Solar thermal energy

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federal tax credit + additional state credit exists in about half of the states. Labor for a simple open loop system in southern climates can take 3–5 hours for the installation and 4–6 hours in Northern areas. Northern system require more collector area and more complex plumbing to protect the collector from freezing. With this incentive, the payback time for a typical household is four to nine years, depending on the state. Similar subsidies exist in parts of Europe. A crew of one solar plumber and two assistants with minimal training can install a system per day. Thermosiphon installation have negligible maintenance costs (costs rise if antifreeze and mains power are used for circulation) and in the US reduces a households' operating costs by $ 6 per person per month. Solar water heating can reduce CO

1316:(PCMs) offer an alternative solution in energy storage. Using a similar heat transfer infrastructure, PCMs have the potential of providing a more efficient means of storage. PCMs can be either organic or inorganic materials. Advantages of organic PCMs include no corrosives, low or no undercooling, and chemical and thermal stability. Disadvantages include low phase-change enthalpy, low thermal conductivity, and flammability. Inorganics are advantageous with greater phase-change enthalpy, but exhibit disadvantages with undercooling, corrosion, phase separation, and lack of thermal stability. The greater phase-change enthalpy in inorganic PCMs make hydrate salts a strong candidate in the solar energy storage field. 1094:

costs by sharing a receiver between several mirrors (as compared with trough and dish concepts), while still using the simple line-focus geometry with one axis for tracking. This is similar to the trough design (and different from central towers and dishes with dual-axis). The receiver is stationary and so fluid couplings are not required (as in troughs and dishes). The mirrors also do not need to support the receiver, so they are structurally simpler. When suitable aiming strategies are used (mirrors aimed at different receivers at different times of day), this can allow a denser packing of mirrors on available land area.

43: 436: 31: 877: 3476: 1082: 964:' power plants) capture and focus the sun's thermal energy with thousands of tracking mirrors (called heliostats) in roughly a two square mile field. A tower resides in the center of the heliostat field. The heliostats focus concentrated sunlight on a receiver which sits on top of the tower. Within the receiver the concentrated sunlight heats molten salt to over 1,000 °F (538 °C). The heated molten salt then flows into a thermal storage tank where it is stored, maintaining 98% 288: 300:", they employ a painted perforated metal solar heat absorber that also serves as the exterior wall surface of the building. Heat transfer to the air takes place on the surface of the absorber, through the metal absorber and behind the absorber. The boundary layer of solar heated air is drawn into a nearby perforation before the heat can escape by convection to the outside air. The heated air is then drawn from behind the absorber plate into the building's ventilation system. 280: 331:

for space heating. Collectors can use air or water as the medium to transfer the heat to their destination. The sun’s free energy can also be used to heat water to fulfil domestic hot water demands, such as the hot water that comes out of taps. Solar thermal water heating systems can provide approximately 50% of a property’s annual hot water demand (depending on the size of the property, its location etc) which in turn can help homeowners make savings on their energy bills.

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The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) make them a more cost-effective alternative to glazed collection systems. As of 2015, over 4000 systems with a combined collector area of 500,000 m (100 acres) had been installed worldwide. Representatives include an 860 m (9,300 sq. ft.) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1300 m (14,000 sq. ft.) collector in Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds.

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polymer pipes containing water with photovoltaic pumping. European and International standards are being reviewed to accommodate innovations in design and operation of medium temperature collectors. Operational innovations include "permanently wetted collector" operation. This innovation reduces or even eliminates the occurrence of no-flow high temperature stresses called stagnation which would otherwise reduce the life expectancy of collectors.

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current technology, storage of heat is much cheaper and more efficient than storage of electricity. In this way, the CSP plant can produce electricity day and night. If the CSP site has predictable solar radiation, then the CSP plant becomes a reliable power plant. Reliability can further be improved by installing a back-up combustion system. The back-up system can use most of the CSP plant, which decreases the cost of the back-up system.

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The less money it takes to make a product, the less it can be sold for, pleasing both the buyers and the sellers. Technologies in solar drying include ultra low cost pumped transpired plate air collectors based on black fabrics. Solar thermal energy is helpful in the process of drying products such as wood chips and other forms of biomass by raising the temperature while allowing air to pass through and get rid of the moisture.

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between night and day. When heating is a concern the bladder is uncovered during the day allowing sunlight to warm the water bladder and store heat for evening use. When cooling is a concern the covered bladder draws heat from the building's interior during the day and is uncovered at night to radiate heat to the cooler atmosphere. The Skytherm house in Atascadero, California uses a prototype roof pond for heating and cooling.

939: 650: 1006: 4305: 1158:; the greenhouse effect in this case is the ability of a reflective surface to transmit short wave radiation and reflect long wave radiation. Heat and infrared radiation (IR) are produced when short wave radiation light hits the absorber plate, which is then trapped inside the collector. Fluid, usually water, in the absorber tubes collect the trapped heat and transfer it to a heat storage vault. 253:) systems account for over 25% (4.75 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings (50% in northern cities) and nearly half (10.1 EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings. Solar heating, cooling, and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy. The most popular solar heating technology for heating buildings is the building integrated 1162:

distribution of energy from the rising hot water to the sinking cold water contributes to the convection process. Heat is transferred from the absorber plates of the collector in the fluid by conduction. The collector fluid is circulated through the carrier pipes to the heat transfer vault. Inside the vault, heat is transferred throughout the medium through convection.

465:. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. Altogether, evaporation ponds represent one of the largest commercial applications of solar energy in use today. 554:. Contrary to conventional tracking reflector/fixed receiver systems, the solar bowl uses a fixed spherical reflector with a receiver which tracks the focus of light as the Sun moves across the sky. The solar bowl's receiver reaches temperature of 150 °C (300°F) that is used to produce steam that helps cook 2,000 daily meals. 349:(STES) is capable of storing heat for months at a time, so solar heat collected primarily in Summer can be used for all-year heating. Solar-supplied STES technology has been advanced primarily in Denmark, Germany, and Canada, and applications include individual buildings and district heating networks. 1265:

Molten salt is used to transport heat in solar power tower systems because it is liquid at atmospheric pressure, provides a low-cost medium to store thermal energy, its operating temperatures are compatible with today's steam turbines, and it is non-flammable and nontoxic. Molten salt is also used in

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to the trough does not require adjustment of the mirrors, since the light is simply concentrated elsewhere on the receiver. Thus the trough design does not require tracking on a second axis. The receiver may be enclosed in a glass vacuum chamber. The vacuum significantly reduces convective heat loss.

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Unglazed solar collectors are primarily used to pre-heat make-up ventilation air in commercial, industrial and institutional buildings with a high ventilation load. They turn building walls or sections of walls into low cost, high performance, unglazed solar collectors. Also called, "transpired solar

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over a twenty-year period and in quantities (20,000 units) sufficient to generate 500 megawatts of electricity. In January 2010, Stirling Energy Systems and Tessera Solar commissioned the first demonstration 1.5-megawatt power plant ("Maricopa Solar") using Stirling technology in Peoria, Arizona. At

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are in Spain with each site having a capacity of 50 MW. Note however, that those plants have heat storage which requires a larger field of solar collectors relative to the size of the steam turbine-generator to store heat and send heat to the steam turbine at the same time. Heat storage enables

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permit the plant to use higher-temperature dry heat exchangers for its thermal exhaust, reducing the plant's water use – critical in the deserts where large solar plants are practical. High temperatures also make heat storage more efficient, because more watt-hours are stored per unit of fluid.

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These collectors could be used to produce approximately 50% and more of the hot water needed for residential and commercial use in the United States. In the United States, a typical system costs $ 4000–$ 6000 retail ($ 1400 to $ 2200 wholesale for the materials) and 30% of the system qualifies for a

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Thermal mass materials store solar energy during the day and release this energy during cooler periods. Common thermal mass materials include stone, concrete, and water. The proportion and placement of thermal mass should consider several factors such as climate, daylighting, and shading conditions.

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in Alberta, Canada has a small district system and in 2012 achieved a world record of providing 97% of the community's all-year space heating needs from the sun. STES thermal storage mediums include deep aquifers; native rock surrounding clusters of small-diameter, heat exchanger equipped boreholes;

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Of the 21,000,000 square feet (2,000,000 m) of solar thermal collectors produced in the United States in 2007, 16,000,000 square feet (1,500,000 m) were of the low-temperature variety. Low-temperature collectors are generally installed to heat swimming pools, although they can also be used

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power plant in Spain is the first commercial solar thermal power plant using molten salt for heat storage and nighttime generation. It came on line March 2009. On July 4, 2011, a company in Spain celebrated an historic moment for the solar industry: Torresol’s 19.9 MW concentrating solar power

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Heat transport refers to the activity in which heat from a solar collector is transported to the heat storage vault. Heat insulation is vital in both heat transport tubing as well as the storage vault. It prevents heat loss, which in turn relates to energy loss, or decrease in the efficiency of the

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are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of copper’s high thermal conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for

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power plant uses a series of long, narrow, shallow-curvature (or even flat) mirrors to focus light onto one or more linear receivers positioned above the mirrors. On top of the receiver a small parabolic mirror can be attached for further focusing the light. These systems aim to offer lower overall

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in Spain with a capacity of 11 MW, completed in 2007. Since then a number of plants have been proposed, several have been built in a number of countries (Spain, Germany, U.S., Turkey, China, India) but several proposed plants were cancelled as photovoltaic solar prices plummeted. A solar power

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positions the mirrors to track the sun and focus its light onto a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse structure. Steam is generated directly, using oil field-quality water, as water flows from the inlet throughout the length of the pipes, without heat exchangers or

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better utilization of the steam turbine. With day and some nighttime operation of the steam-turbine Andasol 1 at 50 MW peak capacity produces more energy than Nevada Solar One at 64 MW peak capacity, due to the former plant's thermal energy storage system and larger solar field. The 280MW

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are used. For higher concentrations, however, if the mirrors or lenses do not move, then the focus of the mirrors or lenses changes. A tracking system that follows the position of the sun is required. The tracking system increases the cost and complexity. With this in mind, different designs can be

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can be more efficient. Higher temperatures are problematic because different materials and techniques are needed. One proposal for very high temperatures is to use liquid fluoride salts operating between 700 °C (1300°F) to 800 °C (1500°F) , using multi-stage turbine systems to achieve 50%

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Glazed solar collectors are designed primarily for space heating. They recirculate building air through a solar air panel where the air is heated and then directed back into the building. These solar space heating systems require at least two penetrations into the building and only perform when the

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cells that convert sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal systems convert it into heat. They use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, which in turn heats a water reservoir. The heated water can then be used in homes. The advantage of solar thermal is that the heated

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Heat storage enables solar thermal plants to produce electricity during hours without sunlight. Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during hours with sunlight, and is withdrawn for power generation during hours lacking sunlight. Thermal storage mediums will be

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MicroCSP is used for community-sized power plants (1 MW to 50 MW), for industrial, agricultural and manufacturing 'process heat' applications, and when large amounts of hot water are needed, such as resort swimming pools, water parks, large laundry facilities, sterilization, distillation

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The steam produced is then fed directly to the field’s existing steam distribution network, where the steam is continuously injected deep into the oil reservoir. Sheltering the mirrors from the wind allows them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from building up as a result from

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approved nine large-scale solar projects, with a total generating capacity of 3,682 megawatts, representing approximately 40,000 acres. In contrast, in 2010, the Bureau of Land Management processed more than 5,200 applications gas and oil leases, and issued 1,308 leases, for a total of 3.2 million

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in 1986. A Scheffler reflector is a parabolic dish that uses single axis tracking to follow the Sun's daily course. These reflectors have a flexible reflective surface that is able to change its curvature to adjust to seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. Scheffler reflectors have

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Concentrating solar cookers use reflectors to concentrate solar energy onto a cooking container. The most common reflector geometries are flat plate, disc and parabolic trough type. These designs cook faster and at higher temperatures (up to 350 °C; 660°F) but require direct light to function

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Solar thermal energy can be useful for drying wood for construction and wood fuels such as wood chips for combustion. Solar is also used for food products such as fruits, grains, and fish. Crop drying by solar means is environmentally friendly as well as cost effective while improving the quality.

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Unglazed transpired collectors are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. Transpired collectors can also be roof mounted for year-round use and can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (72°F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45-60 °C (110° to 140°F).

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Solar roof ponds for solar heating and cooling were developed by Harold Hay in the 1960s. A basic system consists of a roof-mounted water bladder with a movable insulating cover. This system can control heat exchange between interior and exterior environments by covering and uncovering the bladder

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The gross conversion efficiencies (taking into account that the solar dishes or troughs occupy only a fraction of the total area of the power plant) are determined by net generating capacity over the solar energy that falls on the total area of the solar plant. The 500-megawatt (MW) SCE/SES plant

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The advantage of this design above the parabolic trough design is the higher temperature. Thermal energy at higher temperatures can be converted to electricity more efficiently and can be more cheaply stored for later use. Furthermore, there is less need to flatten the ground area. In principle a

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The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically occurs between about 4 and 8 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage. With

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Systems for utilizing low-temperature solar thermal energy include means for heat collection; usually heat storage, either short-term or interseasonal; and distribution within a structure or a district heating network. In some cases a single feature can do more than one of these things (e.g. some

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Solar stills can be used to make drinking water in areas where clean water is not common. Solar distillation is necessary in these situations to provide people with purified water. Solar energy heats up the water in the still. The water then evaporates and condenses on the bottom of the covering

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Worldwide, by 2011 there were about 750 cooling systems with solar-driven heat pumps, and annual market growth was 40 to 70% over the prior seven years. It is a niche market because the economics are challenging, with the annual number of cooling hours a limiting factor. Respectively, the annual

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This solar power system can generate power in cloudy weather or at night using the heat in the tank of hot salt. The tanks are insulated, able to store heat for a week. Tanks that power a 100-megawatt turbine for four hours would be about 9 m (30 ft) tall and 24 m (80 ft) in

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Heat is transferred either by conduction or convection. When water is heated, kinetic energy is transferred by conduction to water molecules throughout the medium. These molecules spread their thermal energy by conduction and occupy more space than the cold slow moving molecules above them. The

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Rival single axis tracking technologies include the relatively new linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) and compact-LFR (CLFR) technologies. The LFR differs from that of the parabolic trough in that the absorber is fixed in space above the mirror field. Also, the reflector is composed of many low row

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power plants use a curved, mirrored trough which reflects the direct solar radiation onto a glass tube containing a fluid (also called a receiver, absorber or collector) running the length of the trough, positioned at the focal point of the reflectors. The trough is parabolic along one axis and

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With reliability, unused desert, no pollution, and no fuel costs, the obstacles for large deployment for CSP are cost, aesthetics, land use and similar factors for the necessary connecting high tension lines. Although only a small percentage of the desert is necessary to meet global electricity

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Where temperatures below about 95 °C (200°F) are sufficient, as for space heating, flat-plate collectors of the nonconcentrating type are generally used. Because of the relatively high heat losses through the glazing, flat plate collectors will not reach temperatures much above 200 °C

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emissions of a family of four by 1 ton/year (if replacing natural gas) or 3 ton/year (if replacing electricity). Medium-temperature installations can use any of several designs: common designs are pressurized glycol, drain back, batch systems and newer low pressure freeze tolerant systems using

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in south-eastern California conserves scarce desert water by using air-cooling to convert the steam back into water. Compared to conventional wet-cooling, this results in a 90% reduction in water usage at the cost of some loss of efficiency. The water is then returned to the boiler in a closed

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In Europe, since the mid-1990s about 125 large solar-thermal district heating plants have been constructed, each with over 500 m (5400 ft) of solar collectors. The largest are about 10,000 m (2½ acres), with capacities of 7 MW-thermal and solar heat costs around 4 Eurocents/kWh without

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power tower can be built on the side of a hill. Mirrors can be flat and plumbing is concentrated in the tower. The disadvantage is that each mirror must have its own dual-axis control, while in the parabolic trough design single axis tracking can be shared for a large array of mirrors.

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when a steam engine was run on steam produced by sunlight. Because liquid fuel engines were developed and found more convenient, the Sahara project was abandoned, only to be revisited several decades later. As of 2023, the world's largest thermal solar power plant is in the

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as pressurized steam at 50 bar (700 psi) and 285 °C (545°F). The steam condenses and flashes back to steam, when pressure is lowered. Storage is for one hour. It is suggested that longer storage is possible, but that has not been proven in an existing power plant.

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subsidies. 40 of them have nominal capacities of 1 MW-thermal or more. The Solar District Heating program (SDH) has participation from 14 European Nations and the European Commission, and is working toward technical and market development, and holds annual conferences.

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the beginning of 2011 Stirling Energy's development arm, Tessera Solar, sold off its two large projects, the 709 MW Imperial project and the 850 MW Calico project to AES Solar and K.Road, respectively. In 2012 the Maricopa plant was bought and dismantled by

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The enclosed trough architecture encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can negatively impact reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system.

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discussed in a heat storage section. Rate of heat transfer is related to the conductive and convection medium as well as the temperature differences. Bodies with large temperature differences transfer heat faster than bodies with lower temperature differences.

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dish (similar in shape to a satellite television dish). It focuses all the sunlight that strikes the dish up onto a single point above the dish, where a receiver captures the heat and transforms it into a useful form. Typically the dish is coupled with a

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A cost/performance comparison between power tower and parabolic trough concentrators was made by the NREL which estimated that by 2020 electricity could be produced from power towers for 5.47 ¢/kWh and for 6.21 ¢/kWh from parabolic troughs. The

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Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during the day, and withdrawn for power generation at night. Thermal storage media include pressurized steam, concrete, a variety of phase change materials, and

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collectors is more popular in the USA and Canada than heating with solar liquid collectors since most buildings already have a ventilation system for heating and cooling. The two main types of solar air panels are glazed and unglazed.

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in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. These cookers can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 50–100 °C (100° to 200°F).

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A design which requires water for condensation or cooling may conflict with location of solar thermal plants in desert areas with good solar radiation but limited water resources. The conflict is illustrated by plans of

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water can be stored until it is needed, eliminating the need for a separate energy storage system. Solar thermal power can also be converted to electricity by using the steam generated from the heated water to drive a

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acres. Currently, 38.2 million acres of onshore public lands and an additional 36.9 million acres of offshore exploration in the Gulf of Mexico are under lease for oil and gas development, exploration and production.

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for a discussion) that falls on its 4,500 acres (18.2 km). For the 50 MW AndaSol Power Plant that is being built in Spain (total area 1.95 km; ¾ sq. mi.) gross conversion efficiency comes out at 2.6%.

1879: 566:, the world's largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road, Rajasthan India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day. By early 2008, over 2000 large cookers of the Scheffler design had been built worldwide. 2772:"Could this be the world's most efficient solar electricity system? Using military technology and a zero-emission engine invented by a 19th-century Scot, Swedish firm seeks to revolutionise solar energy production" 1285:

can reduce the melting point to 131 °C (268°F), permitting more energy to be extracted before the salt freezes. There are now several technical calcium nitrate grades stable at more than 500 °C (1000°F).

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for power towers was estimated to be 72.9% and 56.2% for parabolic troughs. There is some hope that the development of cheap, durable, mass producible heliostat power plant components could bring this cost down.

705:(CSP). The practical effect of high efficiencies is to reduce the plant's collector size and total land use per unit power generated, reducing the environmental impacts of a power plant as well as its expense. 257:

which connects to the building's HVAC equipment. According to Solar Energy Industries Association over 500,000 m (5,000,000 square feet) of these panels are in operation in North America as of 2015.

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Full-scale parabolic trough systems consist of many such troughs laid out in parallel over a large area of land. Since 1985 a solar thermal system using this principle has been in full operation in

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A food processing facility in Modesto, California uses parabolic troughs to produce steam used in the manufacturing process. The 5,000 m collector area is expected to provide 15 TJ per year.

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cooling hours are roughly 1000 in the Mediterranean, 2500 in Southeast Asia, and only 50 to 200 in Central Europe. However, system construction costs dropped about 50% between 2007 and 2011. The

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consisting of an air channel sandwiched between a window and a sun-facing thermal mass. During the ventilation cycle, sunlight stores heat in the thermal mass and warms the air channel causing

1824: 1109:. No full-scale thermal systems using Fresnel lenses are known to be in operation, although products incorporating Fresnel lenses in conjunction with photovoltaic cells are already available. 841:

The SEGS is a collection of nine plants with a total capacity of 354 MW and has been the world's largest solar power plant, both thermal and non-thermal, for many years. A newer plant is

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Bennamoun, Lyes; Belhamri, Azeddine (January 2011). "Study of solar thermal energy in the north region of Algeria with simulation and modeling of an indirect convective solar drying system".

838:(SEGS) system. Other CSP designs lack this kind of long experience and therefore it can currently be said that the parabolic trough design is the most thoroughly proven CSP technology. 2693: 3030: 116:(300 psi) pressure in industries, and for electric power production. Two categories include Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) for fulfilling heat requirements in industries, and 2745: 1760: 3300: 1305:

project was connected to grid and started operating. Its configuration includes an 11-hour molten salt heat storage system and can generate power consecutively for 24 hours.

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demand, still a large area must be covered with mirrors or lenses to obtain a significant amount of energy. An important way to decrease cost is the use of a simple design.

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the advantage of having a fixed focal point which improves the ease of cooking and are able to reach temperatures of 450-650 °C (850°F to 1200°F). Built in 1999 by the

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During the day the sun has different positions. For low concentration systems (and low temperatures) tracking can be avoided (or limited to a few positions per year) if

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Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. The world’s largest solar thermal power plants are now the 370 MW

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connected to a generator. However, because generating electricity this way is much more expensive than photovoltaic power plants, there are very few in use today.

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American Inventor Uses Egypt's Sun for Power; Appliance Concentrates the Heat Rays and Produces Steam, Which Can Be Used to Drive Irrigation Pumps in Hot Climates

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or to heat ventilation air. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use.

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to the receiver, the trough tilts east to west so that the direct radiation remains focused on the receiver. However, seasonal changes in the angle of sunlight

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plants have been built with efficiencies of about 20%. Fresnel reflectors have a slightly lower efficiency (but this is compensated by the denser packing).

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Many other solar kitchens in India use another unique concentrating technology known as the Scheffler reflector. This technology was first developed by

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for about $ 5 per million British thermal units in sunny regions, compared to between $ 10 and $ 12 for other conventional solar thermal technologies.

1066: 756:, which are used for most of our electrical power, utility-scale solar power compares as one of the most land-efficient energy resources available: 1670: 1261:. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining. 3001: 2532: 997:

in California generates 392 MW of electricity from three towers, making it the largest solar power tower plant when it came online in late 2013.

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composed of a hollow thermal mass connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an

3315: 2697: 527:. Solar cooking offsets fuel costs, reduces demand for fuel or firewood, and improves air quality by reducing or removing a source of smoke. 968:, and eventually pumped to a steam generator. The steam drives a standard turbine to generate electricity. This process, also known as the " 2907: 1369: 1146:

of the object. Solar thermal power plants use heat exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat exchange.

230:(heat pump). There is a productive coincidence that the greater the driving heat from insolation, the greater the cooling output. In 1878, 2519: 2471: 2182: 1478: 1333:

of Nevada which would require 20% of the water available in the area. Some other projected plants by the same and other companies in the

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Sketch of a parabolic trough design. A change of position of the sun parallel to the receiver does not require adjustment of the mirrors.

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kinds of solar collectors also store heat). Some systems are passive, others are active (requiring other external energy to function).

859: 1199:. Additionally, the utilization of the generator is higher which reduces cost. Even short term storage can help by smoothing out the " 2081: 3356: 2402: 2157: 1768: 519:

The Solar Bowl above the Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to produce steam for cooking.

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air in the solar collector is warmer than the building room temperature. Most glazed collectors are used in the residential sector.

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The federal government has dedicated nearly 2,000 times more acreage to oil and gas leases than to solar development. In 2010 the

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large, shallow, lined pits that are filled with gravel and top-insulated; and large, insulated and buried surface water tanks.

2933: 2642: 2373: 1142:. Here, heat is the measure of the amount of thermal energy an object contains and is determined by the temperature, mass and 1055: 371:, underground geological strata, large specially constructed pits, and large tanks that are insulated and covered with earth. 120:(CSP) when the heat collected is used for electric power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application. 3120: 2559: 2143: 1986: 1967: 1738: 1624: 1603: 1281:. Saltpeter melts at 220 °C (430 °F) and is kept liquid at 290 °C (550 °F) in an insulated storage tank. 815:

A fluid (also called heat transfer fluid) passes through the receiver and becomes very hot. Common fluids are synthetic oil,

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When considering land use impacts associated with the exploration and extraction through to transportation and conversion of

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that pulls air through the building. These systems have been in use since Roman times and remain common in the Middle East.

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When properly incorporated, thermal mass can passively maintain comfortable temperatures while reducing energy consumption.

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plant became the first ever to generate uninterrupted electricity for 24 hours straight, using a molten salt heat storage.

397:(IEA) Solar Heating and Cooling program (IEA-SHC) task groups working on further development of the technologies involved. 3382: 3335: 2857: 2056:

The Technical Potential of Solar Water Heating to Reduce Fossil Fuel Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the United States

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allows a solar thermal plant to produce electricity at night and on overcast days. This allows the use of solar power for

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segments, which focus collectively on an elevated long tower receiver running parallel to the reflector rotational axis.

2232: 1857: 2459: 2435: 1058:, based on a V-shaped Stirling engine and a peak production of 33 kW. The new CSP-Stirling technology brings down 1858:

Drake Landing Solar Community. Presentation. IDEA/CDEA District Energy/CHP 2011 Conference. Toronto, June 26-29, 2011.

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as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are generally unglazed and used to heat

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is used. These create rotational kinetic energy that can be converted to electricity using an electric generator.

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through vents at the top and bottom of the wall. During the heating cycle the Trombe wall radiates stored heat.

3828: 3434: 3158: 916:, and a new project has recently been announced for the company to bring its enclosed trough technology to the 632: 3198: 1540: 4331: 4309: 4102: 3976: 3513: 1203:" of rapid change in generation requirements at sunset when a grid includes large amounts of solar capacity. 558: 350: 291:

Building integrated unglazed transpired solar air collector with grey walls and white canopy/collection ducts

177: 144: 17: 2211: 1917: 3236: 1395:

Efficiency does not directly relate to cost: total cost includes the cost of construction and maintenance.

1373: 1366: 1345: 994: 726: 609: 406: 3306: 708:

As the temperature increases, different forms of conversion become practical. Up to 600 °C (1100°F),

3863: 3853: 3331:

Assessment of the World Bank/GEF Strategy for the Market Development of Concentrating Solar Thermal Power

2798:

Mills, D. "Advances in Solar Thermal Electricity Technology." Solar Energy 76 (2004): 19-31. 28 May 2008.

2668: 1557: 1294: 1247: 846: 394: 47: 3261:

Major New Solar Energy Project Announced By Southern California Edison and Stirling Energy Systems, Inc.

3159:"Review on Thermal Energy Storage with Phase Change: Materials, Heat Transfer Analysis and Applications" 1677: 4336: 4123: 3833: 3618: 3595: 3558: 3407: 3005: 1042: 242: 1154:

Heat gain is the heat accumulated from the sun in the system. Solar thermal heat is trapped using the

4341: 3660: 2886: 1337:

of California may also be affected by difficulty in obtaining adequate and appropriate water rights.

1258: 1147: 851: 760: 234:

pioneered solar cooling by making ice using a solar steam engine attached to a refrigeration device.

3240: 1788: 4206: 3808: 3728: 3675: 3610: 2584: 1458: 917: 702: 697:

increases with the temperature of the heat source. To achieve this in solar thermal energy plants,

644: 117: 3027:"Solar Can Be Baseload: Spanish CSP Plant with Storage Produces Electricity for 24 Hours Straight" 2787:

34% of the sun's energy hitting the mirrors is converted directly to grid-available electric power

1896: 901:, the company that created the Enclosed Trough design, states its technology can produce heat for 3914: 3873: 3843: 3838: 3698: 3444: 3439: 2843: 1439: 1046: 921: 270: 86: 2911: 2560:"Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology Cost and Performance Forecasts" 42: 4273: 3953: 3883: 3858: 3848: 3823: 3818: 3773: 3763: 3738: 3733: 3723: 3718: 3710: 3568: 3518: 3321: 3136: 1800: 1789:

EIA Renewable Energy- Shipments of Solar Thermal Collectors by Market Sector, End Use, and Type

1571:"In the UAE desert, a shining beacon looms large. Experts say it could help Australia go green" 1237: 1220: 1184: 1179: 1143: 1131: 989: 387: 219: 193: 3233:"Sandia, Stirling Energy Systems set new world record for solar-to-grid conversion efficiency" 3100: 2475: 2186: 367:

Solar heat (or heat from other sources) can be effectively stored between opposing seasons in

4297: 4159: 4128: 3948: 3878: 3813: 3803: 3788: 3778: 3748: 3743: 3400: 1453: 1388: 1313: 1302: 1196: 902: 888:

Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended within the glasshouse structure. A

718: 701:

is concentrated by mirrors or lenses to obtain higher temperatures – a technique called

594: 426: 2855:

2011 global status report by Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21));

3898: 3868: 3798: 3793: 3783: 3753: 3693: 3173: 2967: 2955: 2545: 2276: 1404: 1338: 950: 687: 613: 223: 157: 2259:"A Passive High-Temperature High-Pressure Solar Steam Generator for Medical Sterilization" 2085: 1301:

In January 2019 Shouhang Energy Saving Dunhuang 100MW molten salt tower solar energy photo

435: 8: 4253: 4027: 3943: 3670: 3584: 3578: 3533: 3388:

Solar Water Heating, a Strategic Planning Guide for Cities in Developing Countries - UNEP

2161: 1524: 1493: 1380: 1192: 808: 799: 686:(400°F) even when the heat transfer fluid is stagnant. Such temperatures are too low for 678: 481: 312: 124: 3177: 2971: 2280: 972:" is similar to a standard coal-fired power plant, except it is fueled by solar energy. 4081: 3665: 3573: 3203: 3112: 2349: 1358: 965: 531: 30: 3185: 2025:"Frito-Lay solar system puts the sun in SunChips, takes advantage of renewable energy" 361:

round the clock is also feasible with concentrated solar thermal (CST) storage plant.

4243: 4201: 4107: 4007: 3633: 3383:

Guidelines for Solar Water Heating and Cooling Policy and Framework Conditions - UNEP

3116: 2983: 2809:"Web site of the International Automated Systems showing concepts about Fresnel lens" 2455: 2431: 1941: 1599: 1278: 1224: 1155: 1090: 957: 933: 773: 82: 3277: 2694:"Solar buys Tessera Solar's Imperial Valley project with intent to turn CSP into PV" 4248: 3628: 3465: 3311: 3181: 3108: 3088: 2975: 2646: 2294: 2284: 2118: 1326: 1251: 898: 871: 842: 786: 777:

distinguished in how they concentrate the light and track the position of the sun.

358: 246: 231: 140: 2746:"Solar Shakeout Continues: Stirling Energy Systems Files for Chapter 7 Bankruptcy" 2563: 2979: 2506: 2421: 2263: 1924: 1883: 1864: 1844: 1721: 1448: 1362: 1330: 1282: 1139: 1070: 1031: 1010: 981: 712:, standard technology, have an efficiency up to 41%. Above 600 °C (1100°F), 698: 601: 597: 3475: 2499: 2289: 2258: 1714: 1009:

A parabolic solar dish concentrating the sun's rays on the heating element of a

876: 3981: 3656: 3563: 3092: 2861: 2032: 1274: 1081: 563: 524: 440: 323: 254: 173: 78: 3361: 2812: 2054: 2000: 1126:

Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain;

461:

Evaporation ponds are shallow ponds that concentrate dissolved solids through

222:

can be achieved for a building or for district cooling by using a heat-driven

202: 4325: 4164: 4022: 4017: 4012: 3683: 3638: 3548: 3523: 3378:

Guidelines for Standardization and Quality Assurance for Solar Thermal - UNEP

2319: 2236: 1488: 1425: 1334: 1254: 1127: 1014: 969: 889: 831: 804: 734: 713: 709: 670: 455: 430: 308: 189: 143:

demonstrated a solar collector with a cooling engine making ice cream at the

105: 94: 2604: 1847:. Presentation. European Sustainable Energy Week, Brussels. 18–22 June 2012. 1827:. Presentation. European Sustainable Energy Week, Brussels. 18–22 June 2012. 1357:

Of all of these technologies the solar dish/Stirling engine has the highest

4222: 4185: 4061: 4053: 3991: 3538: 3423: 2987: 2062:(Technical report). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-640-41157 2001:"Solar Buildings (Transpired Air Collectors – Ventilation Preheating)" 1102: 1035: 803:

linear in the orthogonal axis. For change of the daily position of the sun

510: 279: 181: 152: 147:. The first installation of solar thermal energy equipment occurred in the 74: 35: 665: 4227: 4048: 3589: 3496: 3481: 3340: 3137:"Encapsulated Phase Change Materials (EPCM) Thermal Energy Storage (TES)" 2299: 1208: 1105:

concentrators have been produced for the collection of thermal energy by

820: 819:

and pressurized steam. The fluid containing the heat is transported to a

816: 753: 694: 575: 462: 304: 185: 3157:

Zalba, Belen; Marin, Jose M.; Cabeza, Luisa F.; Mehling, Harald (2003).

3074:"Molten-salt power towers: newly commercial concentrating solar storage" 2832: 1639:"Energy Consumption Characteristics of Commercial Building HVAC Systems" 4169: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4071: 4066: 3688: 3600: 3528: 3368:

Solar Water Heating TechScope Market Readiness Assessment Report - UNEP

2123: 1644:. United States Department of Energy. pp. 1–6, 2–1. Archived from 1200: 1069:, a Swedish firm, in 2015 its Dish Sterling system being tested in the 1045:

announced an agreement to purchase solar powered Stirling engines from

827: 628: 551: 515: 422: 287: 113: 70: 3373:

Guide for Solar Heating and Cooling Awareness-Raising Campaigns - UNEP

1838:

Solar District Heating with Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage in Germany

1005: 4076: 3623: 3052:"Voluntary Announcement The First Hundred-Megawatt Molten Salt Tower" 2585:"Google's Goal: Renewable Energy Cheaper than Coal November 27, 2007" 2427: 1463: 1270: 961: 605: 543: 451: 297: 3487: 3343:

An overview of the technology by Gerry Wolff, coordinator of TREC-UK

1433: 405:

A solar chimney (or thermal chimney) is a passive solar ventilation

3107:(2nd ed.). Woodhead Publishing. pp. 267–310, See p. 284. 2630: 2272: 1242: 1188: 1026: 791: 530:

The simplest type of solar cooker is the box cooker first built by

108:

and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300

1541:"'Eye of Sauron': The Dazzling Solar Tower in the Israeli Desert" 1419: 1135: 945:

with all three towers under load, Feb., 2014. Taken from I-15 in

938: 862:

both use parabolic troughs in a combined cycle with natural gas.

674: 649: 620: 410: 368: 238: 129: 3217:

BrightSource & Bechtel Partner on 440-MW Ivanpah CSP Project

3392: 3352:

Comprehensive review of parabolic trough technology and markets

3325: 2533:"Chevron Uses Solar-Thermal Steam to Extract Oil in California" 909: 624: 148: 101: 1269:

The first commercial molten salt mixture was a common form of

854:

came online in Arizona in 2013 with 6 hours of power storage.

1387:

would extract about 2.75% of the radiation (1 kW/m; see

908:

GlassPoint’s enclosed trough system has been utilized at the

823:

where about a third of the heat is converted to electricity.

547: 109: 2315:"How to sterilise scalpels when no electricity is available" 2131: 1825:

Long Term Experiences with Solar District Heating in Denmark

2934:"Sunny Outlook: Can Sunshine Provide All U.S. Electricity?" 1955: 1059: 913: 730: 654: 250: 169: 55: 51: 3346: 1195:, with the potential of displacing both coal- and natural 3460: 3199:"Alternative Energy Projects Stumble on a Need for Water" 856:

Hassi R'Mel integrated solar combined cycle power station

590: 1612: 3156: 2104: 2102: 1173: 100:

High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using

1372:

produces as much as 25 kW of electricity, with a

1341:

currently prohibits use of potable water for cooling.

1266:

the chemical and metals industries to transport heat.

163: 1927:. International Sustainable Energy Review, 6:1{28-30. 1308: 3362:

Solar thermal and concentrated solar power barometer

2605:"Concentrating Solar Power Projects – Khi Solar One" 2099: 1737:. United States Department of Energy. Archived from 1539:

Kingsley, Patrick; Elkayam, Amit (October 9, 2022).

1415: 550:

uses a unique concentrating technology known as the

450:

systems are designed to provide large quantities of

1352: 523:Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and 1974: 3101:"Central tower concentrating solar power systems" 2883:"Sandia National Lab Solar Thermal Test Facility" 2423:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 2108: 334: 85:, and in the residential and commercial sectors. 4323: 3071: 3004:. Solarmillennium.de. 2012-01-12. Archived from 2512: 1704:. The SDH Project, of Intelligent Energy Europe. 1034:in a Dish-Stirling System, but also sometimes a 960:(also known as 'central tower' power plants or ' 845:plant with a capacity of 64 MW. The 150 MW 584: 475: 400: 3274:"2x50 MW AndaSol Power Plant Projects in Spain" 3072:Dunn, R.I.; Hearps, P.J.; Wright, M.N. (2011). 3029:. Thinkprogress.org. 2011-07-05. Archived from 2953: 2643:"Stirling Energy Systems Inc. - Solar Overview" 2142:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFButtiPerlin1981 ( 1671:"Future Advanced Windows for Zero-Energy Homes" 1623:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFButtiPerlin1981 ( 1538: 1211:such as calcium, sodium and potassium nitrate. 1121: 623:was successfully demonstrated at a hospital in 3002:"The Construction of the Andasol Power Plants" 2792: 2769: 2669:"SES, Tessera debut new solar plant in Peoria" 2185:. Auroville Universal Township. Archived from 681:can reach temperatures up to 3,500°C (6300°F). 638: 50:in the foreground, with the two towers of the 3408: 3316:United States Environmental Protection Agency 3307:World's Largest Solar Thermal in Saudi Arabia 2763: 2720:"Tessera Solar Sells Troubled 850 MW Project" 2525: 1662: 1151:water tanks) of solar thermal water systems. 264: 218:Heating is the most obvious application, but 2494: 2492: 2396: 2394: 1966:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBartlett1998 ( 1897:"Tibet's first solar district heating plant" 1370:National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) 1329:, a German company, to build a plant in the 729:, commissioned in 2014, and the 354 MW 619:A prototype, which incorporates inexpensive 3347:NREL Concentrating Solar Power Program Site 2666: 2400: 2137: 1618: 1479:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector 1349:process which is environmentally friendly. 993:tower went online in South Africa in 2016. 988:The first commercial tower power plant was 780: 345:A collection of mature technologies called 307:is a passive solar heating and ventilation 3415: 3401: 3357:Nevada Gets First U.S. Solar Thermal Plant 2413: 860:Martin Next Generation Solar Energy Center 3098: 2858:"REN21 - Renewables Global Status Report" 2846:Canivan, John, JC Solarhomes, 26 May 2008 2500:"Energy & Resources Predictions 2012" 2489: 2403:"Sorry, Critics - Solar Is Not a Rip-Off" 2391: 2298: 2288: 2122: 717:or more thermal efficiencies. The higher 2885:. Sandia.gov. 2012-11-29. Archived from 1985:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLeon2006 ( 1961: 1886:. Presentation. Renewable Heat Workshop. 1758: 1241: 1080: 1004: 943:Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System 937: 875: 790: 664: 648: 514: 434: 286: 278: 201: 41: 29: 2079: 2052: 1484:Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert 1076: 1073:in South Africa showed 34% efficiency. 381: 206:MIT's Solar House#1 built in 1939 used 58:solar power stations in the background. 14: 4324: 3987:Financial incentives for photovoltaics 2931: 2910:. Nrel.gov. 2010-01-28. Archived from 2908:"National Renewable Energy Laboratory" 2743: 2611:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2562:. Nrel.gov. 2010-09-23. Archived from 2419: 2160:. Arizona Solar Center. Archived from 2006:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1940:. Nrel.gov. 2013-04-08. Archived from 1713:SDH - Solar District Heating program. 1702:Supplying Renewable Zero-Emission Heat 1593: 1568: 1344:Other designs require less water. The 1231: 927: 733:CSP installation, both located in the 255:transpired solar air collection system 3396: 1517: 4304: 3105:Concentrating solar power technology 2954:Edwin Cartlidge (18 November 2011). 2717: 2667:O'Grady, Patrick (23 January 2010). 2645:. Stirlingenergy.com. Archived from 1980: 1668: 1518:Coren, Michael (February 13, 2024). 1469:List of solar thermal power stations 1214: 1174:Heat storage for electric base loads 283:Unglazed, "transpired" air collector 89:are classified by the United States 2444: 2256: 1761:"His passion for solar still burns" 604:detailing their design for a solar 164:Low-temperature heating and cooling 24: 3113:10.1016/B978-0-12-819970-1.00019-0 2401:Joe Desmond (September 24, 2012). 1877:Integrating Solar & Heat Pumps 1759:Douglass, Elizabeth (2007-11-10). 1694: 1309:Phase-change materials for storage 865: 145:1878 Universal Exhibition in Paris 27:Technology using sunlight for heat 25: 4353: 4098:Building-integrated photovoltaics 3294: 2343:"ORNL's liquid fluoride proposal" 1025:system uses a large, reflective, 947:San Bernardino County, California 767: 659:San Bernardino County, California 91:Energy Information Administration 4303: 4292: 4291: 3486: 3480: 3474: 3422: 3301:It's solar power's time to shine 3276:. Solarpaces.org. Archived from 2631:http://solar-thermal.anu.edu.au/ 2210:. Solare Bruecke. Archived from 1432: 1418: 1353:Electrical conversion efficiency 880:Inside an enclosed trough system 3336:Solar thermal energy calculator 3322:Renewable solar energy websites 3266: 3254: 3225: 3210: 3192: 3150: 3129: 3044: 3019: 2994: 2947: 2925: 2900: 2875: 2849: 2837: 2826: 2801: 2770:Jeffrey Barbee (May 13, 2015). 2737: 2711: 2686: 2660: 2635: 2623: 2597: 2577: 2552: 2538: 2474:. Fplenergy.com. Archived from 2464: 2366: 2335: 2307: 2250: 2225: 2200: 2175: 2150: 2073: 2046: 2017: 1993: 1930: 1910: 1889: 1869: 1850: 1830: 1817: 1793: 1782: 1752: 1727: 1707: 1474:Ocean thermal energy conversion 1319: 1107:International Automated Systems 1000: 836:Solar Energy Generating Systems 569: 495: 439:Solar Evaporation Ponds in the 416: 347:seasonal thermal energy storage 341:Seasonal thermal energy storage 208:seasonal thermal energy storage 198:Seasonal thermal energy storage 2535:, "Bloomberg", October 3, 2011 2498:Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Ltd, 2257:Lin, Zhao (16 December 2020). 2235:. Gadhia Solar. Archived from 2082:Durham Campaign for Solar Jobs 1916:Mugnier, D.; Jakob, U. (2012) 1735:"Indirect Gain (Trombe Walls)" 1631: 1587: 1562: 1551: 1532: 1511: 1062:to USD 0.02 in utility scale. 1054:. United Sun Systems released 633:Indian Institute of Technology 458:for nonresidential buildings. 335:Heat storage for space heating 210:(STES) for year-round heating. 13: 1: 4103:Passive solar building design 3514:Passive solar building design 3312:Onsite Renewable Technologies 3186:10.1016/S1359-4311(02)00192-8 2844:Five Solar Thermal Principles 2696:. Pv-tech.org. Archived from 2546:"Belridge Solar Announcement" 1875:Wong B., Thornton J. (2013). 1569:Mercer, Daniel (2023-12-10). 1505: 893:intermediate working fluids. 737:of California, where several 585:Surgical autoclave steriliser 476:Medium-temperature collectors 401:Solar heat-driven ventilation 351:Drake Landing Solar Community 178:Passive solar building design 3239:. 2008-02-12. Archived from 3237:Sandia National Laboratories 2980:10.1126/science.334.6058.922 2932:Biello, David (2008-10-20). 2722:. Gigaom.com. Archived from 2233:"Solar Steam Cooking System" 1520:"Meet the other solar panel" 1398: 1367:Sandia National Laboratories 1346:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 1122:Heat collection and exchange 1065:According to its developer, 1013:. The entire unit acts as a 995:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 953:can be seen in the distance. 847:Andasol solar power stations 741:have been realized as well. 727:Ivanpah Solar Power Facility 69:) is a form of energy and a 7: 3166:Applied Thermal Engineering 2718:Wang, Ucilia (2010-12-29). 2290:10.1016/j.joule.2020.10.007 1411: 1248:Andasol solar power station 1112: 890:single-axis tracking system 639:High-temperature collectors 395:International Energy Agency 34:Roof-mounted close-coupled 10: 4358: 3619:Concentrator photovoltaics 3596:Photovoltaic power station 3559:Concentrator photovoltaics 3093:10.1109/JPROC.2011.2163739 2811:. Iaus.com. Archived from 2522:, "Forbes", April 25, 2011 2053:Denholm, P. (March 2007). 1235: 1177: 1043:Southern California Edison 931: 869: 784: 657:solar complex in northern 642: 573: 508: 504: 479: 420: 385: 338: 268: 265:Low-temperature collectors 167: 135: 4287: 4266: 4236: 4215: 4194: 4178: 4152: 4116: 4090: 4047: 4040: 4000: 3969: 3936: 3927: 3907: 3709: 3661:artificial photosynthesis 3647: 3609: 3547: 3504: 3495: 3472: 3453: 3430: 3341:Concentrating Solar Power 3201:article by Todd Woody in 2744:Runyon, Jennifer (2011). 2158:"Design of Solar Cookers" 2138:Butti & Perlin (1981) 1918:Keeping Cool with the Sun 1619:Butti & Perlin (1981) 852:Solana Generating Station 761:Bureau of Land Management 322:Solar space heating with 151:approximately in 1910 by 46:The first three units of 4207:Solar water disinfection 3676:Thermoelectric generator 3099:Vant-Hull, L.L. (2021). 2956:"Saving for a Rainy Day" 2936:. Scientificamerican.com 2750:renewableenergyworld.com 2673:Phoenix Business Journal 2084:(Report). Archived from 2080:Kincaid, J. (May 2006). 1676:. ASHRAE. Archived from 1500: 1459:Energy tower (downdraft) 1257:power plant, located in 918:South Belridge Oil Field 781:Parabolic trough designs 703:Concentrated Solar Power 645:Concentrated solar power 118:Concentrated Solar Power 87:Solar thermal collectors 3915:Solar Shade Control Act 3699:Space-based solar power 3081:Proceedings of the IEEE 2454:, Academic Press, 2004 2450:Roland Winston et al., 1836:Pauschinger T. (2012). 1440:Renewable energy portal 1407:12975 (efficiency test) 1056:a new generation system 1047:Stirling Energy Systems 922:Bakersfield, California 271:Solar thermal collector 4279:Solar power by country 3954:Thermal energy storage 3569:Nanocrystal solar cell 3519:Solar air conditioning 3220:Renewable Energy World 2420:Chaves, Julio (2015). 2407:Renewable energy World 1669:Apte, J.; et al. 1594:Norton, Brian (2013). 1361:. A single solar dish- 1262: 1238:Thermal energy storage 1221:PS10 solar power tower 1197:gas-fired power plants 1191:generation as well as 1180:Thermal energy storage 1148:Copper heat exchangers 1086: 1018: 954: 897:exposure to humidity. 881: 796: 719:operating temperatures 682: 662: 520: 444: 388:Solar air conditioning 365:Interseasonal storage. 292: 284: 237:In the United States, 211: 194:Solar air conditioning 59: 39: 4160:Salt evaporation pond 4129:Hybrid solar lighting 3949:Phase-change material 3222:, September 10, 2009. 2518:Helman, Christopher, 2208:"Scheffler-Reflector" 2111:Nature and Technology 1801:"Solar water heating" 1596:Harnessing Solar Heat 1454:Central solar heating 1374:conversion efficiency 1314:Phase Change Material 1303:thermal power station 1245: 1193:peak power generation 1118:and other such uses. 1084: 1008: 941: 879: 794: 668: 652: 616:without electricity. 542:The Solar Kitchen in 518: 448:Solar process heating 438: 427:Salt evaporation pond 290: 282: 205: 45: 33: 4332:Solar thermal energy 3694:Solar thermal rocket 1938:"Solar Process Heat" 1339:California water law 1077:Fresnel technologies 951:Clark Mountain Range 739:other solar projects 688:efficient conversion 627:in conjunction with 614:surgical instruments 382:Solar-driven cooling 158:United Arab Emirates 63:Solar thermal energy 4254:Solar water heating 4028:Solar water heating 3944:Grid energy storage 3671:Solar updraft tower 3590:Photovoltaic module 3585:Photovoltaic effect 3534:Solar water heating 3178:2003AppTE..23..251Z 2972:2011Sci...334..922C 2281:2020Joule...4.2733Z 1964:, pp. 393–394. 1805:Energy Saving Trust 1525:The Washington Post 1494:Solar updraft tower 1232:Molten salt storage 928:Power tower designs 834:. It is called the 679:Pyrenees-Orientales 653:Part of the 354 MW 482:solar water heating 375:Short-term storage. 38:solar water heater. 4082:Solar-powered pump 3666:Solar-pumped laser 3579:Photovoltaic array 3574:Organic solar cell 3552:and related topics 3207:September 29, 2009 3204:The New York Times 2520:"Oil from the sun" 2505:2013-01-06 at the 2323:. 26 November 2020 1923:2015-05-06 at the 1882:2016-06-10 at the 1863:2016-03-04 at the 1843:2016-10-18 at the 1720:2013-10-14 at the 1545:The New York Times 1263: 1087: 1052:United Sun Systems 1019: 966:thermal efficiency 955: 882: 797: 693:The efficiency of 683: 663: 559:Wolfgang Scheffler 532:Horace de Saussure 521: 445: 293: 285: 228:adsorption chiller 212: 60: 40: 4337:Energy conversion 4319: 4318: 4262: 4261: 4244:Solar combisystem 4202:Soil solarization 4108:Urban heat island 4036: 4035: 4008:Electric aircraft 3923: 3922: 3634:Solar power tower 3235:(Press release). 3122:978-0-12-819970-1 2966:(6058): 922–924. 2531:Goossens, Ehren, 2509:, 2 November 2011 2452:Nonimaging Optics 2140:, pp. 54–59. 1765:Los Angeles Times 1605:978-94-007-7275-5 1359:energy efficiency 1279:potassium nitrate 1215:Steam accumulator 1156:greenhouse effect 1091:Fresnel reflector 1085:Fresnel reflector 934:Solar power tower 774:nonimaging optics 16:(Redirected from 4349: 4342:Renewable energy 4307: 4306: 4295: 4294: 4249:Solar controller 4045: 4044: 3934: 3933: 3629:Parabolic trough 3502: 3501: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3466:Solar irradiance 3417: 3410: 3403: 3394: 3393: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3229: 3223: 3214: 3208: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3163: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3096: 3078: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3056: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3038: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3014: 3013: 2998: 2992: 2991: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2942: 2941: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2920: 2919: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2895: 2894: 2879: 2873: 2872: 2870: 2869: 2860:. Archived from 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2805: 2799: 2796: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2782: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2741: 2735: 2734: 2732: 2731: 2715: 2709: 2708: 2706: 2705: 2690: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2655: 2654: 2639: 2633: 2629:ANU 'Big Dish', 2627: 2621: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2591: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2572: 2571: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2542: 2536: 2529: 2523: 2516: 2510: 2496: 2487: 2486: 2484: 2483: 2468: 2462: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2398: 2389: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2370: 2364: 2363: 2361: 2360: 2354: 2348:. Archived from 2347: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2292: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2245: 2244: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2220: 2219: 2204: 2198: 2197: 2195: 2194: 2183:"The Solar Bowl" 2179: 2173: 2172: 2170: 2169: 2154: 2148: 2147: 2135: 2129: 2128: 2126: 2106: 2097: 2096: 2094: 2093: 2077: 2071: 2070: 2068: 2067: 2061: 2050: 2044: 2043: 2041: 2040: 2031:. Archived from 2021: 2015: 2014: 2012: 2011: 2005: 1997: 1991: 1990: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1950: 1949: 1934: 1928: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1893: 1887: 1873: 1867: 1856:Wong B. (2011). 1854: 1848: 1834: 1828: 1823:Holm L. (2012). 1821: 1815: 1814: 1812: 1811: 1797: 1791: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1777: 1776: 1767:. Archived from 1756: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1746: 1741:on 15 April 2012 1731: 1725: 1711: 1705: 1698: 1692: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1682: 1675: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1657: 1656: 1650: 1643: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1616: 1610: 1609: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1582: 1581: 1566: 1560: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1536: 1530: 1529: 1515: 1442: 1437: 1436: 1428: 1423: 1422: 1381:parabolic trough 1327:Solar Millennium 1252:parabolic trough 1250:is a commercial 899:GlassPoint Solar 872:Parabolic trough 843:Nevada Solar One 800:Parabolic trough 787:Parabolic trough 690:to electricity. 598:academic journal 359:district heating 247:air conditioning 232:Auguste Mouchout 141:Augustin Mouchot 21: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4351: 4350: 4348: 4347: 4346: 4322: 4321: 4320: 4315: 4283: 4258: 4232: 4211: 4190: 4174: 4148: 4112: 4086: 4051: 4032: 3996: 3965: 3929: 3919: 3903: 3705: 3649: 3643: 3605: 3551: 3543: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3470: 3449: 3426: 3421: 3297: 3292: 3283: 3281: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3263:, press release 3259: 3255: 3246: 3244: 3231: 3230: 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insulation 1124: 1115: 1079: 1071:Kalahari Desert 1067:Rispasso Energy 1032:Stirling engine 1011:Stirling engine 1003: 982:capacity factor 936: 930: 874: 868: 866:Enclosed trough 858:in Algeria and 789: 783: 770: 699:solar radiation 647: 641: 589:Dr Lin Zhao of 587: 578: 572: 513: 507: 498: 490: 484: 478: 433: 421:Main articles: 419: 403: 390: 384: 343: 337: 273: 267: 200: 168:Main articles: 166: 138: 73:for harnessing 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4355: 4345: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4313: 4301: 4288: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4276: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4263: 4260: 4259: 4257: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4240: 4238: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4230: 4225: 4219: 4217: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4209: 4204: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4191: 4189: 4188: 4182: 4180: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4156: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4147: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4058: 4056: 4042: 4038: 4037: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3995: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3982:Feed-in tariff 3979: 3977:Cost by source 3973: 3971: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3938: 3931: 3925: 3924: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3917: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3889:United Kingdom 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3759:Czech Republic 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3715: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3703: 3702: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3680:Space-related 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3657:Solar chemical 3653: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3615: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3604: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3587: 3582: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3564:Floating solar 3561: 3555: 3553: 3545: 3544: 3542: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3510: 3508: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3468: 3463: 3457: 3455: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3431: 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transport 1123: 1120: 1114: 1111: 1101:Prototypes of 1078: 1075: 1002: 999: 932:Main article: 929: 926: 870:Main article: 867: 864: 785:Main article: 782: 779: 769: 768:System designs 766: 710:steam turbines 677:in the French 643:Main article: 640: 637: 586: 583: 574:Main article: 571: 568: 564:Brahma Kumaris 525:pasteurization 509:Main article: 506: 503: 497: 494: 488: 480:Main article: 477: 474: 441:Atacama Desert 418: 415: 402: 399: 386:Main article: 383: 380: 339:Main article: 336: 333: 324:solar air heat 269:Main article: 266: 263: 174:Solar air heat 165: 162: 137: 134: 95:swimming pools 79:thermal energy 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4354: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4312: 4311: 4302: 4300: 4299: 4290: 4289: 4286: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4274:Photovoltaics 4272: 4271: 4269: 4265: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4241: 4239: 4237:Water heating 4235: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4193: 4187: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4165:Solar furnace 4163: 4161: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4151: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4121: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4095: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4043: 4039: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4023:Solar vehicle 4021: 4019: 4018:Solar balloon 4016: 4014: 4013:Electric boat 4011: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3960: 3957: 3956: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3932: 3926: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3894:United States 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 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3317: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3302: 3299: 3298: 3280:on 2013-05-15 3279: 3275: 3269: 3262: 3257: 3243:on 2008-11-23 3242: 3238: 3234: 3228: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3206: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3160: 3153: 3138: 3132: 3124: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3060: 3053: 3047: 3033:on 2013-11-02 3032: 3028: 3022: 3008:on 2012-12-02 3007: 3003: 2997: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2935: 2928: 2914:on 2013-09-01 2913: 2909: 2903: 2889:on 2011-06-05 2888: 2884: 2878: 2864:on 2012-11-03 2863: 2859: 2852: 2845: 2840: 2834: 2829: 2815:on 2013-09-20 2814: 2810: 2804: 2795: 2788: 2777: 2773: 2766: 2751: 2747: 2740: 2726:on 2012-12-13 2725: 2721: 2714: 2700:on 2013-07-19 2699: 2695: 2689: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2649:on 2002-02-20 2648: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2586: 2580: 2566:on 2013-06-27 2565: 2561: 2555: 2547: 2541: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2508: 2504: 2501: 2495: 2493: 2478:on 2014-08-05 2477: 2473: 2472:"SEGS system" 2467: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2439: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2416: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2395: 2379: 2375: 2374:"Peak Demand" 2369: 2355:on 2007-08-16 2351: 2344: 2338: 2322: 2321: 2320:The Economist 2316: 2310: 2301: 2300:1721.1/142047 2296: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2275:: 2733–2745. 2274: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2253: 2239:on 2007-11-11 2238: 2234: 2228: 2214:on 2008-04-22 2213: 2209: 2203: 2189:on 2008-06-05 2188: 2184: 2178: 2164:on 2002-03-28 2163: 2159: 2153: 2145: 2139: 2134: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2105: 2103: 2088:on 2007-07-15 2087: 2083: 2076: 2058: 2057: 2049: 2035:on 2008-04-08 2034: 2030: 2026: 2020: 2002: 1996: 1988: 1983:, p. 62. 1982: 1977: 1969: 1963: 1958: 1944:on 2013-09-01 1943: 1939: 1933: 1926: 1922: 1919: 1913: 1898: 1892: 1885: 1881: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1862: 1859: 1853: 1846: 1842: 1839: 1833: 1826: 1820: 1806: 1802: 1796: 1790: 1785: 1771:on 2007-12-15 1770: 1766: 1762: 1755: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1710: 1703: 1697: 1683:on 2008-04-10 1679: 1672: 1665: 1651:on 2008-04-10 1647: 1640: 1634: 1626: 1621:, p. 72. 1620: 1615: 1607: 1601: 1597: 1590: 1576: 1572: 1565: 1559: 1554: 1546: 1542: 1535: 1527: 1526: 1521: 1514: 1510: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1489:Solar tracker 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1435: 1430: 1427: 1426:Energy portal 1421: 1416: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1384: 1382: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1365:installed at 1364: 1360: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1335:Mojave Desert 1332: 1328: 1317: 1315: 1306: 1304: 1299: 1296: 1291: 1287: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1267: 1260: 1256: 1255:solar thermal 1253: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1212: 1210: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1157: 1152: 1149: 1145: 1144:specific heat 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1128:heat transfer 1119: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1092: 1083: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1024: 1023:dish Stirling 1016: 1015:solar tracker 1012: 1007: 998: 996: 991: 986: 983: 977: 973: 971: 970:Rankine cycle 967: 963: 959: 952: 948: 944: 940: 935: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 906: 904: 900: 894: 891: 886: 878: 873: 863: 861: 857: 853: 848: 844: 839: 837: 833: 832:United States 829: 824: 822: 818: 813: 810: 806: 805:perpendicular 801: 793: 788: 778: 775: 765: 762: 757: 755: 750: 746: 742: 740: 736: 735:Mojave Desert 732: 728: 723: 720: 715: 711: 706: 704: 700: 696: 691: 689: 680: 676: 672: 671:solar furnace 667: 660: 656: 651: 646: 636: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 610:sterilisation 607: 603: 599: 596: 595:peer-reviewed 592: 582: 577: 567: 565: 560: 555: 553: 549: 545: 540: 536: 533: 528: 526: 517: 512: 502: 493: 483: 473: 470: 466: 464: 459: 457: 456:space heating 453: 449: 442: 437: 432: 431:Solar furnace 428: 424: 414: 412: 408: 398: 396: 389: 379: 376: 372: 370: 366: 362: 360: 355: 352: 348: 342: 332: 328: 325: 320: 316: 314: 310: 306: 301: 299: 289: 281: 277: 272: 262: 258: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 235: 233: 229: 225: 221: 220:solar cooling 216: 209: 204: 199: 195: 191: 190:Solar chimney 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 161: 159: 154: 150: 146: 142: 133: 131: 126: 121: 119: 115: 112:(600°F) / 20 111: 107: 103: 98: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 57: 53: 49: 44: 37: 32: 19: 18:Solar thermal 4308: 4296: 4223:Desalination 4216:Desalination 4195:Disinfection 4186:Solar cooker 4153:Process heat 4054:horticulture 4041:Applications 4001:Applications 3992:Net metering 3928:Distribution 3864:South Africa 3854:Saudi Arabia 3650:and proposed 3648:Experimental 3611:Concentrated 3539:Thermal mass 3505: 3424:Solar energy 3282:. 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