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ordered that they be. The
Tingzhou Hakka Liu Guoxuan, former Zhangzhou vice-garrison commander for the Qing, and the former Taizhou military commander for the Qing, northern Chinese Ma Xin defected to Koxinga's side. They rose to high ranks under Koxinga over his own Minnanese people because Koxinga held all power over them since they had no local base because they could not speak the dialects of coastal Fujian, where they were not born in. They were familiar with infantry war on land and knew how to fight the Qing. Most of his labor, taxpayers, sailors, and infantry troops were local Fujian coastal people. The Qing and Ming dynasty were based on the continent and stymied the activities of the coast while shipbuilding, cash cropping, sea trade, salt, and fishing were stimulated by Koxinga's rule. Koxinga, from his Jinmen and Xiamen island bases, went on the offensive, killing Zhejiang and Fujiang Qing governor-general Chen Jin, blockading Quanzhou, and taking over most of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou's counties in 1652. He controlled crucial coastal strips and islands on the Guangdong, Fujian, and Zhejiang coast where maritime trade occurred. The Yongli court was earlier regarded as more threatening by the Qing but now their attention was turned to the southeast coast by Koxinga's victories. The Qing were in no way ready to build a navy because of a lack of money and time. The Shunzhi emperor was more open to negotiations after regent Dorgon died in 1652. A ceasefire was issued by Shunzhi in 1653 after negotiations were started. He then sent Koxinga edicts. The Qing used Zheng Zhilong to send messages to his son and monitored the communications during negotiations. Koxinga rejected offers by the Qin, saying to his father "since my father has erred in front, how can I follow your footsteps?" The Qing offered him the status of Geng Jimao and Shang Kexi's Guangdong feudatories. He had to pay customs duties to the Qing while maintaining control of his maritime trading organization, the Qing would appoint civil officials in the four prefectures of Huizhou, Chaozhou, Quanzhou, and Zhangzhou which he would take control of while he would still command his army. The Qing ordered him to adopt the queue if he wanted to receive this deal. Adopting the queue could trigger revolt in his army if he conceded. Koxinga rejected the queue order and said that he would accept the same status of Korea, maintaining their hair and clothing and to "adopt the Qing calendar ... if not for the sake of the land and its mortals, then to bend on behalf of my father." if the Qing wanted him to agree to the 4 prefectures deal. Koxinga also said that if the Qing gave him what they offered to his father, total control of Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Fujiand, he would agree to adopt the queue. Negotiations were then terminated by the Qing after this counter-offer was rejected. European clothes were worn by Ma Xin when he fought. Koxinga held horseback riding and archery practice for coastal troops and naval practice for inland troops during training when they were not fighting. Confucian education and a stipend were provided for family of officers who died by the "Hall for Nourishing Descendants" in Xiamen. Koxinga implemented severe punishments and discipline for disobeying orders and other wrongs, like beatings, poisoning, forced suicide, and decapitation. If one of his underlings won a battle after they were given a suspended death sentence it could be lifted. There were also rewards which led to good battlefield performance. There was a dearth of food supply. Families of gentry, Ming princes, soldiers, and officers not engaged in work numbered 300,000 which he had to support with food. 1,500 soldiers in one southern Fujian town put a strain on food supply. They tried to solve the problem by looting Qing controlled prefectures for grain and raided Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Fujian 44 times in 1649–1660. Zheng forbade .... of women and said the rich should be plundered first by his soldiers. "Voluntary offers", "donations" and bullion and grain tax were extracted from people he ruled by Koxinga. The payments were taken to Xiamen via Haicheng port. 750,000 taels were paid by Quanzhou while 1,080,000 tales were paid by Zhangzhou in 1654. In Quanzhou and Zhangzhou his own fields were subject to intensified farming and in eastern Guangdong more farms were started by his soldiers. Koxinga seized more land during negotiations through military force and talks to take over independent militias and more land surrounding Jinmen and Xiamen. Administrative government offices were founded in 1654 by Koxinga. He officially titled them as Ming extensions but he also created new offices or changed the functions of offices. His headquarters was based in Siming, the new name for Xiamen. The Zheng organization started the Six offices as a regional variation of the central Ming Six Boards with the Yongli emperor's permission, they were personnel, military, revenue, punishment, rites, and works. Yongli court held civil service exams in southwest China where Koxinga sent students to after they were educated at his Xiamen-based Confucian academy. A total of 200 junks in the Western Sea Fleet and Eastern Sea Fleet reported to the five sea firms, trust, wisdom, propriety, righteousness, benevolence, reporting to the five mountain firms, earth, fire, water, wood, gold, reporting to the warehouse for nourishing the country, which reported to the Celestial Pier (Koxinga himself) or his generals and relatives who reported to the revenue office. Pass system was under the warehouse for benefiting the people which reported to private merchants which reported to the revenue office. Officials and gentry made up the workers in most offices which were only symbolic since Koxinga's forces mostly engaged in military occupation. Koxinga's mercantile followers and family made up the Revenue and Military offices. Trade and economic activity was controlled by the Revenue Office. Koxinga had 10 firms which sold and purchased products for his Celestial Pier company, which relied on funding from silver deposits with interest from the Warehouse for Nourishing the Country. In Qing areas there were branch offices conducting trade for Koxinga's five Mountain Firms. One branch office was in Beijing, and Nanjing and Suzhou had the other three which were run by assistant managers, reporting to Zeng Dinglao, chief manager at its Hangzhou headquarters. They pretended to be normal stores which trading foreign products and sending to Xiamen porcelain and silk while in Qing controlled areas. Zheng organization used gold plated bronze talleys and flag tokens for its spies, using both Buddhist monks and merchants in these firms for its spying activities. They reported on army movements by the Qing.
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order, saying "no person, wise or stupid, is willing to become a slave with a head that looks like a fly" and he wanted revenge against the Qing for the death of his mother. Koxinga was conflicted by filial piety and loyalty but never allowed himself to be used and used others. He gained control over thousands of men after originally having only 300. Koxinga's uncles Zheng Zhiwan and Zheng
Hongkui pledged allegiance to him and his revenue came from the commercial network of his father Zheng Zhilong. He rallied in Anhai on the coast. Koxinga did not recognize the Prince of Lu as the Emperor and instead continued to use the reign title of the Longwu emperor in contrast to other coastal southeastern warlords. There was hostility between the prince of Lu and Longwu during their reigns and he did not want to have a powerful authority figure with him. He later pledged allegiance to the Yongli Emperor, Prince Zhu Youlang. Koxinga's goals were a Ming dynasty retaking control over China with himself as an autonomous feudal lord in control of Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Fujian on the coastal southeastern area. This may have been similar to the Tokugawa bakufu which controlled Japan while the emperor reigned and he was referred to as a feudatory by his followers and himself with the title "Generalissimo Who Summons and Quells" which was similar to the "barbarian-quelling generalissimo" title of the shogun. The Chinese mufu (tent government) was the model for the bakufu in Japan. Koxinga was an idealist who fought for restoring the Ming before 1651 but the disaster at Xiamen changed his tactics. Koxinga's uncles Zheng Hongkui and Zheng Zhiwan had allowed the Qing to attack and pillage Xiamen without a fight after the Qing threatened they would harm Zheng Zhilong and his family who were under house arrest in Beijing. This was directly disobeyed Koxinga's orders, while Koxinga was on his way to help the Yongli emperor. Because the uncles had their own command chain in their armies and they were of the older generation than Koxinga they decided they had the right to violate standing orders Koxinga's men forced him to turn back after they heard what happened to their homes and families in Xiamen so he returned. Zheng Zhiwan and his staff were executed by Koxinga and his own army absorbed Zhiwan's troops. Because Zheng Hongkui sided with Koxinga most of the time and was nice to him before he was not executed but he was scared and went into retirement, giving up control over his troops to Koxinga. He died in 1654 after living on an island for the rest of his life. Shi Lang had warned that Xiamen could be subjected to attack so Shi Lang's arrogance and habit of disobeying orders grew. Koxinga responded by jailing his brother, his father, and him on a ship in 1651 for violating orders. Shi Lang defected to the Qing after breaking out of the ship. Shi Lang's family was then executed by Koxinga. Koxinga then started the build up his organization and strengthening it and going through formal rituals to pay allegiance to the Yongli Emperor. Koxinga's underlings were people who used to work for his father and his family. They were very experienced at trading and sailing and familiar with the inlets and harbors of the coast of Minnan where they grew up and were merchants and military men. One of them was a pirate partner of Zhilong, Hong Xu. Wang Zhongxiao and Li Maochun, who were gentry of Minnan, and Xu Fuyuan, a bureaucrat in the Ming government were among the number of people in Koxinga's organization. Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui, the prince of Lu and other Ming princes came in 1652 with Zhang Huangyan and Zhang Mingzhen, part of the anti-Qing resistance. A separate command chain was kept by Zhang Huangyan and Zhang Mingzhen and the military men and merchants were looked down upon by the elites. There were regional rivalries between Koxinga's Minnan followers and the Zhejiang followers of the two Zhangs.
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Ming China. Japan and other maritime states with relations with Zheng organization were not previously part of the Ming system. He used "mutual dispatch of embassies according to a calendar of diplomatic ritual, cordial encounters, and equivalent treatment of these foreign rulers through regulation and practice." sizing up relations by power and status. Since the Yongli
Emperor was the Zheng's overlord the Zheng organization itself could have equal diplomatic relations unlike the Ming with its tributary system placing itself at the top. Enemy states were treated as vassals as an insult by Koxinga in preparation for war. The Tokugawa Shogun Ietsuna received a diplomatic message of congratulations from Koxinga in 1651. The Zheng organization allied with Shogun Ietsuna. They were familiar with Japanese rules and were a united bloc of Chinese merchants under one leader. They served to balance against the Dutch. The Tokugawa bakufu gave asylum to Ming refugees, and allowed into Nagasaki to trade "only those Chinese merchants under anti- auspices" after the Manchu invasion since the majority of Japanese were pro-Ming and supported Koxinga. A fake uncle-nephew protocol was used by Ietsuna according to Chinese accounts with Koxinga.
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Tokugawa shogun received two requests for samurai mercenaries and weapons in
Nagasaki in 1645-1646 from Zheng Zhilong. The Tokugawa Bakufu originally urged Japanese women who were married to Chinese men, to leave Japan when they enacted the maritime ban (after which was passed, they would not be allowed to leave Japan), but a lot of Japanese women who were married to Chinese men like Tagawa Matsu remained in Japan and did not leave when the ban was enacted. The Tokugawa allowed them to stay unlike how they violently ejected the Japanese wives and children of Europeans. After the ban was first passed five years elapsed until Zheng requested his Japanese wife Tagawa be allowed to come to China and they were unsure if they would let her come in violation of the maritime ban. The Tokugawa Shogunate decided to allow Tagawa Matsu, his Japanese wife to violate the ban, leave Japan and reunite with him in China. Zheng Zhilong and one of his underlings, Zhou Ghezhi, both had connections to daimyo and the bakufi after living in Japan. Zhou Hezhi sent a letter on the first request for help and the next one was sent to the Kyto-based Japanese Emperor and the Edo-based Tokugawa Shogun along with gifts from Zheng Zhilong.
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permit in
Nagasaki in 1653. Wang was pardoned by Koxinga after Koxinga's brother Shichizaemon asked him to. The Japanese bakufu helped protect the Zheng network from Dutch violence through its law. Japanese Nagasaki magistrates received cases involving Dutch attacks on Koxinga ships, with Koxinga receiving help from his brother Shichizaemon in filing the cases. At the Malay peninsula around Johor, Chen Zhenguan, a Zheng agent whose junk was headed to Japan, was attacked by several Dutch ships in June 1657. The Dutch were heading for Taiwan with Chen's crew as prisoners but the Dutch ship Urk was blown to Kyushu in Japan by a storm. The Chinese sprang out and filed a case at the magistrates in Nagasaki on 23 August to the bakufu in Edo. They won the case and Japan threatened to kick out the Dutch if they attacked Japan bound junks and forced the Dutch to pay compensation to Chen. A silver tael payment of 20,000 was ordered by Japan to be paid to Chen by the Dutch in 1661. The Revenue Officer in Xiamen after 1657 was Zheng Tai, who also had been to Nagasaki and dealt with commerce related to Japan.
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officially by the bakufu, a lot of
Japanese in the Tokugawa government privately supported going to war against the Manchus and support the Ming. Samurai and daimyo were to be subjected to full scale mobilization and attack routes along the coast of China were planned by the Tokugawa shogunate. It was the Qing take over of Fuzhou in 1646 which caused the plans to be cancelled. Further requests came between 1645 and 1692. Food and financial shortage led to abandonment of the Jiangxi-Fujian and Zhejiang-Fujian mountain passes by Zheng Zhilong because he could not afford to pay salaries or feed his soldiers all over Fujian. His soldiers were sent to guard the coast. He started negotiations with the Qing and the Shunzhi Emperor officially appointed him as ruler over Guangdong, Fujian, and Zhejiang as "King of Three Provinces". However it asked Zhilong to come to Beijing to meet Shunzhi.
2416:. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. Zheng Zhilong wrote "Grand Strategy for ordering the country". He argued that for the Southern Ming to retake the country, they should do it through regional military commanders all across China's provinces and not in a centralized fashion. This brought him at loggerheads with the Longwu Emperor. Famine also struck after drought and corps failed all along the southeastern coastal region. This led to outbreaks of banditry. Ports under Zheng Zhilong's control were running out of raw silk due to the Yangzi river delta under attack by the Qing. The Longwu emperor wanted the take over Huguang and Jiangxi provinces which were major producers of rice to help boost the southern Ming. Zhilong refused to expand out of Fujian to keep his control over the movement.
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By the time he arrived in the vicinity of
Nanjing, the prince could already count on the support of both Ma Shiying and Shi Kefa. He entered the city on June 5 and accepted the title "protector of the state" the next day. Prodded by some court officials, the Prince of Fu immediately begin to consider ascending the throne. The prince had a problematic reputation in terms of Confucian morality, so some members of the Donglin faction suggested the Prince of Lu as an alternative. Other officials noted that the Prince of Fu, as next in line by blood, was clearly the safer choice. In any case, the so-called "righteousness" faction was not keen to risk a confrontation with Ma, who arrived in Nanjing with a large fleet on June 17. The Prince of Fu was crowned as the Hongguang emperor on June 19. It was decided that the next lunar year would be the first year of the Hongguang reign.
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Vietnam. 1,563,259 silver taels worth of products were imported every year by Japan from
Koxinga. Yongli coins and weapons required copper which Koxinga imported from Japan. He also imported resin, tar, cannons, muskets, armor, swords, knives, with the majority of imports at 70% being silver. Taels numbering 1,513,93 were profit out of the 2,350,386 taels Koxinga received from trading with Japan. Most of the Japanese products were used for his military or currency. They were also exported to Vietnam's civil war in Quang Nam and Tonkin. The Dutch tried to get a Chinese coastal base but could not, trying to get Chinese silk for themselves. The Zheng had a monopoly on Chinese silk and sold it at high prices to the Dutch. The Dutch obtained Tonkin silk by allying with the Trinh lords against the Nguyen Lords but it was not of consistent quality.
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Zheng agents also provided cargo space on their ships for a fee to private merchants. Japan bound Zheng Tai's dongli vessels also carried
Celestial Pier products from Koxinga. Private businesses were also engaged in by official merchants. There was a major Southeast Asia and Japan based diaspora of Chinese with Ming loyalists and traders among them. There were official representatives of Koxinga, agents, and private traders among them. They sold permits and bought products for Koxinga and communicated between the European rulers of the colonies and Koxinga. The Revenue Office received reports from the family and patronage networks which synthesized them with the traditional bureaucracy of China.
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by Zheng junks. Cloth and silk from India were bought with this gold by the Dutch. Spanish Manila used
American silver to buy porcelain and silk from the Zheng which were taken to the Americas and the Philippines. Dutch were not allowed to trade in Manila. The Zheng sent the silver to China or to buy products in Taiwan, Philippines, Southeast Asian islands, Vietnam, Cambodian and Siam. Timber and rice were bought by the Zheng and so were rhinoceros horns, ivory, and sappanwood to be brought to Japan and China, while deerskins, spices, pepper, and sugar were bought by both the Dutch and Zheng. The Western Ocean received 20 or 16 vessels by the Zheng each year.
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2050:
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fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military. When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing. The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.
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Koxinga. Chinese merchants at ports overseas paid fees and bough licenses from his agents. There were some ships outside of his control like northern Chinese ships, Chinese, Macanese, and Portuguese in Macao, and Guangzhou based ships of Geng Jimao and Shang Kexi, feudatories of the Qing. The Japanese market and East Asian trade saw a struggle between the Dutch East India Company and Zheng organization. Japanese merchants were allowed to buy silk directly after the silk allotment guild was ended by the bakufu in 1655
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traded with the Eastern Ocean Fleet. The junks operated in defensive quads of five or four and had cannons for defense. They two different fleets sometimes overlapped when going back. Koxinga's relative Zheng Tai owned the Dongli firm while leader of the revenue office after 1657 and his predecessors Hong Xu had the Xuyuan firm. Thousands of silver taels annually were gained through trade by Chen Yonghua. Koxinga also employed official merchants who worked for him like Zheng Tai, an adopted son of his family.
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81:
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1846:. However, comprehensive central decision-making was beyond the technology of the time. The principle of uniformity meant that the lowest common denominator was often selected as the standard. The need to implement change on an empire-wide basis complicated any effort to reform the system, leaving administrators helpless to respond in an age of upheaval.
1835:, an extended period from 1645 to 1715 when sunspots were absent. Whatever the cause, the change in the climate reduced agricultural yields and cut state revenue. It also led to drought, which displaced many peasants. There were a series of peasant revolts in the late Ming, culminating in a revolt led by
2463:
Xiamen received the money from permits sold in Japan. To make it so he would take most of the trade he sold a maximum annually of 10 new permits. Payment of permits was enforced by Japanese Nagasaki magistrates. Zheng agents received custody of Wang Yunsheng after he tried using a 10 year old expired
2455:
The Dutch Bengal factory found Bengali white silk and started export to Japan in 1655. However the Chinese silk always outsold it and Koxinga's revenue was more than half of the 708,564 taels worth of products the Dutch sold in Japan annually. Dutch Taiwan exchanged silver for gold from China brought
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Travel distance and vessel size were factors in the price of Koxinga's permits which he sold to people who wanted to engage in overseas commerce like when Zheng Zhilong ruled. Private loans ere given out by the Xiamen Warehouse for Benefiting the People. The five Sea Firms lent out ships for rent and
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The Ming regarded there to be two oceans, the Western Ocean and Eastern Ocean. Koxinga's firms had a fleet for each ocean made out of 60 ships, 12 junks per the 5 firms. Southeast Asia, Cambodia, Batavia, and Siam were traded with the Western Ocean Fleet, and Philippines, Dutch Taiwan, and Japan were
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The Prince of Lu was also treated as their real ruler by the Zhejiang gentry leaders while Yongli was officially regarded as their emperor. In 1652 the Prince of Lu gave up his titles under Koxinga's pressure. Koxinga sent him to Penghu and did not reinstate his titles in 1659 when the Yongli emperor
2200:
The Portuguese in Macao provided military aid in the form of cannons to the two courts established by the Princes of Gui and Tang in exchange for tax exemption, more land around Macao and conversions to Catholicism. The Empress dowager, the two Empresses and the crown prince converted to Catholicism,
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Violent Dutch efforts to try to undercut Zheng's organization were countered by Koxinga with alliances and diplomacy. The violence of the VOC was dampened by the laws of Tokugawa Japan. A new system of diplomatic relations was implemented by Koxinga with modifications to the tributary system used by
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In 1650-1662 Nagasaki annually received 50 Chinese ships most of which bought Koxinga passes or were his ships. They sold books, medicine, porcelain, textiles, gold, and silk. Koxinga brought animal hides from Southeast Asia, and gold and silk from Quang Nam Nguyen lord Vietnam and Tonkin Trinh Lord
2231:
Li Chengdong suppressed more loyalist resistance in Guangdong in 1647, but mutinied against the Qing in May 1648 because he resented having been named only regional commander of the province he had conquered. The concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped the Yongli regime
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The literati in the provinces responded to the news from Yangzhou and Nanjing with an outpouring of emotion. Some recruited their own militia and became resistance leaders. Shi was lionized and there was a wave of hopeless sacrifice by loyalists who vowed to erase the shame of Nanjing. By late 1646,
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came up with a plan to defeat the Chinese pirates by sending more than 300 girls who were beautiful singing girls and prostitutes with red handkerchiefs to go to the Chinese pirate junks on small boats. The Chinese pirates and northern Vietnamese (Tonkinese) girls had sex but the women then wet the
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Because Ma was the emperor's main supporter, he started to monopolize the royal court's administration by reviving the functions of the remaining eunuchs. This resulted in rampant corruptions and illegal dealings. Moreover, Ma engaged in intense political bickering with Shi, who was affiliated with
1969:
When the news of the Chongzhen emperor's death reached Nanjing in May 1644, the fate of the heir apparent was still unknown. But court officials quickly agreed that an imperial figure was necessary to rally loyalist support. In early June, a caretaker government led by the Prince of Fu was created.
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Koxinga created an economic unity of Chinese in Southeast Asia, Japan, and in the Qing. His five sea firms used its navy to escort merchants who bought his permits to avoid Dutch attacks on their ships. In China their relatives would be punished and fined if they were trading without a permit from
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province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take Guizhou and Yunnan. In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu prince Doni took the capital of Yunnan, sending the Yongli emperor fleeing into nearby
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and proceeded to Fujian from a land route that went through northeastern Jiangxi and mountainous areas in northern Fujian. Protected by General Zheng Hongkui, on July 10 he proclaimed his intention to become regent of the Ming dynasty, a title that he formally received on July 29, a few days after
2138:
continued to resist. Through Zheng networks, the Southern Ming continued to enjoy a privileged diplomatic position vis-a-vis Tokugawa Japan, who exempted Southern Ming ships from the ban on exports of weapons and strategic materials, and from the ban on Japanese wives of Southern Ming Chinese men
1951:(1640–1710) served with the Southern Ming loyalists against the Qing. Zhu Yu'ai, Prince of Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to "Ming".
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of righteous and unrighteous behavior, they were rarely as knowledgeable when it came to contemporary economic, social, or military matters. Unlike previous dynasties, the Ming had no prime minister. So when a young ruler retreated to the inner court to enjoy the company of his concubines, power
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Tagawa Matsu was ..... by the Manchus according to one account and she committed suicide. One confused Chinese account said that Koxinga cut out his mother's intestines and washed them, following the "barbarian" (Japanese) custom. This may have referred to sepukku. Koxinga referred to the queue
2423:
Zheng Zhilong informed the Tokugawa Bakufu on how his son Koxinga rose through the ranks of the Ming military and asked for ten slaves and ...... in waiting and Shichizaemon to be allowed to come to China from Japan to help take care of his wife Tagawa Matsu. Although the requests were rejected
1943:
in order to drive the Qing out and restore Zhu Shichuan, Prince of Yanchang to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba (巴拜汗) and his son Turumtay (土倫泰). The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt. After
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Zheng tried to solve the problem by extorting and taxation and then seeking aid from Tokugawa Japan. He tried to solve the problem by extorting and taxation and then seeking aid from Tokugawa Japan. Sekisai Ugai said that Zheng Zhilong's brother had 1,000 musket armed Japanese mercenaries. The
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immediately moved toward Nanjing, which surrendered without a fight on June 8, 1645. A detachment of Qing soldiers then captured the fleeing emperor on June 15, and he was brought back to Nanjing on June 18. The fallen emperor was later transported to Beijing, where he died the following year.
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Zheng Zhilong refused to go because he most likely though it was a trap. Zheng Zhilong commanded his army not to fight against the Qing as they took over Fuzhou after coming into Fujian in 1646. The Longwu emperor was either killed or escaped and was never again found as he tried to escape to
1728:
as the Hongguang Emperor, marking the start of the Southern Ming. The Nanjing regime lasted until 1645, when Qing forces captured Nanjing. Zhu fled before the city fell, but was captured and executed shortly thereafter. Later figures continued to hold court in various southern Chinese cities,
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sent the Zhejiang regime of Prince Lu into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zheng Zhilong, the Longwu emperor's main military defender, fled to the coast. On the pretext of relieving the siege of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi, the Longwu court left their base in
2610:
is still under debate in academia. The controversy mainly focused on whether the regime should be regarded as a direct continuation of the legitimate dynastic historiography of the Ming dynasty (including the Southern Ming), or treating it as simply an independent polity ruled by the
2596:
would be required to fund military activity alone. Revenue of 6 million taels was anticipated based on normal receipts from the areas under Nanjing's control. Severe drought, rebellion, and unsettled conditions combined to ensure that actual revenue was only a fraction of this
2501:. The Chinese pirates having sex with north Vietnamese women may also have transmitted a deadly epidemic from China which ravaged the Tonkin regime of north Vietnam. French and Chinese sources say a typhoon contributed to the loss of ships along with the disease. The
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The Nanjing regime lacked the resources to pay and supply its soldiers, who were left to live off the land and pillaged the countryside. The soldiers' behavior was so notorious that they were refused entry by those cities in a position to do so. Court official
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to retake most of southern China, leaving the Qing in control of only a few enclaves in Guangdong and southern Jiangxi. But this resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day
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Jiangxi. The Qing invited Zheng Zhilong to a banquet for negotiations. His son Koxinga and brother Zheng Hongkui cried and beseeched Zheng Zhilong not to go. He had 500 war junks and army which he could still use to rule. They also knew of the queue order.
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conquest that followed was a period of catastrophic war and population decline in China. China experienced a period of extremely cold weather from the 1620s until the 1710s. Some modern scholars link the worldwide drop in temperature at this time to the
1745:. The cannons mowed down a large number of Qing soldiers, but this only enraged those who survived. After the Yangzhou city fell in May 1645, the Manchus started a general massacre pillage and enslaved all the women and children in the notorious
2805:"Government finance under the Ming represented an attempt to impose and extremely ambitious centralized system on an enormous empire before its level of technology had made such a degree of centralization practical." Ray Huang,
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who had been put under house arrest in 1636 by the Chongzhen emperor. He was pardoned and restored to his princely title by the Hongguang emperor. When Nanjing fell in June 1645, he was in Suzhou en route to his new fiefdom in
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In February 1646, Qing armies seized land west of the Qiantang River from the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing the Longwu emperor in northeastern Jiangxi. In May of that year Qing forces besieged
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The Hongguang court proclaimed that its goal was "to ally with the Tartars to pacify the bandits," that is, to seek cooperation with Qing military forces in order to annihilate rebel peasant militia led by
2329:
In the late summer of 1664, Li Lai-heng and his remaining followers were surrounded on one of these mountains. Unable to escape, Li gave orders to build a fire and then threw himself into the flames.
1769:
was the last and also the longest reigning Emperor of the dynasty (1646–1662) and managed to fight against the Qing forces alongside the peasant armies in southwestern China prior to his capture in
2266:
Though the Qing under the leadership of Prince Regent Dorgon (1612–1650) had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652,
2086:, a Chinese sea trader with exceptional organizational skills who had surrendered to the Ming in 1628 and recently been made an earl by the Hongguang emperor. Zheng Zhilong and his Japanese wife
2489:
navy then attacked the Chinese pirate fleet which was unable to fire back with their wet guns. The Chinese pirate fleet, originally 206 junks, was reduced to 50–80 junks by the time it reached
2017:, written under Qing sponsorship in the eighteenth century, blames Ma's lack of foresight, his hunger for power and money, and his thirst for private revenge for the fall of the Nanjing court.
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because Yousong's father was not Wanli's eldest son. Although this was three generations earlier, Donglin officials in Nanjing nonetheless feared that the prince might retaliate against them.
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province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasional successful military campaigns in
1858:. Only the eunuchs had access to the inner court, but the eunuch cliques were distrusted by the officials who were expected to carry out the emperor's decrees. Officials educated at the
1350:
2185:
established the Yongli (永曆) regime in the same vicinity. The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by former Southern Ming commander
2774:
4857:
2117:, and thus represented another center of loyalist resistance. But the two regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were.
345:
331:
306:
5589:
2079:. He was enthroned as emperor on August 18, 1645. Most Nanjing officials had surrendered to the Qing, but some followed the Prince of Tang in his flight to Fuzhou.
1849:
Civil servants were selected by an arduous examination system which tested knowledge of classic literature. While they might be adapt at citing precedents from the
4795:
2539:
153:
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2252:" who would rebel against the Qing in 1673 – captured Guangzhou after a ten-month siege and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people.
1343:
5572:
5044:
5971:
2544:
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remaining in Japan. The Zheng were also able to recruit Japanese troops, particularly from their strongest sympathizers, the Satsuma and Mito domains.
2094:. The pretender, who was childless, adopted Zheng Zhilong's eldest son Zheng Sen, granted him the imperial surname, and gave him a new personal name:
5336:
1336:
1939:
In 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin (米喇印) and Ding Guodong (丁國棟) led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the
5072:
3584:
Friars, Nobles and Burghers – Sermons, Images and Prints: Studies of Culture and Society in Early-Modern Europe – In Memoriam István György Tóth
2186:
6001:
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of Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646. Short of official costumes, the court had to purchase robes from local theater troupes. On 24 December,
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4930:
3150:
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5035:
1316:
1256:
6016:
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2130:
northeastern Fujian in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them. Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in
6011:
5030:
3804:
5767:
5674:
3428:, pp. 667–669 (for their failure to cooperate), 669–674 (for the deep financial and tactical problems that beset both regimes).
946:
1997:
and the death of Shi in May 1645. It also led directly to the demise of the Nanjing regime. After the Qing armies crossed the
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2476:(Dương Ngạn Địch) and his fleet sailed to Vietnam to leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682, first appearing off the coast of
80:
5712:
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819:
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24:
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2134:(western Fujian) on 6 October. After the fall of Fuzhou on 17 October, Zheng Zhilong defected to the Qing but his son
5211:
5054:
1117:
2485:
gun barrels of the pirates ships with their handkerchiefs which they got wet. They then left in the same boats. The
5847:
4829:. China Southeast Asia History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 199.
1940:
2189:(李成棟) captured Guangzhou, causing the Shaowu Emperor to commit suicide, and sending the Yongli emperor fleeing to
1789:) claimed to be the rightful successor to the throne of Ming until 1683, although he lacked real political power.
1749:. Nanjing was captured by the Qing on June 6 and the Hongguang Emperor was taken to Beijing and executed in 1646.
5402:
4901:(organized by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: 10–11.
2632:(r. 1573–1620). Wanli's attempt to name Yousong's father as heir apparent had been thwarted by supporters of the
1576:
871:
5311:
5081:] (in Chinese), Shanghai, China: East China Normal University Press, CSBN: 11135.24 / F552.9, archived from
6021:
5362:
4902:
3506:
Conflict and commerce in maritime East Asia: The Zheng family and the shaping of the modern world, c. 1620–1720
2700:
Conflict and commerce in maritime East Asia: The Zheng family and the shaping of the modern world, c. 1620–1720
2619:. The Yongli Emperor was the last generally recognized sovereign of the Southern Ming before his death in 1662.
2157:
A cannon cast in 1650 by the southern Ming when remnants of the Ming regime were based in Guangdong. (From the
1634:
1309:
1261:
1842:
Ming ideology emphasized authoritarian and centralized administration, referred to as "imperial supremacy" or
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2210:
1626:
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1209:
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363:
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1814:. With agriculture devastated by a severe drought, there was manpower available for numerous rebel armies.
1803:
1682:
1561:
1409:
1360:
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222:
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in northern Vietnam. According to the Vietnamese account, Vũ Duy Chí (武惟志), a minister of the Vietnamese
2020:
1964:
1271:
1028:
409:
20:
2318:. The last sovereign of the Southern Ming stayed there until 1662, when he was captured and executed by
5695:
5417:
5316:
2261:
2034:
1276:
5453:
5082:
3118:
Charities in the Non-Western World: The Development and Regulation of Indigenous and Islamic Charities
1753:
the heroics had petered out and the Qing advance had resumed. Notable Ming "pretenders" held court in
5864:
5700:
5626:
5397:
5387:
2166:
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1960:
1551:
1402:
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1478:
973:
622:
5889:
2506:
5837:
5746:
5412:
5266:
3440:, pp. 670 (seizing land west of the Qiantang River) and 673 (defeating Longwu forces in Jiangxi).
2386:
2240:), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli emperor fled to Nanning and from there to
2110:
2038:
1566:
1199:
5020:
2510:
2393:
on the site of the former Dutch colony. The Ming princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were
5966:
5774:
5722:
5530:
5422:
4924:
1877:
and some court ministers then sought refuge in the southern part of China and regrouped around
1534:
1251:
1229:
1214:
700:
419:
5127:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China
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5879:
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5483:
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5301:
5291:
4969:
3003:
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2509:, which had been newly acquired from the Khmers. Duong's followers named their settlement as
2323:
1794:
1224:
641:
4785:""Righteous Yang": Pirate, Rebel, and Hero on the Sino-Vietnamese Water Frontier, 1644–1684"
3081:
3043:
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6026:
5910:
5478:
5377:
5256:
5025:
3559:
Global Constitutional Narratives of Autonomous Regions: The Constitutional History of Macau
2201:
and the Jesuit missionaries carried letters to the Pope and the Portuguese asking for aid.
1993:
This displacement of troops facilitated the Qing capture of Yangzhou. This resulted in the
1426:
1266:
479:
2341:
Depiction of a Southern Ming soldier and a Chinese man and his wife, by Georg Franz Müller
2049:
8:
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1483:
1473:
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431:
338:
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4858:"8 Epidemics, Trade, and Local Worship in Vietnam, Leizhou peninsula, and Hainan island"
4821:"8 Epidemics, Trade, and Local Worship in Vietnam, Leizhou peninsula, and Hainan island"
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5286:
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1807:
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1504:
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1234:
414:
5505:
3348:, p. 665, note 24 (ninth-generation descendant), and p. 668 (release and pardon).
1514:
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1994:
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1698:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1162:
730:
710:
485:
367:
3372:, pages 660 (date of the fall of Hangzhou) and 665 (route of his retreat to Fujian).
2790:
Eddy, John A., "The Maunder Minimum: Sunspots and Climate in the Age of Louis XIV",
2505:
of southern Vietnam allowed Yang (Duong) and his surviving followers to resettle in
1873:
committed suicide the next day to avoid humiliation at their hands. Remnants of the
5753:
5562:
5525:
5515:
5500:
5473:
5458:
5296:
5151:
5122:
3717:
Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science: Extra volumes
2703:
2633:
2612:
2568:
2354:
2219:
Letter from the Empress Dowager Helena Wang (the "honorary mother"(孝正皇太后王氏) of the
2178:
2125:, the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi. In July, a new Southern Campaign led by Manchu
1987:
1678:
1604:
1571:
1539:
1529:
1443:
1438:
841:
399:
391:
51:
3609:, pp. 760–761 (Ming resistance in late 1647) and 765 (Li Chengdong's mutiny).
3075:
3037:
2153:
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5739:
5657:
5432:
5407:
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4861:
4824:
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2707:
2663:
2490:
2473:
2315:
2271:
2095:
1979:
1859:
1832:
1770:
1586:
2741:
Sea Rovers, Silver, and Samurai: Maritime East Asia in Global History, 1550–1700
2215:
5920:
5915:
5791:
2937:
Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864
2835:
Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864
2409:
2405:
2294:
2220:
2071:
1811:
743:
660:
5019:
2389:, defeating the Dutch and driving them out of Taiwan. He then established the
2224:
1720:, in hope of using them to annihilate the Shun forces. Ming loyalists fled to
5960:
5801:
5594:
2731:
2629:
2413:
2412:
with the title Duke of Hanjun and he and his soldiers were inducted into the
2363:
2126:
2083:
2062:
2006:
1998:
1882:
1717:
1519:
1509:
1499:
533:
500:
4895:"Epidemics in late pre-modern Vietnam and their links with her neighbours 1"
2481:
2322:, whose surrender to the Qing in April 1644 had allowed Dorgon to start the
5577:
5227:
5184:
5167:
5156:
2616:
2527:
2522:
2502:
2498:
2223:) to the Pope with a request for help. November 1650. Latin translation by
2087:
1916:
1912:
1890:
1874:
1862:
were known for accusing the eunuchs and others of a lack of righteousness.
1850:
1827:
1823:
1714:
1706:
1690:
1674:
1414:
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1380:
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1002:
961:
899:
613:
603:
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324:
311:
95:
30:
5636:
2005:
on June 1, the emperor fled Nanjing. Qing armies led by the Manchu prince
5832:
5367:
2486:
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2182:
2131:
2044:
1766:
1725:
1015:
886:
720:
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269:
252:
208:
172:
1865:
On April 24, 1644, Li's soldiers breached the walls of the Ming capital
5811:
5667:
2394:
2267:
2245:
2109:
In October 1645, the Longwu Emperor heard that another Ming pretender,
2058:
1975:
1927:
1901:
1894:
1836:
1774:
1686:
1670:
1419:
1328:
767:
556:
235:
184:
5196:
4975:
Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800
1792:
The end of the Ming and the subsequent Nanjing regime are depicted in
5852:
2494:
2398:
2319:
2287:
2174:
2170:
2091:
2002:
1758:
1702:
196:
124:
5101:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 641–725,
4894:
2385:
Koxinga then decided to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He launched the
5095:, in Frederic W. Mote; Denis Twitchett; John King Fairbank (eds.),
4978:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–119,
2298:
2114:
1742:
1734:
146:
130:
2169:, who had fled Fuzhou by sea, soon founded another Ming regime in
2023:, declared himself regent in 1645, but surrendered the next year.
5098:
Cambridge History of China, Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644
2359:
2346:
2283:
2279:
2241:
2194:
2190:
2135:
2122:
2099:
2067:
2014:
1926:
The remnants of the Ming dynasty could only survive south of the
1905:
1878:
1866:
1721:
1694:
910:
761:
755:
371:
256:
239:
111:
2971:
Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1
2940:(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 171.
2838:(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 298.
2408:
surrendered to the Qing dynasty in 1683 and was rewarded by the
4741:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–.
4699:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–.
3581:
2477:
2275:
2076:
1948:
1920:
1855:
1786:
1782:
1762:
1754:
1738:
1642:
1612:
118:
64:
4657:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–.
4615:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 97–.
4573:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 96–.
4531:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–.
4489:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–.
4447:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–.
4405:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 90–.
4363:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 89–.
4321:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 88–.
4279:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–.
4237:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 84–.
4195:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–.
4069:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–.
4027:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 77–.
3985:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 76–.
3943:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 70–.
3901:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–.
3859:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–.
3817:
Xing Hang (2015). . Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–.
2820:
Disorder Under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty
5717:
5079:
Private Ocean Trade in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties
3152:
China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects
2974:(illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 8.
2307:
2302:
2290:
in the next two years, Li failed to retake important cities.
2237:
2233:
5129:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
2337:
2274:(d. 1647) and was now protecting the Yongli emperor, retook
1802:. The upheaval of this period, sometimes referred to as the
5631:
3115:
Brown, Rajeswary Ampalavanar; Pierce, Justin, eds. (2013).
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Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China
2903:
Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China
2869:
Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China
2677:
The Cambridge History of China: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644
2593:
2082:
In Fuzhou, the Prince of Tang was under the protection of
2270:, who had served as general in Sichuan under bandit king
1934:
4944:
2102:
is derived of his title "lord of the imperial surname" (
4153:
Xing Hang. . Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–.
4111:
Xing Hang. . Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–.
5046:
The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam
2730:
2297:
in charge of retaking the southwest. Headquartered in
4792:
Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review
2255:
58:
3713:
2807:
Taxation and Finance in Sixteenth-Century Ming China
2615:, as distinct from the rump states those founded by
2070:. When Hangzhou fell on July 6, he retreated up the
1729:
although the Qing considered them to be pretenders.
1127:
1049:
929:
862:
792:
666:
2664:
The Oxford History of Historical Writing: 1400–1800
85:
Various regimes of the Southern Ming, November 1644
16:
Rump state in China during the Ming–Qing transition
5152:Maoist era propaganda poster glorifying Li Zicheng
3656:
3654:
3586:. Central European University Press. p. 221.
2513:, to recall their allegiance to the Ming dynasty.
2332:
2142:
5001:A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China
3685:
3683:
3681:
5958:
3557:Jason Buh (2021). "2.3.5 Collapse of the Ming".
3508:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 68, 104,
2744:, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 348–350,
2702:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 146–175,
2204:
1954:
3651:
2698:Xing Hang (2017), "The Zheng state on Taiwan",
2028:
5074:Mingmo Qingchu siren haishang maoyi 明末清初私人海上贸易
3737:
3678:
3629:
3627:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3292:
3290:
3241:
3239:
3148:
3008:. University of Washington Press. p. 55.
2906:. University of Washington Press. p. 54.
2872:. University of Washington Press. p. 53.
2397:, Prince of Ningjing and Zhu Honghuan, son of
5977:States and territories disestablished in 1683
5817:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
5212:
3487:
3485:
3460:
3458:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3380:
3378:
2793:The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century
2053:Qing conquest of the Southern Ming, 1645–1683
1344:
1310:
43:
3771:
3741:Government of China 1644 – Cb: Govt of China
1893:(大順), led by Li Zicheng, ruled north of the
1885:. Four different power groups thus emerged:
5003:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
4929:(R.229 • NLVNPF-0744 ed.). p. 2.
3624:
3521:
3287:
3236:
3114:
3073:
3035:
2796:edited by Geoffrey Parker, Lesley M. Smith.
1930:, known retroactively as the Southern Ming.
1915:(大清) controlled the north-east area beyond
1881:, the Ming auxiliary capital, south of the
5972:States and territories established in 1644
5219:
5205:
5042:
4967:
4950:
4899:Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours
4863:Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours
4826:Imperial China and Its Southern Neighbours
4823:. In Mair, Victor H; Kelley, Liam (eds.).
3689:
3482:
3455:
3402:
3375:
3200:
3142:
3080:. University of California Press. p.
3042:. University of California Press. p.
2244:. On 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by
1351:
1337:
1317:
1303:
79:
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4488:
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3984:
3942:
3900:
3858:
3816:
3765:
3731:
3707:
3556:
3503:
2697:
1904:(大西), led by Zhang Xianzhong, controlled
5049:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
5036:United States Government Printing Office
4866:. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc.
3582:Jaroslav Miller, László Kontler (2010).
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3308:
3296:
3281:
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3230:
1677:that came into existence following the
1621:), also known in historiography as the
5959:
5768:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty
5090:
4998:
4782:
3701:
3660:
3491:
3476:
3464:
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3413:
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3320:
3257:
3218:
3206:
3194:
3182:
3155:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 45–.
3001:
2899:
2865:
2772:China's 2,000 Year Temperature History
1935:Ming loyalist Muslims in the Northwest
5200:
4152:
4110:
3325:. Taylor & Francis. p. 645.
2967:
2165:The Longwu Emperor's younger brother
2061:was a ninth-generation descendant of
1332:
6002:Military history of the Ming dynasty
5031:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
4905:from the original on 8 November 2021
1701:committed suicide. The Ming general
25:List of emperors of the Ming dynasty
5997:Former countries in Chinese history
5070:
2159:Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence
13:
4892:
4855:
4818:
3778:. Psychology Press. pp. 57–.
3775:The Government of China, 1644–1911
2736:"Koxinga and his maritime kingdom"
2574:Empress Dowager Ma (Southern Ming)
2467:
2256:Yunnan and Burma exile (1651–1661)
1806:, has been linked to a decline in
14:
6038:
5145:
4972:, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.),
2628:The prince was a grandson of the
2472:The Ming loyalist Chinese pirate
1947:The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar
6017:1680s disestablishments in China
3002:Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998).
2900:Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998).
2866:Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998).
2617:the imperial members of the Ming
2592:It was projected that 7 million
1839:which captured Beijing in 1644.
398:
343:
329:
304:
5403:Japanese missions to Ming China
4933:from the original on 2021-11-04
4917:
4886:
4849:
4812:
4801:from the original on 2021-11-15
4783:Antony, Robert J. (June 2014).
4776:
4734:
4692:
4650:
4608:
4566:
4524:
4482:
4440:
4398:
4356:
4314:
4272:
4230:
4188:
4146:
4104:
4062:
4020:
3978:
3936:
3894:
3852:
3810:
3798:
3695:
3666:
3639:
3612:
3600:
3575:
3550:
3538:
3497:
3470:
3443:
3431:
3419:
3390:
3363:
3351:
3339:
3323:Encyclopedia of Chinese History
3314:
3302:
3275:
3263:
3251:
3224:
3212:
3188:
3176:
3108:
3067:
3029:
2995:
2961:
2927:
2893:
2859:
2825:
2812:
2799:
2622:
2366:, was awarded with the titles:
2333:Kingdom of Tungning (1661–1683)
2310:, which was then ruled by King
2143:The Guangzhou court (1646–1647)
1577:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
6012:1683 disestablishments in Asia
5277:Campaign against the Uriankhai
3074:Wakeman Jr., Frederic (1986).
3036:Wakeman Jr., Frederic (1986).
2784:
2764:
2724:
2691:
2682:
2670:
2655:
2600:
2586:
2540:List of Southern Ming emperors
2113:, had named himself regent in
1709:in the eastern section of the
1661:
1647:
1638:
1630:
1617:
1257:Science and technology history
44:
1:
5337:Campaigns against the Mongols
3714:Herbert Baxter Adams (1925).
3561:. Routledge. pp. 35–36.
2667:(2011) by Jose Rabasa, p. 37.
2643:
2211:Zhu Changqing, Prince of Huai
2205:The Nanning court (1646–1651)
1955:The Nanjing court (1644–1645)
1817:
1705:then opened the gates of the
627:
586:
562:
539:
515:
456:
6007:1644 establishments in China
5875:Covered jar with carp design
5491:Transition from Ming to Qing
5175:Dynasties in Chinese history
5071:Lin, Renchuan (林仁川) (1987),
4893:Li, Tana (28–29 June 2012).
2708:10.1017/CBO9781316401224.007
2648:
2535:Transition from Ming to Qing
2293:In 1653, the Qing court put
2248:– the father of one of the "
2029:The Fuzhou court (1645–1646)
1741:and organized resistance at
1689:who founded the short-lived
223:Transition from Ming to Qing
7:
5870:Ming presentation porcelain
5469:Japanese invasions of Korea
5018:Kennedy, George A. (1943).
4999:Hucker, Charles O. (1985),
4860:. In Mair, Victor H (ed.).
3744:. Routledge. pp. 57–.
3233:, pp. 345 and 346, note 86.
2934:Millward, James A. (1998).
2832:Millward, James A. (1998).
2606:The historical position of
2516:
2021:Zhu Changfang, Prince of Lu
1965:Zhu Changfang, Prince of Lu
59:
21:History of the Ming dynasty
10:
6043:
5732:Compilations and Documents
5363:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
4968:Dennerline, Jerry (2002),
4960:
3121:. Routledge. p. 152.
2968:Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007).
2688:Wakeman, Volume 1, p. 354.
2608:Koxinga's regime on Taiwan
2362:(Zheng Chenggong), son of
2344:
2262:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui
2259:
2208:
2183:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui
2177:Province, proclaiming the
2146:
2042:
2035:Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang
2032:
1958:
364:People's Republic of China
28:
18:
5936:
5903:
5865:Chinese lacquerware table
5825:
5784:
5731:
5688:
5645:
5627:Embroidered Uniform Guard
5555:
5441:
5388:Prince of Anhua rebellion
5350:
5244:
5235:
5181:
5172:
5164:
3221:, p. 149 (item 840).
2149:Zhu Yuyue, Prince of Tang
1961:Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu
1919:, as well as many of the
1667:imperial dynasty of China
1656:
1608:
1552:Manchuria under Ming rule
1370:
1131:
1053:
933:
866:
796:
670:
359:
283:
279:
266:
249:
232:
228:
218:
214:
202:
190:
178:
166:
162:
152:
142:
101:
90:
78:
73:
38:
5928:Great Ming Treasure Note
5807:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum
5590:Administrative divisions
5393:Prince of Ning rebellion
3675:, p. 973, note 194.
3321:Dillon, Michael (2016).
2579:
2557:Koxinga Ancestral Shrine
29:Not to be confused with
5747:The Hundred-word Eulogy
5413:Great Rites Controversy
5267:Ming conquest of Yunnan
3738:Pao Chao Hsieh (2013).
3272:, pp. 396 and 404.
3149:Michael Dillon (2013).
2387:Siege of Fort Zeelandia
2111:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu
2039:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu
1724:, where they enthroned
5785:Palaces and Mausoleums
5775:Ming Veritable Records
5423:Luso-Chinese agreement
4926:公餘捷記 • Công dư tiệp ký
2342:
2228:
2162:
2054:
1781:(based in present-day
1567:2nd invasion of Joseon
1562:1st invasion of Joseon
6022:17th century in China
5880:Yongning Temple Stele
5617:Imperial Commissioner
5342:Reign of Ren and Xuan
5302:Ming treasure voyages
5292:Dao Ganmeng rebellion
5123:Wakeman, Frederic Jr.
5091:Struve, Lynn (1988),
5026:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
4970:"The Shun-chih Reign"
3772:Pao C. Hsieh (1967).
2545:Emperor's family tree
2340:
2324:Qing conquest of Ming
2218:
2156:
2052:
1795:The Peach Blossom Fan
1122:(mainland, 1912–1949)
5479:Sino-Dutch conflicts
5378:Rebellion of Cao Qin
5307:Ming–Turpan conflict
5257:Red Turban Rebellion
2734:; Xing Hang (2016),
1875:Ming imperial family
1362:Ming−Qing transition
5826:Society and Culture
5761:Yongle Encyclopedia
5600:Imperial Clan Court
5543:Kingdom of Tungning
5496:Jurchen unification
5428:Jiajing wokou raids
5317:Battle of Palembang
5282:Battle of Buir Lake
5189:Kingdom of Tungning
5093:"The Southern Ming"
5043:Khánh Trần (1993).
5021:"Chu Yu-sung"
3648:, pp. 767–768.
3479:, pp. 675–676.
3185:, pp. 641–642.
2562:Kingdom of Tungning
2404:Koxinga's grandson
2391:Kingdom of Tungning
2351:Kingdom of Tungning
1804:Ming–Qing cataclysm
1779:Kingdom of Tungning
1635:traditional Chinese
1557:Jurchen unification
339:Kingdom of Tungning
5992:Dynasties of China
5675:Military conquests
5521:Peasant rebellions
5398:Capture of Malacca
5373:Defense of Beijing
5287:Lin Kuan rebellion
5085:on August 15, 2007
5038:. pp. 195–96.
3504:Xing Hang (2015),
2777:2016-11-10 at the
2368:Marquis of Weiyuan
2343:
2229:
2163:
2055:
1808:global temperature
1800:Chinese literature
1775:Prince of Ningjing
1651:), officially the
1627:simplified Chinese
1410:Peasant rebellions
1137:
947:Five Dynasties and
939:
874:Southern dynasties
802:
701:Chu–Han Contention
693:(206 BCE – 220 CE)
94:Rump state of the
5954:
5953:
5663:Gunpowder weapons
5622:Grand coordinator
5585:Grand Secretariat
5551:
5550:
5445:(1572–1683)
5354:(1435–1572)
5322:Battle of Kherlen
5272:Ming–Mong Mao War
5262:Wu Mian rebellion
5248:(1368–1435)
5195:
5194:
5182:Succeeded by
5136:978-0-520-04804-1
5010:978-0-8047-1193-7
4985:978-0-521-24334-6
4951:Khánh Trần (1993)
4856:Li, Tana (2016).
4819:Li, Tana (2015).
4748:978-1-107-12184-3
4706:978-1-107-12184-3
4664:978-1-107-12184-3
4622:978-1-107-12184-3
4580:978-1-107-12184-3
4538:978-1-107-12184-3
4496:978-1-107-12184-3
4454:978-1-107-12184-3
4412:978-1-107-12184-3
4370:978-1-107-12184-3
4328:978-1-107-12184-3
4286:978-1-107-12184-3
4244:978-1-107-12184-3
4202:978-1-107-12184-3
4160:978-1-107-12184-3
4118:978-1-107-12184-3
4076:978-1-107-12184-3
4034:978-1-107-12184-3
3992:978-1-107-12184-3
3950:978-1-107-12184-3
3908:978-1-107-12184-3
3866:978-1-107-12184-3
3824:978-1-107-12184-3
3785:978-0-7146-1026-9
3751:978-1-136-90274-1
3162:978-1-136-80940-8
3077:Great Entereprise
2717:978-1-107-12184-3
2679:, pt. 1, p. 645).
2552:History of Taiwan
2376:Prince of Yanping
2250:Three Feudatories
2173:, the capital of
1995:Yangzhou massacre
1941:Milayin rebellion
1871:Chongzhen Emperor
1765:(1652–1659). The
1761:(1646–1647), and
1747:Yangzhou massacre
1699:Chongzhen Emperor
1596:
1595:
1327:
1326:
1284:Transport history
1210:Education history
1182:
1181:
1177:
1176:
1163:Republic of China
1145:People's Republic
1118:Republic of China
1097:
1096:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1040:
926:
925:
859:
858:
854:
853:
790:
789:
623:Spring and Autumn
486:Liao civilization
377:
376:
368:Republic of China
355:
354:
351:
350:
317:
316:
253:Hongguang Emperor
204:• 1646–1662
192:• 1646–1647
180:• 1645–1646
173:Hongguang Emperor
168:• 1644–1645
6034:
5754:Huang-Ming Zuxun
5526:Jiashen Incident
5516:She-An Rebellion
5501:Seven Grievances
5474:Donglin movement
5459:Bozhou rebellion
5446:
5355:
5332:Lam Sơn uprising
5312:Ming–Đại Ngu War
5297:Jingnan campaign
5249:
5242:
5241:
5221:
5214:
5207:
5198:
5197:
5165:Preceded by
5162:
5161:
5139:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5086:
5067:
5065:
5063:
5039:
5023:
5013:
4994:
4993:
4992:
4954:
4948:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4938:
4921:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4910:
4890:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4880:
4853:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4816:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4800:
4789:
4780:
4774:
4773:
4767:
4762:
4760:
4752:
4738:
4732:
4731:
4725:
4720:
4718:
4710:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4683:
4678:
4676:
4668:
4654:
4648:
4647:
4641:
4636:
4634:
4626:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4599:
4594:
4592:
4584:
4570:
4564:
4563:
4557:
4552:
4550:
4542:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4515:
4510:
4508:
4500:
4486:
4480:
4479:
4473:
4468:
4466:
4458:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4431:
4426:
4424:
4416:
4402:
4396:
4395:
4389:
4384:
4382:
4374:
4360:
4354:
4353:
4347:
4342:
4340:
4332:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4305:
4300:
4298:
4290:
4276:
4270:
4269:
4263:
4258:
4256:
4248:
4234:
4228:
4227:
4221:
4216:
4214:
4206:
4192:
4186:
4185:
4179:
4174:
4172:
4164:
4150:
4144:
4143:
4137:
4132:
4130:
4122:
4108:
4102:
4101:
4095:
4090:
4088:
4080:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4053:
4048:
4046:
4038:
4024:
4018:
4017:
4011:
4006:
4004:
3996:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3969:
3964:
3962:
3954:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3927:
3922:
3920:
3912:
3898:
3892:
3891:
3885:
3880:
3878:
3870:
3856:
3850:
3849:
3843:
3838:
3836:
3828:
3814:
3808:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3725:
3711:
3705:
3699:
3693:
3687:
3676:
3670:
3664:
3658:
3649:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3622:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3579:
3573:
3572:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3519:
3518:
3501:
3495:
3489:
3480:
3474:
3468:
3462:
3453:
3447:
3441:
3435:
3429:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3400:
3394:
3388:
3382:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3355:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3285:
3279:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3255:
3249:
3243:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3098:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3039:Great Enterprise
3033:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3022:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2965:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2931:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2920:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2829:
2823:
2816:
2810:
2803:
2797:
2788:
2782:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2680:
2674:
2668:
2659:
2637:
2634:Donglin movement
2626:
2620:
2613:House of Koxinga
2604:
2598:
2590:
2401:, Prince of Lu.
2355:House of Koxinga
2301:(in what is now
2015:official history
1988:Donglin movement
1854:devolved to the
1822:The fall of the
1737:obtained modern
1679:Jiashen Incident
1669:and a series of
1663:
1658:
1649:
1640:
1632:
1619:
1610:
1572:Seven Grievances
1427:She–An Rebellion
1365:
1363:
1353:
1346:
1339:
1330:
1329:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1247:Military history
1205:Economic history
1193:Related articles
1170:
1152:
1134:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1123:
1090:
1077:
1064:
1051:
1050:
1034:
1021:
1008:
989:
979:
967:
954:
936:
935:
931:
930:
915:
905:
892:
879:
864:
863:
847:
842:Sixteen Kingdoms
825:
815:
799:
798:
794:
793:
783:
749:
736:
726:
716:
715:(202 BCE – 9 CE)
706:
694:
681:
668:
667:
646:
638:
636:
632:
629:
619:
609:
597:
595:
591:
588:
573:
571:
567:
564:
550:
548:
544:
541:
526:
524:
520:
517:
467:
465:
461:
458:
402:
392:History of China
379:
378:
347:
346:
333:
332:
321:
320:
308:
307:
301:
300:
285:
284:
268:• Death of
115:
83:
68:
62:
55:
47:
46:
36:
35:
6042:
6041:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6033:
6032:
6031:
5957:
5956:
5955:
5950:
5945:History of Ming
5932:
5899:
5821:
5797:Chaotian Palace
5780:
5740:History of Yuan
5727:
5684:
5641:
5547:
5447:
5444:
5437:
5433:Single whip law
5408:Ningbo incident
5383:Miao rebellions
5356:
5353:
5346:
5250:
5247:
5231:
5225:
5191:
5187:
5178:
5170:
5148:
5143:
5137:
5113:
5111:
5109:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5011:
4990:
4988:
4986:
4963:
4958:
4957:
4949:
4945:
4936:
4934:
4923:
4922:
4918:
4908:
4906:
4891:
4887:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4854:
4850:
4841:
4839:
4837:
4817:
4813:
4804:
4802:
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4787:
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4777:
4765:
4763:
4754:
4753:
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4739:
4735:
4723:
4721:
4712:
4711:
4707:
4697:
4693:
4681:
4679:
4670:
4669:
4665:
4655:
4651:
4639:
4637:
4628:
4627:
4623:
4613:
4609:
4597:
4595:
4586:
4585:
4581:
4571:
4567:
4555:
4553:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4529:
4525:
4513:
4511:
4502:
4501:
4497:
4487:
4483:
4471:
4469:
4460:
4459:
4455:
4445:
4441:
4429:
4427:
4418:
4417:
4413:
4403:
4399:
4387:
4385:
4376:
4375:
4371:
4361:
4357:
4345:
4343:
4334:
4333:
4329:
4319:
4315:
4303:
4301:
4292:
4291:
4287:
4277:
4273:
4261:
4259:
4250:
4249:
4245:
4235:
4231:
4219:
4217:
4208:
4207:
4203:
4193:
4189:
4177:
4175:
4166:
4165:
4161:
4151:
4147:
4135:
4133:
4124:
4123:
4119:
4109:
4105:
4093:
4091:
4082:
4081:
4077:
4067:
4063:
4051:
4049:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4025:
4021:
4009:
4007:
3998:
3997:
3993:
3983:
3979:
3967:
3965:
3956:
3955:
3951:
3941:
3937:
3925:
3923:
3914:
3913:
3909:
3899:
3895:
3883:
3881:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3857:
3853:
3841:
3839:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3815:
3811:
3803:
3799:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3770:
3766:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3736:
3732:
3723:
3721:
3712:
3708:
3700:
3696:
3690:Dennerline 2002
3688:
3679:
3671:
3667:
3659:
3652:
3644:
3640:
3632:
3625:
3617:
3613:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3580:
3576:
3569:
3555:
3551:
3543:
3539:
3531:
3522:
3516:
3502:
3498:
3490:
3483:
3475:
3471:
3463:
3456:
3448:
3444:
3436:
3432:
3424:
3420:
3412:
3403:
3395:
3391:
3383:
3376:
3368:
3364:
3356:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3295:
3288:
3280:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3256:
3252:
3244:
3237:
3229:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3193:
3189:
3181:
3177:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3147:
3143:
3133:
3131:
3129:
3113:
3109:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3072:
3068:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3034:
3030:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3000:
2996:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2966:
2962:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2932:
2928:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2898:
2894:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2864:
2860:
2850:
2848:
2846:
2830:
2826:
2822:(1991), p. 112.
2817:
2813:
2804:
2800:
2789:
2785:
2779:Wayback Machine
2769:
2765:
2756:
2754:
2752:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2675:
2671:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2627:
2623:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2519:
2470:
2468:South East Asia
2357:
2345:Main articles:
2335:
2316:Toungoo dynasty
2272:Zhang Xianzhong
2264:
2258:
2213:
2207:
2151:
2145:
2047:
2041:
2033:Main articles:
2031:
1980:Zhang Xianzhong
1967:
1959:Main articles:
1957:
1937:
1911:The Manchu-led
1860:Donglin Academy
1833:Maunder Minimum
1820:
1798:, a classic of
1597:
1592:
1591:
1587:Great Clearance
1488:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1323:
1294:
1293:
1289:Women's history
1195:
1194:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1126:
1121:
1112:
1111:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1080:
1075:
1067:
1062:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1024:
1019:
1011:
1006:
998:
992:
987:
977:
965:
957:
952:
948:
928:
927:
922:
913:
903:
895:
890:
882:
877:
873:
861:
860:
855:
850:
845:
837:
834:
828:
823:
813:
791:
786:
781:
773:
747:
739:
734:
724:
714:
704:
692:
684:
679:
664:
663:
652:
651:
644:
634:
630:
625:
617:
607:
593:
589:
584:
576:
569:
565:
560:
547: 1046 BCE
546:
542:
537:
529:
523: 1600 BCE
522:
518:
513:
504:
503:
492:
491:
464: 2000 BCE
463:
459:
454:
446:
435:
434:
370:
366:
344:
330:
305:
272:
259:
242:
205:
193:
181:
169:
138:
110:
86:
69:
57:
56:
49:
41:
34:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6040:
6030:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5952:
5951:
5949:
5948:
5940:
5938:
5934:
5933:
5931:
5930:
5925:
5924:
5923:
5921:Yongle Tongbao
5918:
5916:Hongwu Tongbao
5907:
5905:
5901:
5900:
5898:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5861:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5840:
5835:
5829:
5827:
5823:
5822:
5820:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5792:Forbidden City
5788:
5786:
5782:
5781:
5779:
5778:
5771:
5764:
5757:
5750:
5743:
5735:
5733:
5729:
5728:
5726:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5709:
5708:
5703:
5692:
5690:
5686:
5685:
5683:
5682:
5680:Nine Garrisons
5677:
5672:
5671:
5670:
5660:
5655:
5649:
5647:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5613:
5612:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5581:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5559:
5557:
5553:
5552:
5549:
5548:
5546:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5534:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5488:
5487:
5486:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5464:Ordos campaign
5461:
5456:
5450:
5448:
5443:
5439:
5438:
5436:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5359:
5357:
5352:
5348:
5347:
5345:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5329:
5327:Ming–Kotte War
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5253:
5251:
5246:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5224:
5223:
5216:
5209:
5201:
5193:
5192:
5183:
5180:
5171:
5166:
5160:
5159:
5157:Taiwan history
5154:
5147:
5146:External links
5144:
5142:
5141:
5135:
5119:
5108:978-0521243322
5107:
5088:
5068:
5055:
5040:
5015:
5009:
4996:
4984:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4956:
4955:
4943:
4916:
4885:
4873:978-9814620550
4872:
4848:
4836:978-9814620536
4835:
4811:
4775:
4747:
4733:
4705:
4691:
4663:
4649:
4621:
4607:
4579:
4565:
4537:
4523:
4495:
4481:
4453:
4439:
4411:
4397:
4369:
4355:
4327:
4313:
4285:
4271:
4243:
4229:
4201:
4187:
4159:
4145:
4117:
4103:
4075:
4061:
4033:
4019:
3991:
3977:
3949:
3935:
3907:
3893:
3865:
3851:
3823:
3809:
3805:Manthorpe 2008
3797:
3784:
3764:
3750:
3730:
3706:
3704:, p. 710.
3694:
3692:, p. 117.
3677:
3665:
3663:, p. 704.
3650:
3638:
3636:, p. 767.
3623:
3621:, p. 766.
3611:
3599:
3593:978-9633864609
3592:
3574:
3568:978-1000369472
3567:
3549:
3547:, p. 738.
3537:
3535:, p. 737.
3520:
3515:978-1107121843
3514:
3496:
3494:, p. 676.
3481:
3469:
3467:, p. 675.
3454:
3452:, p. 674.
3442:
3430:
3418:
3416:, p. 667.
3401:
3399:, pp. 666–667.
3389:
3387:, p. 665.
3374:
3362:
3360:, p. 663.
3350:
3338:
3332:978-1317817161
3331:
3313:
3311:, p. 196.
3301:
3299:, p. 580.
3286:
3284:, p. 578.
3274:
3262:
3260:, p. 644.
3250:
3248:, p. 346.
3235:
3223:
3211:
3209:, p. 642.
3199:
3187:
3175:
3161:
3141:
3128:978-1317938521
3127:
3107:
3091:978-0520048041
3090:
3066:
3053:978-0520048041
3052:
3028:
3015:978-0295800554
3014:
2994:
2981:978-3447040914
2980:
2960:
2947:978-0804729338
2946:
2926:
2913:978-0295800554
2912:
2892:
2879:978-0295800554
2878:
2858:
2845:978-0804729338
2844:
2824:
2811:
2798:
2783:
2763:
2751:978-0824852771
2750:
2723:
2716:
2690:
2681:
2669:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2621:
2599:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2518:
2515:
2469:
2466:
2410:Kangxi Emperor
2406:Zheng Keshuang
2380:Yongli Emperor
2334:
2331:
2295:Hong Chengchou
2257:
2254:
2221:Yongli emperor
2206:
2203:
2144:
2141:
2072:Qiantang River
2030:
2027:
1956:
1953:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1924:
1909:
1898:
1819:
1816:
1812:Little Ice Age
1767:Yongli Emperor
1683:Peasant rebels
1659:; pinyin:
1655:(Chinese:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1424:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1356:
1355:
1348:
1341:
1333:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1307:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1220:Jewish history
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1151:(1949–present)
1140:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1124:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1102:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1079:
1078:
1066:
1065:
1054:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1025:
1022:
1012:
1009:
999:
995:
993:
991:
990:
980:
969:
968:
956:
955:
942:
940:
934:
924:
923:
921:
920:
919:
918:
917:
916:
894:
893:
881:
880:
867:
857:
856:
852:
851:
849:
848:
838:
835:
831:
829:
827:
826:
816:
805:
803:
797:
788:
787:
785:
784:
772:
771:
751:
750:
744:Three Kingdoms
738:
737:
727:
717:
707:
696:
695:
683:
682:
671:
665:
659:
658:
657:
654:
653:
650:
649:
648:
647:
642:Warring States
639:
635: 476 BCE
610:
608:(1046–771 BCE)
599:
598:
594: 256 BCE
575:
574:
552:
551:
528:
527:
505:
499:
498:
497:
494:
493:
490:
489:
469:
468:
445:
444:
436:
430:
429:
428:
425:
424:
423:
422:
420:Historiography
417:
412:
404:
403:
395:
394:
388:
387:
375:
374:
361:
357:
356:
353:
352:
349:
348:
341:
335:
334:
327:
318:
315:
314:
309:
297:
296:
291:
281:
280:
277:
276:
273:
270:Yongli Emperor
267:
264:
263:
260:
250:
247:
246:
243:
233:
230:
229:
226:
225:
220:
219:Historical era
216:
215:
212:
211:
209:Yongli Emperor
206:
203:
200:
199:
197:Shaowu Emperor
194:
191:
188:
187:
185:Longwu Emperor
182:
179:
176:
175:
170:
167:
164:
163:
160:
159:
156:
150:
149:
144:
140:
139:
137:
136:
135:
134:
128:
122:
116:
105:
103:
99:
98:
92:
88:
87:
84:
76:
75:
71:
70:
42:
39:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6039:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5967:Southern Ming
5965:
5964:
5962:
5947:
5946:
5942:
5941:
5939:
5935:
5929:
5926:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5902:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5845:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5824:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5802:Ming Xiaoling
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5783:
5777:
5776:
5772:
5770:
5769:
5765:
5763:
5762:
5758:
5756:
5755:
5751:
5749:
5748:
5744:
5742:
5741:
5737:
5736:
5734:
5730:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5698:
5697:
5694:
5693:
5691:
5687:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5611:
5610:Vassal prince
5608:
5607:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5595:Eastern Depot
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5565:
5564:
5561:
5560:
5558:
5554:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5538:Southern Ming
5536:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5492:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5451:
5449:
5440:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5349:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5234:
5229:
5222:
5217:
5215:
5210:
5208:
5203:
5202:
5199:
5190:
5186:
5177:
5176:
5169:
5163:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5149:
5138:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5110:
5104:
5100:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5075:
5069:
5058:
5056:9789813016675
5052:
5048:
5047:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5016:
5012:
5006:
5002:
4997:
4987:
4981:
4977:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4965:
4953:, p. 15.
4952:
4947:
4932:
4928:
4927:
4920:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4889:
4875:
4869:
4865:
4864:
4859:
4852:
4838:
4832:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4815:
4797:
4793:
4786:
4779:
4771:
4758:
4750:
4744:
4737:
4729:
4716:
4708:
4702:
4695:
4687:
4674:
4666:
4660:
4653:
4645:
4632:
4624:
4618:
4611:
4603:
4590:
4582:
4576:
4569:
4561:
4548:
4540:
4534:
4527:
4519:
4506:
4498:
4492:
4485:
4477:
4464:
4456:
4450:
4443:
4435:
4422:
4414:
4408:
4401:
4393:
4380:
4372:
4366:
4359:
4351:
4338:
4330:
4324:
4317:
4309:
4296:
4288:
4282:
4275:
4267:
4254:
4246:
4240:
4233:
4225:
4212:
4204:
4198:
4191:
4183:
4170:
4162:
4156:
4149:
4141:
4128:
4120:
4114:
4107:
4099:
4086:
4078:
4072:
4065:
4057:
4044:
4036:
4030:
4023:
4015:
4002:
3994:
3988:
3981:
3973:
3960:
3952:
3946:
3939:
3931:
3918:
3910:
3904:
3897:
3889:
3876:
3868:
3862:
3855:
3847:
3834:
3826:
3820:
3813:
3806:
3801:
3787:
3781:
3777:
3776:
3768:
3753:
3747:
3743:
3742:
3734:
3719:
3718:
3710:
3703:
3698:
3691:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3674:
3669:
3662:
3657:
3655:
3647:
3642:
3635:
3630:
3628:
3620:
3615:
3608:
3603:
3595:
3589:
3585:
3578:
3570:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3546:
3541:
3534:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3517:
3511:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3488:
3486:
3478:
3473:
3466:
3461:
3459:
3451:
3446:
3439:
3434:
3427:
3422:
3415:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3398:
3393:
3386:
3381:
3379:
3371:
3366:
3359:
3354:
3347:
3342:
3334:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3305:
3298:
3293:
3291:
3283:
3278:
3271:
3266:
3259:
3254:
3247:
3242:
3240:
3232:
3227:
3220:
3215:
3208:
3203:
3197:, p. 642
3196:
3191:
3184:
3179:
3164:
3158:
3154:
3153:
3145:
3130:
3124:
3120:
3119:
3111:
3104:
3093:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3070:
3055:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3032:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3006:
2998:
2983:
2977:
2973:
2972:
2964:
2949:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2930:
2915:
2909:
2905:
2904:
2896:
2881:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2862:
2847:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2828:
2821:
2818:Tong, James,
2815:
2808:
2802:
2795:
2794:
2787:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2767:
2753:
2747:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2733:
2732:Tonio Andrade
2727:
2719:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2694:
2685:
2678:
2673:
2666:
2665:
2658:
2654:
2635:
2631:
2630:Wanli Emperor
2625:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2595:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2569:Iquan's Party
2567:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2491:South Vietnam
2488:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2415:
2414:Eight Banners
2411:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2372:Duke of Zhang
2369:
2365:
2364:Zheng Zhilong
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2339:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2202:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2084:Zheng Zhilong
2080:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2063:Zhu Yuanzhang
2060:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2016:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1999:Yangtze River
1996:
1991:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1950:
1945:
1942:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1883:Yangtze River
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1815:
1813:
1810:known as the
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1796:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1773:in 1662. The
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1757:(1645–1646),
1756:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1601:Southern Ming
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1386:Southern Ming
1384:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1308:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1298:
1297:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1252:Naval history
1250:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1235:Music history
1233:
1231:
1230:Media history
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1215:Legal history
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1189:
1188:
1169:1949–present)
1165:
1164:
1160:
1159:
1157:
1149:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1052:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1004:
1000:
997:
996:
994:
986:
985:
984:Southern Song
981:
976:
975:
974:Northern Song
971:
970:
964:
963:
959:
958:
951:
950:
944:
943:
941:
938:
937:
932:
912:
909:
908:
907:
906:
902:
901:
897:
896:
889:
888:
884:
883:
876:
875:
869:
868:
865:
844:
843:
839:
836:
833:
832:
830:
822:
821:
817:
812:
811:
807:
806:
804:
801:
800:
795:
780:
779:
775:
774:
770:
769:
764:
763:
758:
757:
753:
752:
746:
745:
741:
740:
733:
732:
728:
723:
722:
718:
713:
712:
708:
705:(206–202 BCE)
703:
702:
698:
697:
691:
690:
686:
685:
680:(221–207 BCE)
678:
677:
673:
672:
669:
662:
656:
655:
645:(475–221 BCE)
643:
640:
624:
621:
620:
618:(771–256 BCE)
616:
615:
611:
606:
605:
601:
600:
583:
582:
578:
577:
559:
558:
554:
553:
536:
535:
531:
530:
512:
511:
507:
506:
502:
496:
495:
488:
487:
482:
481:
476:
475:
471:
470:
453:
452:
448:
447:
443:
442:
438:
437:
433:
427:
426:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
407:
406:
405:
401:
397:
396:
393:
390:
389:
385:
381:
380:
373:
369:
365:
362:
360:Today part of
358:
342:
340:
337:
336:
328:
326:
323:
322:
319:
313:
310:
303:
302:
299:
298:
295:
292:
290:
287:
286:
282:
278:
274:
271:
265:
261:
258:
255:enthroned in
254:
248:
244:
241:
237:
231:
227:
224:
221:
217:
213:
210:
207:
201:
198:
195:
189:
186:
183:
177:
174:
171:
165:
161:
157:
155:
151:
148:
145:
141:
132:
129:
126:
123:
120:
117:
113:
109:
108:
107:
106:
104:
100:
97:
93:
89:
82:
77:
72:
66:
61:
53:
37:
32:
26:
22:
5987:Qing dynasty
5982:Ming dynasty
5943:
5937:Other topics
5848:Four Masters
5773:
5766:
5759:
5752:
5745:
5738:
5578:House of Zhu
5537:
5531:Shanhai Pass
5511:Great Plague
5454:Jianzhou war
5228:Ming dynasty
5185:Qing dynasty
5173:
5168:Ming dynasty
5126:
5112:, retrieved
5097:
5083:the original
5078:
5073:
5060:. Retrieved
5045:
5029:
5000:
4989:, retrieved
4974:
4946:
4935:. Retrieved
4925:
4919:
4907:. Retrieved
4898:
4888:
4877:. Retrieved
4862:
4851:
4840:. Retrieved
4825:
4814:
4803:. Retrieved
4794:(11): 4–30.
4791:
4778:
4736:
4694:
4652:
4610:
4568:
4526:
4484:
4442:
4400:
4358:
4316:
4274:
4232:
4190:
4148:
4106:
4064:
4022:
3980:
3938:
3896:
3854:
3812:
3800:
3789:. Retrieved
3774:
3767:
3755:. Retrieved
3740:
3733:
3722:. Retrieved
3720:. p. 57
3716:
3709:
3697:
3673:Wakeman 1985
3668:
3646:Wakeman 1985
3641:
3634:Wakeman 1985
3619:Wakeman 1985
3614:
3607:Wakeman 1985
3602:
3583:
3577:
3558:
3552:
3545:Wakeman 1985
3540:
3533:Wakeman 1985
3505:
3499:
3472:
3445:
3433:
3421:
3392:
3365:
3353:
3341:
3322:
3316:
3309:Kennedy 1943
3304:
3297:Wakeman 1985
3282:Wakeman 1985
3277:
3270:Wakeman 1985
3265:
3253:
3246:Wakeman 1985
3231:Wakeman 1985
3226:
3214:
3202:
3190:
3178:
3166:. Retrieved
3151:
3144:
3132:. Retrieved
3117:
3110:
3102:
3095:. Retrieved
3076:
3069:
3057:. Retrieved
3038:
3031:
3019:. Retrieved
3004:
2997:
2985:. Retrieved
2970:
2963:
2951:. Retrieved
2936:
2929:
2917:. Retrieved
2902:
2895:
2883:. Retrieved
2868:
2861:
2849:. Retrieved
2834:
2827:
2819:
2814:
2806:
2801:
2791:
2786:
2766:
2755:, retrieved
2740:
2726:
2699:
2693:
2684:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2657:
2624:
2602:
2588:
2528:House of Zhu
2523:Ming dynasty
2503:Nguyễn court
2499:Mekong delta
2471:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2403:
2384:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2358:
2328:
2292:
2265:
2230:
2199:
2187:Li Chengdong
2164:
2119:
2108:
2103:
2088:Tagawa Matsu
2081:
2056:
2025:
2019:
2012:
1992:
1984:
1972:
1968:
1946:
1938:
1917:Shanhai Pass
1864:
1851:Zhou dynasty
1848:
1843:
1841:
1821:
1793:
1791:
1751:
1731:
1707:Shanhai Pass
1691:Shun dynasty
1675:Ming dynasty
1660:
1652:
1646:
1622:
1616:
1600:
1598:
1582:Great Plague
1535:Shanhai Pass
1385:
1375:Belligerents
1225:LGBT history
1161:
1143:
1116:
1083:
1070:
1057:
1027:
1014:
1001:
982:
972:
960:
949:Ten Kingdoms
945:
898:
885:
872:Northern and
870:
840:
818:
808:
776:
766:
760:
754:
748:(220–280 CE)
742:
729:
719:
709:
699:
687:
674:
614:Eastern Zhou
612:
604:Western Zhou
602:
579:
555:
532:
508:
484:
478:
472:
449:
439:
325:Qing dynasty
312:Ming dynasty
294:Succeeded by
293:
288:
96:Ming dynasty
31:Southern Min
6027:Rump states
5890:Tai history
5573:Family tree
5484:Liaoluo Bay
5418:Renyin plot
5368:Tumu Crisis
3702:Struve 1988
3661:Struve 1988
3492:Struve 1988
3477:Struve 1988
3465:Struve 1988
3450:Struve 1988
3438:Struve 1988
3426:Struve 1988
3414:Struve 1988
3397:Struve 1988
3385:Struve 1988
3370:Struve 1988
3358:Struve 1988
3346:Struve 1988
3258:Struve 1988
3219:Hucker 1985
3207:Struve 1988
3195:Struve 1988
3183:Struve 1988
2487:Trinh Lords
2312:Pindale Min
2225:Michał Boym
2127:Prince Bolo
2098:. The name
2090:had a son,
2045:Zhu Hengjia
1726:Zhu Yousong
1671:rump states
1272:Discoveries
1267:Cartography
1262:Archaeology
1200:Art history
1089:(1644–1912)
1076:(1368–1644)
1063:(1271–1368)
1033:(1115–1234)
1020:(1038–1227)
1016:Western Xia
988:(1127–1279)
820:Eastern Jin
810:Western Jin
735:(25–220 CE)
731:Eastern Han
711:Western Han
590: 1046
570: 1046
566: 1250
543: 1600
519: 2070
460: 8500
441:Paleolithic
432:Prehistoric
289:Preceded by
121:(1645–1646)
114:(1644–1645)
5961:Categories
5858:Zhe School
5812:Ming tombs
5696:Inner Asia
5668:Shenjiying
5658:Great Wall
5556:Government
5179:1644–1662
5114:2020-05-18
4991:2016-08-27
4937:2021-11-09
4909:9 November
4879:2021-12-04
4842:2021-11-09
4805:2021-11-09
4766:|url=
4724:|url=
4682:|url=
4640:|url=
4598:|url=
4556:|url=
4514:|url=
4472:|url=
4430:|url=
4388:|url=
4346:|url=
4304:|url=
4262:|url=
4220:|url=
4178:|url=
4136:|url=
4094:|url=
4052:|url=
4010:|url=
3968:|url=
3926:|url=
3884:|url=
3842:|url=
3791:2020-10-20
3757:20 October
3724:2015-11-22
3168:20 October
2757:2021-07-11
2644:References
2511:Minh Huong
2482:Lê dynasty
2474:Yang Yandi
2395:Zhu Shugui
2268:Li Dingguo
2260:See also:
2246:Shang Kexi
2209:See also:
2147:See also:
2059:Zhu Yujian
2043:See also:
1976:Li Zicheng
1928:Huai River
1913:Great Qing
1895:Huai river
1891:Great Shun
1837:Li Zicheng
1818:Background
1711:Great Wall
1687:Li Zicheng
1665:), was an
1653:Great Ming
1623:Later Ming
1277:Inventions
1007:(916–1125)
978:(960–1127)
966:(960–1279)
633: – c.
631: 770
592: – c.
568: – c.
557:Late Shang
545: – c.
521: – c.
462: – c.
236:Li Zicheng
143:Government
40:Great Ming
19:See also:
5853:Wu School
5838:Musicians
5701:Manchuria
5689:Frontiers
4757:cite book
4715:cite book
4673:cite book
4631:cite book
4589:cite book
4547:cite book
4505:cite book
4463:cite book
4421:cite book
4379:cite book
4337:cite book
4295:cite book
4253:cite book
4211:cite book
4169:cite book
4127:cite book
4085:cite book
4043:cite book
4001:cite book
3959:cite book
3917:cite book
3875:cite book
3833:cite book
3807:, p. 108.
2809:, p. 313.
2649:Citations
2495:Quang Nam
2399:Zhu Yihai
2320:Wu Sangui
2288:Guangdong
2175:Guangdong
2171:Guangzhou
2167:Zhu Yuyue
2104:guóxìngyé
2096:Chenggong
2092:Zheng Sen
2075:reaching
2057:In 1644,
2003:Zhenjiang
1908:province.
1777:, in the
1759:Guangzhou
1703:Wu Sangui
1693:captured
1681:of 1644.
1484:Guangning
1479:Zhenjiang
1474:Shen-Liao
1403:Later Jin
953:(907–979)
914:(690–705)
904:(618–907)
891:(581–618)
878:(420–589)
846:(304–439)
824:(317–420)
814:(266–316)
782:(266–420)
725:(9–23 CE)
451:Neolithic
415:Dynasties
238:captured
125:Guangzhou
74:1644–1662
5904:Currency
5843:Painting
5653:Military
5646:Military
5125:(1985),
5062:26 April
4931:Archived
4903:Archived
4796:Archived
3134:24 April
3103:milayin.
3097:24 April
3059:24 April
3021:24 April
2987:24 April
2953:24 April
2919:24 April
2885:24 April
2851:24 April
2775:Archived
2517:See also
2507:Đồng Nai
2497:and the
2299:Changsha
2132:Tingzhou
2115:Zhejiang
1902:Great Xi
1826:and the
1743:Yangzhou
1735:Shi Kefa
1697:and the
1648:Hòu Míng
1618:Nán Míng
1525:Song-Jin
1505:Dalinghe
1495:Ning-Jin
1490:Ningyuan
1391:Tungning
1240:Timeline
1167:(Taiwan,
1147:of China
661:Imperial
410:Timeline
384:a series
382:Part of
147:Monarchy
131:Zhaoqing
119:Tianxing
112:Yingtian
5911:Coinage
5885:Economy
5713:Vietnam
5605:Princes
5563:Emperor
5351:Middle
5237:History
5028:(ed.).
4961:Sources
4768:value (
4726:value (
4684:value (
4642:value (
4600:value (
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2597:amount.
2378:by the
2360:Koxinga
2347:Koxinga
2314:of the
2284:Huguang
2280:Guangxi
2242:Guizhou
2195:Guangxi
2191:Nanning
2136:Koxinga
2123:Ganzhou
2100:Koxinga
2068:Guangxi
1923:tribes.
1906:Sichuan
1879:Nanjing
1867:Beijing
1856:eunuchs
1844:huángjí
1771:Myanmar
1739:cannons
1722:Nanjing
1718:banners
1713:to the
1695:Beijing
1685:led by
1673:of the
1662:Dà Míng
1605:Chinese
1546:Related
1530:Beijing
1464:Xicheng
1459:Tieling
1454:Kaiyuan
1433:Battles
911:Wu Zhou
501:Ancient
480:Yangtze
372:Myanmar
257:Nanjing
251:•
240:Beijing
234:•
154:Emperor
102:Capital
60:Dà Míng
52:Chinese
5833:Poetry
5723:Yunnan
5245:Early
5230:topics
5133:
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2478:Tonkin
2374:, and
2353:, and
2276:Guilin
2077:Fuzhou
1949:Ma Zhu
1921:Mongol
1869:. The
1787:Taiwan
1783:Tainan
1763:Anlong
1755:Fuzhou
1645::
1643:pinyin
1637::
1629::
1615::
1613:pinyin
1607::
1540:Penghu
1515:Lüshun
1510:Wuqiao
1469:Chahar
1444:Qinghe
1439:Fushun
1109:Modern
765:, and
483:, and
474:Yellow
386:on the
158:
133:(1646)
127:(1646)
91:Status
65:Pinyin
48:
5895:Islam
5718:Wokou
5706:Tibet
5637:Fotou
5506:Sarhū
5442:Late
5077:[
5024:. In
4799:(PDF)
4788:(PDF)
2594:taels
2580:Notes
2308:Burma
2303:Hunan
2238:Hunan
2234:Hubei
2001:near
1449:Sarhū
534:Shang
5632:Tusi
5568:List
5131:ISBN
5103:ISBN
5064:2012
5051:ISBN
5005:ISBN
4980:ISBN
4911:2021
4868:ISBN
4831:ISBN
4770:help
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3972:help
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3930:help
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3888:help
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3846:help
3819:ISBN
3780:ISBN
3759:2020
3746:ISBN
3588:ISBN
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3510:ISBN
3327:ISBN
3170:2020
3157:ISBN
3136:2014
3123:ISBN
3099:2014
3086:ISBN
3061:2014
3048:ISBN
3023:2014
3010:ISBN
2989:2014
2976:ISBN
2955:2014
2942:ISBN
2921:2014
2908:ISBN
2887:2014
2874:ISBN
2853:2014
2840:ISBN
2746:ISBN
2712:ISBN
2661:See
2286:and
2236:and
2037:and
2013:The
2007:Dodo
1986:the
1978:and
1963:and
1900:The
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1828:Qing
1824:Ming
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1500:Jisi
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1085:Qing
1072:Ming
1059:Yuan
1003:Liao
962:Song
900:Tang
581:Zhou
572:BCE)
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262:1644
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