakup, succession struggles and rebellions of Mongol Khanates.
314:. It was rare though for anyone to travel the entire length of the Silk Road. Instead, traders moved products much like a bucket brigade, with luxury goods being traded from one middleman to another, from China to the West, resulting in extravagant prices for the trade goods.
1164:
A wife's devotion to her husband continued after his death. Remarriages during the Mongol Empire did not occur often. Instead, her youngest son or her youngest brother took care of her. However Genghis Khan had allowed remarriage of widows including the levirate.
829:
member, the v-shaped point was used. In times of war, soldiers would shoot the third form of arrow with holes, used for signalling. By listening to the whistling sounds that were produced by this type of arrow, soldiers were able to march in a required direction.
1053:) from tax duties were continued by his successors until the end of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. According to Atwood, all the decrees use the same formula and stated that Genghis Khan first gave the decree of exemption. A well preserved example is found in
438:
they started issuing their own Mongolian bills in 1227. This first attempt by the Mongols did not last long because the notes issued expired after several years and were inconsistent throughout the parts of the Mongol Empire that issued them. In 1260,
1282:
According to the decree of Genghis Khan which says may the Buddhists, Christians, Taoists and Muslims be exempt from all taxation and may they pray to God and continue offering us blessings... I have given this decree to the Shaolin elder to carry
1230:
Today, yurts follow the same basic design though they are usually covered in canvas, use an iron stove and stovepipe, and use a collapsible lattice work frame for the walls. They are still used in parts of rural China, central Mongolia, and by the
1153:
family presented her with an inheritance of livestock or servants. Typically, married women of the Mongol Empire wore headdresses to distinguish themselves from the unmarried women. It is claimed that the Yassa/Zasag prohibited trade in women.
141:
There are two different groups of food, "red foods", which make up much of the diet during the winter, and "white foods", which make up much of the diet during the summer. "White foods" are usually dairy products such as cheese, yogurt, and
1030:. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service. Mongol emperors were known for organizing competitions of religious debates among clerics, and these would draw large audiences.
146:" or lightly fermented mare's milk. Milk was also rarely drunk fresh. "Red foods" are usually meat products though meat was also hunted from wild game such as rabbits, deer, wild boar, squirrels, and marmots during the summer.
447:
To initiate the transition from other forms of compensation to paper currency the government made refusing to accept the bill punishable by death. To avoid devaluation, the penalty for forging or counterfeiting was also death.
966:
The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited three Mongol communities in 1920 and published a highly detailed book with the results of his field work, "Mongol community and kinship structure", now publicly available.
903:
After the family, the next largest social units were the subclan and clan. These units were derived from groups claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor, ranked in order of seniority (the "conical clan"). By the
772:
however it was also used for rugs, saddle blankets, and clothing. Ideal herd numbers were usually about 1000. To reach this quota, groups of people would combine their herds and travel together with their sheep and goats.
203:
In 1246, when Friar Carpini attended GĂŒyĂŒg's enthronment, the only food mentioned was salted and unsalted meat in broth. However, less than a decade later, when Rubruck arrived in Qara Worum, there were more foods such as
2070:
832:
Soldiers primarily used horses and the bow and arrow in times of war, but the military took extra precautions. They prepared for any close range combat by supplying the soldiers with swords, axes, spears, and forks.
716:
Mongolian domestic animals were well adapted to cold weather as well as shortages of food and water. These animals were and still are known to survive under these conditions while animals from other regions perish.
707:"Hunting Wild Geese" (ć°éć), Hanging scroll with ink and colors, by Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). This painting depicts a hunting party on a path surrounded by mountains. The leader of the party appears to be
823:
The Mongol Empire considered horses as an important factor to its success and tailored other weapons to them. The bow and arrow was created to be light enough to attack enemies while on horseback. The Mongols used
618:
sent his Muslim vizier to Ilkhanate, ostensibly to investigate his appanages there (The vizier's main mission was to spy on the Ilkhanids in fact) in 1269. After a peace treaty declared among Mongol Khans: TemĂŒr,
908:
era this ranking was symbolically expressed at formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seated and received particular portions of the slaughtered animal according to their status. The lineage structure of
1278:Äinggis qan-u jrlg-tur toyid erkegĂŒ:d ĆĄingĆĄingĂŒ:d daĆĄmad aliba alba gubÄiri ĂŒlĂŒ ĂŒjen tngri-yi jalbariju bidan-a irĂŒge:r ögĂŒn atugai keme:gsen jrlg-un yosuga:r... ene Ć aolim janglau-da bariju yabuga:i jrlg ögbei
1267:
Ilkhanate broke up in 1335; the succession struggles of the Golden Horde and the Chagatai Khanate started in 1359 and 1340 respectively; the Yuan army fought against the Red Turban Rebellion since the 1350s.
464:(khubi - Ń
ŃĐČŃ) of the benefits of each part of the Mongol Empire just as each Mongol noble and their family, as well as each warrior, was entitled to an appropriate measure of all the goods seized in war.
740:
the afternoon. Though they were a part of the domestic animal population, they were not that common in the early empire. In the early time period, only nine percent of all domestic animals were cattle.
394:
contributed to the fall of the Mongols, as previously conquered tribes used it to reassert their independence. Gunpowder had differing effects depending on the region. In Europe, gunpowder and early
602:
The appanage system was severely affected beginning with the civil strife in the Mongol Empire in 1260â1304. Nevertheless, this system survived. For example, Abaqa of the Ilkhanate allowed
318:
stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Russia, and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.
591:
and Yuan councillor Temuder restricted Mongol nobles' excessive rights on the appanages in China and Mongolia. Kublai's successor and Khagan TemĂŒr abolished imperial son-in-law
2077:
310:
also traveled to the Mongol court, on missions of conversion, or as papal envoys, carrying correspondence between the Pope and the Mongols as attempts were made to form a
763:
goods and supplies, and they did not require much water for long journeys. Besides being beasts of burden, camelsâ hair was used as a main fiber in Mongolian textiles.
290:
were essential for many needed goods since the Mongols produced little of their own. Mongols sometimes provided capital for merchants, and sent them far afield, in an
2694:
367:
faith. Meanwhile, Mongol princes in Central Asia were content with Sunni orthodoxy with decentralized princedoms of the Chagatai, Timurid and Uzbek houses. In the
564:
to request his great-grandfather's shares in Great Yuan in 1298. It is claimed that Ghazan received his shares that were not sent since the time of Möngke Khan.
208:
with butter, boiled dough, sour milk, unleavened bread, cooking oil, wine, mead, vinegar, and dried nuts and fruits including almonds, grapes, and dried plums.
2622:
1099:. Along with palaces, Ogedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were
2689:
2020:
1168:
Mongol women enjoyed more freedoms than those in their foreign vassal countries. They refused to adopt the Chinese practice of footbinding and wear
3565:
3028:
1176:. The Mongolian women were allowed to move about more freely in public. Toward the end of the Mongol Empire, however, the increasing influence of
1084:. The decree of Kublai Khan was revoked after a decade. Genghis Khan met Wahid-ud-Din in Afghanistan in 1221 and asked him if the Islamic prophet
1970:
153:
Animals were slaughtered in a specific way. The animal was laid on its back and restrained. A knife would be used to cut the chest open and the
567:
Mongol and non-Mongol appanage holders demanded excessive revenues and freed themselves from taxes. Ăgedei decreed that nobles could appoint
1064:
According to Juvaini, Genghis Khan allowed religious freedom to Muslims during his conquest of Khwarezmia "permitting the recitation of the
529:
335:
trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol-
176:
the "Baluchis" to know who was in each social class. The meat was eaten with fingers and the grease was wiped on the ground or clothing.
803:
and if one was caught wearing it at other times, punishments were extremely severe, as were the rules during the time of Khubilai Khan.
3172:
2940:
2932:
688:
150:
animal slaughtered, and horses were occasionally slaughtered for ceremonies. Meat was boiled and flavored by wild garlic or onions.
2419:
799:
it. In the summer, Middle Eastern silk and brocades were favored whereas in the winter furs were used to add additional warmth.
3180:
928:
society into senior elite lineages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the nineteenth century. During the 1920s the
599:'s 358 departments which caused financial pressures to the Korean people, whose country was under the control of the Mongols.
3236:
2387:
2230:
2211:
2192:
2173:
2127:
1623:
3648:
2102:"Mongol community and kinship structure. . - Full View | HathiTrust Digital Library | HathiTrust Digital Library"
587:
and Möngke restricted the autonomy of the appanages before. Ghazan also prohibited any misfeasance of appanage holders in
3643:
3263:
3212:
3188:
2987:
2953:
2637:
1091:
Initially, there were few normal places of worship, because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Genghis's successor
711:. The Yuan emperors enjoyed hunting and ordered artists to do related paintings on many occasions to record their trips.
179:
The most commonly imported fare was liquor, the most popular of which were Chinese rice wine and Turkestani grape wine.
2971:
2924:
1215:
Mongols have been living in virtually the same dwellings since at least the 6th century AD. These dwellings are called
1026:. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a
3005:
3220:
3148:
3132:
2030:
1739:
1727:
731:. Horses allowed the Mongols to travel over twenty kilometers (13 miles) per hour which was great for ancient times.
477:
158:
128:
1080:. Kublai Khan revived the decree in 1280 after Muslims refused to eat at a banquet. He forbade Halal butchering and
216:
3204:
3164:
3228:
3156:
3062:
2898:
1377:
1103:
and Buddhism, although Ăgedei's wife was a Christian. In later years of the empire, three of the four principal
3279:
3124:
3036:
2961:
2632:
1201:
472:
in Middle East, then under the rule of his nephew Abaqa. After the Mongol conquest in 1238, the port cities in
3609:
3335:
3306:
3196:
2679:
2652:
2647:
1996:"Gender Roles and Women's Status in Central Asia and Anatolia between the Thirteenth and Sixteenth Centuries"
1248:
977:
1974:
1614:
Jackson, Peter, "from Ulus to Khanate: The making of Mongol States, c. 1220-1290" in Amitai-Preiss, Reuven,
3116:
2914:
2642:
898:
Gender Roles and Women's Status in Central Asia and Anatolia between the Thirteenth and Sixteenth Centuries
74:
administrators in China. This strategy was meant to curtail power of the local peoples of dominated lands.
2101:
516:
to the Golden Family, imperial sons in law (khurgen-Ń
ÒŻŃĐłŃĐœ) and notable generals in 1232â1236. Great Khan
3287:
3255:
3106:
3054:
2906:
2412:
277:
renewed the coinage backed by silver reserves and created a unified monetary system through the realm.
110:
3638:
3140:
3098:
3081:
3015:
2995:
2979:
2741:
1211:
Basket and fork for gathering the dung (used as fuel in the yurts), SĂŒkhbaatar Aimag, Mongolia, 1972
1831:
575:
in the appanages instead direct distribution without the permission of Great Khan thanks to genius
359:
faith. Turkic–Mongol military bands in Iran, after some years of chaos were united under the
157:
squeezed, which killed the animal while retaining the blood within the animal's carcass , which is
3046:
3628:
2684:
2405:
1141:
311:
3633:
3427:
3371:
2704:
1081:
611:
380:
62:
3327:
3319:
2799:
1077:
1015:
877:
596:
238:
2244:
383:. In the East, the native Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty in 1368, launching their own
8:
3575:
2529:
837:
were given to those of wealth and the remaining members of the military carried clubs or
161:
of slaughter. Blood was an important ingredient that was used fresh, for broths, and for
2451:
1995:
1511:
1314:
781:
331:
307:
168:
Vegetables were generally limited to wild varieties or those acquired through trade or
3397:
2729:
2669:
2295:
1755:
2ed, 3-4; Kazuhide Kato Kebek and Yasawr: the establishment of Chagatai Khanate 97-118
2764:
2383:
2026:
1735:
1723:
1619:
1515:
1058:
988:
959:, but were defeated. There are some people today, though, who claim descent from the
418:, an indication of the thriving exchanges with the Mongol Empire during the reign of
327:
2022:
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History - Google Libros
3311:
3271:
2724:
2071:"Kinship Structure and Political Authority : The Middle East and Central Asia"
1503:
1348:
1177:
1116:
853:
615:
525:
414:
Archbishop John of Cilician Armenia, in a painting from 1287. His dress displays a
299:
1507:
3405:
1767:
by AgustĂ Alemany, Denis Sinor, Bertold Spuler, Hartwig AltenmĂŒller, pp.391-408,
1133:
838:
680:
652:
584:
298:, and a comparable journey from East to West was that of the Chinese Mongol monk
1855:
Commodity and Trade in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles
1491:
1076:". However, Rashid-al-Din states there were occasions when Genghis Khan forbade
2674:
1185:
873:
684:
668:
664:
468:
including war prisoners. For example, Kublai called 2 siege engineers from the
415:
352:
98:
3418:
3392:
517:
410:
3622:
3479:
3410:
2717:
2535:
2428:
1819:
1492:"The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships"
1232:
1019:
1003:
918:
825:
576:
427:
by the fact that in some parts of the empire the people used paper currency.
265:
and Manchuria still paid their taxes on goods or commodities to the Mongols.
162:
31:
3474:
1720:
A COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World
1119:
while there were other religions practiced in the east of the Mongol Empire.
708:
644:
632:
557:
3379:
2819:
2736:
2712:
2627:
2561:
2484:
2464:
1475:
The use of Mint-output data in Historical research on the Western appanages
1426:
The use of Mint-output data in Historical research on the Western appanages
1112:
1007:
956:
910:
893:
858:
786:
672:
607:
561:
435:
399:
384:
323:
257:
180:
67:
2824:
984:
651:
were given lavish presents and sharing in the Yuan dynasty's patronage of
3545:
3494:
3454:
3423:
2524:
1054:
749:
648:
636:
603:
580:
513:
489:
484:
After Genghis Khan (1206â1227) distributed nomadic grounds and cities in
440:
419:
376:
225:
102:
1318:
675:
started sending tributes to Great Khans of Yuan dynasty again. By 1339,
159:
incompatible with the forbidden blood-draining Muslim and Jewish methods
3590:
3499:
2849:
2834:
2571:
1305:
BUELL, PAUL D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara".
1236:
1196:
1128:
1010:
in the 13th century, virtually every religion had found converts, from
905:
869:
610:
to collect revenues from silk workshops in northern Persia in 1270 and
568:
430:
295:
3459:
3449:
2814:
2794:
2789:
2748:
1096:
1095:, several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital of
949:
929:
655:. Tugh TemĂŒr was also given some Russian captives by Chagatai prince
640:
588:
501:
469:
395:
391:
303:
196:
seeds also became part of the diet due to these external influences.
193:
189:
1092:
1002:
The Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions during the early
583:. Kublai Khan continued Ăgedei's regulations somehow, however, both
505:
497:
19:
3585:
2804:
2664:
2546:
2377:
1181:
1100:
1085:
1027:
1011:
1006:, and typically sponsored several at the same time. At the time of
656:
485:
461:
368:
360:
344:
270:
266:
250:
185:
917:
Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal type classed as
816:
eventually led to history's largest contiguous land-based empire.
3555:
3550:
3540:
3525:
2829:
2784:
2779:
2566:
2556:
2494:
1104:
952:
945:
933:
925:
884:
834:
631:
in 1304, the system began to see a recovery. During the reign of
628:
509:
375:
zone, Mongol khanates all but crumbled under the assaults of the
363:
tribe, under whom the modern Iranian nation took shape under the
262:
169:
27:
2397:
544:
in spite of their nomadic grounds in Central Asia. First Ilkhan
3535:
3509:
3504:
2839:
2809:
2769:
2519:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2459:
1685:
The land of scholars: two thousand years of Korean Confucianism
1169:
1137:
1066:
1042:
992:
960:
865:
624:
592:
553:
545:
537:
524:
and made redistribution in Central Asia in 1251â1256. Although
521:
493:
473:
364:
322:
Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued in the
205:
35:
1889:
1887:
1557:
1200:
A reconstruction of an ancient Mongol tribe, located near the
754:
552:
as well as pastures, animals, men in Mongolia. His descendant
3580:
3560:
3489:
3469:
3464:
3444:
3384:
2551:
2541:
2489:
1722:(The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, VOL XXVII)
1173:
1108:
1072:
1023:
996:
941:
937:
889:
727:
692:
676:
660:
572:
549:
548:
owned 25,000 households of silk-workers in China, valleys in
533:
398:
lent to the integration of territorial states and increasing
372:
356:
340:
274:
221:
154:
143:
46:
39:
2965:(1205 / 1207 / 1209â10 / 1225â27)
703:
3530:
3484:
2844:
2774:
2352:"Ulaantaij the finest yurts Mongolia produces - guaranteed"
2351:
2340:. Trans. Ronald Latham. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1958.
2180:
1884:
1216:
1207:
635:, Yuan court received a third of revenues of the cities of
620:
541:
50:
2161:
1276:
Genghis Khan's tax exemption decree for religions reads: "
3570:
2305:
2149:
2115:
1872:
1860:
888:
inheritance system was mandated by law codes such as the
261:
did the policy of Möngke Khan. But the forest nations of
2294:"Glossary ... Argal -- camel droppings, used as fuel".--
2218:
2139:
2137:
1394:
1057:'s 1261 decree in Mongolian appointing the elder of the
758:
Kalmucks and Mongols riding camels over the Great Steppe
698:
1796:
1732:
Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-ÄȘlkhÄnid War, 1260-1281
269:
was used only within the Yuan dynasty, and even Ilkhan
172:. Grain was made into porridge or dough fried in fat.
1929:. New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc, 1940.
1905:
1903:
2695:
List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'
2199:
2134:
1835:
1528:
Guoli Liu-Chinese foreign policy in transition, p.364
679:
and his successors had received annually 24 thousand
1921:
1919:
1701:
1661:: Volume 6, "Alien Regimes and Border States", p.436
1589:
Jackson, "Dissolution of Mongol Empire", pp. 186-243
1431:
1900:
1857:. Massachusetts. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
639:under Chagatai Khans while Chagatai elites such as
528:was the smallest in its size, Chagatai Khans owned
2327:. Vol. 4. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1927.
1576:
1574:
1572:
1485:
1483:
45:Some Mongols tended to make the transition from a
2690:Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe
1916:
1550:Amitai-Preiss, Reuven, and David O. Morgan, eds.
1411:
1409:
1363:Amitai-Preiss, Reuven, and David O. Morgan, eds.
1111:, as Islam was favored over other religions. The
775:
306:(Beijing) as far as Europe. Missionaries such as
3620:
387:and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.
3110:(1220â22 / 1226â31 / 1237â64)
2272:. Ed. Ronald Latham London: Penguin Books, 1958
2191:sfn error: no target: CITEREFEncyclopedia1920 (
1610:
1608:
1569:
1480:
211:
2379:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
2172:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWeatherford2004 (
2126:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWeatherford2004 (
1897:. Taipei: Châeng Wen Publishing Company, 1970.
1406:
456:Members of the Golden Kin (or Golden Family -
2413:
1123:
556:of Persia sent envoys with precious gifts to
536:towns in Khorazm, few cities and villages in
2593:
2229:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBukharaev2000 (
2186:
1734:, p.p. 179-225. Cambridge University Press,
1605:
932:regime was established. The remnants of the
405:
23:The expansion of the Mongol Empire over time
2167:
2121:
1942:. 64 vols. London: Thames and Hudson, 1969.
1188:saw greater limits placed on Mongol women.
1033:Genghis Khan's decree exempting Buddhists (
500:and other members and Chinese districts in
2420:
2406:
1769:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and Mongol Empire
848:
2224:
2210:sfn error: no target: CITEREFEzzati2002 (
1541:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. 177-179.
1522:
129:Learn how and when to remove this message
2349:
2076:. Psychologie.dev.czu.cz. Archived from
1489:
1354:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. 128-129
1206:
1195:
1127:
983:
852:
785:
753:
702:
687:from their Chinese appanages in Shanxi,
481:the appanages in each other's khanates.
409:
215:
61:
18:
1940:Ancient Peoples and Places: The Mongols
1449:The history of Yuan dynasty and Spuler
3621:
3040:(1277 / 1283 / 1287)
2999:(1236 / 1240 / 1252)
2375:
2311:
2205:
2155:
2143:
1878:
1866:
1841:
1802:
1707:
1563:
1539:Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
1437:
1400:
1352:Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
339:partnership closely resembled that of
3359:
2870:
2592:
2439:
2401:
2245:"Mongol Women and their Social Roles"
1490:Enkhbold, Enerelt (October 2, 2019).
1304:
699:Domestic animals in the Mongol Empire
220:Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted at
2871:
2623:Administrative divisions and vassals
2018:
1518:– via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
1344:
1342:
1340:
81:
16:13th-century Mongol social structure
2890:
1191:
810:
508:distributed shares in North China,
77:
13:
2104:. Babel.hathitrust.org. 2012-12-05
659:as well as Kublai's future khatun
520:divided up shares or appanages in
451:
14:
3660:
2427:
1657:Herbert Franke, Denis Twitchett,
1337:
1313:(2). Harrassowitz Verlag: 137â8.
936:aristocracy fought alongside the
351:would later crystallize into the
57:
1913:. Boulder: Westview Press, 1979.
1909:Hyer, Paul, and Sechin Jagchid.
1751:W. Barthold Chagatay Khanate in
1730:or Reuven Amitai-Preiss (1995),
1616:The Mongol Empire and its legacy
1552:The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy
1365:The Mongol Empire and its Legacy
976:This section is an excerpt from
302:, who traveled from his home of
86:
2440:
2376:Atwood, Christopher P. (2004).
2368:
2343:
2330:
2317:
2288:
2275:
2262:
2237:
2094:
2063:
2054:
2045:
2012:
1988:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1932:
1895:History of the Mongols: Part IV
1847:
1825:
1808:
1787:
1774:
1758:
1745:
1713:
1689:
1677:
1664:
1651:
1639:
1628:
1592:
1583:
1554:. Leiden: Brill, 1999. 200-222.
1544:
1531:
1467:
1455:
1443:
1270:
1261:
995:'s conversion from Buddhism to
284:
111:check for citation inaccuracies
2302:. London: Jonathan Cape; p. 14
1911:Mongolia's Culture and Society
1659:The Cambridge History of China
1418:
1370:
1367:. Leiden: Brill, 1999. 200-222
1357:
1325:
1298:
1202:Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue
790:Clothing of the Mongol nobles.
776:Traditional Mongolian clothing
766:
671:before her marriage. In 1326,
1:
3610:Timeline of the Mongol Empire
3307:Division of the Mongol Empire
1973:. Mypolice.ca. Archived from
1508:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799
1292:
1249:Religion in the Mongol Empire
978:Religion in the Mongol Empire
253:, Iran, and southern Russia.
1822:London: Penguin Books, 1598.
1333:Mongolian-English Dictionary
212:Economy of the Mongol Empire
7:
3649:Society of former countries
2557:Manghit / Mangudai
2382:. New York: Facts on File.
2025:. Temple University Press.
1971:"Justice And Jurisprudence"
1927:The March of the Barbarians
1242:
970:
326:. Möngke-TemĂŒr granted the
10:
3665:
3644:Social history of Mongolia
3360:
3336:Esen BuqaâAyurbarwada war
1765:Handbuch Der Orientalistik
1683:Jae-un Kang, Suzanne Lee,
1635:Cambridge History of China
1124:Women of the Mongol Empire
975:
779:
747:
236:
3607:
3518:
3437:
3370:
3366:
3355:
3299:
3248:
3151:(1223 / 1236â40)
3097:
3074:
3057:(1257 / 1284â88)
3027:
2952:
2897:
2886:
2866:
2757:
2703:
2680:ByzantineâMongol Alliance
2615:
2611:
2588:
2503:
2450:
2446:
2435:
1463:The Mongols and Byzantium
743:
734:
719:
406:Marco Polo's observations
1697:A Brief history of Korea
1580:Weatherford, pp. 220-227
1566:, pp. 361â362, 435.
1415:Weatherford, pp. 175-176
1307:Journal of Asian History
1254:
1140:(here being breastfed).
379:and the rising power of
232:
2633:Invasions and conquests
2552:Paiza / Gerege
2300:Big Tiger and Christian
2249:www.historyonthenet.com
849:Kinship and family life
504:to his other brothers,
188:and other food such as
3290:(1260 / 1301)
3018:(1274 / 1281)
2685:Franco-Mongol alliance
2325:History of the Mongols
2060:Krader (1963:322, 269)
2019:Adas, Michael (2001).
1893:Howorth, Sir Henry H.
1782:Sharing out the Empire
1212:
1204:
1145:
999:
861:
857:Female tomb figurine,
791:
759:
712:
423:
312:Franco-Mongol alliance
229:
70:
49:way of life, based in
24:
2001:. Etd.lib.metu.edu.tr
1753:Encyclopedia of Islam
1600:Empire of the Steppes
1210:
1199:
1144:, early 14th century.
1131:
987:
856:
789:
757:
706:
460:) were entitled to a
413:
219:
184:food. Spices such as
65:
22:
3181:Serbia and Bulgaria
1647:The history of Gaoli
1618:(2000), p.p. 12-38,
1496:Central Asian Survey
1378:"Slaughtering Sheep"
1136:, who gave birth to
1016:Eastern Christianity
390:The introduction of
271:Rinchindorj Gaykhatu
239:Yuan dynasty coinage
54:sources of revenue.
3428:Khagans of the Yuan
3157:Poland and Bohemia
2933:Khwarazmian Empire
2658:Society and economy
2314:, pp. 613â616.
2158:, pp. 246â248.
2051:Cuisenier (1975:67)
1881:, pp. 349â350.
1869:, pp. 112â114.
1403:, pp. 183â184.
1382:en.chinaculture.org
883:In the traditional
496:, youngest brother
3173:Holy Roman Empire
2628:Banner/Bunchuk/Tug
2323:Howorth, Henry H.
1853:Allsen, Thomas T.
1780:Thomas T. Allsen,
1771:, "Ahmad Fanakati"
1537:Allsen, Thomas T.
1213:
1205:
1146:
1132:Arghun's wife was
1000:
862:
792:
782:Mongolian clothing
760:
713:
424:
308:William of Rubruck
230:
228:, AH 618, 1221 CE.
71:
66:Courier figurine,
30:living within the
25:
3616:
3615:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3351:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3328:KaiduâKublai war
3320:BerkeâHulagu war
3312:Toluid Civil War
3093:
3092:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2665:House of Borjigin
2584:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2389:978-0-8160-4671-3
2187:Encyclopedia 1920
1960:Aberle 1953:23-24
1951:Vreeland 1962:160
1805:, pp. 76â77.
1624:978-90-04-11946-8
1461:Bruce G. Lippard
1349:Allsen, Thomas T.
1059:Shaolin Monastery
989:Persian miniature
139:
138:
131:
3656:
3639:Medieval society
3414:
3401:
3398:Töregene Khatun
3388:
3368:
3367:
3357:
3356:
3339:
3331:
3323:
3315:
3291:
3283:
3275:
3267:
3259:
3240:
3232:
3224:
3216:
3208:
3200:
3192:
3184:
3176:
3168:
3160:
3152:
3144:
3136:
3128:
3120:
3112:
3111:
3085:
3066:
3058:
3050:
3042:
3041:
3019:
3009:
3001:
3000:
2991:
2983:
2975:
2967:
2966:
2944:
2936:
2928:
2918:
2910:
2895:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2868:
2867:
2830:Shangdu (Xanadu)
2820:Sarai Batu/Berke
2725:Chagatai Khanate
2613:
2612:
2590:
2589:
2448:
2447:
2437:
2436:
2422:
2415:
2408:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2347:
2341:
2334:
2328:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2292:
2286:
2283:AP World History
2279:
2273:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2168:Weatherford 2004
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2132:
2131:
2122:Weatherford 2004
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2082:
2075:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2000:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1982:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1943:
1936:
1930:
1923:
1914:
1907:
1898:
1891:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1791:
1785:
1778:
1772:
1762:
1756:
1749:
1743:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1668:
1662:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1632:
1626:
1612:
1603:
1596:
1590:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1548:
1542:
1535:
1529:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1487:
1478:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1388:
1374:
1368:
1361:
1355:
1346:
1335:
1331:Charles Bawden.
1329:
1323:
1322:
1302:
1286:
1274:
1268:
1265:
1192:Mongol dwellings
1178:Neo-Confucianism
1117:Tibetan Buddhism
1078:Halal butchering
924:The division of
864:The traditional
811:Tools of warfare
653:Buddhist temples
616:Chagatai Khanate
526:Chagatai Khanate
300:Rabban Bar Sauma
134:
127:
123:
120:
114:
90:
89:
82:
78:Food and cuisine
3664:
3663:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3595:
3514:
3433:
3412:
3399:
3386:
3362:
3343:
3337:
3329:
3321:
3313:
3295:
3289:
3281:
3273:
3265:
3257:
3244:
3238:
3230:
3222:
3214:
3206:
3198:
3190:
3182:
3174:
3166:
3158:
3150:
3142:
3134:
3133:Volga Bulgaria
3126:
3118:
3109:
3107:
3089:
3083:
3070:
3064:
3056:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3023:
3017:
3007:
2998:
2996:
2989:
2988:Southern China
2981:
2973:
2972:Northern China
2964:
2962:
2948:
2942:
2934:
2926:
2916:
2908:
2882:
2881:
2854:
2753:
2730:House of Ăgedei
2699:
2670:House of Ăgedei
2638:Destructiveness
2607:
2606:
2576:
2513:
2499:
2442:
2431:
2426:
2396:
2390:
2371:
2366:
2357:
2355:
2354:. Ulaantaij.com
2348:
2344:
2335:
2331:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2296:Fritz MĂŒhlenweg
2293:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2267:
2263:
2254:
2252:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2154:
2150:
2142:
2135:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2107:
2105:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2017:
2013:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1993:
1989:
1980:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1938:Phillips, E.D.
1937:
1933:
1924:
1917:
1908:
1901:
1892:
1885:
1877:
1873:
1865:
1861:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1826:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1793:Howorth, p. 172
1792:
1788:
1779:
1775:
1763:
1759:
1750:
1746:
1718:
1714:
1706:
1702:
1695:HyĆng-sik Sin,
1694:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1669:
1665:
1656:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1633:
1629:
1613:
1606:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1570:
1562:
1558:
1549:
1545:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1488:
1481:
1473:A. P. Martinez
1472:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1424:A.P. Martinez,
1423:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1386:
1384:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1362:
1358:
1347:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1289:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1245:
1194:
1134:Buluqhan Khatun
1126:
1121:
1120:
1115:mainly adopted
1089:is but small".
1049:) and Muslims (
1037:), Christians (
981:
973:
851:
813:
784:
778:
769:
752:
746:
737:
722:
701:
454:
452:Appanage system
408:
287:
241:
235:
214:
135:
124:
118:
115:
108:
91:
87:
80:
60:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3662:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3520:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3441:
3439:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3421:
3416:
3411:Oghul Qaimish
3408:
3403:
3395:
3390:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3364:
3363:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3333:
3325:
3317:
3309:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3293:
3285:
3277:
3269:
3261:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3234:
3226:
3218:
3210:
3202:
3194:
3186:
3178:
3170:
3162:
3154:
3146:
3138:
3130:
3122:
3114:
3103:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3060:
3052:
3044:
3033:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3012:
3011:
3003:
2993:
2985:
2977:
2969:
2958:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2903:
2901:
2892:
2884:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2709:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2675:Mongol Armenia
2672:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2619:
2617:
2609:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2456:
2454:
2444:
2443:
2433:
2432:
2425:
2424:
2417:
2410:
2402:
2395:
2394:
2388:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2350:tim scarlett.
2342:
2329:
2316:
2304:
2287:
2274:
2261:
2251:. 25 July 2014
2236:
2227:, p. 145.
2225:Bukharaev 2000
2217:
2208:, p. 274.
2198:
2189:, p. 680.
2179:
2170:, p. 135.
2160:
2148:
2146:, p. 239.
2133:
2114:
2093:
2062:
2053:
2044:
2031:
2011:
1987:
1962:
1953:
1944:
1931:
1925:Lamb, Harold.
1915:
1899:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1846:
1844:, p. 498.
1834:
1824:
1807:
1795:
1786:
1773:
1757:
1744:
1712:
1700:
1688:
1676:
1663:
1650:
1638:
1627:
1604:
1591:
1582:
1568:
1556:
1543:
1530:
1521:
1502:(4): 531â547.
1479:
1466:
1454:
1442:
1440:, p. 362.
1430:
1417:
1405:
1393:
1369:
1356:
1336:
1324:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1269:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1244:
1241:
1193:
1190:
1186:Islamicization
1125:
1122:
982:
974:
972:
969:
850:
847:
826:composite bows
812:
809:
780:Main article:
777:
774:
768:
765:
745:
742:
736:
733:
721:
718:
700:
697:
685:paper currency
669:Fergana Valley
665:Ahmad Fanakati
492:to his mother
453:
450:
416:Chinese dragon
407:
404:
353:Ottoman Empire
347:arrangements.
286:
283:
234:
231:
213:
210:
137:
136:
95:This section
94:
92:
85:
79:
76:
59:
58:Administration
56:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3661:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3629:Mongol Empire
3627:
3626:
3624:
3611:
3606:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3480:Chagatai Khan
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3358:
3354:
3340:
3334:
3332:
3326:
3324:
3318:
3316:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3292:
3286:
3284:
3278:
3276:
3270:
3268:
3262:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3235:
3233:
3227:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3203:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3189:Latin Empire
3187:
3185:
3179:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3163:
3161:
3155:
3153:
3147:
3145:
3139:
3137:
3131:
3129:
3123:
3121:
3115:
3113:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3096:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3061:
3059:
3053:
3051:
3045:
3043:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3010:
3004:
3002:
2994:
2992:
2986:
2984:
2978:
2976:
2970:
2968:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2945:
2939:
2937:
2931:
2929:
2923:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2718:Northern Yuan
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2643:Imperial Seal
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2536:Pax Mongolica
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2515:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2429:Mongol Empire
2423:
2418:
2416:
2411:
2409:
2404:
2403:
2400:
2391:
2385:
2381:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2353:
2346:
2339:
2336:Polo, Marco.
2333:
2326:
2320:
2313:
2308:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2284:
2281:Peggy Martin
2278:
2271:
2268:Polo, Marco.
2265:
2250:
2246:
2240:
2232:
2226:
2221:
2213:
2207:
2202:
2194:
2188:
2183:
2175:
2169:
2164:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2129:
2124:, p. 69.
2123:
2118:
2103:
2097:
2083:on 2013-10-29
2079:
2072:
2066:
2057:
2048:
2034:
2032:9781566398329
2028:
2024:
2023:
2015:
1997:
1991:
1977:on 2013-06-15
1976:
1972:
1966:
1957:
1948:
1941:
1935:
1928:
1922:
1920:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1896:
1890:
1888:
1880:
1875:
1868:
1863:
1856:
1850:
1843:
1838:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1820:Ronald Latham
1817:
1814:Polo, Marco.
1811:
1804:
1799:
1790:
1783:
1777:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1754:
1748:
1741:
1740:0-521-46226-6
1737:
1733:
1729:
1728:0-19-727627-X
1725:
1721:
1716:
1710:, p. 32.
1709:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1673:
1667:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1631:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1609:
1601:
1595:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1565:
1560:
1553:
1547:
1540:
1534:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1486:
1484:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1439:
1434:
1427:
1421:
1412:
1410:
1402:
1397:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1366:
1360:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1334:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1297:
1284:
1279:
1273:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1218:
1209:
1203:
1198:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1143:
1142:Rashid al-Din
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32:Mongol Empire
29:
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3634:Yuan dynasty
3380:Genghis Khan
3149:Kievan Rus'
3127:(1237â1300s)
3119:(1237â1300s)
2963:Western Xia
2925:Qara Khitai
2758:Major cities
2737:Golden Horde
2713:Yuan dynasty
2657:
2600:Organization
2534:
2485:Khong Tayiji
2378:
2369:Bibliography
2356:. Retrieved
2345:
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2253:. Retrieved
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2078:the original
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2036:. Retrieved
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2014:
2003:. Retrieved
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1979:. Retrieved
1975:the original
1965:
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1451:Golden Horde
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1385:. Retrieved
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1082:circumcision
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1034:
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1008:Genghis Khan
1001:
965:
957:World War II
940:and against
923:
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911:Central Asia
902:
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894:Genghis Khan
882:
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859:Yuan dynasty
843:
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673:Golden Horde
663:had servant
608:Golden Horde
604:Möngke TemĂŒr
601:
566:
562:Yuan dynasty
483:
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457:
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429:
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400:mercantilism
389:
385:Ming dynasty
349:
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324:Yuan dynasty
320:
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291:
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285:Trade routes
279:
258:Yuan dynasty
255:
245:
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181:Genghis Khan
178:
174:
167:
152:
148:
140:
125:
116:
101:that do not
97:may contain
96:
72:
68:Yuan dynasty
44:
26:
3455:Sartaq Khan
3424:Kublai Khan
3419:Möngke Khan
3393:Ăgedei Khan
3372:Great Khans
3338:(1314â1318)
3330:(1268â1301)
3282:(1260â1323)
3266:(1253â1256)
3249:Middle East
3143:(1238â1239)
3084:(1221â1327)
2943:(1219â1256)
2935:(1219â1221)
2917:(1264â1308)
2909:(1207-1308)
2775:Azov (Azaq)
2441:Terminology
2338:The Travels
2312:Atwood 2004
2270:The Travels
2206:Ezzati 2002
2156:Atwood 2004
2144:Atwood 2004
1879:Atwood 2004
1867:Atwood 2004
1842:Atwood 2004
1816:The Travels
1803:Atwood 2004
1708:Atwood 2004
1672:The Mongols
1564:Atwood 2004
1477:, p.120-126
1438:Atwood 2004
1401:Atwood 2004
1055:Kublai Khan
874:patrilineal
870:patriarchal
868:family was
767:Sheep/goats
750:Camel train
649:Tarmashirin
637:Transoxiana
581:Yelu Chucai
514:Transoxiana
490:North China
478:the Jochids
441:Kublai Khan
422:(1260-1294)
420:Kublai Khan
377:Black Death
226:Afghanistan
3623:Categories
3591:Nogai Khan
3475:Ăzbeg Khan
3406:GĂŒyĂŒk Khan
3300:Civil wars
3288:Palestine
3197:Lithuania
3117:Circassia
2850:Xacitarxan
2835:Soltaniyeh
2572:Darughachi
2358:2014-02-14
2255:2019-05-28
2108:2014-02-14
2087:2014-02-14
2038:2014-02-14
2005:2014-02-14
1981:2014-02-14
1645:Chongson,
1598:Grousset,
1428:, p.87-100
1387:2023-05-04
1293:References
1237:Kyrgyzstan
953:Mongolians
906:Chingissid
878:patrilocal
748:See also:
709:TemĂŒr Khan
645:Duwa TemĂŒr
633:Tugh TemĂŒr
623:, Chapar,
597:Chungnyeol
569:darughachi
558:TemĂŒr Khan
458:Altan urag
436:Song China
431:Marco Polo
355:under the
296:Marco Polo
237:See also:
3460:Orda Khan
3450:Batu Khan
3314:(1260â64)
3258:(1241â43)
3256:Anatolia
3231:(1287â88)
3223:(1285â86)
3215:(1264â65)
3207:(1259â60)
3199:(1258â59)
3175:(1241â42)
3167:(1241â42)
3159:(1240â41)
3135:(1229â36)
3125:Chechnya
3065:(1300â02)
3029:Southeast
3008:(1253â56)
2990:(1235â79)
2982:(1231â60)
2974:(1211â34)
2927:(1216â18)
2915:Sakhalin
2875:Campaigns
2825:Saray-JĂŒk
2815:Samarkand
2790:Karakorum
2749:Ilkhanate
2507:Political
1516:203044817
1107:embraced
1097:Karakorum
1047:xiansheng
950:Communist
934:Mongolian
930:Communist
926:Mongolian
885:Mongolian
641:Eljigidey
589:Ilkhanate
579:minister
502:Manchuria
470:Ilkhanate
396:modernity
392:gunpowder
332:Venetians
304:Khanbaliq
194:fenugreek
190:chickpeas
99:citations
3586:Boroldai
3566:Khubilai
3546:Bo'orchu
3519:Military
3413:(regent)
3400:(regent)
3387:(regent)
3272:Baghdad
3221:Hungary
3165:Hungary
3108:Georgia
3055:Vietnam
2907:Siberia
2805:Maragheh
2705:Khanates
2653:Religion
2648:Military
2597:Politics
2547:Kurultai
2510:Military
1674:, p. 120
1670:Morgan,
1602:, p. 286
1319:41930343
1243:See also
1182:Buddhism
1105:khanates
1101:Tengrism
1086:Muhammad
1070:and the
1028:Tengrist
1012:Buddhism
991:showing
971:Religion
938:Japanese
835:Halberds
657:Changshi
486:Mongolia
361:Saffavid
345:commenda
330:and the
267:Jiaochao
251:Caucasus
186:cardamom
163:sausages
119:May 2023
105:the text
3556:Boroqul
3551:Guo Kan
3541:Negudar
3526:Subutai
3426: (
3264:Alamut
3237:Serbia
3229:Poland
3213:Thrace
3205:Poland
3141:Alania
3006:Yunnan
2941:Persia
2899:Central
2878:Battles
2785:Bolghar
2780:Bukhara
2765:Almalik
2567:Kheshig
2495:Tarkhan
2298:(1954)
2285:, p.133
1784:172-190
1170:chadors
1051:dashmad
1043:Taoists
1039:erke'ĂŒd
955:during
946:Soviets
942:Chinese
629:Oljeitu
614:of the
606:of the
510:Khorazm
381:Muscovy
371:–
369:Kypchak
328:Genoese
263:Siberia
170:tribute
109:Please
47:nomadic
28:Mongols
3536:Muqali
3510:Ghazan
3505:Arghun
3495:Hulegu
3385:Tolui
3361:People
3322:(1262)
3280:Syria
3274:(1258)
3239:(1291)
3191:(1242)
3183:(1242)
3099:Europe
3082:India
3063:Burma
3049:(1293)
3038:Burma
3016:Japan
2997:Tibet
2980:Korea
2840:Tabriz
2810:Qarshi
2770:Avarga
2616:Topics
2520:Jarlig
2480:Jinong
2475:Khanum
2470:Khatun
2460:Khagan
2452:Titles
2386:
2029:
1818:. Ed.
1738:
1726:
1622:
1514:
1317:
1233:Kyrgyz
1174:burqas
1138:Ghazan
1093:Ăgedei
1067:takbir
993:Ghazan
961:Mongol
866:Mongol
744:Camels
735:Cattle
720:Horses
625:Tokhta
593:Goryeo
577:Khitan
573:judges
554:Ghazan
546:Hulagu
538:Shanxi
522:Persia
518:Möngke
506:Ăgedei
498:TemĂŒge
494:Hoelun
474:Crimea
365:Shiite
206:millet
103:verify
36:Persia
3581:Kadan
3576:Bayan
3561:Jelme
3500:Abaqa
3490:Kebek
3470:Toqta
3465:Berke
3445:Jochi
3438:Khans
3075:South
3047:Java
2800:Majar
2742:Wings
2562:TĂŒmen
2542:Yassa
2525:Ărtöö
2490:Noyan
2081:(PDF)
2074:(PDF)
1999:(PDF)
1512:S2CID
1315:JSTOR
1255:Notes
1109:Islam
1035:toyin
1024:Islam
997:Islam
890:Yassa
839:maces
728:airag
693:Hunan
689:Cheli
677:Ozbeg
667:from
661:Chabi
612:Baraq
595:King
585:GĂŒyĂŒk
550:Tibet
534:Khiva
476:paid
462:share
373:Tatar
357:Sunni
341:qirad
337:ortoq
275:Kebek
246:sukhe
233:Money
222:Balkh
155:aorta
144:airag
40:China
3531:Jebe
3485:Duwa
2954:East
2891:Asia
2845:Ukek
2795:Dadu
2603:Life
2530:Orda
2465:Khan
2384:ISBN
2231:help
2212:help
2193:help
2174:help
2128:help
2027:ISBN
1736:ISBN
1724:ISBN
1620:ISBN
1217:gers
1184:and
1073:azan
1018:and
948:and
876:and
691:and
681:ding
627:and
621:Duwa
571:and
542:Iran
540:and
532:and
488:and
343:and
292:auto
256:The
192:and
51:yurt
38:and
3571:Aju
1504:doi
1283:it.
1280:" (
1235:of
1172:or
1041:),
1022:to
1014:to
683:in
560:of
530:Kat
3625::
2247:.
2136:^
1918:^
1902:^
1886:^
1607:^
1571:^
1510:.
1500:38
1498:.
1494:.
1482:^
1408:^
1380:.
1339:^
1311:13
1309:.
1239:.
1180:,
1061:.
944:,
872:,
647:,
643:,
512:,
224:,
165:.
42:.
3430:)
2421:e
2414:t
2407:v
2392:.
2361:.
2258:.
2233:)
2214:)
2195:)
2176:)
2130:)
2111:.
2090:.
2041:.
2008:.
1984:.
1742:.
1506::
1390:.
1321:.
1285:)
1045:(
980:.
142:"
132:)
126:(
121:)
117:(
113:.
107:.
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