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commodity-dependent poor countries that primarily rely on imported food. A University of
Cambridge Working Paper shows that while Australia, Chile, Indonesia, India, Japan, New Zealand and South Africa face a short-lived fall in economic activity in response to an El Niño shock, other countries may actually benefit from an El Niño weather shock (either directly or indirectly through positive spillovers from major trading partners), for instance, Argentina, Canada, Mexico and the United States. Furthermore, most countries experience short-run inflationary pressures following an El Niño shock, while global energy and non-fuel commodity prices increase. The IMF estimates a significant El Niño can boost the GDP of the United States by about 0.5% (due largely to lower heating bills) and reduce the GDP of Indonesia by about 1.0%.
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islands. During an El Niño event the trade winds weaken and sometimes blow from west to east, which causes the
Equatorial current to weaken, raising surface water temperatures and decreasing nutrients in waters surrounding the Galápagos. El Niño causes a trophic cascade which impacts entire ecosystems starting with primary producers and ending with critical animals such as sharks, penguins, and seals. The effects of El Niño can become detrimental to populations that often starve and die back during these years. Rapid evolutionary adaptations are displayed amongst animal groups during El Niño years to mitigate El Niño conditions.
1914:. Tehuantepecers primarily occur during the cold season months for the region in the wake of cold fronts, between October and February, with a summer maximum in July caused by the westward extension of the Azores-Bermuda high pressure system. Wind magnitude is greater during El Niño years than during La Niña years, due to the more frequent cold frontal incursions during El Niño winters. Tehuantepec winds reach 20 knots (40 km/h) to 45 knots (80 km/h), and on rare occasions 100 knots (190 km/h). The wind's direction is from the north to north-northeast. It leads to a localized acceleration of the
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the ENSO events in 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98 and, more recently, in 2015–16. In particular, increased surface seawater temperatures in 1982-83 also lead to the probable extinction of two hydrocoral species in Panamá, and to a massive mortality of kelp beds along 600 km of coastline in Chile, from which kelps and associated biodiversity slowly recovered in the most affected areas even after 20 years. All these findings enlarge the role of ENSO events as a strong climatic force driving ecological changes all around the world – particularly in tropical forests and coral reefs.
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12069:(It is nevertheless necessary, with regard to this general rule, to announce an exception which, in some circumstances, might shorten the sailing. One said above that the breeze was sometimes quite fresh , and that then the counter-current, which bore southward along the land, stretched some miles in length; it is obvious that one will have to tack in this counter-current, whenever the wind's force will permit it and whenever one will not have gone past the port of one's destination by more than 2 or 3 leagues; ...)
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989:(ENFEN), ENSO Costero, or ENSO Oriental, is the name given to the phenomenon where the sea-surface temperature anomalies are mostly focused on the South American coastline, especially from Peru and Ecuador. Studies point many factors that can lead to its occurrence, sometimes accompanying, or being accompanied, by a larger EP ENSO occurrence, or even displaying opposite conditions from the observed ones in the other Niño regions when accompanied by Modoki variations.
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140:. La Niña has roughly the reverse pattern: high pressure over the central and eastern Pacific and lower pressure through much of the rest of the tropics and subtropics. The two phenomena last a year or so each and typically occur every two to seven years with varying intensity, with neutral periods of lower intensity interspersed. El Niño events can be more intense but La Niña events may repeat and last longer.
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cyclones. A change in the location of where tropical cyclones form also occurs within the
Southern Pacific Ocean between 135°E and 120°W, with tropical cyclones more likely to occur within the Southern Pacific basin than the Australian region. As a result of this change tropical cyclones are 50% less likely to make landfall on Queensland, while the risk of a tropical cyclone is elevated for island nations like
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1260:, but the layout of the ocean was significantly different from now. So far, there is no definitive evidence indicating changes in ENSO behaviour, and the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report concluded that it is "virtually certain that the ENSO will remain the dominant mode of interannual variability in a warmer world." Consequently, the 2022 assessment no longer includes it in the list of likely tipping elements.
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vegetation, since declines in insect populations were observed after extreme drought and terrible fires during El Niño 2015–16. Declines in habitat-specialist and disturbance-sensitive bird species and in large-frugivorous mammals were also observed in
Amazonian burned forests, while temporary extirpation of more than 100 lowland butterfly species occurred at a burned forest site in Borneo.
427:. Although these associated changes in the ocean and atmosphere often occur together, the state of the atmosphere may resemble a different ENSO phase than the state of the ocean or vice versa. Because their states are closely linked, the variations of ENSO may arise from changes in both the ocean and atmosphere and not necessarily from an initial change of exclusively one or the other.
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and droughts in others. El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term surface cooling. Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on timescales of around ten years. The countries most affected by ENSO are
2441:. Unlike a standing pattern like the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation is a traveling pattern that propagates eastward, at approximately 4 to 8 m/s (14 to 29 km/h; 9 to 18 mph), through the atmosphere above the warm parts of the Indian and Pacific oceans. This overall circulation pattern manifests itself most clearly as
1134:. For example, recent scholarship (since about 2019) has found that climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme El Niño events. Previously there was no consensus on whether climate change will have any influence on the strength or duration of El Niño events, as research alternately supported El Niño events becoming stronger and weaker, longer and shorter.
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and a warmer East
Pacific, leading to a shift of cloudiness and rainfall towards the East Pacific. This situation is called El Niño. The opposite occurs if trade winds are stronger than average, leading to a warmer West Pacific and an cooler East Pacific. This situation is called La Niña and is associated with increased cloudiness and rainfall over the West Pacific.
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over cooler sea surface temperatures in the east. During El Niño, as the sea surface temperatures change so does the Walker
Circulation. Warming in the eastern tropical Pacific weakens or reverses the downward branch, while cooler conditions in the west lead to less rain and downward air, so the Walker Circulation first weakens and may reverse.
12253: : 275–332. From p. 283: "There is also a slight tendency two quarters later towards an increase of pressure in S. America and of Peninsula rainfall, and a decrease of pressure in Australia : this is part of the main oscillation described in the previous paper* which will in future be called the 'southern' oscillation." Available at:
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phenomenon of more frequent and stronger El Niño events occurs only in the initial phase of the global warming, and then (e.g., after the lower layers of the ocean get warmer, as well), El Niño will become weaker. It may also be that the stabilizing and destabilizing forces influencing the phenomenon will eventually compensate for each other.
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1363:, vertical wind shear is increased, which inhibits tropical cyclone genesis and intensification, by causing the westerly winds to be stronger. The atmosphere over the Atlantic Ocean can also be drier and more stable during El Niño events, which can inhibit tropical cyclone genesis and intensification. Within the
4152:. In Valérie Masson-Delmotte; Panmao Zhai; Anna Pirani; Sarah L. Connors; C. Péan; Sophie Berger; Nada Caud; Y. Chen; Leah Goldfarb; Melissa I. Gomis; Mengtian Huang; Katherine Leitzell; Elisabeth Lonnoy; J. B. Robin Matthews; Thomas K. Maycock; Tim Waterfield; Özge Yelekçi; R. Yu; Botao Zhou (eds.).
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There is strong year-to-year (interannual) variability in Madden–Julian oscillation activity, with long periods of strong activity followed by periods in which the oscillation is weak or absent. This interannual variability of the MJO is partly linked to the El Niño–Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
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in
Vanuatu coral records, indication of shoaling of thermocline, is analyzed for Sr/Ca and U/Ca content, from which temperature is regressed. The temperature variability shows that during the mid-Holocene, changes in the position of the anticyclonic gyre produced average to cold (La Niña) conditions,
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to the east
Pacific, it takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2010 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month. The years 1968 and 2005
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Most critically, global mass bleaching events were recorded in 1997-98 and 2015–16, when around 75-99% losses of live coral were registered across the world. Considerable attention was also given to the collapse of
Peruvian and Chilean anchovy populations that led to a severe fishery crisis following
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experiences a change in the location of where tropical cyclones form during El Niño events, with tropical cyclone formation shifting eastward, without a major change in how many develop each year. As a result of this change, Micronesia is more likely, and China less likely, to be affected by tropical
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If the temperature variation from climatology is within 0.5 °C (0.9 °F), ENSO conditions are described as neutral. Neutral conditions are the transition between warm and cold phases of ENSO. Sea surface temperatures (by definition), tropical precipitation, and wind patterns are near average
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who discovered the Southern Oscillation during the early twentieth century. The Walker circulation is an east-west overturning circulation in the vicinity of the equator in the Pacific. Upward air is associated with high sea temperatures, convection and rainfall, while the downward branch occurs
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explaining how ENSO operates generally accept the Bjerknes feedback hypothesis. However, ENSO would perpetually remain in one phase if Bjerknes feedback were the only process occurring. Several theories have been proposed to explain how ENSO can change from one state to the next, despite the positive
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phase. However, the tropical Pacific experiences occasional shifts away from these average conditions. If trade winds are weaker than average, the effect of upwelling in the East Pacific and the flow of warmer ocean surface waters towards the West Pacific lessen. This results in a cooler West Pacific
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A negative phase exists when atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and the west Pacific is abnormally high and pressure over the east Pacific is abnormally low, during El Niño episodes, and a positive phase is when the opposite occurs during La Niña episodes, and pressure over Indonesia is low and over
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The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño. La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases in the oscillation which are deemed to occur when specific ocean and atmospheric conditions are reached or exceeded.
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Each country that monitors the ENSO has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño or La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests. El Niño and La Niña affect the global climate and disrupt normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead to intense storms in some places
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of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales (meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades). There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity (meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters
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In the late winter and spring during El Niño events, drier than average conditions can be expected in Hawaii. On Guam during El Niño years, dry season precipitation averages below normal, but the probability of a tropical cyclone is more than triple what is normal, so extreme short duration rainfall
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During an El Niño event, New Zealand tends to experience stronger or more frequent westerly winds during their summer, which leads to an elevated risk of drier than normal conditions along the east coast. There is more rain than usual though on New Zealand's West Coast, because of the barrier effect
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During El Niño events, the shift in rainfall away from the Western Pacific may mean that rainfall across Australia is reduced. Over the southern part of the continent, warmer than average temperatures can be recorded as weather systems are more mobile and fewer blocking areas of high pressure occur.
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that end and reverse the abnormal state of the tropical Pacific. This perspective implies that the processes that lead to El Niño and La Niña also eventually bring about their end, making ENSO a self-sustaining process. Other theories view the state of ENSO as being changed by irregular and external
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triggered by an MJO event during late May. Further, changes in the structure of the MJO with the seasonal cycle and ENSO might facilitate more substantial impacts of the MJO on ENSO. For example, the surface westerly winds associated with active MJO convection are stronger during advancement toward
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alongside considerable wet periods that cause major floods. There exist three phases — El Niño, La Niña, and Neutral, which help to account for the different states of ENSO. Since 1900, there have been 28 El Niño and 19 La Niña events in Australia including the current 2023 El Niño event, which was
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Sea surface temperatures off the west and south coasts of South Africa are affected by ENSO via changes in surface wind strength. During El Niño the south-easterly winds driving upwelling are weaker which results in warmer coastal waters than normal, while during La Niña the same winds are stronger
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The effects of El Niño on rainfall in southern Africa differ between the summer and winter rainfall areas. Winter rainfall areas tend to get higher rainfall than normal and summer rainfall areas tend to get less rain. The effect on the summer rainfall areas is stronger and has led to severe drought
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to become unusually large in summer. Occasionally, El Niño's effect on the Atlantic Walker circulation over South America strengthens the easterly trade winds in the western equatorial Atlantic region. As a result, an unusual cooling may occur in the eastern equatorial Atlantic in spring and summer
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El Niño phases are known to happen at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts nine months to two years. The average period length is five years. When this warming occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño "conditions"; when its duration is longer, it is classified as
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The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a single climate phenomenon that quasi-periodically fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña or El Niño. La Niña and El Niño are opposite phases which require certain changes to take place in both the ocean and the atmosphere before an event is declared.
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Fiji generally experiences drier than normal conditions during an El Niño, which can lead to drought becoming established over the Islands. However, the main impacts on the island nation is felt about a year after the event becomes established. Within the Samoan Islands, below average rainfall and
1003:, nor always being accompanied by proportional Southern Oscillation responses. According to the Coastal Niño Index (ICEN), strong El Niño Costero events include 1957, 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16, and La Niña Costera ones include 1950, 1954–56, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1967–68, 1970–71, 1975–76 and 2013.
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The first ENSO pattern to be recognised, called Eastern Pacific (EP) ENSO, to distinguish if from others, involves temperature anomalies in the eastern Pacific. However, in the 1990s and 2000s, variations of ENSO conditions were observed, in which the usual place of the temperature anomaly (Niño 1
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across the eastern equatorial part of the central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3–5 °C (5.4–9 °F). The phenomenon occurs as strong winds blow warm water at the ocean's surface away from South America, across the Pacific Ocean towards Indonesia. As this warm water moves west,
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is almost the same in the western and east Pacific. Because the warmer waters of the upper ocean are slightly less dense than the cooler deep ocean, the thicker layer of warmer water in the western Pacific means the thermocline there must be deeper. The difference in weight must be enough to drive
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are a chain of volcanic islands, nearly 600 miles west of Ecuador, South America. in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. These islands support a wide diversity of terrestrial and marine species. The ecosystem is based on the normal trade winds which influence upwelling of cold, nutrient rich waters to the
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Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean, including several portions of the South American west coast. The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is
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During the 1982–83, 1997–98 and 2015–16 ENSO events, large extensions of tropical forests experienced a prolonged dry period that resulted in widespread fires, and drastic changes in forest structure and tree species composition in Amazonian and Bornean forests. Their impacts do not restrict only
1256:. The threshold for tipping was estimated to be between 3.5 °C (6.3 °F) and 7 °C (13 °F) of global warming in 2016. After tipping, the system would be in a more permanent El Niño state, rather than oscillating between different states. This has happened in Earth's past, in the
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La Niña impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others. El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term
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Likewise, following the asymmetric nature of the warm and cold phases of ENSO, some studies could not identify similar variations for La Niña, both in observations and in the climate models, but some sources could identify variations on La Niña with cooler waters on central Pacific and average or
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summarized the scientific knowledge in 2021 for the future of ENSO as follows: "In the long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase". The scientific consensus is also that "it is very likely that rainfall variability related to
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higher than normal temperatures are recorded during El Niño events, which can lead to droughts and forest fires on the islands. Other impacts include a decrease in the sea level, possibility of coral bleaching in the marine environment and an increased risk of a tropical cyclone affecting Samoa.
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Over North America, the main temperature and precipitation impacts of El Niño generally occur in the six months between October and March. In particular, the majority of Canada generally has milder than normal winters and springs, with the exception of eastern Canada where no significant impacts
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ENSO is linked to rainfall over Puerto Rico. During an El Niño, snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well-below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states. During a La Niña, snowfall is above normal across the Pacific
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There is also a scientific debate on the very existence of this "new" ENSO. A number of studies dispute the reality of this statistical distinction or its increasing occurrence, or both, either arguing the reliable record is too short to detect such a distinction, finding no distinction or trend
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The recent discovery of ENSO Modoki has some scientists believing it to be linked to global warming. However, comprehensive satellite data go back only to 1979. More research must be done to find the correlation and study past El Niño episodes. More generally, there is no scientific consensus on
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The first recorded El Niño that originated in the central Pacific and moved toward the east was in 1986. Recent Central Pacific El Niños happened in 1986–87, 1991–92, 1994–95, 2002–03, 2004–05 and 2009–10. Furthermore, there were "Modoki" events in 1957–59, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1968–70, 1977–78 and
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going back to the 1800s, its reliability is limited due to the latitudes of both Darwin and Tahiti being well south of the Equator, so that the surface air pressure at both locations is less directly related to ENSO. To overcome this effect, a new index was created, named the Equatorial Southern
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The major 1982–83 El Niño led to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community. The period 1990–95 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession. An especially intense El Niño event in 1998 caused an estimated 16% of the world's reef systems to die. The event
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and resulting extreme weather events. For example, an increase in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño events have triggered warmer than usual temperatures over the Indian Ocean, by modulating the Walker circulation. This has resulted in a rapid warming of the Indian Ocean, and consequently a
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Observations of ENSO events since 1950 show that impacts associated with such events depend on the time of year. While certain events and impacts are expected to occur, it is not certain that they will happen. The impacts that generally do occur during most El Niño events include below-average
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Study of more recent weather events over California and the southwestern United States indicate that there is a variable relationship between El Niño and above-average precipitation, as it strongly depends on the strength of the El Niño event and other factors. Though it has been historically
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Studies of historical data show the recent El Niño variation is most likely linked to global warming. For example, some results, even after subtracting the positive influence of decadal variation, are shown to be possibly present in the ENSO trend, the amplitude of the ENSO variability in the
12139:"Australian and Indian Weather" : "Comparing our records with those of India, I find a close correspondence or similarity of seasons with regard to the prevalence of drought, and there can be little or no doubt that severe droughts occur as a rule simultaneously over the two countries."
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form at preferred locations both in the North and South Pacific Ocean, and the teleconnection pattern is established within 2–6 weeks. ENSO driven patterns modify surface temperature, humidity, wind, and the distribution of clouds over the North Pacific that alter surface heat, momentum, and
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episode. Strong events in the Madden–Julian oscillation over a series of months in the western Pacific can speed the development of an El Niño or La Niña but usually do not in themselves lead to the onset of a warm or cold ENSO event. However, observations suggest that the 1982-1983 El Niño
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Major ENSO events were recorded in the years 1790–93, 1828, 1876–78, 1891, 1925–26, 1972–73, 1982–83, 1997–98, 2014–16, and 2023–24. During strong El Niño episodes, a secondary peak in sea surface temperature across the far eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean sometimes follows the initial peak.
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There is no sign that there are actual changes in the ENSO physical phenomenon due to climate change. Climate models do not simulate ENSO well enough to make reliable predictions. Future trends in ENSO are uncertain as different models make different predictions. It may be that the observed
159:(an east-west overturning circulation in the atmosphere) and even weaker trade winds. Ultimately the warm waters in the western tropical Pacific are depleted enough so that conditions return to normal. The exact mechanisms that cause the oscillation are unclear and are being studied.
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in tropical Australia is delayed by two to six weeks, which as a consequence means that rainfall is reduced over the northern tropics. The risk of a significant bushfire season in south-eastern Australia is higher following an El Niño event, especially when it is combined with a positive
1633:, conversely, tends to become colder with more sea ice during El Niño. The exact opposite heating and atmospheric pressure anomalies occur during La Niña. This pattern of variability is known as the Antarctic dipole mode, although the Antarctic response to ENSO forcing is not ubiquitous.
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More generally, El Niño can affect commodity prices and the macroeconomy of different countries. It can constrain the supply of rain-driven agricultural commodities; reduce agricultural output, construction, and services activities; increase food prices; and may trigger social unrest in
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events. Although no strong correlation was found with the Atlantic Ocean, it is suggested that the insolation influence probably affected both oceans, although the Pacific Ocean seems to have the most influence on teleconnection in annual, millennial and semi-precessional timescales.
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Oscillation Index (EQSOI). To generate this index, two new regions, centered on the Equator, were defined. The western region is located over Indonesia and the eastern one over the equatorial Pacific, close to the South American coast. However, data on EQSOI goes back only to 1949.
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that depend on their own agriculture and fishing, particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean, are usually most affected by El Niño conditions. In this phase of the Oscillation, the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest in late December.
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The West Pacific is typically warmer than the East Pacific. The warmer waters lead to more cloudiness, rainfall, and low air pressure over the West Pacific. The buildup of warm waters towards the west also leads to a thicker layer of warm ocean water that lowers the depth of the
2117:. The increasing intensity and duration of El Niño events were associated with active volcanism, which resulted in the dieback of vegetation, an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a significant warming and disturbances in the circulation of air masses.
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due to a more northerly storm track. During La Niña events, the storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal winter conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers. During the El Niño portion of
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El Niño has the most direct impacts on life in the equatorial Pacific, its effects propagate north and south along the coast of the Americas, affecting marine life all around the Pacific. Changes in chlorophyll-a concentrations are visible in this animation, which compares
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across much of the Earth. The tropical Pacific is said to be in one of three states of ENSO (also called "phases") depending on the atmospheric and oceanic conditions. When the tropical Pacific roughly reflects the average conditions, the state of ENSO is said to be in the
1805:'s southern and eastern regions. Meanwhile, precipitation in the southwestern and southeastern states, as well as southern California, is below average. This also allows for the development of many stronger-than-average hurricanes in the Atlantic and fewer in the Pacific.
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El Niño phase: Warm water pool approaches the South American coast. The absence of cold upwelling increases warming. Warm water and atmospheric convection move eastwards. In strong El Niños the deeper thermocline off South America means upwelled water is warm and nutrient
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close to the Mediterranean shows 2–7 year variability, closely related to ENSO periodicity. Model simulations show that there is more correlation with ENSO than NAO, and that there is a strong teleconnection with the Mediterranean due to lower gradients of temperature.
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El Niño and the surface easterly winds associated with the suppressed convective phase are stronger during advancement toward La Niña. Globally, the interannual variability of the MJO is most determined by atmospheric internal dynamics, rather than surface conditions.
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1979–80. Some sources say that the El Niños of 2006-07 and 2014-16 were also Central Pacific El Niños. Recent years when La Niña Modoki events occurred include 1973–1974, 1975–1976, 1983–1984, 1988–1989, 1998–1999, 2000–2001, 2008–2009, 2010–2011, and 2016–2017.
1505:—MVE), occur in temperate south-east Australia after heavy rainfall and flooding, which are associated with La Niña events. A severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever occurred after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia during the 1997–98 El Niño.
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position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat in China. In March 2008, La Niña caused a drop in sea surface temperatures over Southeast Asia by 2 °C (3.6 °F). It also caused heavy rains over the
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La Niña events have been observed for hundreds of years, and occurred on a regular basis during the early parts of both the 17th and 19th centuries. Since the start of the 20th century, La Niña events have occurred during the following years:
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The cool phase of ENSO is La Niña, with SST in the eastern Pacific below average, and air pressure high in the eastern Pacific and low in the western Pacific. The ENSO cycle, including both El Niño and La Niña, causes global changes in temperature and rainfall.
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In the spring of 2022, La Niña caused above-average precipitation and below-average temperatures in the state of Oregon. April was one of the wettest months on record, and La Niña effects, while less severe, were expected to continue into the summer.
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In seasonally dry tropical forests, which are more drought tolerant, researchers found that El Niño induced drought increased seedling mortality. In a research published in October 2022, researchers studied seasonally dry tropical forests in a national park in
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A study of climate records has shown that El Niño events in the equatorial Pacific are generally associated with a warm tropical North Atlantic in the following spring and summer. About half of El Niño events persist sufficiently into the spring months for the
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Core shows warm events with periodicities of 2–8 years, which become more frequent over the Holocene until about 1,200 years ago, and then decline, on top of which there are periods of low and high ENSO-related events, possibly due to changes in insolation.
1523:, having analyzed data from 1950 to 2004, suggest ENSO may have had a role in 21% of all civil conflicts since 1950, with the risk of annual civil conflict doubling from 3% to 6% in countries affected by ENSO during El Niño years relative to La Niña years.
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archives, showing different triggering methods, feedbacks and environmental responses to the geological, atmospheric and oceanographic characteristics of the time. These paleorecords can be used to provide a qualitative basis for conservation practices.
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also uses a several month period to determine ENSO state. When this warming or cooling occurs for only seven to nine months, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña "conditions"; when it occurs for more than that period, it is classified as El Niño/La Niña
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The basin core shows light and dark layers, related to summer/autumn transition where more/less productivity is expected. The core shows thicker or thinner layers, with periodicities of 12, 6–7 and 2–3 years, related to ENSO, North Atlantic Oscillation
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to replace the near-surface water. This process cools the East Pacific because the thermocline is closer to the ocean surface, leaving relatively little separation between the deeper cold water and the ocean surface. Additionally, the northward-flowing
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423:(the ocean or atmosphere) tend to reinforce changes in the other. For example, during El Niño, the reduced contrast in ocean temperatures across the Pacific results in weaker trade winds, further reinforcing the El Niño state. This process is known as
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Seillès, Brice; Sánchez Goñi, Maria Fernanda; Ledru, Marie-Pierre; Urrego, Dunia H; Martinez, Philippe; Hanquiez, Vincent; Schneider, Ralph (April 2016). "Holocene land–sea climatic links on the equatorial Pacific coast (Bay of Guayaquil, Ecuador)".
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Across most of the continent, El Niño and La Niña have more impact on climate variability than any other factor. There is a strong correlation between the strength of La Niña and rainfall: the greater the sea surface temperature and
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researchers found that climate change may have increased by two times the likelihood of strong El Niño events and nine times the likelihood of strong La Niña events. The study stated it found a consensus between different models and experiments.
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that Peruvian sailors named the warm south-flowing current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas. Although pre-Columbian societies were certainly aware of the phenomenon, the indigenous names for it have been lost to history.
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Galeotti, Simone; von der Heydt, Anna; Huber, Matthew; Bice, David; Dijkstra, Henk; Jilbert, Tom; Lanci, Luca; Reichart, Gert-Jan (May 2010). "Evidence for active El Niño Southern Oscillation variability in the Late Miocene greenhouse climate".
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any deep water return flow. Consequently, the thermocline is tilted across the tropical Pacific, rising from an average depth of about 140 m (450 ft) in the West Pacific to a depth of about 30 m (90 ft) in the East Pacific.
11593:
Turney, Chris S. M.; Kershaw, A. Peter; Clemens, Steven C.; Branch, Nick; Moss, Patrick T.; Fifield, L. Keith (2004). "Millennial and orbital variations of El Niño/Southern Oscillation and high-latitude climate in the last glacial period".
1367:: El Niño events contribute to decreased easterly vertical wind shear and favor above-normal hurricane activity. However, the impacts of the ENSO state in this region can vary and are strongly influenced by background climate patterns. The
907:. Significant episodes, known as Trans-Niño, are measured by the Trans-Niño index (TNI). Examples of affected short-time climate in North America include precipitation in the Northwest US and intense tornado activity in the contiguous US.
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Neutral phase: Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward the west. Warm pool in the west drives deep atmospheric convection. In the east local winds cause nutrient-rich cold water to upwell at the Equator and along the South American
2499:(PDO) is a robust, recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin. The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean, north of 20°N. Over the past century, the
1859:, La Niña events lead to drier than normal conditions, while El Niño events do not have a correlation towards dry or wet conditions. During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal,
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686:
in the western Pacific and lower in the eastern Pacific, with rainfall reducing over Indonesia, India and northern Australia, while rainfall and tropical cyclone formation increases over the tropical Pacific Ocean. The low-level surface
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Emily Becker (2016). "How Much Do El Niño and La Niña Affect Our Weather? This fickle and influential climate pattern often gets blamed for extreme weather. A closer look at the most recent cycle shows that the truth is more subtle".
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Cai, Wenju; Ng, Benjamin; Geng, Tao; Jia, Fan; Wu, Lixin; Wang, Guojian; Liu, Yu; Gan, Bolan; Yang, Kai; Santoso, Agus; Lin, Xiaopei; Li, Ziguang; Liu, Yi; Yang, Yun; Jin, Fei-Fei; Collins, Mat; McPhaden, Michael J. (June 2023).
535:, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. La Niña episodes are defined as sustained cooling of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in an increase in the strength of the Pacific
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El Niño episodes have negative SOI, meaning there is lower pressure over Tahiti and higher pressure in Darwin. La Niña episodes on the other hand have positive SOI, meaning there is higher pressure in Tahiti and lower in Darwin.
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Yadong Sun; Alexander Farnsworth; Michael M. Joachimski; Paul B. Wignall; Leopold Krystyn; David P. G. Bond; Domenico C. G. Ravidà; Paul J. Valdes (September 12, 2024). "Mega El Niño instigated the end-Permian mass extinction".
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An especially strong Walker circulation causes La Niña, which is considered to be the cold oceanic and positive atmospheric phase of the broader El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weather phenomenon, as well as the opposite of
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Southern Oscillation Index timeseries from 1876 to 2024. The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of El Niño. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western
1943:
events are possible. On American Samoa during El Niño events, precipitation averages about 10 percent above normal, while La Niña events are associated with precipitation averaging about 10 percent below normal.
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The effects of the CP ENSO are different from those of the EP ENSO. The El Niño Modoki is associated with more hurricanes more frequently making landfall in the Atlantic. La Niña Modoki leads to a rainfall increase over
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site 847 and 806 show that the Pliocene warm period presented permanent El Niño-like conditions, possibly related to changes in the mean state of extratropical regions or changes in ocean heat transport resulting from
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associated with high rainfall in California, the effects of El Niño depend more strongly on the "flavor" of El Niño than its presence or absence, as only "persistent El Niño" events lead to consistently high rainfall.
1926:. The effects can last from a few hours to six days. Between 1942 and 1957, La Niña had an impact that caused isotope changes in the plants of Baja California, and that had helped scientists to study his impact.
1048:. The most recent three-month average for the area is computed, and if the region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above (or below) normal for that period, then an El Niño (or La Niña) is considered in progress.
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Sergey K. Gulev; Peter W. Thorne; Jinho Ahn; Frank J. Dentener; Catia M. Domingues; Sebastian Gerland; Daoyi Gong; Darrell S. Kaufman; Hyacinth C. Nnamchi; Johannes Quaas; Juan Antonio Rivera; Shubha Sathyendranath;
2618:(SST); and the reverse during its negative state. This coupling develops during the winter months and spreads southwestward towards the equator and the central and western Pacific during spring, until it reaches the
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Rodbell, Donald T.; Seltzer, Geoffrey O.; Anderson, David M.; Abbott, Mark B.; Enfield, David B.; Newman, Jeremy H. (22 January 1999). "An ~15,000-Year Record of El Niño-Driven Alluviation in Southwestern Ecuador".
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Corrège, Thierry; Delcroix, Thierry; Récy, Jacques; Beck, Warren; Cabioch, Guy; Le Cornec, Florence (August 2000). "Evidence for stronger El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Events in a Mid-Holocene massive coral".
1597:-pressure system, and changes to the pattern of westerly winds further south. There are other influences not known to be related to ENSO of similar importance. Some ENSO events do not lead to the expected changes.
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996:, and increased temperatures over the northern Chilean coast, and cold phases leading to droughts on the peruvian coast, and increased rainfall and decreased temperatures on its mountainous and jungle regions.
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stretches from the 120th to 170th meridians west longitude astride the equator five degrees of latitude on either side, are monitored. It is approximately 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) to the southeast of
1228:. Every two to seven years, the winds weaken due to pressure changes and the air and water in the middle of the Pacific warms up, causing changes in wind movement patterns around the globe. This is known as
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2023's June-July-August season was the warmest on record globally by a large margin, as El Niño conditions continued to develop. 1998—a very strong El Niño year—also experienced a global temperature spike.
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declared on 17th of September in 2023. The events usually last for 9 to 12 months, but some can persist for two years, though the ENSO cycle generally operates over a time period from one to eight years.
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A timeline of all La Niña episodes between 1900 and 2023. Note that each forecast agency has a different criteria for what constitutes a La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests.
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La Niña is a complex weather pattern that occurs every few years, often persisting for longer than five months. El Niño and La Niña can be indicators of weather changes across the globe.
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also experience wetter than normal conditions during El Niño years, but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central Chile receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the Peruvian-Bolivian
1727:, and are one of the main climate drivers of the country. Associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world, Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive
1284:. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation has been linked to variability in longer-term global average temperature increase, with El Niño years usually corresponding to annual global temperature increases.
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Because they don't influence the global climate as much as the other types, these events present lesser and weaker correlations to other significant ENSO features, neither always being triggered by
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Moy, Christopher M.; Seltzer, Geoffrey O.; Rodbell, Donald T.; Anderson, David M. (2002). "Variability of El Niño/Southern Oscillation activity at millennial timescales during the Holocene epoch".
6659:"El Niño, La Niña, ENSO, ENOS, El Niño Modoki, El Niño Canónico, El Niño Extraordinario, El Niño Godzilla, El Niño Costero, El Niño Oriental ¿En qué consisten realmente y cómo afectan al Ecuador?"
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Over the last several decades, the number of El Niño events increased, and the number of La Niña events decreased, although observation of ENSO for much longer is needed to detect robust changes.
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declares that an ENSO event has started when the average five month sea surface temperature deviation for the Niño 3 region is over 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) for six consecutive months or longer.
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The movement of so much heat across a quarter of the planet, and particularly in the form of temperature at the ocean surface, can have a significant effect on weather across the entire planet.
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Muñoz, Arsenio; Ojeda, Jorge; Sánchez-Valverde, Belén (2002). "Sunspot-like and ENSO/NAO-like periodicities in lacustrinelaminated sediments of the Pliocene Villarroya Basin (La Rioja,Spain)".
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In Canada, La Niña will, in general, cause a cooler, snowier winter, such as the near-record-breaking amounts of snow recorded in the La Niña winter of 2007–2008 in eastern Canada.
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and 2) is not affected, but an anomaly also arises in the central Pacific (Niño 3.4). The phenomenon is called Central Pacific (CP) ENSO, "dateline" ENSO (because the anomaly arises near the
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areas. Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for self-employed fishermen and industrial fleets.
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warmer water temperatures on both eastern and western Pacific, also showing eastern Pacific Ocean currents going to the opposite direction compared to the currents in traditional La Niñas.
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The possibility that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a tipping element had attracted attention in the past. Normally strong winds blow west across the South Pacific Ocean from
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waters. The strength of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The SOI is computed from fluctuations in the surface air pressure difference between
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and has less upwelling as the trade winds are usually weaker than in the East Pacific, allowing the West Pacific to reach warmer temperatures. These warmer waters provide energy for the
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1163:"There is medium confidence that both ENSO amplitude and the frequency of high-magnitude events since 1950 are higher than over the period from 1850 and possibly as far back as 1400".
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near the equator push water away from the East Pacific and towards the West Pacific. This water is slowly warmed by the Sun as it moves west along the equator. The ocean surface near
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3287:"Los marinos paiteños que navegan frecuentemente cerca de la costa y en embarcaciones pequeñas, ya al norte ó al sur de Paita, conocen esta corriente y la denomination Corriente del
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over the warm water. El Niño episodes are defined as sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in a decrease in the strength of the Pacific
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Scientists have also found chemical signatures of warmer sea surface temperatures and increased rainfall caused by El Niño in coral specimens that are around 13,000 years old.
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1160:"It is very likely that rainfall variability related to changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale". and
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for "similar, but different"). There are variations of ENSO additional to the EP and CP types, and some scientists argue that ENSO exists as a continuum, often with hybrid types.
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events will be associated with a weakening, or even a setback, of the prevailing trade winds, and this, results in reduced atmospheric moisture in the country. Many of the worst
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La Niña results in wetter-than-normal conditions in southern Africa from December to February, and drier-than-normal conditions over equatorial east Africa over the same period.
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and the reduction in easterly trade winds limits upwelling of cold nutrient-rich deep water, and its economic effect on local fishing for an international market can be serious.
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Beaufort, Luc; Garidel-Thoron, Thibault de; Mix, Alan C.; Pisias, Nicklas G. (28 September 2001). "ENSO-like Forcing on Oceanic Primary Production During the Late Pleistocene".
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declares that a ENSO Costero is under way if the sea surface temperature deviation in the Niño 1+2 regions equal or exceed 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) for at least three months.
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Nazemosadat, M. J., and A. R. Ghasemi, 2004: Quantifying the ENSO-related shifts in the intensity and probability of drought and wet periods in Iran. J. Climate, 17, 4005–4018
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are controversial, complex and difficult to analyze, as it is one of several factors that influence the weather over the continent and other factors can overwhelm the signal.
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noted the same in 1904. An El Niño connection with flooding was reported in 1894 by Victor Eguiguren (1852–1919) and in 1895 by Federico Alfonso Pezet (1859–1929). In 1924,
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conditions during this phase. Close to half of all years are within neutral periods. During the neutral ENSO phase, other climate anomalies/patterns such as the sign of the
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industry and other enterprises that depend on biological productivity of the sea. It is recorded that as early as 1822, cartographer Joseph Lartigue, of the French frigate
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The effects of El Niño in South America are direct and strong. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern
9728:
Wu, M. C.; Chang, W. L.; Leung, W. M. (2004). "Impacts of El Niño–Southern Oscillation events on tropical cyclone landfalling activity in the western north Pacific".
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1971:, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. The effects during the months of February, March, and April may become critical along the west coast of
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rainfall over Indonesia and northern South America, and above average rainfall in southeastern South America, eastern equatorial Africa, and the southern United States.
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Hanna Na; Bong-Geun Jang; Won-Moon Choi; Kwang-Yul Kim (2011). "Statistical simulations of the future 50-year statistics of cold-tongue El Niño and warm-pool El Niño".
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1201:
Earlier (2008) list of tipping elements in the climate system. When compared to later lists, the major differences are that in 2008 ENSO, Indian summer monsoon, Arctic
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2505:
924:
Map showing Niño/Niña 1 to 4 regions, 3 and 4 being west and far west and much larger than 1 and 2 a coastal Peruvian/Ecuadorian zone differing subtly north–south
8483:
Wu, M. C.; Chang, W. L.; Leung, W. M. (2004). "Impacts of El Niño–Southern Oscillation Events on Tropical Cyclone Landfalling Activity in the Western North Pacific".
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have increased in the region during warm events. Shifting locations and types of fish due to changing conditions create challenges for the fishing industry. Peruvian
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7379:
3947:
Yang, Song; Li, Zhenning; Yu, Jin-Yi; Hu, Xiaoming; Dong, Wenjie; He, Shan (1 November 2018). "El Niño–Southern Oscillation and its impact in the changing climate".
508:
The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of ENSO. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western
12053:
10114:
5162:
Kennedy, Adam M.; D. C. Garen; R. W. Koch (2009). "The association between climate teleconnection indices and Upper Klamath seasonal streamflow: Trans-Niño Index".
4154:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. The contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2418:
showing the MJO. Time increases from top to bottom in the figure, so contours that are oriented from upper-left to lower-right represent movement from west to east.
1645:, during the region's November–April rainy season, there is increased precipitation in the El Niño phase and reduced precipitation in the La Niña phase on average.
97:. Those variations have an irregular pattern but do have some semblance of cycles. The occurrence of ENSO is not predictable. It affects the climate of much of the
15401:
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12067:"Il est néanmoins nécessaire, au sujet de cette règle générale, de faire part d'une exception ... dépassé le port de sa destination de plus de 2 ou 3 lieues; ... "
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9447:
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were all listed as tipping points. Labrador-Irminger circulation, mountain glaciers and East Antarctic ice however were not included. This 2008 list also includes
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in Thailand for 7 years and observed that El Niño increased seedling mortality even in seasonally dry tropical forests and may impact entire forests in long run.
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The consequences of ENSO in terms of the temperature anomalies and precipitation and weather extremes around the world are clearly increasing and associated with
9284:
França, Filipe; Ferreira, J; Vaz-de-Mello, FZ; Maia, LF; Berenguer, E; Palmeira, A; Fadini, R; Louzada, J; Braga, R; Oliveira, VH; Barlow, J (10 February 2020).
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Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Barlow, M., H. Cullen, and B. Lyon, 2002: Drought in central and southwest Asia: La Niña, the warm pool, and Indian Ocean precipitation. J. Climate, 15, 697–700
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1190:
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looks at the trade winds, Southern Oscillation Index, weather models and sea surface temperatures in the Niño 3 and 3.4 regions, before declaring an ENSO event.
1039:, the tropical Pacific atmosphere and forecasts that NOAA's Oceanic Niño Index will equal or exceed .5 °C (0.90 °F) for several seasons in a row. The
806:
701:
557:(SSH) changes up or down by several centimeters in Pacific equatorial region with the ESNO: El Niño causes a positive SSH anomaly (raised sea level) because of
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Trenberth, K.E.; P.D. Jones; P. Ambenje; R. Bojariu; D. Easterling; A. Klein Tank; D. Parker; F. Rahimzadeh; J.A. Renwick; M. Rusticucci; B. Soden; P. Zhai.
310:
averages around 28–30 °C (82–86 °F). SSTs in the East Pacific off the western coast of South America are closer to 20 °C (68 °F). Strong
251:
time. However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the warm and negative phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The original phrase,
9710:
5583:
5482:
Kim, Hye-Mi; Webster, Peter J.; Curry, Judith A. (3 July 2009). "Impact of Shifting Patterns of Pacific Ocean Warming on North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones".
3293:(The sailors Paita who sail often near the coast and in small boats, to the north or the south of Paita, know this current and call it "the current of the
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992:
ENSO Costero events usually present more localized effects, with warm phases leading to increased rainfall over the coast of Ecuador, northern Peru and the
949:, rather than over the eastern portion of the country as in a conventional EP La Niña. Also, La Niña Modoki increases the frequency of cyclonic storms over
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9776:
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7198:
Guilyardi, E.; Wittenberg, Andrew; Fedorov, Alexey; Collins, Mat; Wang, Chunzai; Capotondi, Antonietta; Van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan; Stockdale, Tim (2009).
3037:"Regions of significant influence on unforced global mean surface air temperature variability in climate models: Origin of global temperature variability"
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activity in the Pacific Ocean, compared to La Niña years favoring above average hurricane development in the Atlantic and less so in the Pacific basin.
1028:
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Nhesvure, B. (2020). Impacts of ENSO on coastal South African sea surface temperatures. Faculty of Science, Department of Oceanography. Retrieved from
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1998:
reduction. The fisheries were previously the world's largest, however, this collapse led to the decline of these fisheries. During the 1982–83 event,
1019:
Currently, each country has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño event, which is tailored to their specific interests, for example:
378:. The combination of the Humboldt Current and upwelling maintains an area of cooler ocean waters off the coast of Peru. The West Pacific lacks a cold
147:
in 1969) in which the atmospheric changes alter the sea temperatures that in turn alter the atmospheric winds in a positive feedback. Weaker easterly
14873:
13993:
12984:
11796:
Fedorov, Alexey V.; Brierley, Christopher M.; Emanuel, Kerry (February 2010). "Tropical cyclones and permanent El Niño in the early Pliocene epoch".
9384:
França, FM; Benkwitt, CE; Peralta, G; Robinson, JPW; Graham, NAJ; Tylianakis, JM; Berenguer, E; Lees, AC; Ferreira, J; Louzada, J; Barlow, J (2020).
628:
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The PMM is not the same thing as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but there is evidence that PMM events can trigger ENSO events, especially
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ENSO can influence the global circulation pattern thousands of kilometers away from the equatorial Pacific through the "atmospheric bridge". During
11027:
9061:
9031:
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temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 °C, compared to the usual increase of 0.25 °C associated with El Niño events. Since then, mass
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tend to experience many fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During El Niño years, the break in the
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El Niño affects the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.
15923:
10308:
6041:
Yeh, Sang-Wook; Kug, Jong-Seong; Dewitte, Boris; Kwon, Min-Ho; Kirtman, Ben P.; Jin, Fei-Fei (September 2009). "El Niño in a changing climate".
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Collins, Mat; An, Soon-Il; Cai, Wenju; Ganachaud, Alexandre; Guilyardi, Eric; Jin, Fei-Fei; Jochum, Markus; Lengaigne, Matthieu; Power, Scott;
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3512:. Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project / Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 24 March 2008.
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Lenton, Timothy M.; Held, Hermann; Kriegler, Elmar; Hall, Jim W; Lucht, Wolfgang; Rahmstorf, Stefan; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2008-02-12).
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2320:. A recent study suggests a strong El Niño effect between 1789 and 1793 caused poor crop yields in Europe, which in turn helped touch off the
1118:
cooling. Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on decadal timescales.
349:. Along the western coast of South America, water near the ocean surface is pushed westward due to the combination of the trade winds and the
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which were probably interrupted by strong warm events (El Niño), which might have produced the bleaching, associated to decadal variability.
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occur. Within the United States, the impacts generally observed during the six-month period include wetter-than-average conditions along the
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7127:
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Cooler deep ocean water takes the place of the outgoing surface waters in the East Pacific, rising to the ocean surface in a process called
14742:
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Brugnara, Yuri; Brönnimann, Stefan; Grab, Stefan; Steinkopf, Jessica; Burgdorf, Angela-Maria; Wilkinson, Clive; Allan, Rob (October 2023).
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9 deep cores in the equatorial Indian and Pacific show variations in primary productivity, related to glacial-interglacial variability and
2113:
In a paleoclimate study published in 2024, the authors suggest that El Niños had a strong influence on Earth's hothouse climate during the
11290:"How can a knowledge of the past help to conserve the future? Biodiversity conservation and the relevance of long-term ecological studies"
11245:
Carrè, Matthieu; et al. (2005). "Strong El Niño events during the early Holocene: stable isotope evidence from Peruvian sea shells".
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within the region) of the oscillation occurring around 1925, 1947, and 1977; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in
2166:, which both depend on ENSO frequency and amplitude variability. Three different regimes of ENSO influence are found in the marine core.
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visible on sea surface temperature maps, showing a tongue of colder water, are often present during neutral or La Niña conditions.
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2425:(MJO) is the largest element of the intraseasonal (30- to 90-day) variability in the tropical atmosphere. It was discovered in 1971 by
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Willis, Katherine J; Araújo, Miguel B; Bennett, Keith D; Figueroa-Rangel, Blanca; Froyd, Cynthia A; Myers, Norman (28 February 2007).
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This image shows three examples of internal climate variability measured between 1950 and 2012: the El Niño–Southern oscillation, the
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PREDICCIÓN DEL FENÓMENO EL NIÑO MEDIANTE ÍNDICES OCEÁNICOS E INFLUENCIA DE LA ZONA DE CONVERGENCIA INTERTROPICAL EN EL NORTE PERUANO
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10209:. Climate Prediction Center (Report) (update ed.). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-02-28. Archived from
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incidence in Japan and the west coast of the United States, via the linkage to tropospheric winds across the north Pacific Ocean.
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Trenberth, K. E.; et al. (2002). "Evolution of El Niño – Southern Oscillation and global atmospheric surface temperatures".
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ENSO conditions have occurred at two- to seven-year intervals for at least the past 300 years, but most of them have been weak.
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years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above-average rainfall usually creating damaging floods due to stronger easterly
903:
Transitional phases at the onset or departure of El Niño or La Niña can also be important factors on global weather by affecting
9286:"El Niño impacts on human-modified tropical forests: Consequences for dung beetle diversity and associated ecological processes"
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1593:
and cause colder coastal waters. These effects on the winds are part of large scale influences on the tropical Atlantic and the
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during El Niño (left) and La Niña (right). The top two maps are for December to February, the bottom two are for June to August.
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Rodó, Xavier; Joan Ballester; Dan Cayan; Marian E. Melish; Yoshikazu Nakamura; Ritei Uehara; Jane C. Burns (10 November 2011).
4321:"Climate Change 2007: Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis: 3.7 Changes in the Tropics and Subtropics, and the Monsoons"
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2329:
1214:
1157:"In the long term, it is very likely that the precipitation variance related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation will increase" and
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6394:"Linear trends in sea surface temperature of the tropical Pacific Ocean and implications for the El Niño-Southern Oscillation"
5081:. Climate Prediction Center / NCEP / NWS and the International Research Institute for Climate and Society. 10 September 2020.
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4007:
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episode, but is virtually absent during the maxima of some El Niño episodes, while MJO activity is typically greater during a
15769:
14907:
12464:
12132:
11916:
10997:
9491:
8852:
7608:
Trenberth, Kevin E.; Hoar, Timothy J. (January 1996). "The 1990–1995 El Niño–Southern Oscillation event: Longest on record".
5619:
5217:"Is there an optimal ENSO pattern that enhances large-scale atmospheric processes conducive to tornado outbreaks in the U.S?"
4680:
4208:
3983:
3814:
3711:
2827:
11976:
10085:
8530:"The Impact of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Atlantic Meridional Mode on Seasonal Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity"
4960:
4182:
15791:
14737:
14732:
13546:
12363:
Trenberth, Kevin E.; Hoar, Timothy J. (January 1996). "The 1990–95 El Niño–Southern Oscillation event: Longest on record".
12020:
7586:
6470:
5886:(in Portuguese). Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais/Centro de Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos. Archived from
5024:
4259:
3204:
2718:
720:
events among the strongest on record. Since 2000, El Niño events have been observed in 2002–03, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2009–10,
17:
7371:
2344:
1015:
The various "Niño regions" where sea surface temperatures are monitored to determine the current ENSO phase (warm or cold)
15898:
15272:
15050:
14868:
14790:
14780:
14763:
14670:
14477:
13035:
12929:
11164:
Edgar (2010). "El Niño, grazers and fisheries interact to greatly elevate extinction risk for Galapagos marine species".
10118:
10050:
Ineson, S.; Scaife, A. A. (7 December 2008). "The role of the stratosphere in the European climate response to El Niño".
8658:"Southwest Pacific Tropical Cyclone Outlook: El Niño expected to produce severe tropical storms in the Southwest Pacific"
2317:
1548:
Following the El Nino event in 1997 – 1998, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory attributes the first large-scale
1406:
following El Niño peaks in winter. Cases of El Niño-type events in both oceans simultaneously have been linked to severe
1352:(ACE), El Niño years usually result in less active hurricane seasons in the Atlantic Ocean, but instead favor a shift to
1280:
Colored bars show how El Niño years (red, regional warming) and La Niña years (blue, regional cooling) relate to overall
14795:
10259:
9439:
8577:
5075:
4376:
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1573:
183:
changes in the strength and spatial extent of ENSO teleconnections will lead to significant changes at regional scale".
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15903:
15701:
15562:
15519:
15015:
14141:
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12832:
10556:
8081:
Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Murtugudde, Raghu; Ashok, Karumuri; Goswami, B. N. (November 2015).
5008:
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4830:
2194:
Moisture variability in the Australian core shows dry periods related to frequent warm events (El Niño), correlated to
2072:, Bolivia. Such flooding is documented from 1853, 1865, 1872, 1873, 1886, 1895, 1896, 1907, 1921, 1928, 1929 and 1931.
7924:
Lenton, T. M.; Held, H.; Kriegler, E.; Hall, J. W.; Lucht, W.; Rahmstorf, S.; Schellnhuber, H. J. (12 February 2008).
7400:
Wang, Bin; Luo, Xiao; Yang, Young-Min; Sun, Weiyi; Cane, Mark A.; Cai, Wenju; Yeh, Sang-Wook; Liu, Jian (2019-11-05).
4804:
4424:
4110:
3861:
2855:
1872:, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly,
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feedback. These explanations broadly fall under two categories. In one view, the Bjerknes feedback naturally triggers
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4003:
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1111:
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using other statistical approaches, or that other types should be distinguished, such as standard and extreme ENSO.
527:
Low atmospheric pressure tends to occur over warm water and high pressure occurs over cold water, in part because of
10323:
2531:
691:, which normally blow from east to west along the equator, either weaken or start blowing from the other direction.
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diseases. For example, the El Niño cycle is associated with increased risks of some of the diseases transmitted by
12624:
12593:
10352:
Lee, Sang-Ki; Lopez, Hosmay; Chung, Eui-Seok; DiNezio, Pedro; Yeh, Sang-Wook; Wittenberg, Andrew T. (2018-01-28).
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3156:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2391 pp. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.
208:
An early recorded mention of the term "El Niño" ("The Boy" in Spanish) to refer to climate occurred in 1892, when
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14995:
14957:
14902:
14362:
14176:
13162:
10544:
9714:
9362:
6687:
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Nicholls, N. (2008). "Recent trends in the seasonal and temporal behaviour of the El Niño Southern Oscillation".
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4882:
Druffel, Ellen R. M.; Griffin, Sheila; Vetter, Desiree; Dunbar, Robert B.; Mucciarone, David M. (16 March 2015).
4094:
2707:
2060:
During a time of La Niña, drought affects the coastal regions of Peru and Chile. From December to February,
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strengthens, leading to the development of a band of warm ocean water in the central and east-central equatorial
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9784:
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14970:
14717:
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13849:
13028:
12341:
12208:(Finally, the period in which the El Niño current is present is the same as that of the rains in that region .)
7309:
5140:
3147:
Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2736:
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2159:
1991:
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1103:
171:
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6994:
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890:
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The close relationship between ocean temperatures and the strength of the trade winds was first identified by
209:
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15883:
15796:
15331:
14863:
12944:
12825:
12206:"Finalmente, la época en que se presenta la corriente de Niño, es la misma de las lluvias en aquella región."
10937:"Changes in the marine biota coincident with the 1982-83 El Niño in the northeastern subarctic Pacific Ocean"
9649:
Yuan, Xiaojun (2004). "ENSO-related impacts on Antarctic sea ice: a synthesis of phenomenon and mechanisms".
8584:. United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hurricane Research Division. Archived from
8017:
7072:
4398:
3171:
Collins, M.; An, S-I; Cai, W.; Ganachaud, A.; Guilyardi, E.; Jin, F-F; Jochum, M.; Lengaigne, M.; Power, S.;
2793:
2777:
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2640:
has a PMM-like mode known as the "South Pacific Meridional Mode" (SPMM) that also influences the ENSO cycle.
2422:
2399:
2384:
made landfall in Peru, he noted rainfall in the deserts, the first written record of the impacts of El Niño.
1501:
have now been linked to El Niño. Outbreaks of another mosquito-transmitted disease, Australian encephalitis (
1312:
438:
386:. As a result, the warm West Pacific has on average more cloudiness and rainfall than the cool East Pacific.
12245:
Walker, G. T. (1924) "Correlation in seasonal variations of weather. IX. A further study of world weather,"
11735:; Delaney, Margaret L. (29 July 2005). "Permanent El Niño-Like Conditions During the Pliocene Warm Period".
2365:
is named) coined the term "Southern Oscillation". He and others (including Norwegian-American meteorologist
15779:
15451:
14980:
14975:
14880:
14747:
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12909:
12124:"Droughts in Australia: Their causes, duration, and effect: The views of three government astronomers ,"
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6009:
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that propagate poleward and eastward and are subsequently refracted back from the pole to the tropics. The
2195:
1402:
1290:
1150:
179:
12083:
9206:
Hsiang, S. M.; Meng, K. C.; Cane, M. A. (2011). "Civil conflicts are associated with the global climate".
8382:
8279:"Tipping the ENSO into a permanent El Niño can trigger state transitions in global terrestrial ecosystems"
6435:"Contrasting the termination of moderate and extreme El Niño events in coupled general circulation models"
2783:
2772:
2643:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
644:
14990:
14833:
12974:
12149:
11031:
10117:. Climate Prediction Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 5 June 2014. Archived from
7753:
Zhang, Qiong; Guan, Yue; Yang, Haijun (2008). "ENSO Amplitude Change in Observation and Coupled Models".
4633:
2651:
2496:
2481:
2430:
2415:
1173:
1107:
1059:
109:) to higher-latitude regions of the world. The warming phase of the sea surface temperature is known as "
13364:
12279:
Presidential Symposium on the History of the Atmospheric Sciences: People, Discoveries, and Technologies
9522:"Southern Africa: El Niño, Positive Indian Ocean Dipole Forecast and Humanitarian Impact (October 2023)"
9053:
9023:
8711:"Tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature variability and its relation to El Niño–Southern Oscillation"
8683:
5812:
4757:"Second peak in the far eastern Pacific sea surface temperature anomaly following strong El Niño events"
4696:
3727:
2045:
is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the
393:
change of both oceanic and atmospheric conditions over the tropical Pacific Ocean. These changes affect
35:
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15373:
15146:
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12104:
A Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean -- Part II. The Islands, Etc., of the Pacific Ocean
10410:
WESTERN REGION TECHNICAL ATTACHMENT NO. 97-37 NOVEMBER 21, 1997: El Niño and California Precipitation.
9962:"La Niña, 3 years in a row: a climate scientist on what flood-weary Australians can expect this summer"
8578:"Subject: G2) How does El Niño-Southern Oscillation affect tropical cyclone activity around the globe?"
8083:"Drying of Indian subcontinent by rapid Indian Ocean warming and a weakening land-sea thermal gradient"
7977:"Role of the strengthened El Niño teleconnection in the May 2015 floods over the southern Great Plains"
5611:
Our Affair with El Niño: How We Transformed an Enchanting Peruvian Current Into a Global Climate Hazard
2685: – Theory to explain the periodical variation of the sea surface temperature and thermocline depth
2676:
2358:
2239:
1990:
The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events.
1873:
1436:
in January and July 1998. Since then, scientists have improved both the collection and presentation of
1349:
1281:
1095:
781:
624:
517:
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The regions where the air pressure are measured and compared to generate the Southern Oscillation Index
464:
442:
10495:
Romero-Centeno, Rosario; Zavala-Hidalgo, Jorge; Gallegos, Artemio; O'Brien, James J. (1 August 2003).
10304:
5978:
4884:"Identification of frequent La Niña events during the early 1800s in the east equatorial Pacific"
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12597:
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10157:
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9911:
7101:
6955:
6792:"Cómo afecta El Niño costero a Chile, el fenómeno que ha dejado a más de 60 mil damnificados en Perú"
4476:
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2843:
2158:
Pollen records show changes in precipitation, possibly related to variability of the position of the
1024:
15233:
12562:
12430:
12282:
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11757:
9752:
8660:(Press release). New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 14 October 2015.
8505:
7775:
7175:
5184:
4570:"Here comes El Nino: It's early, likely to be big, sloppy and add even more heat to a warming world"
3843:
2224:. There is also indication that the equatorial areas can be early responders to insolation forcing.
1141:
observed data still increases, by as much as 60% in the last 50 years. A study published in 2023 by
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13077:
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12385:
10726:
7835:"Global heating has likely made El Niños and La Niñas more 'frequent and extreme', new study shows"
7630:
7020:
5916:
5281:
5259:
Kao, Hsun-Ying; Jin-Yi Yu (2009). "Contrasting Eastern-Pacific and Central-Pacific Types of ENSO".
4324:
3276:
3255:
2730:
2347:, noted the "counter-current" and its usefulness for traveling southward along the Peruvian coast.
1790:
1578:
1465:
Extreme weather conditions related to the El Niño cycle correlate with changes in the incidence of
1032:
946:
683:
12108:
11369:
10774:
7808:"El Niño and La Niña have become more extreme and frequent because of climate change, study finds"
7123:
6492:
5662:
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745:
265:
La Niña ("The Girl" in Spanish) is the colder counterpart of El Niño, as part of the broader ENSO
15837:
15759:
15669:
15411:
15383:
15063:
14712:
14690:
14297:
14203:
14186:
14023:
13516:
13381:
13319:
13309:
13202:
12979:
12653:"Analysis of a Reconstructed Oceanic Kelvin Wave Dynamic Height Dataset for the Period 1974–2005"
10839:
10814:
9325:
8844:
8838:
8396:
4672:
4666:
4625:
2615:
2587:
2573:
2546:
769:
664:
648:
303:
291:
269:. In the past, it was also called an anti-El Niño and El Viejo, meaning "the old man."
122:
90:
9083:
Ballester, Joan; Jane C. Burns; Dan Cayan; Yosikazu Nakamura; Ritei Uehara; Xavier Rodó (2013).
8976:
8791:
Latif, M.; Grötzner, A. (2000). "The equatorial Atlantic oscillation and its response to ENSO".
8405:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer"
5639:
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15198:
15115:
15100:
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14198:
14136:
13563:
13249:
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12425:
12380:
11752:
9747:
8500:
7770:
7625:
7200:"Understanding El Nino in Ocean-Atmosphere General Circulation Models: Progress and Challenges"
7170:
5887:
5276:
5179:
2888:
2438:
2350:
2264:
2217:
1963:
associated with warm and very wet weather months in April–October along the coasts of northern
1911:
1910:
of Mexico in the wake of an advancing cold front, which causes winds to accelerate through the
1907:
1751:
1252:
affecting over 60 million people. El Niño-induced droughts may increase the likelihood of
1210:
930:
383:
12254:
11908:
11902:
10964:
6137:"El Niño and its relationship to changing background conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean"
3676:
2512:. This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from
2456:
In the Pacific, strong MJO activity is often observed 6 to 12 months prior to the onset of an
708:
It is thought that there have been at least 30 El Niño events between 1900 and 2024, with the
15825:
15471:
15348:
15156:
14606:
14529:
14031:
14013:
13521:
13416:
13051:
12874:
12869:
12809:
12789:
12043:
10866:
10794:
9984:
9899:
8869:
3256:"Disertación sobre las corrientes oceánicas y estudios de la correinte Peruana ó de Humboldt"
3135:
2695:
1716:
1182:
1052:
327:
295:
39:
9711:"channelnewsasia.com - February 2010 is driest month for S'pore since records began in 1869"
6713:
Hu, Zeng-Zhen; Huang, Bohua; Zhu, Jieshun; Kumar, Arun; McPhaden, Michael J. (6 June 2018).
4238:
3791:
3307:
2406:
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14051:
13754:
13611:
13476:
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12705:
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12372:
12150:"The behavior of the short-period atmospheric pressure variation over the Earth's surface,"
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11805:
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11697:
11654:
11603:
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11500:
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8492:
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8381:
Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G.; et al. (2021).
8347:
8290:
8205:
8194:"Interacting tipping elements increase risk of climate domino effects under global warming"
8143:
8094:
8032:
7988:
7975:
Simon Wang, S.-Y.; Huang, Wan-Ru; Hsu, Huang-Hsiung; Gillies, Robert R. (16 October 2015).
7878:
7762:
7711:
7666:
7617:
7570:
7484:
7413:
7343:
7285:
7214:
7162:
6855:
6625:
6576:
6507:
6446:
6405:
6358:
6307:
6249:
6197:
6148:
6101:
6050:
5955:
5851:
5840:"Different types of La Niña events and different responses of the tropical atmosphere"
5733:
5677:
5546:
5491:
5446:
5405:
5361:
5317:
5268:
5228:
5171:
5122:
4897:
4768:
4662:
3378:
3188:
3094:
2748:
2701:
2186:
1903:
942:
655:
El Niño conditions are established when the Walker circulation weakens or reverses and the
178:
are uncertain, although climate change exacerbates the effects of droughts and floods. The
12734:
12304:
11068:
8909:
8192:
Wunderling, Nico; Donges, Jonathan F.; Kurths, Jürgen; Winkelmann, Ricarda (3 June 2021).
7402:"Historical change of El Niño properties sheds light on future changes of extreme El Niño"
3265:(Dissertation on the ocean currents and studies of the Peruvian, or Humboldt's, current),
2411:
2081:
1656:
During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the subtropical
751:
8:
15681:
15456:
14680:
14675:
14213:
14098:
14093:
13819:
13491:
13451:
13167:
12949:
12939:
12848:
10409:
8016:
Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Masson, Sébastien (15 November 2014).
6293:"Natural variability of the central Pacific El Niño event on multi-centennial timescales"
5764:
5054:
4728:
4070:
3509:
2682:
2637:
2442:
1798:
1755:
1696:
1657:
1594:
1520:
1516:
1342:
1153:
summarized the state of the art of research in 2021 into the future of ENSO as follows:
1066:
756:
668:
446:
155:. In turn, this leads to warmer sea surface temperatures (called El Niño), a weaker
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12709:
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12553:
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11809:
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7218:
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6859:
6818:"¿Se viene La Niña en Perú? Enfen explica lo que podría suceder en los siguientes meses"
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4206:
3382:
3297:", undoubtedly because it becomes more visible and palpable after the Christmas season.)
3192:
3098:
2966:. New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 27 February 2007.
151:
result in a surge of warm surface waters to the east and reduced ocean upwelling on the
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12088:
Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress: Held in London, 1895, Volume 6
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10669:. New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 19 October 2015.
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9385:
9239:
9183:
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7925:
7894:
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7735:
7684:
7507:
7472:
7444:
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7240:
6913:(in Spanish). Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño
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6462:
6374:
6215:
6166:
6117:
6074:
5701:
5515:
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5197:
4915:
4833:. Climate Prediction Center (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
4786:
3831:
3291:, sin duda porque ella se hace mas visible y palpable después de la Pascua de Navidad."
2658:, PMM activity is likely to increase, and some scientists have proposed that a loss of
2362:
2353:, in 1888, suggested droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time;
1995:
1720:
1618:
1610:
1449:
1091:
789:
656:
554:
458:
358:
164:
156:
129:
11220:
9808:"The Predictability of Interdecadal Changes in ENSO Activity and ENSO Teleconnections"
5911:
For evidence of La Niña Modoki, and identification of La Niña Modoki year:
5350:"Different types of La Niña events and different responses of the tropical atmosphere"
4976:
3006:
2064:
is wetter than normal. La Niña causes higher than normal rainfall in the central
481:
15743:
15406:
15151:
14917:
14700:
14663:
14450:
14404:
14238:
14228:
14171:
14151:
13834:
13799:
13734:
13714:
13704:
13586:
13274:
13132:
13009:
12522:
12460:
11984:
11961:
11912:
11887:
11831:
11770:
11717:
11670:
11619:
11567:
11516:
11476:
11373:
11319:
11274:
11224:
11185:
10993:
10886:
10383:
9837:
9780:
9678:
9632:
9415:
9231:
9188:
9170:
8889:
8848:
8820:
8686:(Press release). Tonga Ministry of Information and Communications. 11 November 2015.
8363:
8320:
8308:
8235:
8223:
8171:
8112:
7957:
7898:
7727:
7552:
7512:
7449:
7431:
7305:
6893:
6881:
6738:
6378:
6292:
6121:
6066:
5988:. Australian Government Cotton Research and Development Corporation. pp. 34–35.
5615:
5609:
5564:
5507:
5306:"On the definition of El Niño and associated seasonal average U.S. Weather anomalies"
4919:
4790:
4676:
3979:
3810:
3707:
3010:
2823:
2659:
2629:
2381:
2321:
1864:
1841:
1802:
1724:
1482:
1338:
1318:
993:
934:
793:
558:
433:
416:
12579:
11782:
11528:
11348:
11193:
10530:
10429:
10395:
9849:
9386:"Climatic and local stressor interactions threaten tropical forests and coral reefs"
8052:
7792:
7688:
7244:
6535:
6466:
6219:
5917:"Extreme La Niña 2010/11 and the vigorous flood at the north-east of Australia"
5705:
5519:
5468:
5201:
4139:
4064:
3615:
3475:
2636:
oceans and alter precipitation on the continents surrounding the Pacific Ocean. The
2102:
epoch 10,000 years ago. Different modes of ENSO-like events have been registered in
1325:, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the
239:
applied to an annual weak warm ocean current that ran southwards along the coast of
167:
that are bordering the Pacific Ocean and are dependent on agriculture and fishing.
15786:
15353:
15336:
15277:
15168:
14932:
14646:
14519:
14455:
14193:
14161:
14131:
13940:
13925:
13794:
13729:
13621:
13536:
13466:
13391:
13172:
13142:
13072:
13067:
12754:
12713:
12672:
12567:
12512:
12435:
12390:
11949:
11875:
11843:
11821:
11813:
11762:
11705:
11662:
11631:
11611:
11579:
11559:
11508:
11462:
11454:
11418:
11382:
11309:
11301:
11262:
11216:
11181:
11146:
10956:
10643:
10516:
10373:
10189:
10067:
9991:
9827:
9757:
9666:
9620:
9568:
9461:
9405:
9397:
9305:
9266:
9243:
9223:
9178:
9162:
9107:
8808:
8771:
8730:
8549:
8510:
8355:
8298:
8278:
8213:
8193:
8161:
8151:
8102:
8040:
7996:
7947:
7937:
7886:
7780:
7739:
7719:
7674:
7635:
7578:
7502:
7492:
7439:
7421:
7351:
7293:
7230:
7222:
7180:
6871:
6863:
6726:
6633:
6598:
6584:
6523:
6515:
6454:
6413:
6366:
6315:
6257:
6205:
6170:
6156:
6109:
6078:
6058:
5963:
5859:
5792:
5693:
5685:
5554:
5499:
5454:
5413:
5369:
5325:
5286:
5236:
5189:
5130:
4905:
4776:
3999:
3956:
3927:
3802:
3386:
3196:
3102:
3058:
3048:
3002:
2163:
1979:
populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the
1794:
1509:
1377:
1353:
1253:
1233:
428:
390:
363:
331:
12129:
11666:
10015:
7723:
6910:
2679: – Physical mechanism affecting sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean
2437:(NCAR). It is a large-scale coupling between atmospheric circulation and tropical
2377:
has become common worldwide, with all regions having suffered "severe bleaching".
2324:. The extreme weather produced by El Niño in 1876–77 gave rise to the most deadly
2269:
2242:) and Quasi-biennial Oscillation (QBO), and possibly also insolation variability (
15738:
15659:
15623:
15552:
15526:
15514:
15431:
15363:
15238:
15095:
14707:
14658:
14636:
13998:
13894:
13844:
13809:
13769:
13661:
13631:
13481:
13431:
13341:
13299:
13232:
13157:
13117:
12969:
12261:
12225:
12202:
12183:
12156:
12136:
11994:
11512:
11150:
10801:
10781:
10482:
10459:
10436:
10416:
10168:
7702:
Fedorov, Alexey V.; Philander, S. George (16 June 2000). "Is El Niño Changing?".
7554:
7473:"Arctic sea-ice loss is projected to lead to more frequent strong El Niño events"
7126:. New Zealand: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 2007-02-27.
4948:
4142:
3283:
3262:
3172:
3153:
3142:
2607:
2542:
2374:
2210:
2143:
2069:
2061:
2054:
1975:, El Niño reduces the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large
1845:
1549:
1249:
561:
while La Niña causes a negative SSH anomaly (lowered sea level) via contraction.
528:
463:
The three phases of ENSO relate to the Walker circulation, which was named after
394:
354:
350:
266:
12493:"Detection of a 40–50 Day Oscillation in the Zonal Wind in the Tropical Pacific"
12016:
11028:"La Niña follows El Niño, the GLOBE El Niño Experiment continues"
9082:
8327:
8123:
7558:
6434:
6348:
5032:
3806:
3176:
15691:
15547:
15489:
15484:
15326:
15215:
14947:
14942:
14937:
14785:
14722:
14460:
14440:
14399:
14320:
14108:
14103:
14008:
14003:
13839:
13779:
13774:
13506:
13396:
13217:
13152:
13127:
10494:
9806:
Power, Scott; Haylock, Malcolm; Colman, Rob; Wang, Xiangdong (1 October 2006).
8335:
7890:
7497:
7468:
5797:
3976:
Chapter 12: El Niño. In: The changing flow of energy through the climate system
3032:
2366:
2354:
1648:
During El Niño years: As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the
1206:
1177:
1131:
966:
904:
420:
412:
367:
175:
144:
137:
106:
13353:
12805:
12694:"The Association of the Evolution of Intraseasonal Oscillations to ENSO Phase"
11709:
11266:
11207:
Holmgren (2001). "El Niño effects on the dynamics of terrestrial ecosystems".
9981:
By Peter Hannam and Laura Chung. The Sydney Morning Herald. November 25, 2021.
9942:
9670:
8554:
8529:
8044:
7784:
7297:
6867:
6730:
6458:
6418:
6393:
6370:
5864:
5839:
5459:
5434:
5374:
5349:
5241:
5216:
4095:
https://eospso.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/ElNino-LaNina_508.pdf
3790:
Wang, Chunzai; Deser, Clara; Yu, Jin-Yi; DiNezio, Pedro; Clement, Amy (2017).
2305:
682:
This warming causes a shift in the atmospheric circulation, leading to higher
15877:
15764:
15696:
15421:
15243:
15228:
15163:
15058:
14278:
14126:
14046:
13935:
13854:
13829:
13764:
13694:
13601:
13496:
13373:
13294:
13254:
13227:
13137:
13087:
12914:
12894:
12526:
12050:
Description of the Coast of Peru, Between 19° and 16° 20' South Latitude, ...
11458:
10648:
10627:
10387:
10131:
9841:
9174:
8585:
8367:
8312:
8227:
7435:
6885:
5568:
3888:
2887:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 235–336. Archived from
2595:
2509:
2426:
2103:
1972:
1891:
1885:
1786:
1445:
1433:
1221:
1217:), which was left out of the 2022 list, but included in some subsequent ones.
950:
672:
660:
509:
379:
225:
197:
94:
69:
11766:
11386:
10960:
10548:
8840:
Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World
8303:
8277:
Duque-Villegas, Mateo; Salazar, Juan Fernando; Rendón, Angela Maria (2019).
8218:
8156:
7942:
7466:
7426:
6876:
6843:
6714:
5503:
4938:
4883:
4668:
Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World
2068:, which in turn causes catastrophic flooding on the Llanos de Mojos of
1197:
15649:
15446:
15090:
15080:
14727:
14611:
14524:
14233:
14181:
14121:
14072:
13950:
13945:
13920:
13904:
13879:
13596:
13486:
13426:
13212:
13122:
13097:
12994:
12718:
12693:
11835:
11774:
11674:
11623:
11571:
11323:
11305:
11228:
9419:
9401:
9235:
9192:
9140:
8334:
Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim; Rahmstorf, Stefan; Winkelmann, Ricarda (2016).
8272:
8270:
8187:
8185:
8175:
8116:
7961:
7731:
7516:
7453:
7226:
6589:
6564:
6070:
5511:
5290:
3014:
2663:
2591:
2554:
2550:
2545:
and heat transfer to the troposphere is enhanced over the anomalously warm
2257:
2046:
1919:
1691:
1649:
1642:
1614:
1478:
1389:
1191:
Tipping points in the climate system § Formerly considered tipping elements
954:
375:
338:
334:, is pushed downwards in the West Pacific due to this water accumulation.
299:
221:
133:
12814:
Provides current phase of ENSO according to the Australian interpretation.
12113:
M. Lartigue is among the first who noticed a counter or southerly current.
12045:
Description de la Côte Du Pérou, Entre 19° et 16° 20' de Latitude Sud, ...
11520:
10133:
10086:"La Niña is coming. Here's what that means for winter weather in the U.S."
9270:
8812:
5944:"Anomalous tropical ocean circulation associated with La Niña Modoki"
4650:
El Niño conditions are considered to be present in the equatorial Pacific.
4207:
International Research Institute for Climate and Society (February 2002).
3344:
2580:
1785:
La Niña causes mostly the opposite effects of El Niño: above-average
15676:
15193:
15185:
14435:
14223:
13955:
13884:
13749:
13689:
13656:
13646:
13641:
13526:
13461:
13421:
13411:
13386:
13269:
13242:
13222:
13182:
13147:
13004:
12759:
12571:
12439:
11422:
11129:
Vargas (2006). "Biological effects of El Niño on the Galápagos penguin".
10734:
Samoa Meteorology Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
10378:
10353:
8776:
8751:
8359:
8001:
7976:
7679:
7654:
7356:
7331:
6638:
6613:
6519:
6320:
6262:
6210:
6186:"El Niño variability in simple ocean data assimilation (SODA), 1871–2008"
6185:
6161:
6136:
6113:
5979:"Introducing La Niña Modoki: She's 'similar but different' ..."
5968:
5943:
5881:"Influência dos ENOS Canônico e Modoki na precipitação da América do Sul"
5689:
5559:
5534:
5418:
5393:
5330:
5305:
4910:
4318:
3960:
3932:
3915:
3107:
3082:
3053:
3036:
2878:
2611:
2599:
2559:
2558:
freshwater fluxes and thus induce sea surface temperature, salinity, and
2466:
2221:
2204:
1860:
1662:
1630:
1437:
1427:
1000:
987:
Comité Multisectorial Encargado del Estudio Nacional del Fenómeno El Niño
688:
536:
532:
323:
311:
148:
13020:
12735:"Atmospheric bridge, oceanic tunnel, and global climate teleconnections"
11826:
11817:
11615:
11563:
10706:
10283:"With El Niño likely, what climate impacts are favored for this summer?"
9603:
Turner, John (2004). "The El Niño–Southern Oscillation and Antarctica".
9227:
8267:
8182:
7559:"The impact of global warming on the tropical Pacific Ocean and El Niño"
6565:"Two types of El Niño events: Cold Tongue El Niño and Warm Pool El Niño"
6527:
6062:
5697:
5050:"La Niña calls it quits. Is El Niño paying us a return visit?"
3177:"The impact of global warming on the tropical Pacific Ocean and El Niño"
2316:
El Niño may have led to the demise of the Moche and other pre-Columbian
1746:
towards Australia, thus increasing moisture in the country. Conversely,
15708:
15085:
14041:
13889:
13864:
13759:
13739:
13666:
13651:
13636:
13626:
13591:
13511:
13331:
13326:
13289:
13284:
13279:
13177:
12899:
12817:
12778:"Current map of sea surface temperature anomalies in the Pacific Ocean"
12677:
12652:
12601:
12052:] (in French). Paris, France: L'Imprimerie Royale. pp. 22–23.
11467:
9832:
9807:
9326:"El Niño increases seedling mortality even in drought-tolerant forests"
8107:
8082:
7184:
6795:
4180:
2598:. In its positive state, it is characterized by the coupling of weaker
2517:
2335:
The phenomenon had long been of interest because of its effects on the
1980:
1915:
1837:
1739:
1606:
1537:
1326:
1202:
1073:
797:
254:
102:
14273:
12394:
11294:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
9354:
9310:
9285:
9166:
9112:
8735:
8710:
7867:"Antropogenic impacts on twentieth - century ENSO variability changes"
7639:
7235:
4781:
4756:
3146:
3063:
2538:
2461:
2457:
1747:
1735:
1229:
604:
591:
14653:
14113:
13975:
13960:
13874:
13719:
13558:
13553:
13336:
13264:
13192:
13112:
13102:
13059:
12806:"ENSO Outlook – An alert system for the El Niño–Southern Oscillation"
12726:
11879:
10661:
10659:
10607:
Arnerich, Paul A. "Tehuantepecer Winds of the West Coast of Mexico".
10354:"On the Fragile Relationship Between El Niño and California Rainfall"
9591:
9573:
9548:
8752:"Why do some El Niños have no impact on tropical North Atlantic SST?"
6614:"Anomalous tropical ocean circulation associated with La Niña Modoki"
5193:
3978:. Cambridge New York, NY Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
2500:
2283:
2042:
2038:
1984:
1899:
1712:
1666:
1490:
1237:
1225:
774:
676:
346:
315:
307:
248:
229:
12335:
10071:
9624:
8528:
Patricola, Christina M.; Saravanan, R.; Chang, Ping (15 July 2014).
8250:"Tipping Points: Why we might not be able to reverse climate change"
7582:
7273:
6844:"The very strong coastal El Niño in 1925 in the far-eastern Pacific"
5110:
3801:. Coral Reefs of the World. Vol. 8. Springer. pp. 85–106.
3728:"Wind Driven Surface Currents: Upwelling and Downwelling Background"
3200:
2155:
12000ya / Bay of Guayaquil, Ecuador / Pollen content of marine core
1625:
and increased poleward heat fluxes in these sectors, as well as the
639:
14208:
13930:
13789:
13681:
13671:
13616:
13092:
11904:
Floods, Famines and Emperors: El Niño and the Fate of Civilizations
10476:
El Niño (ENSO) Related Rainfall Patterns Over the Tropical Pacific.
10228:"If la Niña continues, what does that mean for Oregon this summer?"
10162:
ENSO Impacts on United States Winter Precipitation and Temperature.
9465:
9205:
8575:
6612:
Shinoda, Toshiaki; Hurlburt, Harley E.; Metzger, E. Joseph (2011).
6490:
6291:
Yeh, S.-W.; Kirtman, B.P.; Kug, J.-S.; Park, W.; Latif, M. (2011).
5942:
Shinoda, Toshiaki; Hurlburt, Harley E.; Metzger, E. Joseph (2011).
5765:
The Enhanced Drying Effect of Central Pacific El Niño on US Winters
5660:
5535:"La Niña Modoki impacts Australia autumn rainfall variability"
3407:"The Strongest El Nino in Decades Is Going to Mess With Everything"
2251:
2229:
2135:
2099:
2050:
2019:
2018:
moved southward, so some catches decreased while others increased.
1999:
1959:, causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme.
1670:
1626:
1498:
1470:
1466:
1257:
501:
Southern Oscillation Index correlated with mean sea level pressure.
11953:
11932:
Grove, Richard H. (1998). "Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño".
11287:
10656:
7655:"Are historical records sufficient to constrain ENSO simulations?"
6491:
Takahashi, K.; Montecinos, A.; Goubanova, K.; Dewitte, B. (2011).
5661:
Takahashi, K.; Montecinos, A.; Goubanova, K.; Dewitte, B. (2011).
4944:
The following sources identified the listed "La Niña years":
4232:
2622:(ITCZ), which tends to shift north in response to a positive PMM.
262:
fishermen named the weather phenomenon after the newborn Christ.
14631:
14289:
14077:
14067:
13237:
13207:
12954:
12934:
10628:"Reconstruction of past climatic events using oxygen isotopes in
10448:
9143:"Association of Kawasaki disease with tropospheric wind patterns"
7197:
6821:
3797:. In Glynn, Peter W.; Manzello, Derek P.; Enochs, Ian C. (eds.).
2818:
Wald, Lucien (2021). "Definitions of time: from year to second".
2633:
2277:
2243:
2023:
2015:
2003:
1968:
1956:
1829:
1743:
1728:
1622:
1474:
1411:
1322:
920:
371:
244:
152:
98:
85:) is a global climate phenomenon that emerges from variations in
12228:(The counter-current "El Niño", on the northern coast of Peru),
8191:
7467:
Jiu,Liping; Song,Mirong; Zhu,Zhu; Horton, Radley M; Hu,Yongyun;
7274:"Future changes of El Niño in two global coupled climate models"
5879:
Tedeschi, Renata G.; Cavalcanti, Iracema F. A. (23 April 2014).
5076:"El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) diagnostic discussion"
4290:"What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?"
3758:"What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?"
3234:"What is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a nutshell?"
1781:
Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the United States
1102:
In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal
741:
578:
170:
In climate change science, ENSO is known as one of the internal
31:
30:"El Niño" and "ENSO" redirect here. For the Japanese motif, see
15644:
13784:
13197:
12999:
12586:
12533:
11644:
10543:
9546:
8430:"August Climate Bulletins / Summer 2023: the hottest on record"
8333:
6493:"ENSO regimes: Reinterpreting the canonical and Modoki El Niño"
5915:
Platonov, V.; Semenov, E.; Sokolikhina, E. (13 February 2014).
4375:. National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Archived from
2625:
2603:
2513:
2325:
2034:
2011:
1895:
1863:. During La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the
1856:
1833:
1768:
1758:, where they would tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate.
1653:
had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell.
1605:
Many ENSO linkages exist in the high southern latitudes around
1494:
1407:
1385:
1241:
1045:
513:
12459:. Townsville, Qld.: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
12084:"The Counter-Current "El Niño," on the Coast of Northern Peru"
11856:
11435:
10029:"What are the prospects for the weather in the coming winter?"
9283:
8249:
5394:"La Niña Modoki impacts Australia autumn rainfall variability"
4724:"La Niña calls it quits. Is El Niño paying us a return visit?"
2488:
2369:) are generally credited with identifying the El Niño effect.
1395:
1011:
804:
699:
318:
is typically around 0.5 m (1.5 ft) higher than near
143:
A key mechanism of ENSO is the Bjerknes feedback (named after
15558:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
14641:
14146:
13965:
13744:
13699:
11244:
10134:"The Local Impacts of ENSO across the Northeastern Caribbean"
9383:
9257:
Quirin Schiermeier (2011). "Climate cycles drive civil war".
7372:"Climate Change is Making El Niños More Intense, Study Finds"
7071:
4397:
4373:"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?"
2336:
2290:
2065:
2027:
1825:
1486:
1381:
1334:
1330:
1142:
86:
12622:
11489:
10132:
San Juan, Puerto Rico Weather Forecast Office (2010-09-02).
9549:"South African extreme weather during the 1877–1878 El Niño"
8966:"Fair Weather or Foul? The Macroeconomic Effects of El Niño"
8446:
5215:
Lee, Sang-Ki; R. Atlas; D. Enfield; C. Wang; H. Liu (2013).
5214:
5161:
4427:. United States Climate Prediction Center. 1 February 2019.
2098:
Evidence is also strong for El Niño events during the early
1754:
accompany ENSO events, and can be exacerbated by a positive
419:
system where the associated changes in one component of the
59:
50:
13578:
12518:
10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<0702:DOADOI>2.0.CO;2
12452:
11057:. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. p. 10.
10522:
10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2628:iotwca>2.0.co;2
9762:
10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<1419:ioenoe>2.0.co;2
8964:
Cashin, Paul; Mohaddes, Kamiar & Raissi, Mehdi (2014).
8515:
10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<1419:ioenoe>2.0.co;2
8276:
7100:. NOAA. Global Climate Dashboard > Climate Variability.
5136:
10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<1697:LIOENO>2.0.CO;2
4979:(Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
4040:
3895:. San Diego, California: University of California–San Diego
3542:. NOAA National Weather Service Climate Prediction Centre.
3392:
10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2771:TDOENO>2.0.CO;2
2465:
developed rapidly during July 1982 in direct response to a
2449:
2309:
Average equatorial Pacific temperatures, published in 2009.
2007:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1935:
of the North Island mountain ranges and the Southern Alps.
1869:
1373:
1245:
1176:
in Earth's climate. Global warming can strengthen the ENSO
1006:
319:
298:
is roughly 8–10 °C (14–18 °F) cooler than in the
259:
240:
213:
12219:"La contra-corriente "El Niño", en la costa norte de Perú"
11687:
11592:
10307:. Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2 December 2015.
8080:
7097:
5914:
5586:. Society for Environmental Communications. Archived from
5109:
Trenberth, Kevin E.; Stepaniak, David P. (15 April 2001).
4881:
4514:"El Niño Conditions Strengthen, Could Last Through Summer"
4065:
International Research Institute for Climate and Society.
4037:"Why are there so many ENSO indexes, instead of just one?"
3683:. International Research Institute for Climate and Society
3536:"The Southern Oscillation and its Links to the ENSO Cycle"
2883:. In Solomon, S.; D. Qin; M. Manning; et al. (eds.).
1894:, a violent mountain-gap wind in between the mountains of
1167:
796:
can have different characteristics due to lower or higher
564:
495:
15734:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
12128:(Melbourne, Victoria), 29 December 1888, pp. 1455–1456.
11541:
10497:"Isthmus of Tehuantepec Wind Climatology and ENSO Signal"
10136:. National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters.
10088:
8380:
7974:
6954:
4370:
4105:
2842:
322:
because of the buildup of water in the West Pacific. The
281:
12407:
10625:
10579:"World Wind Regimes – Central America Gap Wind Tutorial"
8931:
8749:
8626:
8624:
8605:. United States Climate Prediction Center. 27 May 2015.
8603:"Background Information: East Pacific Hurricane Outlook"
7332:"Shifts in ENSO coupling processes under global warming"
7330:
Philip, Sjoukje; van Oldenborgh, Geert Jan (June 2006).
7149:
Merryfield, William J. (2006). "Changes to ENSO under CO
6960:"ENSO: Recent Evolution, Current Status and Predictions"
4823:
3437:"How the Pacific Ocean changes weather around the world"
2332:
alone in northern China killed up to 13 million people.
2010:
followed cooler water down the continental slope, while
1705:
Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia
1686:
difference from normal, the larger the rainfall change.
1444:
When El Niño conditions last for many months, extensive
1029:
International Research Institute for Climate and Society
357:. Colder water from deeper in the ocean rises along the
12281:. American Meteorological Society (AMS). Archived from
11399:
11335:
11333:
10049:
9896:
The beasts to our east: What are El Ninos and La Ninas?
9871:"What is El Niño and what might it mean for Australia?"
9865:
9863:
9861:
9859:
8632:"What is El Niño and what might it mean for Australia?"
8527:
5258:
4346:"What is El Niño and what might it mean for Australia?"
4287:
4235:"Global Patterns – El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)"
4145:; Blair Trewin; Karina von Shuckmann; Russell S. Vose.
3649:
3647:
3645:
3643:
3231:
3081:
Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T. (December 2013).
1577:
Between 50,000 and 100,000 people died during the
953:, but decreases the occurrence of severe storms in the
11795:
10775:
Pacific ENSO Update: 4th Quarter, 2006. Vol. 12 No. 4.
9979:
What is La Nina and what does it mean for your summer?
9805:
9355:"FAQs | El Nino Theme Page – A comprehensive Resource"
8129:
8015:
7923:
7523:
6611:
6391:
5941:
4183:"Frequently Asked Questions about El Niño and La Niña"
4181:
Climate Prediction Center Internet Team (2012-04-26).
4111:"Frequently Asked Questions about El Niño and La Niña"
4000:"Climate glossary — Southern Oscilliation Index (SOI)"
3695:
3470:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
2958:
2956:
2881:"Observations: Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change"
2848:"Frequently Asked Questions about El Niño and La Niña"
2234:
2.8 Mya / Spain / Lacustrine laminated sediments core
1264:
759:
in November 2007, showing La Niña conditions
224:, Jesus, because periodic warming in the Pacific near
191:
15575:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
12333:
12017:"Dimensions of need - People and populations at risk"
10626:
Martínez-Ballesté, Andrea; Ezcurra, Exequiel (2018).
10585:
Monterey, Marine Meteorology Division. Archived from
9992:"Climate glossary — Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)"
8914:
California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Region
8621:
8576:
Landsea, Christopher W; Dorst, Neal M (1 June 2014).
6842:
Takahashi, Ken; Martínez, Alejandra G. (2019-06-01).
5347:
4067:"Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and Equatorial SOI"
3610:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3341:
California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Region
3170:
2987:
2985:
2874:
2872:
2126:
Age of archive / Location / Type of archive or proxy
1515:
ENSO may be linked to civil conflicts. Scientists at
610:
La Niña phase: Warm water is farther west than usual.
125:, which is coupled with the sea temperature change.
12732:
12540:
Zhang, Chidong (2005). "Madden-Julian Oscillation".
11330:
10690:
10688:
10632:
growing in three anthropic oases in Baja California"
10453:
La Nina could mean dry summer in Midwest and Plains.
10351:
9856:
8963:
7329:
5343:
5341:
4697:"Very strong 1997-98 Pacific warm episode (El Niño)"
4425:"Historical El Niño/La Niña episodes (1950–present)"
4338:
3880:
3640:
2584:
The SST and wind anomalies of the PMM positive phase
1081:
415:
in 1969. Bjerknes also hypothesized that ENSO was a
9085:"Kawasaki disease and ENSO-driven wind circulation"
8597:
8595:
7271:
6232:
5607:
4323:. World Meteorological Organization. Archived from
4185:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
3792:"El Niño and Southern Oscillation (ENSO): A Review"
3785:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3459:
2953:
2932:
2930:
2725:
2010–2013 Southern United States and Mexico drought
1417:
705:
Timeline of El Niño episodes between 1900 and 2024.
679:of cold water occurs less or not at all offshore.
546:Although the Southern Oscillation Index has a long
12623:Jon Gottschalck & Wayne Higgins (2008-02-16).
12275:"Who Discovered the El Niño-Southern Oscillation?"
10934:
10305:"El Niño: What are the El Niño impacts in Canada?"
9462:"Slow response to East Africa famine 'cost lives'"
9256:
8422:
8336:"Why the right climate target was agreed in Paris"
7557:; Vecchi, Gabe; Wittenberg, Andrew (23 May 2010).
6134:
5905:
5878:
5108:
4319:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
3789:
3601:
3364:
2982:
2869:
2654:have been attributed to positive PMM events. With
128:El Niño is associated with higher than normal air
13994:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
12491:Madden, Roland A.; Julian, Paul R. (1971-07-01).
11730:
10721:
10719:
10685:
10280:
9586:
9584:
9437:
9390:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
7079:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
7077:"El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) June 2009"
6841:
6290:
6233:Newman, M.; Shin, S.-I.; Alexander, M.A. (2011).
6040:
5663:"Reinterpreting the Canonical and Modoki El Nino"
5338:
4405:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
4403:"El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) June 2009"
4364:
4283:
4281:
4237:. North Carolina State University. Archived from
3573:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
15875:
15775:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
10274:
10253:
10251:
10249:
9777:"Recent heavy rain not caused by global warming"
9492:"La Niña weather likely to last for months"
8592:
8132:"Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system"
7926:"Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system"
7701:
6663:Instituto Oceanográfico de la Armada del Ecuador
5581:
3940:
3776:
3751:
3749:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3080:
2927:
2642:In the early 21st century, the intensity of the
13984:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
12798:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
12356:
12247:Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department
10696:"ENSO Update, Weak La Nina Conditions Favoured"
9440:"How ENSO leads to a cascade of global impacts"
8402:
7930:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
7529:
7406:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
7272:Meehl, G. A.; Teng, H.; Branstator, G. (2006).
7207:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
7142:
7048:"El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation"
6967:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
6934:"How will we know when an El Niño has arrived?"
6712:
6432:
5922:. EGU General Assembly / Geophysical Research.
5791:Monitoring the Pendulum (Report). IOP Science.
5584:"El Nino, La Nina and the Indian sub-continent"
5481:
5029:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
5005:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
4957:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
4626:"El Niño Outlook ( June 2023 - December 2023 )"
4391:
3855:
3853:
3484:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
3371:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
3136:Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis
2910:"El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation"
2666:sea ice will induce future positive PMM events.
2549:, this ENSO-related tropical forcing generates
1711:Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in
1317:Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the
800:and cooler or warmer sea surface temperatures.
27:Climate phenomenon that periodically fluctuates
10869:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
10716:
10324:"El Nino "flavors" affect California rainfall"
10035:. United Kingdom Met Office. 29 October 2015.
9581:
8872:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
7601:
7399:
7191:
6392:L'Heureux, M.; Collins, D.; Hu, Z.-Z. (2012).
5303:
4371:Climate Prediction Center (19 December 2005).
4278:
3558:
2474:
1994:due to overfishing following the 1972 El Niño
1983:industry. The reduction in upwelling leads to
1345:, which would favor the Japanese archipelago.
14510:History of climate change policy and politics
14305:
13036:
12985:Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern
12833:
12691:
12650:
12594:"Madden-Julian oscillation forecast research"
12446:
12362:
10606:
10257:
10246:
10196:
10184:. Canada's top ten weather stories for 2008.
8790:
8571:
8569:
8567:
8565:
8018:"The Curious Case of Indian Ocean Warming*,+"
7752:
7607:
6931:
6135:McPhaden, M.J.; Lee, T.; McClurg, D. (2011).
4511:
4156:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
4115:National Centers for Environmental Prediction
3859:
3755:
3746:
3669:
3476:"What are "El Niño" and "La Niña"?"
3218:
2939:"December's ENSO Update: Close, but no cigar"
2936:
2852:National Centers for Environmental Prediction
1992:Peruvian fisheries collapsed during the 1970s
1609:. Specifically, El Niño conditions result in
629:Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern
186:
12790:"Southern Oscillation diagnostic discussion"
12490:
12453:Marshall, Paul; Schuttenberg, Heidi (2006).
10667:"El Niño's impacts on New Zealand's climate"
9727:
9644:
9642:
9433:
9431:
9429:
8709:Enfield, David B.; Mayer, Dennis A. (1997).
8708:
8482:
7863:
7695:
6759:ZENTENO, HERMOGENES EDGARD GONZALES (2022).
4859:(Report). Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
4754:
3850:
3701:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3041:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
2991:
2392:
1460:
740:"La Niña" redirects here. For the ship, see
671:), including the area off the west coast of
651:(SST) anomalies in the east tropical Pacific
14627:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
11900:
10928:
10891:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
10188:. 2008-12-29. number 3. Archived from
9949:. Bureau of Meteorology. 17 September 2023.
9596:
8894:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
8403:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022).
7546:
7323:
6816:Blume, Daniela Valdivia (19 January 2024).
6706:
6010:"Are we heading for a La Niña Modoki?"
5734:Different Impacts of Various El Niño Events
5636:"Study Finds El Niños are Growing Stronger"
5435:"How Many ENSO Flavors Can We Distinguish?"
4443:
3799:Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific
3720:
3704:The El Niño-Southern Oscillation Phenomenon
3702:Sarachik, Edward S.; Cane, Mark A. (2010).
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3118:
2162:, as well as the latitudinal maxima of the
1396:Remote influence on tropical Atlantic Ocean
220:The capitalized term El Niño refers to the
15856:
15844:
15301:
14312:
14298:
13043:
13029:
12840:
12826:
12401:
12160:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
11925:
10793:Pacific ENSO Applications Climate Center.
10773:Pacific ENSO Applications Climate Center.
9076:
8939:"Study reveals economic impact of El Niño"
8861:
8827:
8582:Tropical Cyclone Frequently Asked Question
8562:
8478:
8476:
8432:. Copernicus Programme. 6 September 2023.
7746:
7652:
7265:
7148:
7045:
6995:"ENSO Tracker: About ENSO and the Tracker"
6715:"On the variety of coastal El Niño events"
6682:
6680:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6563:Kug, J.-S.; Jin, F.-F.; An, S.-I. (2009).
5575:
5297:
5047:
4997:ENSO Impacts on the U.S. – Previous Events
4721:
4655:
3946:
3616:"El Niño, La Niña and Australia's Climate"
3358:
3030:
2739:(unprecedented severity fueled by La Niña)
2566:
2220:periods (23 ky) related to changes in the
2176:Pallcacocha Lake, Ecuador / Sediment core
1526:
1508:ENSO conditions have also been related to
212:told the geographical society congress in
15596:
15402:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
14535:United Nations Climate Change conferences
13050:
12758:
12717:
12676:
12561:
12516:
12456:A reef manager's guide to coral bleaching
12429:
12384:
12230:Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima
12188:Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima
12077:
12075:
11825:
11756:
11466:
11313:
11052:
11022:
11020:
10985:
10899:
10858:
10647:
10636:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana
10576:
10520:
10430:La Niña Impacts in the Pacific Northwest.
10377:
9831:
9751:
9639:
9572:
9426:
9409:
9309:
9182:
9111:
8941:. University of Cambridge. 11 July 2014.
8775:
8734:
8553:
8504:
8302:
8217:
8165:
8155:
8106:
8000:
7951:
7941:
7832:
7774:
7678:
7629:
7506:
7496:
7443:
7425:
7355:
7234:
7174:
6875:
6637:
6588:
6417:
6319:
6261:
6209:
6160:
5967:
5863:
5796:
5558:
5458:
5417:
5373:
5329:
5280:
5254:
5252:
5240:
5183:
5134:
4909:
4780:
4600:"NOAA makes it official: El Niño is here"
4417:
4099:
3973:
3931:
3907:
3706:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3390:
3268:Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima
3159:
3106:
3062:
3052:
2093:
1879:
1832:, while drier conditions are observed in
1683:
1172:The ENSO is considered to be a potential
132:over Indonesia, Australia and across the
15106:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
12847:
12733:Liu, Zhengyu; Alexander Michael (2007).
12041:
11363:
11206:
10600:
7460:
7116:
6905:
6903:
6562:
6183:
6091:
5532:
5526:
5391:
4451:"El Niño - Detailed Australian Analysis"
4260:"Australian Climate Influences: El Niño"
4233:State Climate Office of North Carolina.
4034:
4030:
4028:
4026:
4024:
3621:. Bureau of Meteorology. February 2005.
3115:
2811:
2755:2023 Auckland Anniversary Weekend floods
2628:events. The PMM state can also modulate
2579:
2532:Pacific decadal oscillation § Mechanisms
2487:
2450:Link to the El Niño-Southern oscillation
2435:National Center for Atmospheric Research
2405:
2304:
2209:240 Kya / Indian and Pacific oceans /
2002:and anchoveta populations were reduced,
1572:
1426:
1196:
1085:
1010:
1007:Monitoring and declaration of conditions
919:
750:
638:
280:
190:
174:phenomena. Future trends in ENSO due to
15462:National Adaptation Programme of Action
15251:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
12148:Lockyer, N. and Lockyer, W.J.S. (1904)
12100:
11974:
10583:United States Naval Research Laboratory
10321:
8473:
7021:"Historical El Niño and La Niña Events"
6758:
6677:
6646:
6618:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
6034:
5948:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
5872:
5837:
5813:"El Nino's Bark is Worse than its Bite"
5475:
5432:
5387:
5385:
5304:Larkin, N. K.; Harrison, D. E. (2005).
4837:from the original on September 26, 2023
4058:
3860:L'Heureux, Michelle (23 October 2020).
3083:"An apparent hiatus in global warming?"
2836:
2602:in the northeast Pacific Ocean between
2300:
2140:4150 ya / Vanuatu Islands / Coral core
1168:Investigations regarding tipping points
1106:phenomena. The other two main ones are
565:Three phases of sea surface temperature
471:
326:, or the transitional zone between the
306:(SST) of the West Pacific northeast of
14:
15876:
15111:Economics of climate change mitigation
15074:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
14587:
14415:Scientific consensus on climate change
13315:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
12334:Sinamaw Zeleke Wallie (January 2019).
12072:
11240:
11238:
11128:
11110:from the original on November 29, 2022
11097:
11017:
10873:from the original on 19 September 2023
10864:
10762:Hawaii Rainfall Anomalies and El Niño.
10537:
9721:
9602:
8876:from the original on 19 September 2023
8867:
8436:from the original on 8 September 2023.
7871:Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
7589:from the original on 14 September 2019
6783:
5249:
5088:from the original on 17 September 2020
5048:Sutherland, Scott (16 February 2017).
5003:(Report). Monitoring & Data. U.S.
4857:La Niña – Detailed Australian analysis
4722:Sutherland, Scott (16 February 2017).
4597:
4147:"Changing state of the climate system"
2630:hurricane activity in the East Pacific
1215:Southern Ocean overturning circulation
898:
15770:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
15595:
15300:
15036:
14586:
14498:
14379:
14331:
14293:
13024:
12821:
12539:
12081:
11931:
11163:
10840:"Atmospheric Consequences of El Niño"
10815:"Atmospheric Consequences of El Niño"
10204:ENSO evolution, status, and forecasts
10095:from the original on 20 December 2021
9365:from the original on 13 November 2016
8973:Cambridge Working Papers in Economics
8902:
8833:
8664:from the original on 12 December 2015
8650:
8447:Joint Typhoon Warning Center (2006).
8062:from the original on 3 September 2019
7805:
7530:Di Liberto, Tom (11 September 2014).
6925:
6900:
6815:
6020:from the original on 19 February 2017
6007:
5995:from the original on 19 February 2017
5976:
5771:from the original on 3 September 2015
5433:Johnson, Nathaniel C. (1 July 2013).
5143:from the original on 23 December 2019
4963:from the original on 20 December 2016
4863:from the original on 28 December 2017
4811:from the original on 11 December 2022
4661:
4550:from the original on 5 September 2019
4431:from the original on 29 November 2014
4021:
3579:"El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)"
3516:from the original on 16 December 2008
3417:from the original on 11 February 2022
3175:; Vecchi, G.; Wittenberg, A. (2010).
452:
15792:Representative Concentration Pathway
14733:Tipping points in the climate system
14409:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
14262:
12692:Roundy, P.E.; Kravitz, J.R. (2009).
12651:Roundy, P.E.; Kiladis, G.N. (2007).
12023:from the original on 10 October 2017
10935:Pearcy, W. G.; Schoener, A. (1987).
9959:
9873:. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
9774:
9648:
9605:International Journal of Climatology
9134:
9064:from the original on 20 January 2011
9034:from the original on 20 January 2011
8690:from the original on 25 October 2017
8634:. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
7153:Doubling in a Multimodel Ensemble".
7001:from the original on 15 January 2023
6997:. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
6911:"Eventos El Niño y La Niña Costeros"
6789:
6752:
5819:from the original on 14 January 2019
5382:
4926:from the original on 15 January 2023
4805:"August 2016 ENSO update;Wavy Gravy"
4453:. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
4348:. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
4262:. Australian Bureau of Meteorology.
3913:
3628:from the original on 22 January 2024
3589:from the original on 22 January 2024
3546:from the original on 19 January 2024
3490:from the original on 11 January 2023
3365:Trenberth, Kevin E (December 1997).
3076:
3074:
3026:
3024:
2817:
2634:typhoon activity in the West Pacific
2075:
2026:have moved during El Niño events to
1922:activity when it interacts with the
1809:Northwest and western Great Lakes.
1559:
1306:
406:
328:warmer waters near the ocean surface
15924:El Niño-Southern Oscillation events
15563:Nationally determined contributions
15273:Individual action on climate change
14478:World energy supply and consumption
12930:Equatorial Indian Ocean oscillation
12625:"Madden Julian Oscillation Impacts"
12497:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
12272:
11235:
10986:Sharma, P. D.; P.D, Sharma (2012).
10846:from the original on 6 October 2014
10311:from the original on 22 March 2016.
10293:from the original on 30 March 2016.
10039:from the original on 20 April 2016.
8750:Lee, Sang-Ki; Chunzai Wang (2008).
8449:"3.3 JTWC Forecasting Philosophies"
7542:from the original on 18 April 2016.
6944:from the original on 22 March 2016.
6688:"ANTECEDENTES DE "EL NIÑO COSTERO""
6235:"Natural variation in ENSO flavors"
5831:
5392:Cai, W.; Cowan, T. (17 June 2009).
5102:
4121:from the original on 27 August 2009
3992:
3893:Scripps Institution of Oceanography
3886:
3447:from the original on 3 January 2022
3329:
2387:
2270:increased tropical cyclone activity
1422:
1410:related to the extended failure of
1265:Effects of ENSO on weather patterns
24:
15702:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
14319:
14142:National Oceanographic Data Center
13569:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
13457:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
12344:from the original on April 3, 2023
12315:from the original on April 3, 2023
11079:from the original on June 28, 2022
10743:from the original on 10 April 2017
10673:from the original on 19 March 2016
10281:Barnston, Anthony (12 June 2014).
10234:from the original on 26 April 2023
10016:Australian Climate Extremes – Fire
9960:King, Andrew (13 September 2022).
9877:from the original on 18 March 2016
9592:http://hdl.handle.net/11427/32954/
8638:from the original on 18 March 2016
7532:"ENSO + Climate Change = Headache"
7130:from the original on 19 March 2016
6433:Lengaigne, M.; Vecchi, G. (2010).
5838:Yuan, Yuan; Yan, HongMing (2012).
4983:from the original on 14 March 2014
4520:from the original on 15 March 2019
4352:from the original on 18 March 2016
4288:L'Heureux, Michelle (5 May 2014).
4266:from the original on 24 March 2016
3756:L'Heureux, Michelle (5 May 2014).
3244:from the original on 9 April 2016.
3232:L'Heureux, Michelle (5 May 2014).
2970:from the original on 19 March 2016
2530:This paragraph is an excerpt from
1929:
1543:
25:
15940:
15629:Satellite temperature measurement
15234:forestry for carbon sequestration
14515:History of climate change science
13989:Global Sea Level Observing System
12920:Diurnal air temperature variation
12905:Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis
12890:Atlantic multidecadal oscillation
12770:
10322:Oetting, Jeremiah (11 May 2018).
10270:from the original on 26 May 2016.
9996:Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)
9502:from the original on 28 June 2011
9472:from the original on 4 April 2022
9450:from the original on 26 May 2016.
9438:Barnston, Anthony (19 May 2014).
9004:from the original on 1 March 2022
8945:from the original on 28 July 2014
7905:from the original on 17 July 2023
7845:from the original on 16 July 2023
7833:Readfearn, Graham (18 May 2023).
7814:from the original on 16 July 2023
7027:from the original on 14 July 2022
5929:from the original on 16 July 2015
5007:. 4 November 2015. Archived from
4606:from the original on 10 June 2023
4493:from the original on 7 March 2022
4004:Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)
3914:Wang, Chunzai (1 November 2018).
3862:"The Rise of El Niño and La Niña"
3732:Ocean Motion and surface currents
3071:
3021:
3007:10.1038/scientificamerican1016-68
2937:Becker, Emily (4 December 2014).
2492:PDO positive phase global pattern
2115:Permian-Triassic extinction event
1121:
1112:Atlantic multidecadal oscillation
1082:Effects of ENSO on global climate
15855:
15843:
15832:
15831:
15819:
15480:Climate Change Performance Index
14859:Destruction of cultural heritage
14272:
14261:
14252:
14251:
13447:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
13363:
13352:
12685:
12644:
12616:
12484:
12327:
12305:"The El Niño Phenomenon Returns"
12297:
12266:
12239:
12211:
12169:
12142:
12118:
12107:. London: R. H. Laurie. p.
12094:
12082:Pezet, Federico Alfonso (1896),
12035:
12009:
11968:
11894:
11850:
11789:
11724:
11681:
11638:
11586:
11535:
11483:
11429:
11393:
11347:. 6 October 2015. Archived from
11281:
11200:
11186:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02117.x
11157:
11122:
11091:
11061:
11046:
10979:
10832:
10807:
10795:RAINFALL VARIATIONS DURING ENSO.
10787:
10767:
10754:
10619:
10570:
10488:
10465:
10442:
10422:
10402:
10345:
10315:
10297:
10220:
10174:
10151:
10125:
10107:
10078:
10043:
10021:
10009:
9972:
9953:
9935:
9920:
9905:
9889:
9799:
9768:
9703:
9694:
9685:
9540:
9514:
9484:
9454:
9377:
9347:
9318:
9277:
9250:
9199:
9046:
9016:
8986:
8957:
8784:
8743:
8702:
8676:
8521:
8440:
8374:
8242:
8074:
8009:
7968:
7917:
7857:
7826:
7799:
7755:Advances in Atmospheric Sciences
7646:
7393:
7364:
7104:from the original on 3 July 2011
7090:
7065:
7039:
7013:
6987:
6948:
6835:
6809:
6790:Aste, Fiorella (17 March 2017).
5348:Yuan Yuan; HongMing Yan (2012).
4831:Cold and warm episodes by season
4035:Barnston, Anthony (2015-01-29).
3655:"Effects of ENSO in the Pacific"
3312:education.nationalgeographic.org
3031:Brown, Patrick T.; Li, Wenhong;
2719:2010–2011 Southern Africa floods
2614:over the ocean, thus increasing
2572:This section is an excerpt from
2480:This section is an excerpt from
2398:This section is an excerpt from
2256:5.3 Mya / Equatorial Pacific /
2191:45000ya / Australia / Peat core
1946:
1774:
1703:This section is an excerpt from
1418:Impacts on humans and ecosystems
1289:
1273:
1189:This section is an excerpt from
735:
634:
617:
603:
590:
577:
494:
480:
292:temperature of the ocean surface
58:
49:
15894:Natural history of the Americas
15619:Instrumental temperature record
15570:Sustainable Development Goal 13
14177:Ocean thermal energy conversion
13900:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
12473:from the original on 2023-07-30
12410:Journal of Geophysical Research
12217:Pezet, Federico Alfonso (1896)
12056:from the original on 2024-01-20
11209:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
11055:Indigenous Agency in the Amazon
11006:from the original on 2024-01-20
10941:Journal of Geophysical Research
10917:from the original on 2023-12-14
10821:from the original on 2014-10-06
10559:from the original on 2014-01-11
10545:American Meteorological Society
10408:Monteverdi, John and Jan Null.
10334:from the original on 2022-06-17
10260:"United States El Niño Impacts"
10140:from the original on 2014-07-14
9336:from the original on 2022-11-01
9123:from the original on 2020-11-22
9054:"El Niño and its health impact"
9024:"El Niño and its health impact"
8920:from the original on 2021-11-22
8715:Journal of Geophysical Research
8609:from the original on 9 May 2009
7382:from the original on 2022-04-25
7312:from the original on 2019-12-28
7254:from the original on 2021-04-29
7054:from the original on 2023-10-27
7023:. Japan Meteorological Agency.
6976:from the original on 2005-03-05
6605:
6556:
6545:from the original on 2019-05-03
6484:
6473:from the original on 2019-12-03
6426:
6385:
6342:
6331:from the original on 2019-12-03
6284:
6273:from the original on 2020-01-24
6226:
6177:
6128:
6085:
5805:
5784:
5757:
5746:from the original on 2023-07-25
5726:
5715:from the original on 2019-05-03
5654:
5628:
5601:
5582:M R Ramesh Kumar (2014-04-23).
5426:
5208:
5155:
4977:La Niña and winter weather
4875:
4849:
4797:
4755:Kim, WonMoo; Wenju Cai (2013).
4748:
4715:
4703:from the original on 3 May 2021
4689:
4640:from the original on 2 May 2023
4618:
4591:
4580:from the original on 2023-06-10
4562:
4532:
4512:Brian Donegan (14 March 2019).
4505:
4469:
4457:from the original on 3 May 2021
4312:
4252:
4226:
4215:from the original on 2014-07-14
4200:
4189:from the original on 2020-05-02
4174:
4163:from the original on 2022-03-02
4133:
4088:
4077:from the original on 2015-11-17
4047:from the original on 2015-09-05
4010:from the original on 2017-12-26
3967:
3528:
3502:
3429:
3399:
3318:from the original on 2023-06-05
3300:
3248:
3207:from the original on 2019-09-14
2916:from the original on 2023-10-27
2820:Fundamentals of solar radiation
2006:increased in warmer water, but
1918:in the region, and can enhance
1890:The synoptic condition for the
980:
933:), or ENSO "Modoki" (Modoki is
332:cooler waters of the deep ocean
276:
15687:Climate variability and change
15037:
14718:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
12101:Findlay, Alexander G. (1851).
11983:. Princeton University Press.
10727:"Climate Summary January 2016"
10258:Halpert, Mike (12 June 2014).
9713:. 3 March 2010. Archived from
5614:. Princeton University Press.
5111:"Indices of El Niño Evolution"
2902:
2737:2020 Atlantic hurricane season
2620:Intertropical Convergence Zone
1924:Intertropical Convergence Zone
1348:Based on modeled and observed
915:
366:carries colder water from the
13:
1:
15797:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
15332:Climate emergency declaration
12340:(Thesis). Debark University.
12337:Economic Impact from El Niños
11667:10.1126/science.293.5539.2440
11221:10.1016/S0169-5347(00)02052-8
11053:van Valen, Gary (2013).
9775:Hong, Lynda (13 March 2008).
8994:"International Monetary Fund"
7724:10.1126/science.288.5473.1997
7073:National Climatic Data Center
6932:Becker, Emily (27 May 2014).
6184:Giese, B.S.; Ray, S. (2011).
6008:Welsh, Jon (6 October 2016).
4999:. Climate Prediction Center.
4399:National Climatic Data Center
4209:"More Technical ENSO Comment"
3681:IRI/LDEO Climate Data Library
2805:
2794:2015 Pacific hurricane season
2778:1997 Pacific hurricane season
2743:2021 eastern Australia floods
2524:
2414:of the 5-day running mean of
1600:
1552:event to the warming waters.
1313:Hurricanes and climate change
910:
773:cold water from the deep sea
541:opposite effects in Australia
15780:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
15006:Middle East and North Africa
14332:
13437:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
13407:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
13163:Luke's variational principle
12925:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
12365:Geophysical Research Letters
12255:Royal Meteorological Society
12175:Eguiguren, D. Victor (1894)
11513:10.1126/science.283.5401.516
11151:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.08.001
10358:Geophysical Research Letters
10115:"ENSO Diagnostic Discussion"
10018:, BOM. Retrieved 2 May 2007.
9092:Geophysical Research Letters
8756:Geophysical Research Letters
7981:Geophysical Research Letters
7610:Geophysical Research Letters
7336:Geophysical Research Letters
6770:National Agrarian University
5670:Geophysical Research Letters
5608:S. George Philander (2004).
5539:Geophysical Research Letters
5398:Geophysical Research Letters
5310:Geophysical Research Letters
4889:Geophysical Research Letters
4602:. Yale Climate Connections.
4540:"El Nino is over, NOAA says"
3887:Fox, Alex (5 October 2023).
2796:(severity fueled by El Niño)
2780:(severity fueled by El Niño)
2745:(severity fueled by La Niña)
2656:anthropogenic global warming
1676:
1403:Western Hemisphere Warm Pool
1248:. In 2015/2016, this caused
1244:, and increased flooding in
1151:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
258:, arose centuries ago, when
180:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
113:" and the cooling phase as "
79:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
7:
14854:Depopulation of settlements
14499:
12975:Pacific decadal oscillation
11977:"Ch. 1: The Third Horseman"
11100:"El Niño and the Galapagos"
10703:Fiji Meteorological Service
7806:Logan, Tyne (18 May 2023).
5533:Cai, W.; Cowan, T. (2009).
4634:Japan Meteorological Agency
4630:Climate Prediction Division
4598:Henson, Bob (9 June 2023).
3916:"A review of ENSO theories"
3807:10.1007/978-94-017-7499-4_4
3367:"The Definition of El Niño"
3254:Carrillo, Camilo N. (1892)
2708:2010–2011 Queensland floods
2670:
2497:Pacific decadal oscillation
2482:Pacific decadal oscillation
2475:Pacific decadal oscillation
2439:deep atmospheric convection
2416:outgoing longwave radiation
2129:Description and references
1715:are present across most of
1108:Pacific decadal oscillation
1060:Japan Meteorological Agency
663:(approximately between the
353:. This process is known as
68:Changes to temperature and
10:
15945:
15899:Natural history of Oceania
15614:Global surface temperature
15505:Popular culture depictions
15417:Ecosystem-based adaptation
15147:Carbon capture and storage
15069:Carbon offsets and credits
14380:
13502:Ocean dynamical thermostat
13350:
12990:Quasi-biennial oscillation
12960:North Atlantic oscillation
12865:Antarctic Circumpolar Wave
10842:. University of Illinois.
10817:. University of Illinois.
10415:December 27, 2009, at the
7891:10.1038/s43017-023-00427-8
7498:10.1038/s41467-022-32705-2
6692:INSTITUTO DEL MAR DEL PERU
6351:Asia-Pacific J. Atmos. Sci
5977:Welsh, Jon (Spring 2016).
5025:"La Niña Information"
3657:. National Weather Service
3478:. National Ocean Service.
2677:Ocean dynamical thermostat
2571:
2529:
2479:
2397:
2088:
1883:
1778:
1702:
1589:in strong El Niño events.
1503:Murray Valley encephalitis
1350:accumulated cyclone energy
1310:
1254:forest fires in the Amazon
1188:
1096:North Atlantic oscillation
1023:In the United States, its
782:Tropical instability waves
739:
625:North Atlantic Oscillation
543:when compared to El Niño.
456:
443:tropical instability waves
273:the west Pacific is high.
228:is usually noticed around
187:Definition and terminology
29:
15919:Spanish words and phrases
15904:Effects of climate change
15826:Climate change portal
15813:
15752:
15719:Extreme event attribution
15637:
15606:
15602:
15591:
15535:
15470:
15392:
15342:School Strike for Climate
15314:
15310:
15296:
15265:
15221:Climate-smart agriculture
15182:
15139:
15049:
15045:
15032:
14956:
14809:
14756:
14599:
14595:
14582:
14505:
14494:
14423:
14392:
14388:
14375:
14358:Climate change adaptation
14353:Climate change mitigation
14348:Effects of climate change
14338:
14327:
14247:
14086:
14060:
14037:Ocean acoustic tomography
14022:
13974:
13913:
13850:Mohorovičić discontinuity
13808:
13680:
13577:
13442:General circulation model
13372:
13078:Benjamin–Feir instability
13058:
12965:North Pacific Oscillation
12945:Madden–Julian oscillation
12855:
12794:Climate Prediction Center
12632:Climate Prediction Center
12598:University of East Anglia
12352:– via Academia.Edu.
12135:16 September 2017 at the
11690:Journal of Paleolimnology
11267:10.1191/0959683605h1782rp
10472:Climate Prediction Center
10158:Climate Prediction Center
9898:By Peter Hannam from the
9671:10.1017/S0954102004002238
8843:. London: Verso. p.
8555:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00687.1
8409:climatetippingpoints.info
8045:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00471.1
7785:10.1007/s00376-008-0361-5
7653:Wittenberg, A.T. (2009).
7298:10.1007/s00382-005-0098-0
7046:Met Office (2012-10-11).
6956:Climate Prediction Center
6868:10.1007/s00382-017-3702-1
6731:10.1007/s00382-018-4290-4
6459:10.1007/s00382-009-0562-3
6419:10.1007/s00382-012-1331-2
6371:10.1007/s13143-011-0011-1
5865:10.1007/s11434-012-5423-5
5460:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00649.1
5375:10.1007/s11434-012-5423-5
5242:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00128.1
4671:. London: Verso. p.
4107:Climate Prediction Center
3974:Trenberth, Kevin (2022).
3585:. Bureau of Meteorology.
3510:"What is "La Niña"?"
2844:Climate Prediction Center
2822:. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
2506:salmon production regimes
2423:Madden–Julian oscillation
2400:Madden–Julian oscillation
2393:Madden–Julian oscillation
2328:of the 19th century. The
1762:
1568:
1461:Health and social impacts
1025:Climate Prediction Center
439:Madden–Julian oscillation
15909:Regional climate effects
15729:Global warming potential
15536:International agreements
15183:Preserving and enhancing
14617:Arctic methane emissions
14539:Years in climate change
14446:Greenhouse gas emissions
14343:Causes of climate change
14167:Ocean surface topography
13542:Thermohaline circulation
13532:Subsurface ocean current
13472:Hydrothermal circulation
13305:Wave–current interaction
13083:Boussinesq approximation
12910:Dansgaard–Oeschger event
12885:Atlantic Equatorial mode
11907:. Basic Books. pp.
11459:10.1177/0959683615612566
10992:. Rastogi Publications.
10865:WW2010 (28 April 1998).
10804:Retrieved on 2008-03-19.
10784:Retrieved on 2008-03-19.
10764:Retrieved on 2008-03-19.
10649:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a5
10577:Fett, Bob (2002-12-09).
10485:Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
10462:Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
10439:Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
10419:Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
10171:Retrieved on 2008-04-16.
9496:Scoop News (Scoop.co.nz)
8868:WW2010 (28 April 1998).
5844:Chinese Science Bulletin
5815:. The Western Producer.
5798:10.1088/1748-9326/aac53f
5354:Chinese Science Bulletin
3583:About Australian climate
2731:2011 East Africa drought
2616:sea surface temperatures
2282:5.92-5.32 Mya / Italy /
1579:2011 East Africa drought
1033:sea surface temperatures
695:an El Niño "episode".
91:sea surface temperatures
36:El Niño (disambiguation)
15760:Climate change scenario
15412:Disaster risk reduction
15064:Carbon emission trading
14874:U.S. insurance industry
14844:Civilizational collapse
14691:sea surface temperature
14204:Sea surface temperature
14187:Outline of oceanography
13382:Atmospheric circulation
13320:shallow water equations
13310:Waves and shallow water
13203:Significant wave height
12980:Pacific Meridional Mode
11981:Famine: A Short History
11767:10.1126/science.1112596
11710:10.1023/a:1020319923164
11387:10.1126/science.ado2030
11131:Biological Conservation
10989:Ecology And Environment
10961:10.1029/JC092iC13p14417
10553:Glossary of Meteorology
10182:"A never-ending winter"
9943:"Climate Driver Update"
9929:Bureau of Meteorology.
9914:Bureau of Meteorology.
9528:. OCHA. 16 October 2023
8304:10.5194/esd-10-631-2019
8219:10.5194/esd-12-601-2021
8157:10.1073/pnas.0705414105
7943:10.1073/pnas.0705414105
7427:10.1073/pnas.1911130116
5767:(Report). IOP Science.
5504:10.1126/science.1174062
5027:. Public Affairs. U.S.
4516:. The Weather Company.
4211:. Columbia University.
3949:National Science Review
3920:National Science Review
2800:2023–2024 El Niño event
2789:2014–2016 El Niño event
2761:2020–2023 La Niña event
2757:(attributed to La Niña)
2751:(attributed to La Niña)
2733:(attributed to La Niña)
2727:(attributed to La Niña)
2721:(attributed to La Niña)
2714:2010–2012 La Niña event
2710:(attributed to La Niña)
2704:(attributed to La Niña)
2698:(attributed to La Niña)
2626:Central Pacific El Niño
2588:Pacific Meridional Mode
2574:Pacific Meridional Mode
2567:Pacific Meridional Mode
2547:sea surface temperature
1987:off the shore of Peru.
1692:Indo-Australian Monsoon
1636:
1527:Ecological consequences
1485:. Cycles of malaria in
1232:and typically leads to
985:Coined by the Peruvian
770:sea surface temperature
768:weather pattern, where
665:International Date Line
649:sea surface temperature
520:(on the Indian Ocean).
304:sea surface temperature
210:Captain Camilo Carrillo
123:atmospheric oscillation
15753:Research and modelling
15437:Nature-based solutions
15257:Nature-based solutions
15199:Carbon dioxide removal
15116:Fossil fuel divestment
15101:Climate risk insurance
15011:Small island countries
14622:Arctic sea ice decline
14199:Sea surface microlayer
13564:Wind generated current
12719:10.1175/2008JCLI2389.1
12186:(The rains of Piura),
12177:"Las lluvias de Piura"
11306:10.1098/rstb.2006.1977
10907:"An El Niño Fish Tale"
9402:10.1098/rstb.2019.0116
7227:10.1175/2008BAMS2387.1
6590:10.1175/2008JCLI2624.1
5638:. NASA. Archived from
5291:10.1175/2008JCLI2309.1
4477:"El Niño in Australia"
2648:2018 Pacific hurricane
2646:and the highly active
2585:
2562:depth (MLD) anomalies.
2493:
2419:
2310:
2094:In geologic timescales
1912:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
1880:Isthmus of Tehuantepec
1752:bushfires in Australia
1621:Seas, causing reduced
1582:
1441:
1218:
1211:Antarctic bottom water
1099:
1016:
943:northwestern Australia
925:
760:
744:. For other uses, see
652:
631:exert more influence.
437:phenomena such as the
384:upward movement of air
337:The total weight of a
287:
201:
34:. For other uses, see
15889:Physical oceanography
15714:Earth's energy budget
15597:Background and theory
15485:Climate crisis (term)
15157:Fossil fuel phase-out
15051:Economics and finance
15016:by individual country
14958:By country and region
14933:Security and conflict
14928:Psychological impacts
14607:Abrupt climate change
14530:Charles David Keeling
14363:By country and region
14032:Deep scattering layer
14014:World Geodetic System
13522:Princeton Ocean Model
13402:Coriolis–Stokes force
13052:Physical oceanography
12875:Arctic dipole anomaly
12870:Antarctic oscillation
12810:Bureau of Meteorology
12739:Reviews of Geophysics
12260:18 March 2017 at the
11733:Ravelo, Ana Christina
11166:Global Change Biology
11073:Galapagos Conservancy
10328:www.earthmagazine.org
9947:Bureau of Meteorology
9900:Sydney Morning Herald
9271:10.1038/news.2011.501
8910:"El Niño Information"
8813:10.1007/s003820050014
8340:Nature Climate Change
8283:Earth System Dynamics
8198:Earth System Dynamics
8087:Nature Communications
7477:Nature Communications
7124:"El Niño and La Niña"
6969:. pp. 5, 19–20.
3540:www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov
3486:. February 10, 2020.
3480:oceanservice.noaa.gov
3337:"El Niño Information"
2964:"El Niño and La Niña"
2784:1997–98 El Niño event
2773:1982–83 El Niño event
2696:2000 Mozambique flood
2644:2014–16 El Niño event
2583:
2491:
2409:
2308:
1902:, is associated with
1767:El Niño's effects on
1576:
1430:
1369:Western Pacific basin
1365:Eastern Pacific basin
1200:
1089:
1072:The United Kingdom's
1053:Bureau of Meteorology
1014:
923:
777:near South America.
757:temperature anomalies
754:
746:Niña (disambiguation)
645:1997–98 El Niño event
642:
516:(in the Pacific) and
339:column of ocean water
300:tropical West Pacific
296:tropical East Pacific
284:
235:Originally, the term
194:
40:Enso (disambiguation)
15929:Climate oscillations
15884:Tropical meteorology
15543:Glasgow Climate Pact
15204:Carbon sequestration
14769:Mass mortality event
14052:Underwater acoustics
13612:Perigean spring tide
13477:Langmuir circulation
13188:Rossby-gravity waves
12849:Climate oscillations
12782:earth.nullschool.net
12760:10.1029/2005RG000172
12572:10.1029/2004RG000158
12440:10.1029/2000JD000298
12273:Cushman, Gregory T.
11975:Ó Gráda, C. (2009).
11901:Brian Fagan (1999).
11423:10.1029/1999pa000409
10967:on 22 September 2012
10630:Washingtonia robusta
10609:Mariners Weather Log
10379:10.1002/2017GL076197
10033:Met Office News Blog
9927:El Niño in Australia
9912:La Niña In Australia
9902:, December 29, 2020.
9058:Health Topics A to Z
8777:10.1029/2008GL034734
8360:10.1038/nclimate3013
8002:10.1002/2015GL065211
7680:10.1029/2009GL038710
7357:10.1029/2006GL026196
6768:(PhD) (in Spanish).
6639:10.1029/2011JC007304
6520:10.1029/2011GL047364
6321:10.1029/2010GL045886
6263:10.1029/2011GL047658
6211:10.1029/2010JC006695
6162:10.1029/2011GL048275
6114:10.1029/2008GL034499
5969:10.1029/2011JC007304
5690:10.1029/2011GL047364
5560:10.1029/2009GL037885
5419:10.1029/2009GL037885
5331:10.1029/2005GL022738
4949:"La Niña years"
4911:10.1002/2014GL062997
4109:(19 December 2005).
3275: : 72–110.
3108:10.1002/2013EF000165
3054:10.1002/2014JD022576
2749:2022 Suriname floods
2702:2010 Pakistan floods
2301:During human history
2213:in 9 deep sea cores
1904:high-pressure system
1855:To the north across
1789:across the northern
1684:Southern Oscillation
1450:Developing countries
947:Murray–Darling basin
775:rises to the surface
472:Southern Oscillation
447:westerly wind bursts
165:developing countries
121:is the accompanying
119:Southern Oscillation
18:Southern Oscillation
15682:Climate sensitivity
15457:The Adaptation Fund
14913:Infectious diseases
14810:Social and economic
14214:Science On a Sphere
13820:Convergent boundary
13492:Modular Ocean Model
13452:Geostrophic current
13168:Mild-slope equation
12950:Milankovitch cycles
12940:Indian Ocean Dipole
12751:2007RvGeo..45.2005L
12710:2009JCli...22..381R
12669:2007JCli...20.4341R
12554:2005RvGeo..43.2003Z
12509:1971JAtS...28..702M
12422:2002JGRD..107.4065T
12377:1996GeoRL..23...57T
12194: : 241–258.
11946:1998Natur.393..318G
11872:2010Geo....38..419G
11818:10.1038/nature08831
11810:2010Natur.463.1066F
11804:(7284): 1066–1070.
11749:2005Sci...309..758W
11702:2002JPall..27..453M
11659:2001Sci...293.2440B
11653:(5539): 2440–2444.
11616:10.1038/nature02386
11608:2004Natur.428..306T
11564:10.1038/nature01194
11556:2002Natur.420..162M
11505:1999Sci...283..516R
11451:2016Holoc..26..567S
11415:2000PalOc..15..465C
11381:(6714): 1189-1195.
11351:on 26 February 2018
11259:2005Holoc..15...42C
11178:2010GCBio..16.2876E
11143:2006BCons.127..107V
10953:1987JGR....9214417P
10712:on 7 November 2017.
10513:2003JCli...16.2628R
10370:2018GeoRL..45..907L
10091:. 22 October 2021.
10064:2009NatGe...2...32I
9824:2006JCli...19.4755P
9744:2004JCli...17.1419W
9663:2004AntSc..16..415Y
9617:2004IJCli..24....1T
9565:2023Wthr...78..286B
9498:. 12 October 2010.
9468:. 18 January 2012.
9302:2020Biotr..52..252F
9228:10.1038/nature10311
9220:2011Natur.476..438H
9159:2011NatSR...1E.152R
9104:2013GeoRL..40.2284B
8805:2000ClDy...16..213L
8768:2008GeoRL..3516705L
8727:1997JGR...102..929E
8546:2014JCli...27.5311P
8497:2004JCli...17.1419W
8383:"Technical Summary"
8352:2016NatCC...6..649S
8295:2019ESD....10..631D
8210:2021ESD....12..601W
8148:2008PNAS..105.1786L
8099:2015NatCo...6.7423R
8037:2014JCli...27.8501R
7993:2015GeoRL..42.8140S
7883:2023NRvEE...4..407C
7767:2008AdAtS..25..361Z
7716:2000Sci...288.1997F
7710:(5473): 1997–2002.
7671:2009GeoRL..3612702W
7622:1996GeoRL..23...57T
7575:2010NatGe...3..391C
7489:2022NatCo..13.4952L
7418:2019PNAS..11622512W
7412:(45): 22512–22517.
7348:2006GeoRL..3311704P
7290:2006ClDy...26..549M
7219:2009BAMS...90..325G
7167:2006JCli...19.4009M
6860:2019ClDy...52.7389T
6630:2011JGRC..11612001S
6581:2009JCli...22.1499K
6512:2011GeoRL..3810704T
6451:2010ClDy...35..299L
6410:2013ClDy...40.1223L
6363:2011APJAS..47..223N
6312:2011GeoRL..38.2704Y
6254:2011GeoRL..3814705N
6202:2011JGRC..116.2024G
6153:2011GeoRL..3815709M
6106:2008GeoRL..3519703N
6063:10.1038/nature08316
6055:2009Natur.461..511Y
5960:2011JGRC..11612001S
5856:2013ChSBu..58..406Y
5682:2011GeoRL..3810704T
5642:on 17 November 2022
5551:2009GeoRL..3612805C
5496:2009Sci...325...77K
5451:2013JCli...26.4816J
5410:2009GeoRL..3612805C
5366:2013ChSBu..58..406Y
5322:2005GeoRL..3213705L
5273:2009JCli...22..615K
5233:2013JCli...26.1626L
5176:2009HyPr...23..973K
5127:2001JCli...14.1697T
5062:on 18 February 2017
5055:The Weather Network
4902:2015GeoRL..42.1512D
4773:2013GeoRL..40.4751K
4736:on 18 February 2017
4729:The Weather Network
4071:Columbia University
3413:. 21 October 2015.
3383:1997BAMS...78.2771T
3193:2010NatGe...3..391C
3099:2013EaFut...1...19T
3035:(27 January 2015).
2995:Scientific American
2683:Recharge oscillator
2638:South Pacific Ocean
1799:Northern California
1756:Indian Ocean Dipole
1719:, particularly the
1697:Indian Ocean Dipole
1613:anomalies over the
1595:South Atlantic High
1521:Columbia University
1517:The Earth Institute
1104:climate variability
1067:Peruvian government
969:might affect ENSO.
899:Transitional phases
172:climate variability
15253:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
15225:Forest management
15209:Direct air capture
15174:Sustainable energy
15131:Net zero emissions
15126:Low-carbon economy
15121:Green Climate Fund
14908:Indigenous peoples
14801:Plant biodiversity
14589:Effects and issues
13870:Seafloor spreading
13860:Outer trench swell
13825:Divergent boundary
13725:Continental margin
13710:Carbonate platform
13607:Lunitidal interval
12895:Earth's axial tilt
12880:Arctic oscillation
12678:10.1175/JCLI4249.1
12285:on 1 December 2015
12236: : 457-461.
12224:2023-10-30 at the
12201:2023-10-30 at the
12182:2023-10-30 at the
12155:2023-04-03 at the
12090:, pp. 603–606
11997:on 12 January 2016
11731:Wara, Michael W.;
11098:Karnauskas, Kris.
11034:on 15 October 2011
10800:2008-04-21 at the
10780:2012-10-22 at the
10501:Journal of Climate
10481:2010-05-28 at the
10458:2008-04-21 at the
10435:2007-10-22 at the
10186:Environment Canada
10167:2008-04-12 at the
9833:10.1175/JCLI3868.1
9812:Journal of Climate
9731:Journal of Climate
9396:(1794): 20190116.
9147:Scientific Reports
8762:(L16705): L16705.
8684:"El Nino is here!"
8588:on 9 October 2014.
8534:Journal of Climate
8485:Journal of Climate
8108:10.1038/ncomms8423
8025:Journal of Climate
7659:Geophys. Res. Lett
7185:10.1175/JCLI3834.1
7155:Journal of Climate
7050:. United Kingdom.
6500:Geophys. Res. Lett
6300:Geophys. Res. Lett
6242:Geophys. Res. Lett
6141:Geophys. Res. Lett
6094:Geophys. Res. Lett
5986:Spotlight Magazine
5893:on 23 October 2014
5439:Journal of Climate
5115:Journal of Climate
5011:on 6 December 2010
4807:. Climate.gov.uk.
4761:Geophys. Res. Lett
3961:10.1093/nsr/nwy046
3933:10.1093/nsr/nwy104
3889:"What is El Niño?"
3282:2023-10-30 at the
3261:2023-10-30 at the
3152:2023-05-26 at the
3141:2023-12-08 at the
2586:
2494:
2420:
2380:Around 1525, when
2363:Walker circulation
2311:
2263:Deep sea cores at
2260:in deep sea cores
1996:Peruvian anchoveta
1583:
1442:
1341:tends to lie near
1219:
1100:
1092:Arctic oscillation
1017:
926:
794:Pacific hurricanes
761:
657:Hadley circulation
653:
555:Sea surface height
459:Walker circulation
453:Walker circulation
434:negative feedbacks
359:continental margin
288:
202:
157:Walker circulation
130:sea level pressure
93:over the tropical
15871:
15870:
15809:
15808:
15805:
15804:
15744:Radiative forcing
15587:
15586:
15583:
15582:
15407:Adaptive capacity
15292:
15291:
15288:
15287:
15152:Energy transition
15028:
15027:
15024:
15023:
14738:Tropical cyclones
14664:Urban heat island
14578:
14577:
14490:
14489:
14486:
14485:
14451:Carbon accounting
14405:Greenhouse effect
14371:
14370:
14287:
14286:
14279:Oceans portal
14239:World Ocean Atlas
14229:Underwater glider
14172:Ocean temperature
13835:Hydrothermal vent
13800:Submarine volcano
13735:Continental shelf
13715:Coastal geography
13705:Bathymetric chart
13587:Amphidromic point
13275:Wave nonlinearity
13133:Infragravity wave
13018:
13017:
13010:True polar wander
13005:Solar variability
12466:978-1-876945-40-4
12395:10.1029/95GL03602
12166: : 457–470.
12065:From pp. 22–23:
12042:Lartigue (1827).
11918:978-0-465-01120-9
11743:(5735): 758–761.
11602:(6980): 306–310.
11550:(6912): 162–165.
11499:(5401): 516–520.
11300:(1478): 175–187.
11172:(10): 2876–2890.
10999:978-81-7133-905-1
10947:(C13): 14417–28.
10507:(15): 2628–2639.
10230:. 29 April 2022.
10192:on 7 August 2011.
10052:Nature Geoscience
9818:(19): 4755–4771.
9781:Channel News Asia
9651:Antarctic Science
9359:www.pmel.noaa.gov
9311:10.1111/btp.12756
9214:(7361): 438–441.
9167:10.1038/srep00152
9113:10.1002/grl.50388
9098:(10): 2284–2289.
8854:978-1-85984-739-8
8736:10.1029/96JC03296
8540:(14): 5311–5328.
8031:(22): 8501–8509.
7987:(19): 8140–8146.
7640:10.1029/95GL03602
7563:Nature Geoscience
6854:(12): 7389–7415.
6725:(12): 7537–7552.
5621:978-0-691-11335-7
5445:(13): 4816–4827.
5035:on 12 August 2014
4782:10.1002/grl.50697
4767:(17): 4751–4755.
4682:978-1-85984-739-8
4546:. 8 August 2019.
4379:on 27 August 2009
3985:978-1-108-97903-0
3816:978-94-017-7498-7
3713:978-0-521-84786-5
3377:(12): 2771–2777.
3181:Nature Geoscience
2949:on 22 March 2016.
2829:978-0-367-72588-4
2412:Hovmöller diagram
2382:Francisco Pizarro
2322:French Revolution
2318:Peruvian cultures
2298:
2297:
2082:Galápagos Islands
2076:Galápagos Islands
1865:Pacific Northwest
1842:Pacific Northwest
1803:Pacific Northwest
1690:The onset of the
1560:Impacts by region
1483:Rift Valley fever
1339:subtropical ridge
1319:subtropical ridge
1307:Tropical cyclones
1234:droughts in India
1181:weakening of the
994:Amazon rainforest
559:thermal expansion
518:Darwin, Australia
429:Conceptual models
425:Bjerknes feedback
417:positive feedback
407:Bjerknes feedback
389:ENSO describes a
105:, and has links (
16:(Redirected from
15936:
15859:
15858:
15847:
15846:
15835:
15834:
15824:
15823:
15822:
15787:Paleoclimatology
15604:
15603:
15593:
15592:
15354:Ecological grief
15337:Climate movement
15312:
15311:
15298:
15297:
15278:Plant-based diet
15169:Renewable energy
15047:
15046:
15034:
15033:
14869:Economic impacts
14791:Invasive species
14647:Coastal flooding
14597:
14596:
14584:
14583:
14520:Svante Arrhenius
14496:
14495:
14466:from agriculture
14456:Carbon footprint
14441:Greenhouse gases
14390:
14389:
14377:
14376:
14329:
14328:
14314:
14307:
14300:
14291:
14290:
14277:
14276:
14265:
14264:
14255:
14254:
14194:Pelagic sediment
14132:Marine pollution
13926:Deep ocean water
13795:Submarine canyon
13730:Continental rise
13622:Rule of twelfths
13537:Sverdrup balance
13467:Humboldt Current
13392:Boundary current
13367:
13356:
13173:Radiation stress
13143:Iribarren number
13118:Equatorial waves
13073:Ballantine scale
13068:Airy wave theory
13045:
13038:
13031:
13022:
13021:
12842:
12835:
12828:
12819:
12818:
12813:
12801:
12785:
12765:
12764:
12762:
12730:
12724:
12723:
12721:
12689:
12683:
12682:
12680:
12648:
12642:
12641:
12639:
12638:
12629:
12620:
12614:
12613:
12611:
12609:
12600:. Archived from
12590:
12584:
12583:
12565:
12537:
12531:
12530:
12520:
12488:
12482:
12481:
12479:
12478:
12450:
12444:
12443:
12433:
12405:
12399:
12398:
12388:
12360:
12354:
12353:
12351:
12349:
12331:
12325:
12324:
12322:
12320:
12301:
12295:
12294:
12292:
12290:
12270:
12264:
12243:
12237:
12215:
12209:
12173:
12167:
12146:
12140:
12126:The Australasian
12122:
12116:
12115:
12098:
12092:
12091:
12079:
12070:
12064:
12062:
12061:
12039:
12033:
12032:
12030:
12028:
12013:
12007:
12006:
12004:
12002:
11993:. Archived from
11972:
11966:
11965:
11929:
11923:
11922:
11898:
11892:
11891:
11880:10.1130/g30629.1
11854:
11848:
11847:
11829:
11793:
11787:
11786:
11760:
11728:
11722:
11721:
11685:
11679:
11678:
11642:
11636:
11635:
11590:
11584:
11583:
11539:
11533:
11532:
11487:
11481:
11480:
11470:
11433:
11427:
11426:
11403:Paleoceanography
11397:
11391:
11390:
11367:
11361:
11360:
11358:
11356:
11337:
11328:
11327:
11317:
11285:
11279:
11278:
11242:
11233:
11232:
11204:
11198:
11197:
11161:
11155:
11154:
11126:
11120:
11119:
11117:
11115:
11095:
11089:
11088:
11086:
11084:
11065:
11059:
11058:
11050:
11044:
11043:
11041:
11039:
11030:. Archived from
11024:
11015:
11014:
11012:
11011:
10983:
10977:
10976:
10974:
10972:
10963:. Archived from
10932:
10926:
10925:
10923:
10922:
10903:
10897:
10896:
10890:
10882:
10880:
10878:
10862:
10856:
10855:
10853:
10851:
10836:
10830:
10829:
10827:
10826:
10811:
10805:
10791:
10785:
10771:
10765:
10758:
10752:
10751:
10749:
10748:
10742:
10736:. January 2016.
10731:
10723:
10714:
10713:
10711:
10705:. Archived from
10700:
10692:
10683:
10682:
10680:
10678:
10663:
10654:
10653:
10651:
10623:
10617:
10616:
10604:
10598:
10597:
10595:
10594:
10574:
10568:
10567:
10565:
10564:
10541:
10535:
10534:
10524:
10492:
10486:
10469:
10463:
10446:
10440:
10428:Mantua, Nathan.
10426:
10420:
10406:
10400:
10399:
10381:
10349:
10343:
10342:
10340:
10339:
10319:
10313:
10312:
10301:
10295:
10294:
10278:
10272:
10271:
10255:
10244:
10243:
10241:
10239:
10224:
10218:
10217:
10215:
10208:
10200:
10194:
10193:
10178:
10172:
10155:
10149:
10148:
10146:
10145:
10129:
10123:
10122:
10121:on 26 June 2014.
10111:
10105:
10104:
10102:
10100:
10082:
10076:
10075:
10047:
10041:
10040:
10025:
10019:
10013:
10007:
10006:
10004:
10003:
9988:
9982:
9976:
9970:
9969:
9966:The Conversation
9957:
9951:
9950:
9939:
9933:
9924:
9918:
9909:
9903:
9893:
9887:
9886:
9884:
9882:
9867:
9854:
9853:
9835:
9803:
9797:
9796:
9794:
9792:
9783:. Archived from
9772:
9766:
9765:
9755:
9738:(6): 1419–1428.
9725:
9719:
9718:
9717:on 3 March 2010.
9707:
9701:
9698:
9692:
9689:
9683:
9682:
9646:
9637:
9636:
9600:
9594:
9588:
9579:
9578:
9576:
9574:10.1002/wea.4468
9544:
9538:
9537:
9535:
9533:
9518:
9512:
9511:
9509:
9507:
9488:
9482:
9481:
9479:
9477:
9458:
9452:
9451:
9435:
9424:
9423:
9413:
9381:
9375:
9374:
9372:
9370:
9351:
9345:
9344:
9342:
9341:
9322:
9316:
9315:
9313:
9281:
9275:
9274:
9254:
9248:
9247:
9203:
9197:
9196:
9186:
9138:
9132:
9131:
9129:
9128:
9122:
9115:
9089:
9080:
9074:
9073:
9071:
9069:
9050:
9044:
9043:
9041:
9039:
9028:allcountries.org
9020:
9014:
9013:
9011:
9009:
8990:
8984:
8983:
8982:on 28 July 2014.
8981:
8975:. Archived from
8970:
8961:
8955:
8954:
8952:
8950:
8935:
8929:
8928:
8926:
8925:
8906:
8900:
8899:
8893:
8885:
8883:
8881:
8865:
8859:
8858:
8831:
8825:
8824:
8799:(2–3): 213–218.
8793:Climate Dynamics
8788:
8782:
8781:
8779:
8747:
8741:
8740:
8738:
8706:
8700:
8699:
8697:
8695:
8680:
8674:
8673:
8671:
8669:
8654:
8648:
8647:
8645:
8643:
8628:
8619:
8618:
8616:
8614:
8599:
8590:
8589:
8573:
8560:
8559:
8557:
8525:
8519:
8518:
8508:
8480:
8471:
8470:
8468:
8466:
8460:
8454:. Archived from
8453:
8444:
8438:
8437:
8426:
8420:
8419:
8417:
8415:
8400:
8394:
8393:
8387:
8378:
8372:
8371:
8331:
8325:
8324:
8306:
8274:
8265:
8264:
8262:
8260:
8246:
8240:
8239:
8221:
8189:
8180:
8179:
8169:
8159:
8142:(6): 1786–1793.
8127:
8121:
8120:
8110:
8078:
8072:
8071:
8069:
8067:
8061:
8022:
8013:
8007:
8006:
8004:
7972:
7966:
7965:
7955:
7945:
7936:(6): 1786–1793.
7921:
7915:
7914:
7912:
7910:
7861:
7855:
7854:
7852:
7850:
7830:
7824:
7823:
7821:
7819:
7803:
7797:
7796:
7778:
7750:
7744:
7743:
7699:
7693:
7692:
7682:
7650:
7644:
7643:
7633:
7605:
7599:
7598:
7596:
7594:
7555:Timmermann, Axel
7550:
7544:
7543:
7527:
7521:
7520:
7510:
7500:
7464:
7458:
7457:
7447:
7429:
7397:
7391:
7390:
7388:
7387:
7368:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7327:
7321:
7320:
7318:
7317:
7278:Climate Dynamics
7269:
7263:
7262:
7260:
7259:
7253:
7238:
7204:
7195:
7189:
7188:
7178:
7146:
7140:
7139:
7137:
7135:
7120:
7114:
7113:
7111:
7109:
7094:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7084:
7069:
7063:
7062:
7060:
7059:
7043:
7037:
7036:
7034:
7032:
7017:
7011:
7010:
7008:
7006:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6982:
6981:
6975:
6964:
6952:
6946:
6945:
6929:
6923:
6922:
6920:
6918:
6907:
6898:
6897:
6879:
6877:20.500.12816/738
6848:Climate Dynamics
6839:
6833:
6832:
6830:
6828:
6813:
6807:
6806:
6804:
6802:
6787:
6781:
6780:
6778:
6776:
6767:
6756:
6750:
6749:
6747:
6745:
6719:Climate Dynamics
6710:
6704:
6703:
6701:
6699:
6684:
6675:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6655:
6644:
6643:
6641:
6609:
6603:
6602:
6592:
6575:(6): 1499–1515.
6560:
6554:
6553:
6551:
6550:
6544:
6497:
6488:
6482:
6481:
6479:
6478:
6445:(2–3): 299–313.
6439:Climate Dynamics
6430:
6424:
6423:
6421:
6398:Climate Dynamics
6389:
6383:
6382:
6346:
6340:
6339:
6337:
6336:
6330:
6323:
6297:
6288:
6282:
6281:
6279:
6278:
6272:
6265:
6239:
6230:
6224:
6223:
6213:
6181:
6175:
6174:
6164:
6132:
6126:
6125:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6038:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6025:
6004:
6002:
6000:
5994:
5983:
5973:
5971:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5928:
5921:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5892:
5885:
5876:
5870:
5869:
5867:
5835:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5824:
5809:
5803:
5802:
5800:
5788:
5782:
5780:
5778:
5776:
5761:
5755:
5754:
5752:
5751:
5745:
5739:(Report). NOAA.
5738:
5730:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5720:
5714:
5667:
5658:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5647:
5632:
5626:
5625:
5605:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5595:
5579:
5573:
5572:
5562:
5530:
5524:
5523:
5479:
5473:
5472:
5462:
5430:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5389:
5380:
5379:
5377:
5345:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5301:
5295:
5294:
5284:
5256:
5247:
5246:
5244:
5227:(5): 1626–1642.
5212:
5206:
5205:
5194:10.1002/hyp.7200
5187:
5159:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5148:
5138:
5121:(8): 1697–1701.
5106:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5087:
5080:
5071:
5069:
5067:
5058:. Archived from
5044:
5042:
5040:
5031:. Archived from
5020:
5018:
5016:
4992:
4990:
4988:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4913:
4896:(5): 1512–1519.
4879:
4873:
4872:
4870:
4868:
4853:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4842:
4827:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4816:
4801:
4795:
4794:
4784:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4732:. Archived from
4719:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4708:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4645:
4622:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4595:
4589:
4588:
4586:
4585:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4555:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4500:
4498:
4492:
4481:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4447:
4441:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4395:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4368:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4342:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4316:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4296:. Archived from
4285:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4230:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4178:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4168:
4162:
4151:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4103:
4097:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4062:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4052:
4032:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4015:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3900:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3857:
3848:
3847:
3841:
3837:
3835:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3796:
3787:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3753:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3739:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3688:
3673:
3667:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3651:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3627:
3620:
3612:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3594:
3575:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3497:
3495:
3472:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3343:. Archived from
3333:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3323:
3304:
3298:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3229:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3168:
3157:
3132:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3078:
3069:
3068:
3066:
3056:
3028:
3019:
3018:
2989:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2960:
2951:
2950:
2945:. Archived from
2934:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2921:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2876:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2863:
2854:. Archived from
2840:
2834:
2833:
2815:
2433:of the American
2388:Related patterns
2286:varve thickness
2164:Humboldt Current
2120:
2119:
1874:polar jet stream
1795:northern Rockies
1510:Kawasaki disease
1423:Economic impacts
1378:French Polynesia
1354:tropical cyclone
1329:. Areas west of
1293:
1277:
767:
647:showing extreme
607:
594:
581:
498:
484:
395:weather patterns
364:Humboldt Current
290:On average, the
62:
53:
21:
15944:
15943:
15939:
15938:
15937:
15935:
15934:
15933:
15914:Weather hazards
15874:
15873:
15872:
15867:
15820:
15818:
15801:
15748:
15739:Orbital forcing
15633:
15598:
15579:
15553:Paris Agreement
15531:
15527:Warming stripes
15466:
15432:Managed retreat
15427:Loss and damage
15388:
15322:Business action
15306:
15284:
15261:
15184:
15178:
15135:
15096:Climate finance
15041:
15020:
14952:
14805:
14781:Extinction risk
14757:Flora and fauna
14752:
14713:Permafrost thaw
14708:Ozone depletion
14637:Extreme weather
14591:
14574:
14501:
14482:
14419:
14384:
14367:
14334:
14323:
14318:
14288:
14283:
14271:
14243:
14082:
14056:
14018:
13999:Sea-level curve
13970:
13909:
13895:Transform fault
13845:Mid-ocean ridge
13811:
13804:
13770:Oceanic plateau
13676:
13662:Tidal resonance
13632:Theory of tides
13573:
13482:Longshore drift
13432:Ekman transport
13368:
13362:
13361:
13360:
13359:
13358:
13357:
13348:
13300:Wave turbulence
13233:Trochoidal wave
13158:Longshore drift
13054:
13049:
13019:
13014:
12970:Orbital forcing
12857:
12851:
12846:
12804:
12788:
12776:
12773:
12768:
12731:
12727:
12690:
12686:
12663:(17): 4341–55.
12649:
12645:
12636:
12634:
12627:
12621:
12617:
12607:
12605:
12604:on 9 March 2012
12592:
12591:
12587:
12563:10.1.1.546.5531
12538:
12534:
12489:
12485:
12476:
12474:
12467:
12451:
12447:
12431:10.1.1.167.1208
12406:
12402:
12361:
12357:
12347:
12345:
12332:
12328:
12318:
12316:
12303:
12302:
12298:
12288:
12286:
12271:
12267:
12262:Wayback Machine
12244:
12240:
12226:Wayback Machine
12216:
12212:
12203:Wayback Machine
12184:Wayback Machine
12174:
12170:
12157:Wayback Machine
12147:
12143:
12137:Wayback Machine
12123:
12119:
12099:
12095:
12080:
12073:
12059:
12057:
12040:
12036:
12026:
12024:
12015:
12014:
12010:
12000:
11998:
11991:
11973:
11969:
11940:(6683): 318–9.
11930:
11926:
11919:
11899:
11895:
11855:
11851:
11794:
11790:
11758:10.1.1.400.7297
11729:
11725:
11686:
11682:
11643:
11639:
11591:
11587:
11540:
11536:
11488:
11484:
11434:
11430:
11398:
11394:
11368:
11364:
11354:
11352:
11339:
11338:
11331:
11286:
11282:
11243:
11236:
11205:
11201:
11162:
11158:
11127:
11123:
11113:
11111:
11096:
11092:
11082:
11080:
11067:
11066:
11062:
11051:
11047:
11037:
11035:
11026:
11025:
11018:
11009:
11007:
11000:
10984:
10980:
10970:
10968:
10933:
10929:
10920:
10918:
10905:
10904:
10900:
10884:
10883:
10876:
10874:
10863:
10859:
10849:
10847:
10838:
10837:
10833:
10824:
10822:
10813:
10812:
10808:
10802:Wayback Machine
10792:
10788:
10782:Wayback Machine
10772:
10768:
10760:Chu, Pao-Shin.
10759:
10755:
10746:
10744:
10740:
10729:
10725:
10724:
10717:
10709:
10698:
10694:
10693:
10686:
10676:
10674:
10665:
10664:
10657:
10624:
10620:
10605:
10601:
10592:
10590:
10575:
10571:
10562:
10560:
10549:"Tehuantepecer"
10542:
10538:
10493:
10489:
10483:Wayback Machine
10470:
10466:
10460:Wayback Machine
10447:
10443:
10437:Wayback Machine
10427:
10423:
10417:Wayback Machine
10407:
10403:
10350:
10346:
10337:
10335:
10320:
10316:
10303:
10302:
10298:
10279:
10275:
10256:
10247:
10237:
10235:
10226:
10225:
10221:
10213:
10206:
10202:
10201:
10197:
10180:
10179:
10175:
10169:Wayback Machine
10156:
10152:
10143:
10141:
10130:
10126:
10113:
10112:
10108:
10098:
10096:
10084:
10083:
10079:
10072:10.1038/ngeo381
10048:
10044:
10027:
10026:
10022:
10014:
10010:
10001:
9999:
9990:
9989:
9985:
9977:
9973:
9958:
9954:
9941:
9940:
9936:
9925:
9921:
9910:
9906:
9894:
9890:
9880:
9878:
9869:
9868:
9857:
9804:
9800:
9790:
9788:
9773:
9769:
9753:10.1.1.461.2391
9726:
9722:
9709:
9708:
9704:
9699:
9695:
9690:
9686:
9647:
9640:
9625:10.1002/joc.965
9601:
9597:
9589:
9582:
9559:(10): 286–293.
9545:
9541:
9531:
9529:
9520:
9519:
9515:
9505:
9503:
9490:
9489:
9485:
9475:
9473:
9460:
9459:
9455:
9436:
9427:
9382:
9378:
9368:
9366:
9353:
9352:
9348:
9339:
9337:
9324:
9323:
9319:
9282:
9278:
9255:
9251:
9204:
9200:
9139:
9135:
9126:
9124:
9120:
9087:
9081:
9077:
9067:
9065:
9052:
9051:
9047:
9037:
9035:
9022:
9021:
9017:
9007:
9005:
8992:
8991:
8987:
8979:
8968:
8962:
8958:
8948:
8946:
8937:
8936:
8932:
8923:
8921:
8908:
8907:
8903:
8887:
8886:
8879:
8877:
8866:
8862:
8855:
8832:
8828:
8789:
8785:
8748:
8744:
8721:(C1): 929–945.
8707:
8703:
8693:
8691:
8682:
8681:
8677:
8667:
8665:
8656:
8655:
8651:
8641:
8639:
8630:
8629:
8622:
8612:
8610:
8601:
8600:
8593:
8574:
8563:
8526:
8522:
8506:10.1.1.461.2391
8481:
8474:
8464:
8462:
8458:
8451:
8445:
8441:
8428:
8427:
8423:
8413:
8411:
8401:
8397:
8385:
8379:
8375:
8332:
8328:
8275:
8268:
8258:
8256:
8248:
8247:
8243:
8190:
8183:
8128:
8124:
8079:
8075:
8065:
8063:
8059:
8020:
8014:
8010:
7973:
7969:
7922:
7918:
7908:
7906:
7862:
7858:
7848:
7846:
7831:
7827:
7817:
7815:
7804:
7800:
7776:10.1.1.606.9579
7751:
7747:
7700:
7696:
7651:
7647:
7606:
7602:
7592:
7590:
7583:10.1038/ngeo868
7551:
7547:
7528:
7524:
7471:(23 Aug 2022).
7465:
7461:
7398:
7394:
7385:
7383:
7370:
7369:
7365:
7328:
7324:
7315:
7313:
7270:
7266:
7257:
7255:
7251:
7202:
7196:
7192:
7176:10.1.1.403.9784
7161:(16): 4009–27.
7152:
7147:
7143:
7133:
7131:
7122:
7121:
7117:
7107:
7105:
7096:
7095:
7091:
7082:
7080:
7070:
7066:
7057:
7055:
7044:
7040:
7030:
7028:
7019:
7018:
7014:
7004:
7002:
6993:
6992:
6988:
6979:
6977:
6973:
6962:
6953:
6949:
6930:
6926:
6916:
6914:
6909:
6908:
6901:
6840:
6836:
6826:
6824:
6814:
6810:
6800:
6798:
6788:
6784:
6774:
6772:
6765:
6757:
6753:
6743:
6741:
6711:
6707:
6697:
6695:
6686:
6685:
6678:
6668:
6666:
6657:
6656:
6647:
6610:
6606:
6561:
6557:
6548:
6546:
6542:
6495:
6489:
6485:
6476:
6474:
6431:
6427:
6390:
6386:
6347:
6343:
6334:
6332:
6328:
6295:
6289:
6285:
6276:
6274:
6270:
6237:
6231:
6227:
6190:J. Geophys. Res
6182:
6178:
6133:
6129:
6090:
6086:
6049:(7263): 511–4.
6039:
6035:
6023:
6021:
5998:
5996:
5992:
5981:
5932:
5930:
5926:
5919:
5910:
5906:
5896:
5894:
5890:
5883:
5877:
5873:
5836:
5832:
5822:
5820:
5811:
5810:
5806:
5790:
5789:
5785:
5774:
5772:
5763:
5762:
5758:
5749:
5747:
5743:
5736:
5732:
5731:
5727:
5718:
5716:
5712:
5665:
5659:
5655:
5645:
5643:
5634:
5633:
5629:
5622:
5606:
5602:
5593:
5591:
5580:
5576:
5531:
5527:
5490:(5936): 77–80.
5480:
5476:
5431:
5427:
5390:
5383:
5346:
5339:
5302:
5298:
5257:
5250:
5213:
5209:
5185:10.1.1.177.2614
5164:Hydrol. Process
5160:
5156:
5146:
5144:
5107:
5103:
5091:
5089:
5085:
5078:
5074:
5065:
5063:
5038:
5036:
5023:
5014:
5012:
4995:
4986:
4984:
4975:
4966:
4964:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4929:
4927:
4880:
4876:
4866:
4864:
4855:
4854:
4850:
4840:
4838:
4829:
4828:
4824:
4814:
4812:
4803:
4802:
4798:
4753:
4749:
4739:
4737:
4720:
4716:
4706:
4704:
4695:
4694:
4690:
4683:
4660:
4656:
4643:
4641:
4636:. 9 June 2023.
4624:
4623:
4619:
4609:
4607:
4596:
4592:
4583:
4581:
4574:The Independent
4568:
4567:
4563:
4553:
4551:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4523:
4521:
4510:
4506:
4496:
4494:
4490:
4479:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4460:
4458:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4434:
4432:
4423:
4422:
4418:
4408:
4406:
4396:
4392:
4382:
4380:
4369:
4365:
4355:
4353:
4344:
4343:
4339:
4330:
4328:
4317:
4313:
4303:
4301:
4300:on 9 April 2016
4286:
4279:
4269:
4267:
4258:
4257:
4253:
4244:
4242:
4231:
4227:
4218:
4216:
4205:
4201:
4192:
4190:
4179:
4175:
4166:
4164:
4160:
4149:
4143:Sharon L. Smith
4138:
4134:
4124:
4122:
4104:
4100:
4093:
4089:
4080:
4078:
4063:
4059:
4050:
4048:
4033:
4022:
4013:
4011:
3998:
3997:
3993:
3986:
3972:
3968:
3945:
3941:
3912:
3908:
3898:
3896:
3885:
3881:
3871:
3869:
3858:
3851:
3839:
3838:
3829:
3828:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3794:
3788:
3777:
3767:
3765:
3754:
3747:
3737:
3735:
3726:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3700:
3696:
3686:
3684:
3677:"What is ENSO?"
3675:
3674:
3670:
3660:
3658:
3653:
3652:
3641:
3631:
3629:
3625:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3602:
3592:
3590:
3577:
3576:
3559:
3549:
3547:
3534:
3533:
3529:
3519:
3517:
3508:
3507:
3503:
3493:
3491:
3474:
3473:
3460:
3450:
3448:
3441:Popular Science
3435:
3434:
3430:
3420:
3418:
3405:
3404:
3400:
3363:
3359:
3350:
3348:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3321:
3319:
3306:
3305:
3301:
3284:Wayback Machine
3263:Wayback Machine
3253:
3249:
3230:
3219:
3210:
3208:
3201:10.1038/ngeo868
3169:
3160:
3154:Wayback Machine
3143:Wayback Machine
3133:
3116:
3079:
3072:
3033:Xie, Shang-Ping
3029:
3022:
2990:
2983:
2973:
2971:
2962:
2961:
2954:
2935:
2928:
2919:
2917:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2894:
2892:
2877:
2870:
2861:
2859:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2662:and especially
2652:typhoon seasons
2610:with decreased
2608:Baja California
2577:
2569:
2564:
2563:
2555:planetary waves
2543:deep convection
2535:
2527:
2522:
2521:
2485:
2477:
2472:
2471:
2452:
2447:
2446:
2403:
2395:
2390:
2375:coral bleaching
2303:
2211:Coccolithophore
2144:Coral bleaching
2096:
2091:
2078:
2070:Beni Department
2062:northern Brazil
2055:Central America
1949:
1932:
1930:Pacific islands
1888:
1882:
1846:Rocky Mountains
1783:
1777:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1708:
1679:
1639:
1603:
1571:
1562:
1550:coral bleaching
1546:
1544:Coral bleaching
1529:
1463:
1425:
1420:
1398:
1315:
1309:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1286:
1285:
1278:
1267:
1262:
1261:
1194:
1174:tipping element
1170:
1124:
1084:
1051:The Australian
1041:Niño 3.4 region
1037:Niño 3.4 region
1009:
983:
918:
913:
905:teleconnections
901:
896:
895:
810:
807:
805:
765:
749:
738:
724:, 2018–19, and
706:
703:
702:
700:
637:
620:
615:
614:
613:
612:
611:
608:
600:
599:
595:
587:
586:
582:
567:
529:deep convection
506:
505:
504:
503:
502:
499:
490:
489:
488:
485:
474:
461:
455:
409:
355:Ekman transport
351:Coriolis effect
279:
267:climate pattern
189:
107:teleconnections
76:
75:
74:
73:
65:
64:
63:
55:
54:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
15942:
15932:
15931:
15926:
15921:
15916:
15911:
15906:
15901:
15896:
15891:
15886:
15869:
15868:
15866:
15865:
15853:
15841:
15829:
15814:
15811:
15810:
15807:
15806:
15803:
15802:
15800:
15799:
15794:
15789:
15784:
15783:
15782:
15772:
15767:
15762:
15756:
15754:
15750:
15749:
15747:
15746:
15741:
15736:
15731:
15726:
15721:
15716:
15711:
15706:
15705:
15704:
15694:
15692:Cloud feedback
15689:
15684:
15679:
15674:
15673:
15672:
15667:
15662:
15657:
15647:
15641:
15639:
15635:
15634:
15632:
15631:
15626:
15621:
15616:
15610:
15608:
15600:
15599:
15589:
15588:
15585:
15584:
15581:
15580:
15578:
15577:
15572:
15567:
15566:
15565:
15560:
15550:
15548:Kyoto Protocol
15545:
15539:
15537:
15533:
15532:
15530:
15529:
15524:
15523:
15522:
15517:
15512:
15502:
15500:Media coverage
15497:
15492:
15490:Climate spiral
15487:
15482:
15476:
15474:
15468:
15467:
15465:
15464:
15459:
15454:
15449:
15444:
15439:
15434:
15429:
15424:
15419:
15414:
15409:
15404:
15398:
15396:
15390:
15389:
15387:
15386:
15381:
15379:Public opinion
15376:
15371:
15366:
15361:
15356:
15351:
15346:
15345:
15344:
15334:
15329:
15327:Climate action
15324:
15318:
15316:
15308:
15307:
15294:
15293:
15290:
15289:
15286:
15285:
15283:
15282:
15281:
15280:
15269:
15267:
15263:
15262:
15260:
15259:
15254:
15248:
15247:
15246:
15241:
15239:REDD and REDD+
15236:
15231:
15223:
15218:
15216:Carbon farming
15213:
15212:
15211:
15206:
15196:
15190:
15188:
15180:
15179:
15177:
15176:
15171:
15166:
15161:
15160:
15159:
15149:
15143:
15141:
15137:
15136:
15134:
15133:
15128:
15123:
15118:
15113:
15108:
15103:
15098:
15093:
15088:
15083:
15078:
15077:
15076:
15066:
15061:
15055:
15053:
15043:
15042:
15030:
15029:
15026:
15025:
15022:
15021:
15019:
15018:
15013:
15008:
15003:
14998:
14993:
14988:
14983:
14978:
14973:
14968:
14962:
14960:
14954:
14953:
14951:
14950:
14948:Water security
14945:
14943:Water scarcity
14940:
14938:Urban flooding
14935:
14930:
14925:
14920:
14915:
14910:
14905:
14900:
14899:
14898:
14888:
14883:
14878:
14877:
14876:
14866:
14861:
14856:
14851:
14846:
14841:
14836:
14831:
14830:
14829:
14824:
14813:
14811:
14807:
14806:
14804:
14803:
14798:
14793:
14788:
14786:Forest dieback
14783:
14778:
14773:
14772:
14771:
14760:
14758:
14754:
14753:
14751:
14750:
14745:
14740:
14735:
14730:
14725:
14723:Sea level rise
14720:
14715:
14710:
14705:
14704:
14703:
14698:
14696:stratification
14693:
14688:
14683:
14678:
14668:
14667:
14666:
14661:
14651:
14650:
14649:
14639:
14634:
14629:
14624:
14619:
14614:
14609:
14603:
14601:
14593:
14592:
14580:
14579:
14576:
14575:
14573:
14572:
14571:
14570:
14565:
14560:
14555:
14550:
14545:
14537:
14532:
14527:
14522:
14517:
14512:
14506:
14503:
14502:
14492:
14491:
14488:
14487:
14484:
14483:
14481:
14480:
14475:
14474:
14473:
14468:
14463:
14461:Carbon leakage
14458:
14453:
14443:
14438:
14433:
14427:
14425:
14421:
14420:
14418:
14417:
14412:
14402:
14400:Climate system
14396:
14394:
14386:
14385:
14373:
14372:
14369:
14368:
14366:
14365:
14360:
14355:
14350:
14345:
14339:
14336:
14335:
14325:
14324:
14321:Climate change
14317:
14316:
14309:
14302:
14294:
14285:
14284:
14282:
14281:
14269:
14259:
14248:
14245:
14244:
14242:
14241:
14236:
14231:
14226:
14221:
14219:Stratification
14216:
14211:
14206:
14201:
14196:
14191:
14190:
14189:
14179:
14174:
14169:
14164:
14159:
14154:
14149:
14144:
14139:
14134:
14129:
14124:
14119:
14111:
14109:Color of water
14106:
14104:Benthic lander
14101:
14096:
14090:
14088:
14084:
14083:
14081:
14080:
14075:
14070:
14064:
14062:
14058:
14057:
14055:
14054:
14049:
14044:
14039:
14034:
14028:
14026:
14020:
14019:
14017:
14016:
14011:
14009:Sea level rise
14006:
14004:Sea level drop
14001:
13996:
13991:
13986:
13980:
13978:
13972:
13971:
13969:
13968:
13963:
13958:
13953:
13948:
13943:
13938:
13933:
13928:
13923:
13917:
13915:
13911:
13910:
13908:
13907:
13902:
13897:
13892:
13887:
13882:
13877:
13872:
13867:
13862:
13857:
13852:
13847:
13842:
13840:Marine geology
13837:
13832:
13827:
13822:
13816:
13814:
13806:
13805:
13803:
13802:
13797:
13792:
13787:
13782:
13780:Passive margin
13777:
13775:Oceanic trench
13772:
13767:
13762:
13757:
13752:
13747:
13742:
13737:
13732:
13727:
13722:
13717:
13712:
13707:
13702:
13697:
13692:
13686:
13684:
13678:
13677:
13675:
13674:
13669:
13664:
13659:
13654:
13649:
13644:
13639:
13634:
13629:
13624:
13619:
13614:
13609:
13604:
13599:
13594:
13589:
13583:
13581:
13575:
13574:
13572:
13571:
13566:
13561:
13556:
13551:
13550:
13549:
13539:
13534:
13529:
13524:
13519:
13514:
13509:
13507:Ocean dynamics
13504:
13499:
13494:
13489:
13484:
13479:
13474:
13469:
13464:
13459:
13454:
13449:
13444:
13439:
13434:
13429:
13424:
13419:
13414:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13397:Coriolis force
13394:
13389:
13384:
13378:
13376:
13370:
13369:
13351:
13349:
13347:
13346:
13345:
13344:
13334:
13329:
13324:
13323:
13322:
13317:
13307:
13302:
13297:
13292:
13287:
13282:
13277:
13272:
13267:
13262:
13257:
13252:
13247:
13246:
13245:
13235:
13230:
13225:
13220:
13218:Stokes problem
13215:
13210:
13205:
13200:
13195:
13190:
13185:
13180:
13175:
13170:
13165:
13160:
13155:
13153:Kinematic wave
13150:
13145:
13140:
13135:
13130:
13125:
13120:
13115:
13110:
13105:
13100:
13095:
13090:
13085:
13080:
13075:
13070:
13064:
13062:
13056:
13055:
13048:
13047:
13040:
13033:
13025:
13016:
13015:
13013:
13012:
13007:
13002:
12997:
12992:
12987:
12982:
12977:
12972:
12967:
12962:
12957:
12952:
12947:
12942:
12937:
12935:Glacial cycles
12932:
12927:
12922:
12917:
12912:
12907:
12902:
12897:
12892:
12887:
12882:
12877:
12872:
12867:
12861:
12859:
12853:
12852:
12845:
12844:
12837:
12830:
12822:
12816:
12815:
12802:
12786:
12772:
12771:External links
12769:
12767:
12766:
12725:
12704:(2): 381–395.
12684:
12643:
12615:
12585:
12532:
12503:(5): 702–708.
12483:
12465:
12445:
12400:
12386:10.1.1.54.3115
12355:
12326:
12309:Wild Singapore
12296:
12265:
12238:
12210:
12168:
12141:
12117:
12093:
12071:
12034:
12008:
11989:
11967:
11924:
11917:
11893:
11866:(5): 419–422.
11849:
11788:
11723:
11696:(4): 453–463.
11680:
11637:
11585:
11534:
11482:
11445:(4): 567–577.
11428:
11409:(4): 465–470.
11392:
11362:
11341:"El Niño 2016"
11329:
11280:
11234:
11199:
11156:
11137:(1): 107–114.
11121:
11090:
11069:"Biodiversity"
11060:
11045:
11016:
10998:
10978:
10927:
10911:scied.ucar.edu
10898:
10857:
10831:
10806:
10786:
10766:
10753:
10715:
10684:
10655:
10618:
10599:
10569:
10547:(2012-01-26).
10536:
10487:
10464:
10441:
10421:
10401:
10364:(2): 907–915.
10344:
10314:
10296:
10273:
10245:
10219:
10216:on 2005-05-15.
10195:
10173:
10150:
10124:
10106:
10077:
10042:
10020:
10008:
9983:
9971:
9952:
9934:
9931:www.bom.gov.au
9919:
9916:www.bom.gov.au
9904:
9888:
9855:
9798:
9787:on 14 May 2008
9767:
9720:
9702:
9693:
9684:
9657:(4): 415–425.
9638:
9595:
9580:
9539:
9513:
9483:
9453:
9425:
9376:
9346:
9317:
9296:(1): 252–262.
9276:
9249:
9198:
9133:
9075:
9045:
9015:
8985:
8956:
8930:
8901:
8860:
8853:
8826:
8783:
8742:
8701:
8675:
8649:
8620:
8591:
8561:
8520:
8491:(6): 1419–28.
8472:
8461:on 5 July 2012
8439:
8421:
8395:
8373:
8346:(7): 649–653.
8326:
8289:(4): 631–650.
8266:
8254:ClimateScience
8241:
8204:(2): 601–619.
8181:
8122:
8073:
8008:
7967:
7916:
7877:(6): 407–418.
7856:
7825:
7798:
7745:
7694:
7665:(12): L12702.
7645:
7631:10.1.1.54.3115
7600:
7569:(6): 391–397.
7545:
7522:
7469:Xie,Shang-Ping
7459:
7392:
7363:
7342:(11): L11704.
7322:
7284:(6): 549–566.
7264:
7213:(3): 325–340.
7190:
7150:
7141:
7115:
7089:
7064:
7038:
7012:
6986:
6958:(2014-06-30).
6947:
6924:
6899:
6834:
6820:(in Spanish).
6808:
6794:(in Spanish).
6782:
6751:
6705:
6676:
6645:
6624:(12): C12001.
6604:
6555:
6506:(10): L10704.
6483:
6425:
6384:
6357:(3): 223–233.
6341:
6283:
6248:(14): L14705.
6225:
6196:(C2): C02024.
6176:
6147:(15): L15709.
6127:
6100:(19): L19703.
6084:
6033:
6031:
6030:
6005:
5974:
5954:(12): C12001.
5939:
5904:
5871:
5850:(3): 406–415.
5830:
5804:
5783:
5756:
5725:
5653:
5627:
5620:
5600:
5574:
5545:(12): L12805.
5525:
5474:
5425:
5404:(12): L12805.
5381:
5360:(3): 406–415.
5337:
5316:(13): L13705.
5296:
5282:10.1.1.467.457
5267:(3): 615–632.
5248:
5207:
5154:
5101:
5099:
5098:
5072:
5045:
5021:
4993:
4973:
4937:
4874:
4848:
4822:
4796:
4747:
4714:
4688:
4681:
4654:
4617:
4590:
4576:. 2023-06-08.
4561:
4531:
4504:
4468:
4442:
4416:
4390:
4363:
4337:
4311:
4277:
4251:
4225:
4199:
4173:
4132:
4098:
4087:
4057:
4020:
4006:. 2002-04-03.
3991:
3984:
3966:
3955:(6): 840–857.
3939:
3926:(6): 813–825.
3906:
3879:
3849:
3840:|journal=
3815:
3775:
3745:
3719:
3712:
3694:
3668:
3639:
3600:
3557:
3527:
3501:
3458:
3428:
3398:
3357:
3328:
3299:
3247:
3217:
3173:Timmermann, A.
3158:
3114:
3087:Earth's Future
3070:
3047:(2): 480–494.
3020:
2981:
2952:
2926:
2901:
2868:
2846:(2005-12-19).
2835:
2828:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2775:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2711:
2705:
2699:
2687:
2686:
2680:
2672:
2669:
2578:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2536:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2486:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2404:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2367:Jacob Bjerknes
2361:(for whom the
2359:Gilbert Walker
2355:Norman Lockyer
2302:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2287:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2261:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2235:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2214:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2192:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2168:
2167:
2156:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2141:
2138:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2123:Series/ epoch
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2077:
2074:
2020:Horse mackerel
1948:
1945:
1931:
1928:
1884:Main article:
1881:
1878:
1776:
1773:
1764:
1761:
1709:
1701:
1678:
1675:
1638:
1635:
1619:Bellingshausen
1602:
1599:
1570:
1567:
1561:
1558:
1545:
1542:
1528:
1525:
1462:
1459:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1397:
1394:
1361:Atlantic Ocean
1321:closer to the
1308:
1305:
1295:
1288:
1287:
1282:global warming
1279:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1250:food shortages
1207:Arctic sea ice
1195:
1187:
1178:teleconnection
1169:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1132:climate change
1123:
1122:Climate change
1120:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1070:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1008:
1005:
982:
979:
967:climate change
917:
914:
912:
909:
900:
897:
894:
893:
888:
885:
882:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
816:
815:
803:
802:
737:
734:
704:
698:
697:
636:
633:
619:
616:
609:
602:
601:
596:
589:
588:
583:
576:
575:
574:
573:
572:
566:
563:
548:station record
500:
493:
492:
491:
486:
479:
478:
477:
476:
475:
473:
470:
465:Gilbert Walker
457:Main article:
454:
451:
421:climate system
413:Jacob Bjerknes
408:
405:
391:quasi-periodic
368:Southern Ocean
278:
275:
188:
185:
176:climate change
145:Jacob Bjerknes
67:
66:
57:
56:
48:
47:
46:
45:
44:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15941:
15930:
15927:
15925:
15922:
15920:
15917:
15915:
15912:
15910:
15907:
15905:
15902:
15900:
15897:
15895:
15892:
15890:
15887:
15885:
15882:
15881:
15879:
15864:
15863:
15854:
15852:
15851:
15842:
15840:
15839:
15830:
15828:
15827:
15816:
15815:
15812:
15798:
15795:
15793:
15790:
15788:
15785:
15781:
15778:
15777:
15776:
15773:
15771:
15768:
15766:
15765:Climate model
15763:
15761:
15758:
15757:
15755:
15751:
15745:
15742:
15740:
15737:
15735:
15732:
15730:
15727:
15725:
15722:
15720:
15717:
15715:
15712:
15710:
15707:
15703:
15700:
15699:
15698:
15697:Cloud forcing
15695:
15693:
15690:
15688:
15685:
15683:
15680:
15678:
15675:
15671:
15668:
15666:
15663:
15661:
15658:
15656:
15653:
15652:
15651:
15648:
15646:
15643:
15642:
15640:
15636:
15630:
15627:
15625:
15622:
15620:
15617:
15615:
15612:
15611:
15609:
15605:
15601:
15594:
15590:
15576:
15573:
15571:
15568:
15564:
15561:
15559:
15556:
15555:
15554:
15551:
15549:
15546:
15544:
15541:
15540:
15538:
15534:
15528:
15525:
15521:
15518:
15516:
15513:
15511:
15508:
15507:
15506:
15503:
15501:
15498:
15496:
15493:
15491:
15488:
15486:
15483:
15481:
15478:
15477:
15475:
15473:
15472:Communication
15469:
15463:
15460:
15458:
15455:
15453:
15452:Vulnerability
15450:
15448:
15445:
15443:
15440:
15438:
15435:
15433:
15430:
15428:
15425:
15423:
15422:Flood control
15420:
15418:
15415:
15413:
15410:
15408:
15405:
15403:
15400:
15399:
15397:
15395:
15391:
15385:
15382:
15380:
15377:
15375:
15372:
15370:
15367:
15365:
15362:
15360:
15357:
15355:
15352:
15350:
15347:
15343:
15340:
15339:
15338:
15335:
15333:
15330:
15328:
15325:
15323:
15320:
15319:
15317:
15313:
15309:
15305:
15299:
15295:
15279:
15276:
15275:
15274:
15271:
15270:
15268:
15264:
15258:
15255:
15252:
15249:
15245:
15244:reforestation
15242:
15240:
15237:
15235:
15232:
15230:
15229:afforestation
15227:
15226:
15224:
15222:
15219:
15217:
15214:
15210:
15207:
15205:
15202:
15201:
15200:
15197:
15195:
15192:
15191:
15189:
15187:
15181:
15175:
15172:
15170:
15167:
15165:
15164:Nuclear power
15162:
15158:
15155:
15154:
15153:
15150:
15148:
15145:
15144:
15142:
15138:
15132:
15129:
15127:
15124:
15122:
15119:
15117:
15114:
15112:
15109:
15107:
15104:
15102:
15099:
15097:
15094:
15092:
15089:
15087:
15084:
15082:
15079:
15075:
15072:
15071:
15070:
15067:
15065:
15062:
15060:
15059:Carbon budget
15057:
15056:
15054:
15052:
15048:
15044:
15040:
15035:
15031:
15017:
15014:
15012:
15009:
15007:
15004:
15002:
14999:
14997:
14994:
14992:
14989:
14987:
14984:
14982:
14979:
14977:
14974:
14972:
14969:
14967:
14964:
14963:
14961:
14959:
14955:
14949:
14946:
14944:
14941:
14939:
14936:
14934:
14931:
14929:
14926:
14924:
14921:
14919:
14916:
14914:
14911:
14909:
14906:
14904:
14901:
14897:
14896:Mental health
14894:
14893:
14892:
14889:
14887:
14884:
14882:
14879:
14875:
14872:
14871:
14870:
14867:
14865:
14862:
14860:
14857:
14855:
14852:
14850:
14847:
14845:
14842:
14840:
14837:
14835:
14832:
14828:
14827:United States
14825:
14823:
14820:
14819:
14818:
14815:
14814:
14812:
14808:
14802:
14799:
14797:
14794:
14792:
14789:
14787:
14784:
14782:
14779:
14777:
14774:
14770:
14767:
14766:
14765:
14762:
14761:
14759:
14755:
14749:
14746:
14744:
14741:
14739:
14736:
14734:
14731:
14729:
14726:
14724:
14721:
14719:
14716:
14714:
14711:
14709:
14706:
14702:
14699:
14697:
14694:
14692:
14689:
14687:
14684:
14682:
14681:deoxygenation
14679:
14677:
14676:acidification
14674:
14673:
14672:
14669:
14665:
14662:
14660:
14657:
14656:
14655:
14652:
14648:
14645:
14644:
14643:
14640:
14638:
14635:
14633:
14630:
14628:
14625:
14623:
14620:
14618:
14615:
14613:
14610:
14608:
14605:
14604:
14602:
14598:
14594:
14590:
14585:
14581:
14569:
14566:
14564:
14561:
14559:
14556:
14554:
14551:
14549:
14546:
14544:
14541:
14540:
14538:
14536:
14533:
14531:
14528:
14526:
14523:
14521:
14518:
14516:
14513:
14511:
14508:
14507:
14504:
14497:
14493:
14479:
14476:
14472:
14471:from wetlands
14469:
14467:
14464:
14462:
14459:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14448:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14437:
14434:
14432:
14431:Deforestation
14429:
14428:
14426:
14422:
14416:
14413:
14410:
14406:
14403:
14401:
14398:
14397:
14395:
14391:
14387:
14383:
14378:
14374:
14364:
14361:
14359:
14356:
14354:
14351:
14349:
14346:
14344:
14341:
14340:
14337:
14330:
14326:
14322:
14315:
14310:
14308:
14303:
14301:
14296:
14295:
14292:
14280:
14275:
14270:
14268:
14260:
14258:
14250:
14249:
14246:
14240:
14237:
14235:
14232:
14230:
14227:
14225:
14222:
14220:
14217:
14215:
14212:
14210:
14207:
14205:
14202:
14200:
14197:
14195:
14192:
14188:
14185:
14184:
14183:
14180:
14178:
14175:
14173:
14170:
14168:
14165:
14163:
14160:
14158:
14155:
14153:
14150:
14148:
14145:
14143:
14140:
14138:
14135:
14133:
14130:
14128:
14127:Marine energy
14125:
14123:
14120:
14118:
14117:
14112:
14110:
14107:
14105:
14102:
14100:
14097:
14095:
14094:Acidification
14092:
14091:
14089:
14085:
14079:
14076:
14074:
14071:
14069:
14066:
14065:
14063:
14059:
14053:
14050:
14048:
14047:SOFAR channel
14045:
14043:
14040:
14038:
14035:
14033:
14030:
14029:
14027:
14025:
14021:
14015:
14012:
14010:
14007:
14005:
14002:
14000:
13997:
13995:
13992:
13990:
13987:
13985:
13982:
13981:
13979:
13977:
13973:
13967:
13964:
13962:
13959:
13957:
13954:
13952:
13949:
13947:
13944:
13942:
13939:
13937:
13934:
13932:
13929:
13927:
13924:
13922:
13919:
13918:
13916:
13912:
13906:
13903:
13901:
13898:
13896:
13893:
13891:
13888:
13886:
13883:
13881:
13878:
13876:
13873:
13871:
13868:
13866:
13863:
13861:
13858:
13856:
13855:Oceanic crust
13853:
13851:
13848:
13846:
13843:
13841:
13838:
13836:
13833:
13831:
13830:Fracture zone
13828:
13826:
13823:
13821:
13818:
13817:
13815:
13813:
13807:
13801:
13798:
13796:
13793:
13791:
13788:
13786:
13783:
13781:
13778:
13776:
13773:
13771:
13768:
13766:
13765:Oceanic basin
13763:
13761:
13758:
13756:
13753:
13751:
13748:
13746:
13743:
13741:
13738:
13736:
13733:
13731:
13728:
13726:
13723:
13721:
13718:
13716:
13713:
13711:
13708:
13706:
13703:
13701:
13698:
13696:
13695:Abyssal plain
13693:
13691:
13688:
13687:
13685:
13683:
13679:
13673:
13670:
13668:
13665:
13663:
13660:
13658:
13655:
13653:
13650:
13648:
13645:
13643:
13640:
13638:
13635:
13633:
13630:
13628:
13625:
13623:
13620:
13618:
13615:
13613:
13610:
13608:
13605:
13603:
13602:Internal tide
13600:
13598:
13595:
13593:
13590:
13588:
13585:
13584:
13582:
13580:
13576:
13570:
13567:
13565:
13562:
13560:
13557:
13555:
13552:
13548:
13545:
13544:
13543:
13540:
13538:
13535:
13533:
13530:
13528:
13525:
13523:
13520:
13518:
13515:
13513:
13510:
13508:
13505:
13503:
13500:
13498:
13497:Ocean current
13495:
13493:
13490:
13488:
13485:
13483:
13480:
13478:
13475:
13473:
13470:
13468:
13465:
13463:
13460:
13458:
13455:
13453:
13450:
13448:
13445:
13443:
13440:
13438:
13435:
13433:
13430:
13428:
13425:
13423:
13420:
13418:
13415:
13413:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13390:
13388:
13385:
13383:
13380:
13379:
13377:
13375:
13371:
13366:
13355:
13343:
13340:
13339:
13338:
13335:
13333:
13330:
13328:
13325:
13321:
13318:
13316:
13313:
13312:
13311:
13308:
13306:
13303:
13301:
13298:
13296:
13295:Wave shoaling
13293:
13291:
13288:
13286:
13283:
13281:
13278:
13276:
13273:
13271:
13268:
13266:
13263:
13261:
13258:
13256:
13255:Ursell number
13253:
13251:
13248:
13244:
13241:
13240:
13239:
13236:
13234:
13231:
13229:
13226:
13224:
13221:
13219:
13216:
13214:
13211:
13209:
13206:
13204:
13201:
13199:
13196:
13194:
13191:
13189:
13186:
13184:
13181:
13179:
13176:
13174:
13171:
13169:
13166:
13164:
13161:
13159:
13156:
13154:
13151:
13149:
13146:
13144:
13141:
13139:
13138:Internal wave
13136:
13134:
13131:
13129:
13126:
13124:
13121:
13119:
13116:
13114:
13111:
13109:
13106:
13104:
13101:
13099:
13096:
13094:
13091:
13089:
13088:Breaking wave
13086:
13084:
13081:
13079:
13076:
13074:
13071:
13069:
13066:
13065:
13063:
13061:
13057:
13053:
13046:
13041:
13039:
13034:
13032:
13027:
13026:
13023:
13011:
13008:
13006:
13003:
13001:
12998:
12996:
12993:
12991:
12988:
12986:
12983:
12981:
12978:
12976:
12973:
12971:
12968:
12966:
12963:
12961:
12958:
12956:
12953:
12951:
12948:
12946:
12943:
12941:
12938:
12936:
12933:
12931:
12928:
12926:
12923:
12921:
12918:
12916:
12915:Diurnal cycle
12913:
12911:
12908:
12906:
12903:
12901:
12898:
12896:
12893:
12891:
12888:
12886:
12883:
12881:
12878:
12876:
12873:
12871:
12868:
12866:
12863:
12862:
12860:
12854:
12850:
12843:
12838:
12836:
12831:
12829:
12824:
12823:
12820:
12811:
12808:. Australian
12807:
12803:
12799:
12795:
12791:
12787:
12783:
12779:
12775:
12774:
12761:
12756:
12752:
12748:
12744:
12740:
12736:
12729:
12720:
12715:
12711:
12707:
12703:
12699:
12695:
12688:
12679:
12674:
12670:
12666:
12662:
12658:
12654:
12647:
12633:
12626:
12619:
12603:
12599:
12595:
12589:
12581:
12577:
12573:
12569:
12564:
12559:
12555:
12551:
12548:(2): RG2003.
12547:
12543:
12536:
12528:
12524:
12519:
12514:
12510:
12506:
12502:
12498:
12494:
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12472:
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12214:
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12181:
12178:
12172:
12165:
12161:
12158:
12154:
12151:
12145:
12138:
12134:
12131:
12130:From p. 1456:
12127:
12121:
12114:
12110:
12106:
12105:
12097:
12089:
12085:
12078:
12076:
12068:
12055:
12051:
12047:
12046:
12038:
12022:
12018:
12012:
11996:
11992:
11990:9780691147970
11986:
11982:
11978:
11971:
11963:
11959:
11955:
11954:10.1038/30636
11951:
11947:
11943:
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11935:
11928:
11920:
11914:
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11905:
11897:
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11865:
11861:
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11792:
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10868:
10861:
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10662:
10660:
10650:
10645:
10641:
10637:
10633:
10631:
10622:
10614:
10610:
10603:
10589:on 2013-02-18
10588:
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10573:
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10550:
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10523:
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9956:
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9928:
9923:
9917:
9913:
9908:
9901:
9897:
9892:
9876:
9872:
9866:
9864:
9862:
9860:
9851:
9847:
9843:
9839:
9834:
9829:
9825:
9821:
9817:
9813:
9809:
9802:
9786:
9782:
9778:
9771:
9763:
9759:
9754:
9749:
9745:
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9733:
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9610:
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9599:
9593:
9587:
9585:
9575:
9570:
9566:
9562:
9558:
9554:
9550:
9543:
9527:
9526:reliefweb.int
9523:
9517:
9501:
9497:
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9471:
9467:
9463:
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9445:
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9412:
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9312:
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9213:
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9119:
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9019:
9003:
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8995:
8989:
8978:
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8967:
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8753:
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8712:
8705:
8689:
8685:
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8637:
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8627:
8625:
8608:
8604:
8598:
8596:
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8579:
8572:
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8566:
8556:
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8507:
8502:
8498:
8494:
8490:
8486:
8479:
8477:
8457:
8450:
8443:
8435:
8431:
8425:
8410:
8406:
8399:
8392:. p. 88.
8391:
8384:
8377:
8369:
8365:
8361:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8345:
8341:
8337:
8330:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8310:
8305:
8300:
8296:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8280:
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8225:
8220:
8215:
8211:
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8177:
8173:
8168:
8163:
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8149:
8145:
8141:
8137:
8133:
8126:
8118:
8114:
8109:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8092:
8088:
8084:
8077:
8058:
8054:
8050:
8046:
8042:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8026:
8019:
8012:
8003:
7998:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7971:
7963:
7959:
7954:
7949:
7944:
7939:
7935:
7931:
7927:
7920:
7904:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7888:
7884:
7880:
7876:
7872:
7868:
7860:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7829:
7813:
7809:
7802:
7794:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7777:
7772:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7756:
7749:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7729:
7725:
7721:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7705:
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7690:
7686:
7681:
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7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7656:
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7627:
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7615:
7611:
7604:
7588:
7584:
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7568:
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7556:
7549:
7541:
7537:
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7526:
7518:
7514:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7463:
7455:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7437:
7433:
7428:
7423:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7407:
7403:
7396:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7367:
7358:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7337:
7333:
7326:
7311:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7268:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7201:
7194:
7186:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7168:
7164:
7160:
7156:
7145:
7129:
7125:
7119:
7103:
7099:
7098:"Climate.gov"
7093:
7078:
7075:(June 2009).
7074:
7068:
7053:
7049:
7042:
7026:
7022:
7016:
7000:
6996:
6990:
6972:
6968:
6961:
6957:
6951:
6943:
6939:
6935:
6928:
6912:
6906:
6904:
6895:
6891:
6887:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6838:
6823:
6819:
6812:
6797:
6793:
6786:
6771:
6764:
6763:
6755:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6728:
6724:
6720:
6716:
6709:
6693:
6689:
6683:
6681:
6664:
6660:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6640:
6635:
6631:
6627:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6608:
6600:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6559:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6513:
6509:
6505:
6501:
6494:
6487:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6429:
6420:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6404:(5–6): 1–14.
6403:
6399:
6395:
6388:
6380:
6376:
6372:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6345:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6306:(2): L02704.
6305:
6301:
6294:
6287:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6236:
6229:
6221:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6180:
6172:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6138:
6131:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6088:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6037:
6019:
6015:
6014:Grain Central
6011:
6006:
5991:
5987:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5940:
5925:
5918:
5913:
5912:
5908:
5889:
5882:
5875:
5866:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5834:
5818:
5814:
5808:
5799:
5794:
5787:
5770:
5766:
5760:
5742:
5735:
5729:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5664:
5657:
5641:
5637:
5631:
5623:
5617:
5613:
5612:
5604:
5590:on 2014-07-21
5589:
5585:
5578:
5570:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5540:
5536:
5529:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5478:
5470:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5429:
5420:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5388:
5386:
5376:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5344:
5342:
5332:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5292:
5288:
5283:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5255:
5253:
5243:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5211:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5170:(7): 973–84.
5169:
5165:
5158:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5105:
5084:
5077:
5073:
5061:
5057:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4994:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4953:The NOAA News
4950:
4946:
4945:
4941:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4890:
4885:
4878:
4862:
4858:
4852:
4841:September 11,
4836:
4832:
4826:
4810:
4806:
4800:
4792:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4751:
4735:
4731:
4730:
4725:
4718:
4702:
4698:
4692:
4684:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4669:
4664:
4658:
4651:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4621:
4605:
4601:
4594:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4565:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4535:
4519:
4515:
4508:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4472:
4456:
4452:
4446:
4430:
4426:
4420:
4404:
4401:(June 2009).
4400:
4394:
4378:
4374:
4367:
4351:
4347:
4341:
4327:on 2014-07-14
4326:
4322:
4315:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4284:
4282:
4265:
4261:
4255:
4241:on 2014-06-27
4240:
4236:
4229:
4214:
4210:
4203:
4188:
4184:
4177:
4159:
4155:
4148:
4144:
4136:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4102:
4096:
4091:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4061:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4031:
4029:
4027:
4025:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3995:
3987:
3981:
3977:
3970:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3943:
3934:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3910:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3868:. Climate.gov
3867:
3863:
3856:
3854:
3845:
3833:
3818:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3793:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3764:. Climate.gov
3763:
3759:
3752:
3750:
3733:
3729:
3723:
3715:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3682:
3678:
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3611:
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3588:
3584:
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3562:
3545:
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3515:
3511:
3505:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3432:
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2000:jack mackerel
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1186:
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1183:Asian Monsoon
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736:La Niña phase
733:
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685:
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673:South America
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635:El Niño phase
632:
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618:Neutral phase
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510:Pacific Ocean
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70:precipitation
61:
52:
41:
37:
33:
19:
15860:
15848:
15836:
15817:
15650:Carbon cycle
15607:Measurements
15302:Society and
15186:carbon sinks
15091:Climate debt
15081:Carbon price
14903:Human rights
14728:Season creep
14686:heat content
14612:Anoxic event
14525:James Hansen
14234:Water column
14182:Oceanography
14157:Observations
14152:Explorations
14122:Marginal sea
14115:
14073:OSTM/Jason-2
13905:Volcanic arc
13880:Slab suction
13597:Head of tide
13487:Loop Current
13436:
13427:Ekman spiral
13213:Stokes drift
13123:Gravity wave
13098:Cnoidal wave
12995:Seasonal lag
12924:
12858:oscillations
12781:
12742:
12738:
12728:
12701:
12697:
12687:
12660:
12656:
12646:
12635:. Retrieved
12618:
12606:. Retrieved
12602:the original
12588:
12545:
12542:Rev. Geophys
12541:
12535:
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12496:
12486:
12475:. Retrieved
12455:
12448:
12416:(D8): 4065.
12413:
12409:
12403:
12371:(1): 57–60.
12368:
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12346:. Retrieved
12336:
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12317:. Retrieved
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11439:The Holocene
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11365:
11353:. Retrieved
11349:the original
11344:
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11247:The Holocene
11246:
11215:(2): 89–94.
11212:
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11134:
11130:
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11112:. Retrieved
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10745:. Retrieved
10733:
10707:the original
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10675:. Retrieved
10642:(1): 79–94.
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10587:the original
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10142:. Retrieved
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10119:the original
10109:
10097:. Retrieved
10080:
10058:(1): 32–36.
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10000:. Retrieved
9998:. 2002-04-03
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8463:. Retrieved
8456:the original
8442:
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8412:. Retrieved
8408:
8398:
8390:IPCC AR6 WG1
8389:
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8343:
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8257:. Retrieved
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8064:. Retrieved
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7907:. Retrieved
7874:
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7859:
7847:. Retrieved
7839:The Guardian
7838:
7828:
7816:. Retrieved
7801:
7761:(3): 331–6.
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6694:(in Spanish)
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6022:. Retrieved
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5897:27 September
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5092:10 September
5090:. Retrieved
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5009:the original
5001:cpc.noaa.gov
5000:
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3277:From p. 84:
3272:
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3237:
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3187:(6): 391–7.
3184:
3180:
3134:IPCC, 2021:
3093:(1): 19–32.
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3086:
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3040:
3001:(4): 68–75.
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2947:the original
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2860:. Retrieved
2856:the original
2838:
2819:
2813:
2767:For El Niño:
2766:
2765:
2690:For La Niña:
2689:
2688:
2623:
2592:climate mode
2551:Rossby waves
2379:
2371:
2351:Charles Todd
2349:
2345:Baron Mackau
2340:
2334:
2315:
2312:
2258:Foraminifera
2218:precessional
2175:
2112:
2109:
2097:
2079:
2059:
2047:Amazon River
2032:
1989:
1961:
1950:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1920:thunderstorm
1908:Sierra Madre
1889:
1854:
1850:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1784:
1766:
1710:
1688:
1680:
1655:
1650:Indian Ocean
1647:
1643:Western Asia
1640:
1604:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1563:
1554:
1547:
1534:
1530:
1514:
1507:
1479:dengue fever
1464:
1455:
1443:
1399:
1390:Cook Islands
1358:
1347:
1316:
1302:
1171:
1148:
1139:
1136:
1129:
1125:
1116:
1101:
1040:
1036:
1018:
1001:Kelvin waves
998:
991:
984:
981:ENSO Costero
975:
971:
963:
959:
955:Indian Ocean
939:
927:
902:
811:
786:
779:
762:
755:Sea surface
730:
707:
693:
684:air pressure
681:
654:
643:Loop of the
621:
568:
553:
545:
526:
522:
507:
462:
424:
410:
399:
388:
376:East Pacific
344:
336:
289:
286:thermocline.
277:Fundamentals
271:
264:
252:
236:
234:
222:Christ child
219:
207:
203:
169:
161:
142:
134:Indian Ocean
127:
118:
114:
110:
82:
78:
77:
15677:Carbon sink
15655:atmospheric
15520:video games
15194:Blue carbon
14817:Agriculture
14796:Marine life
14743:Water cycle
14701:temperature
14436:Fossil fuel
14224:Thermocline
13941:Mesopelagic
13914:Ocean zones
13885:Slab window
13750:Hydrography
13690:Abyssal fan
13657:Tidal range
13647:Tidal power
13642:Tidal force
13527:Rip current
13462:Gulf Stream
13422:Ekman layer
13412:Downwelling
13387:Baroclinity
13374:Circulation
13270:Wave height
13260:Wave action
13243:megatsunami
13223:Stokes wave
13183:Rossby wave
13148:Kelvin wave
13128:Green's law
12608:22 February
12289:18 December
12019:. Fao.org.
11468:10871/18307
11253:(1): 42–7.
11104:Climate.gov
10615:(2): 63–67.
10099:21 December
9611:(1): 1–31.
9506:27 February
9476:27 February
9369:12 November
9265:: 406–407.
8835:Davis, Mike
8465:11 February
8093:(1): 7423.
7483:(1): 4952.
7108:22 December
6917:11 February
6827:11 February
6801:11 February
6775:11 February
6744:11 February
6698:11 February
6669:11 February
6024:18 February
5999:18 February
5676:(10): n/a.
5066:17 February
4930:26 February
4740:17 February
4663:Davis, Mike
4554:5 September
3451:19 February
3421:18 February
2612:evaporation
2600:trade winds
2590:(PMM) is a
2560:mixed layer
2467:Kelvin wave
2431:Paul Julian
2341:La Clorinde
2330:1876 famine
2222:thermocline
2205:Pleistocene
1916:trade winds
1906:forming in
1861:storm track
1838:Ohio Valley
1740:trade winds
1663:Philippines
1631:Weddell Sea
1438:chlorophyll
1205:and all of
1077:"episodes".
916:ENSO Modoki
689:trade winds
537:trade winds
533:trade winds
324:thermocline
312:trade winds
253:El Niño de
149:trade winds
15878:Categories
15709:Cryosphere
15670:permafrost
15442:Resilience
15394:Adaptation
15369:Litigation
15359:Governance
15304:adaptation
15086:Carbon tax
15039:Mitigation
14976:Antarctica
14864:Disability
14162:Reanalysis
14061:Satellites
14042:Sofar bomb
13890:Subduction
13865:Ridge push
13760:Ocean bank
13740:Contourite
13667:Tide gauge
13652:Tidal race
13637:Tidal bore
13627:Slack tide
13592:Earth tide
13512:Ocean gyre
13332:Wind setup
13327:Wind fetch
13290:Wave setup
13285:Wave radar
13280:Wave power
13178:Rogue wave
13108:Dispersion
12900:Bond event
12698:J. Climate
12657:J. Climate
12637:2009-07-17
12477:2024-01-18
12060:2024-01-18
11355:18 January
11010:2024-01-18
10921:2023-11-26
10825:2010-05-31
10747:2021-05-02
10593:2013-05-16
10563:2013-05-16
10338:2022-04-18
10238:17 January
10144:2014-07-01
10002:2009-12-31
9532:20 January
9340:2022-11-01
9290:Biotropica
9127:2024-01-18
9038:10 October
8924:2024-01-18
8668:22 October
8066:10 January
7593:10 January
7386:2022-04-19
7316:2019-08-12
7258:2021-01-21
7236:10871/9288
7083:2009-07-26
7058:2014-06-30
6980:2014-06-30
6796:La Tercera
6569:J. Climate
6549:2019-08-12
6477:2019-01-10
6335:2019-08-27
6277:2019-08-27
5933:15 October
5823:11 January
5775:5 February
5750:2024-01-18
5719:2019-08-12
5594:2014-07-25
5261:J. Climate
5221:J. Climate
4815:16 October
4584:2023-06-23
4484:Bom.gov.au
4331:2014-07-01
4245:2014-06-30
4219:2014-06-30
4193:2014-06-30
4167:2024-01-18
4081:2015-08-14
4051:2015-08-14
4014:2009-12-31
3899:22 January
3872:22 January
3822:22 January
3768:22 January
3738:22 January
3687:22 January
3661:22 January
3632:22 January
3593:22 January
3550:19 January
3351:2014-06-30
3322:2023-06-03
3211:2019-01-10
3064:10161/9564
2920:2015-08-18
2895:2014-06-30
2862:2009-07-17
2806:References
2525:Mechanisms
2518:California
2174:12000ya /
1985:fish kills
1981:fertilizer
1822:Gulf Coast
1801:, and the
1779:See also:
1607:Antarctica
1601:Antarctica
1538:Chiang Mai
1473:, such as
1471:mosquitoes
1388:, and the
1327:Westerlies
1311:See also:
1203:ozone hole
1094:, and the
1074:Met Office
911:Variations
798:wind shear
539:, and the
103:subtropics
15724:Feedbacks
15495:Education
14996:Caribbean
14991:Australia
14918:Migration
14881:Fisheries
14822:Livestock
14748:Wildfires
14654:Heat wave
14024:Acoustics
13976:Sea level
13875:Slab pull
13812:tectonics
13720:Cold seep
13682:Landforms
13559:Whirlpool
13554:Upwelling
13337:Wind wave
13265:Wave base
13193:Sea state
13113:Edge wave
13103:Cross sea
12558:CiteSeerX
12527:0022-4928
12426:CiteSeerX
12381:CiteSeerX
11962:205000683
11888:140682002
11753:CiteSeerX
11718:127610981
11477:130306658
11275:128967433
10867:"El Niño"
10388:0094-8276
10287:ENSO Blog
10264:ENSO Blog
9842:0894-8755
9748:CiteSeerX
9679:128831185
9633:129117190
9444:ENSO Blog
9175:2045-2322
9068:1 January
8870:"El Niño"
8821:129356060
8501:CiteSeerX
8414:2 October
8368:1758-6798
8321:210348791
8313:2190-4979
8236:236247596
8228:2190-4979
7899:258793531
7771:CiteSeerX
7626:CiteSeerX
7536:ENSO Blog
7436:0027-8424
7376:Yale E360
7306:130825304
7171:CiteSeerX
6938:ENSO Blog
6894:134011107
6886:1432-0894
6739:135045763
6379:120649138
6122:129372366
5569:0094-8276
5277:CiteSeerX
5180:CiteSeerX
5147:27 August
5015:3 January
4920:129644802
4791:129885922
4294:ENSO Blog
3866:ENSO Blog
3842:ignored (
3832:cite book
3762:ENSO Blog
3308:"El Niño"
3238:ENSO Blog
2943:ENSO Blog
2660:Antarctic
2501:amplitude
2445:rainfall.
2443:anomalous
2284:Evaporite
2171:Holocene
2152:Holocene
2043:Altiplano
2039:Argentina
2033:Southern
1900:Guatemala
1742:from the
1717:Australia
1713:Australia
1677:Australia
1667:Indonesia
1491:Venezuela
1359:Over the
1238:Indonesia
1226:Australia
957:overall.
867:1998–2001
677:upwelling
347:upwelling
316:Indonesia
308:Australia
249:Christmas
247:at about
230:Christmas
15850:Glossary
15838:Category
15660:biologic
15374:Politics
15266:Personal
14971:Americas
14834:Children
14600:Physical
14393:Overview
14333:Overview
14257:Category
14209:Seawater
13936:Littoral
13931:Deep sea
13790:Seamount
13672:Tideline
13617:Rip tide
13547:shutdown
13517:Overflow
13250:Undertow
13093:Clapotis
12745:(2): 2.
12580:33003839
12471:Archived
12342:Archived
12313:Archived
12258:Archived
12222:Archived
12199:Archived
12180:Archived
12153:Archived
12133:Archived
12054:Archived
12021:Archived
11836:20182509
11783:37042990
11775:15976271
11675:11577233
11624:15029193
11572:12432388
11529:13714632
11324:17255027
11229:11165707
11194:83795836
11108:Archived
11083:June 24,
11077:Archived
11004:Archived
10915:Archived
10887:cite web
10871:Archived
10844:Archived
10819:Archived
10798:Archived
10778:Archived
10738:Archived
10677:11 April
10671:Archived
10557:Archived
10531:53654865
10479:Archived
10456:Archived
10433:Archived
10413:Archived
10396:35504261
10332:Archived
10309:Archived
10291:Archived
10268:Archived
10232:Archived
10165:Archived
10138:Archived
10093:Archived
10037:Archived
9881:10 April
9875:Archived
9850:55572677
9500:Archived
9470:Archived
9466:BBC News
9448:Archived
9420:31983328
9363:Archived
9334:Archived
9236:21866157
9193:22355668
9118:Archived
9062:Archived
9032:Archived
9002:Archived
8943:Archived
8918:Archived
8890:cite web
8874:Archived
8837:(2001).
8688:Archived
8662:Archived
8642:10 April
8636:Archived
8607:Archived
8434:Archived
8176:18258748
8117:26077934
8057:Archived
8053:42480067
7962:18258748
7903:Archived
7843:Archived
7812:Archived
7793:55670859
7732:10856205
7689:16619392
7587:Archived
7540:Archived
7517:35999238
7454:31636177
7380:Archived
7310:Archived
7249:Archived
7245:14866973
7134:11 April
7128:Archived
7102:Archived
7052:Archived
7025:Archived
6999:Archived
6971:Archived
6942:Archived
6540:Archived
6536:55675672
6471:Archived
6467:14423113
6326:Archived
6268:Archived
6220:85504316
6071:19779449
6018:Archived
5990:Archived
5924:Archived
5817:Archived
5769:Archived
5741:Archived
5710:Archived
5706:55675672
5646:3 August
5520:13250045
5512:19574388
5469:55416945
5202:16514830
5141:Archived
5083:Archived
4987:14 March
4981:Archived
4967:20 April
4961:Archived
4924:Archived
4861:Archived
4835:Archived
4809:Archived
4701:Archived
4665:(2001).
4638:Archived
4604:Archived
4578:Archived
4548:Archived
4524:15 March
4518:Archived
4488:Archived
4455:Archived
4435:15 March
4429:Archived
4356:10 April
4350:Archived
4264:Archived
4213:Archived
4187:Archived
4158:Archived
4119:Archived
4075:Archived
4045:Archived
4008:Archived
3623:Archived
3587:Archived
3544:Archived
3514:Archived
3488:Archived
3445:Archived
3415:Archived
3316:Archived
3280:Archived
3259:Archived
3242:Archived
3205:Archived
3150:Archived
3139:Archived
3015:27798565
2974:11 April
2968:Archived
2914:Archived
2671:See also
2541:events,
2252:Pliocene
2244:sunspots
2230:Pliocene
2136:Holocene
2100:Holocene
2051:Colombia
2024:sardines
2016:sardines
2004:scallops
1844:and the
1824:between
1734:Through
1729:droughts
1723:and the
1699:event.
1671:Malaysia
1627:Ross Sea
1615:Amundsen
1499:Colombia
1467:epidemic
1258:Pliocene
1027:and the
935:Japanese
931:dateline
790:Atlantic
330:and the
260:Peruvian
138:Atlantic
15665:oceanic
15515:fiction
15364:Justice
15315:Society
14923:Poverty
14632:Drought
14500:History
14424:Sources
14267:Commons
14137:Mooring
14087:Related
14078:Jason-3
14068:Jason-1
13951:Pelagic
13946:Oceanic
13921:Benthic
13238:Tsunami
13208:Soliton
13000:Seasons
12955:Monsoon
12856:Climate
12747:Bibcode
12706:Bibcode
12665:Bibcode
12550:Bibcode
12505:Bibcode
12418:Bibcode
12373:Bibcode
12027:28 July
12001:3 March
11942:Bibcode
11909:119–138
11868:Bibcode
11860:Geology
11844:4330367
11806:Bibcode
11745:Bibcode
11737:Science
11698:Bibcode
11655:Bibcode
11647:Science
11632:4303100
11604:Bibcode
11580:4395030
11552:Bibcode
11521:9915694
11501:Bibcode
11493:Science
11447:Bibcode
11411:Bibcode
11374:Science
11345:Atavist
11315:2311423
11255:Bibcode
11174:Bibcode
11139:Bibcode
11114:Nov 17,
10971:22 June
10949:Bibcode
10877:17 July
10509:Bibcode
10449:Reuters
10366:Bibcode
10060:Bibcode
9820:Bibcode
9791:22 June
9740:Bibcode
9659:Bibcode
9613:Bibcode
9561:Bibcode
9553:Weather
9411:7017775
9298:Bibcode
9244:4406478
9216:Bibcode
9184:3240972
9155:Bibcode
9153:: 152.
9100:Bibcode
9008:1 March
8998:Imf.org
8949:25 July
8880:17 July
8801:Bibcode
8764:Bibcode
8723:Bibcode
8613:7 April
8542:Bibcode
8493:Bibcode
8348:Bibcode
8291:Bibcode
8259:17 July
8206:Bibcode
8167:2538841
8144:Bibcode
8095:Bibcode
8033:Bibcode
7989:Bibcode
7953:2538841
7909:17 July
7879:Bibcode
7849:17 July
7818:17 July
7810:. ABC.
7763:Bibcode
7740:5909976
7712:Bibcode
7704:Science
7667:Bibcode
7618:Bibcode
7571:Bibcode
7508:9399112
7485:Bibcode
7445:6842589
7414:Bibcode
7344:Bibcode
7286:Bibcode
7215:Bibcode
7163:Bibcode
7031:4 April
7005:4 April
6856:Bibcode
6822:Infobae
6626:Bibcode
6599:6708133
6577:Bibcode
6508:Bibcode
6447:Bibcode
6406:Bibcode
6359:Bibcode
6308:Bibcode
6250:Bibcode
6198:Bibcode
6171:9168925
6149:Bibcode
6102:Bibcode
6079:4423723
6051:Bibcode
5956:Bibcode
5852:Bibcode
5678:Bibcode
5547:Bibcode
5492:Bibcode
5484:Science
5447:Bibcode
5406:Bibcode
5362:Bibcode
5318:Bibcode
5269:Bibcode
5229:Bibcode
5172:Bibcode
5123:Bibcode
4898:Bibcode
4867:3 April
4769:Bibcode
4707:28 July
4644:12 June
4610:11 June
4497:1 March
4461:3 April
4409:26 July
4383:26 July
4304:7 April
4270:4 April
4125:17 July
3520:17 July
3379:Bibcode
3189:Bibcode
3095:Bibcode
2594:in the
2539:El Niño
2462:La Niña
2458:El Niño
2326:famines
2278:Miocene
2089:History
2049:Basin,
2028:Chilean
1969:Ecuador
1957:Ecuador
1830:Florida
1791:Midwest
1748:El Niño
1744:Pacific
1736:La Niña
1623:sea ice
1475:malaria
1414:rains.
1412:monsoon
1408:famines
1323:equator
1230:El Niño
1035:in the
965:how/if
891:2020–23
887:2017–18
880:2010–12
876:2008–09
873:2007–08
870:2005–06
864:1995–96
861:1988–89
858:1983–85
855:1973–76
852:1970–72
849:1964–65
846:1954–57
843:1949–51
840:1942–43
837:1938–39
834:1928–30
831:1924–25
828:1916–18
825:1909–11
822:1906–07
819:1903–04
766:El Niño
726:2023–24
722:2014–16
718:2014–16
714:1997–98
710:1982–83
661:Pacific
627:or the
400:neutral
374:in the
372:tropics
370:to the
294:in the
255:Navidad
245:Ecuador
237:El Niño
200:waters.
153:equator
136:to the
117:". The
115:La Niña
111:El Niño
99:tropics
15645:Albedo
15638:Theory
15349:Denial
15140:Energy
15001:Europe
14981:Arctic
14966:Africa
14891:Health
14886:Gender
14839:Cities
14764:Biomes
14671:Oceans
14659:Marine
14382:Causes
13956:Photic
13785:Seabed
13198:Seiche
12578:
12560:
12525:
12463:
12428:
12383:
12348:May 8,
12319:May 8,
11987:
11960:
11934:Nature
11915:
11886:
11842:
11834:
11798:Nature
11781:
11773:
11755:
11716:
11673:
11630:
11622:
11596:Nature
11578:
11570:
11544:Nature
11527:
11519:
11475:
11322:
11312:
11273:
11227:
11192:
11038:31 May
10996:
10850:31 May
10529:
10394:
10386:
9848:
9840:
9750:
9677:
9631:
9418:
9408:
9259:Nature
9242:
9234:
9208:Nature
9191:
9181:
9173:
8851:
8819:
8503:
8366:
8319:
8311:
8234:
8226:
8174:
8164:
8115:
8051:
7960:
7950:
7897:
7791:
7773:
7738:
7730:
7687:
7628:
7515:
7505:
7452:
7442:
7434:
7304:
7243:
7173:
6892:
6884:
6737:
6597:
6534:
6465:
6377:
6218:
6169:
6120:
6077:
6069:
6043:Nature
5704:
5618:
5567:
5518:
5510:
5467:
5279:
5200:
5182:
5039:31 May
4918:
4789:
4679:
4544:Al.com
3982:
3813:
3734:. NASA
3710:
3013:
2826:
2664:Arctic
2604:Hawaii
2514:Alaska
2343:under
2053:, and
2035:Brazil
2012:shrimp
1896:Mexico
1857:Alaska
1836:, the
1834:Hawaii
1793:, the
1769:Europe
1763:Europe
1669:, and
1629:. The
1569:Africa
1497:, and
1495:Brazil
1481:, and
1386:Tuvalu
1242:Brazil
1046:Hawaii
585:coast.
514:Tahiti
445:, and
302:. The
15862:Index
15624:Proxy
15384:Women
14849:Crime
14776:Birds
14642:Flood
14147:Ocean
14116:Alvin
13966:Swash
13810:Plate
13755:Knoll
13745:Guyot
13700:Atoll
13579:Tides
13342:model
13228:Swell
13060:Waves
12628:(PDF)
12576:S2CID
12048:[
11958:S2CID
11884:S2CID
11840:S2CID
11779:S2CID
11714:S2CID
11628:S2CID
11576:S2CID
11525:S2CID
11473:S2CID
11271:S2CID
11190:S2CID
10741:(PDF)
10730:(PDF)
10710:(PDF)
10699:(PDF)
10527:S2CID
10392:S2CID
10214:(PDF)
10207:(PDF)
9846:S2CID
9675:S2CID
9629:S2CID
9240:S2CID
9121:(PDF)
9088:(PDF)
8980:(PDF)
8969:(PDF)
8817:S2CID
8694:8 May
8459:(PDF)
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