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2419:. Since without the spark no current could flow in the primary circuit, this effectively uncoupled the secondary from the primary circuit, allowing the secondary resonant circuit and antenna to oscillate completely free of the primary circuit after that (until the next spark). This produced output power centered on a single frequency instead of two frequencies. It also eliminated most of the energy loss in the spark, producing very lightly damped, long "ringing" waves, with decrements of only 0.08 to 0.25 (a Q of 12-38) and consequently a very "pure", narrow bandwidth radio signal. Another advantage was the rapid quenching allowed the time between sparks to be reduced, allowing higher spark rates of around 1000 Hz to be used, which had a musical tone in the receiver which penetrated radio static better. The quenched gap transmitter was called the "singing spark" system.
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2514:: In the earlier rotary gaps, the motor was not synchronized with the frequency of the AC transformer, so the spark occurred at random times in the AC cycle of the voltage applied to the capacitor. The problem with this was the interval between the sparks was not constant. The voltage on the capacitor when a moving electrode approached the stationary electrode varied randomly between zero and the peak AC voltage. The exact time when the spark started varied depending on the gap length the spark could jump, which depended on the voltage. The resulting random phase variation of successive damped waves resulted in a signal that had a "hissing" or "rasping" sound in the receiver.
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3003:, slowly replaced the spark transmitter in high-power radiotelegraphy stations. However spark transmitters remained popular in two way communication stations because most continuous wave transmitters were not capable of a mode called "break in" or "listen in" operation. With a spark transmitter, when the telegraph key was up between Morse symbols the carrier wave was turned off and the receiver was turned on, so the operator could listen for an incoming message. This allowed the receiving station, or a third station, to interrupt or "break in" to an ongoing transmission. In contrast, these early CW transmitters had to operate continuously; the
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so that a round-the-clock radio watch could be kept. US President Taft and the public heard reports of chaos on the air the night of the disaster, with amateur stations interfering with official naval messages and passing false information. In response
Congress passed the 1912 Radio Act, in which licenses were required for all radio transmitters, maximum damping of transmitters was limited to a decrement of 0.2 to get old noisy non-syntonic transmitters off the air, and amateurs were mainly restricted to the unused frequencies above 1.5 MHz and output power of 1 kilowatt.
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until the stored energy is dissipated, permitting practical operation only up to around 60 signals per second. If active measures are taken to break the arc (either by blowing air through the spark or by lengthening the spark gap), a much shorter "quenched spark" may be obtained. A simple quenched spark system still permits several oscillations of the capacitor circuit in the time taken for the spark to be quenched. With the spark circuit broken, the transmission frequency is solely determined by the antenna resonant circuit, which permits simpler tuning.
1340:
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759:, the capacitor was charged by AC from a high-voltage transformer as above, and discharged by a spark gap consisting of electrodes spaced around a wheel which was spun by an electric motor, which produced sparks as they passed by a stationary electrode. The spark rate was equal to the rotations per second times the number of spark electrodes on the wheel. It could produce spark rates up to several thousand hertz, and the rate could be adjusted by changing the speed of the motor. The rotation of the wheel was usually synchronized to the AC
705:
contact, opening the switch and cutting off the primary current. Then the magnetic field collapses, creating a pulse of high voltage in the secondary winding, and the interrupter arm springs back to close the contact again, and the cycle repeats. Each pulse of high voltage charged up the capacitor until the spark gap fired, resulting in one spark per pulse. Interrupters were limited to low spark rates of 20–100 Hz, sounding like a low buzz in the receiver. In powerful induction coil transmitters, instead of a vibrating interrupter, a
2383:. The oscillating radio frequency energy was passed rapidly back and forth between the primary and secondary resonant circuits as long as the spark continued. Each time the energy returned to the primary, some was lost as heat in the spark. In addition, unless the coupling was very loose the oscillations caused the transmitter to transmit on two separate frequencies. Since the narrow passband of the receiver's resonant circuit could only be tuned to one of these frequencies, the power radiated at the other frequency was wasted.
1352:
2186:, which lost funding and was abandoned unfinished after Marconi's success). Marconi's original round 400-wire transmitting antenna collapsed in a storm 17 September 1901 and he hastily erected a temporary antenna consisting of 50 wires suspended in a fan shape from a cable between two 160 foot poles. The frequency used is not known precisely, as Marconi did not measure wavelength or frequency, but it was between 166 and 984 kHz, probably around 500 kHz. He received the signal on the coast of St. John's,
1735:(coil) between the sides of his dipole antennas, which resonated with the capacitance of the antenna to make a tuned circuit. Although his complicated circuit did not see much practical use, Lodge's "syntonic" patent was important because it was the first to propose a radio transmitter and receiver containing resonant circuits which were tuned to resonance with each other. In 1911 when the patent was renewed the Marconi Company was forced to buy it to protect its own syntonic system against infringement suits.
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726:, when the capacitor was fully charged. Since the AC sine wave has two peaks per cycle, ideally two sparks occurred during each cycle, so the spark rate was equal to twice the frequency of the AC power (often multiple sparks occurred during the peak of each half cycle). The spark rate of transmitters powered by 50 or 60 Hz mains power was thus 100 or 120 Hz. However higher audio frequencies cut through interference better, so in many transmitters the transformer was powered by a
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of the above prior patents, Marconi in his 26 April 1900 "four circuit" or "master tuning" patent on his system claimed rights to the inductively coupled transmitter and receiver. This was granted a
British patent, but the US patent office twice rejected his patent as lacking originality. Then in a 1904 appeal a new patent commissioner reversed the decision and granted the patent, on the narrow grounds that Marconi's patent by including an antenna
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2783:. In the US prior to 1912 there was no government regulation of radio, and a chaotic "wild west" atmosphere prevailed, with stations transmitting without regard to other stations on their frequency, and deliberately interfering with each other. The expanding numbers of non-syntonic broadband spark transmitters created uncontrolled congestion in the airwaves, interfering with commercial and military wireless stations.
2628:, one of the most powerful spark transmitters ever built. During World War I it transmitted telegram traffic at 200 words per minute on 21.5 kHz to receivers in Belmar, New Jersey. The roar of the spark could reportedly be heard a kilometer away. On 22 September 1918 it transmitted the first wireless message from Britain to Australia, a distance of 15,200 km (9,439 miles). In 1921 it was replaced by
1138:, and largely failed to foresee its possibilities as a communication technology. Due to the influence of Maxwell's theory, their thinking was dominated by the similarity between radio waves and light waves; they thought of radio waves as an invisible form of light. By analogy with light, they assumed that radio waves only traveled in straight lines, so they thought radio transmission was limited by the visual
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666:. As long as the key is pressed the spark gap fires repetitively, creating a string of pulses of radio waves, so in a receiver the keypress sounds like a buzz; the entire Morse code message sounds like a sequence of buzzes separated by pauses. In low-power transmitters the key directly breaks the primary circuit of the supply transformer, while in high-power transmitters the key operates a heavy duty
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equipment that was still being used on older ships. The
Convention prohibited licensing of new land spark transmitters after 1929. Damped wave radio emission, called Class B, was banned after 1934 except for emergency use on ships. This loophole allowed shipowners to avoid replacing spark transmitters, which were kept as emergency backup transmitters on ships through World War II.
1751:. The energy in each spark, and thus the power output, was no longer limited by the capacitance of the antenna but by the size of the capacitor in the resonant circuit. In order to increase the power very large capacitor banks were used. The form that the resonant circuit took in practical transmitters was the inductively-coupled circuit described in the next section.
1593:). During each spark the energy stored in the antenna was quickly radiated away as radio waves, so the oscillations decayed to zero quickly. The radio signal consisted of brief pulses of radio waves, repeating tens or at most a few hundreds of times per second, separated by comparatively long intervals of no output. The power radiated was dependent on how much
977:
4360:, Applied: 2 June 1896, full specification: 2 March 1897, accepted: 2 July 1897. British patents allowed the full specification to be submitted after the application. Marconi's monopole antenna did not appear in his initial June 1896 application but in his March 1897 specification. Corresponding US patent 586193, Marconi, Guglielmo,
2132:. This would require a major scale-up in power, a risky gamble for his company. Up to that time his small induction coil transmitters had an input power of 100 - 200 watts, and the maximum range achieved was around 150 miles. To build the first high power transmitter, Marconi hired an expert in electric power engineering, Prof.
1785:
4909:"Crookes’s article was read very widely—and more than that, attended to and remembered—both in Europe and in the United States; there is hardly one figure important in the early days of radio who does not at some point in his memoirs or correspondence refer to the article of 1892 as having made a difference."
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George
Fitzgerald as early as 1892 described a spark oscillator as similar to the oscillations produced when a cork pops out of a winebottle, and said what was needed was a continuous electromagnetic "whistle". He realized that if the resistance of a tuned circuit were made zero or negative it would
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s call as its radio operator had gone to bed. This was held responsible for most of the 1500 deaths. Existing international regulations required all ships with more than 50 passengers to carry wireless equipment, but after the disaster subsequent regulations mandated ships have enough radio officers
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gap. A quenched gap consisted of a stack of wide cylindrical electrodes separated by thin insulating spacer rings to create many narrow spark gaps in series, of around 0.1–0.3 mm (0.004–0.01 in). The wide surface area of the electrodes terminated the ionization in the gap quickly by cooling
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Marconi at first paid little attention to syntony, but by 1900 developed a radio system incorporating features from these systems, with a two circuit transmitter and two circuit receiver, with all four circuits tuned to the same frequency, using a resonant transformer he called the "jigger". In spite
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used also had no resonant circuits, so they had no way of selecting one signal from others besides the broad resonance of the antenna, and responded to the transmissions of all transmitters in the vicinity. An example of this interference problem was an embarrassing public debacle in August 1901 when
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of the transmitter, which is the number of sinusoidal oscillations per second in each damped wave. Since the transmitter produces one pulse of radio waves per spark, the output power of the transmitter was proportional to the spark rate, so higher rates were favored. Spark transmitters generally used
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to zero. When the oscillating electric current in the primary circuit has decreased to a point where it is insufficient to keep the air in the spark gap ionized, the spark stops, opening the resonant circuit, and stopping the oscillations. In a transmitter with two resonant circuits, the oscillations
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for deep body heating. High oscillating voltages of hundreds of thousands of volts at frequencies of 0.1 - 1 MHz from a Tesla coil were applied directly to the patient's body. The treatment was not painful, because currents in the radio frequency range do not cause the physiological reaction of
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Knowledgeable sources today doubt whether
Marconi actually received this transmission. Ionospheric conditions should not have allowed the signal to be received during the daytime at that range. Marconi knew the Morse code signal to be transmitted was the letter 'S' (three dots). He and his assistant
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provided the means for tuning the four circuits to the same frequency, whereas in the Tesla and Stone patents this was done by adjusting the length of the antenna. This patent gave
Marconi a near monopoly of syntonic wireless telegraphy in England and America. Tesla sued Marconi's company for patent
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of the circuit so the oscillations were less damped. Another advantage was the frequency of the transmitter was no longer determined by the length of the antenna but by the resonant circuit, so it could easily be changed by adjustable taps on the coil. The antenna was brought into resonance with the
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The transmitter works in a rapid repeating cycle in which the capacitor is charged to a high voltage by the transformer and discharged through the coil by a spark across the spark gap. The impulsive spark excites the resonant circuit to "ring" like a bell, producing a brief oscillating current which
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in synchronism with the cycles of the AC voltage to the transformer, so the spark occurred at the same points of the voltage sine wave each cycle. Usually it was designed so there was one spark each half cycle, adjusted so the spark occurred at the peak voltage when the capacitor was fully charged.
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Marconi's achievement received worldwide publicity, and was the final proof that radio was a practical communication technology. The scientific community at first doubted
Marconi's report. Virtually all wireless experts besides Marconi believed that radio waves traveled in straight lines, so no one
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The inductively coupled or "syntonic" spark transmitter was the first type that could communicate at intercontinental distances, and also the first that had sufficiently narrow bandwidth that interference between transmitters was reduced to a tolerable level. It became the dominant type used during
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so the moving electrode passed by the stationary one at the peak of the sine wave, initiating the spark when the capacitor was fully charged, which produced a musical tone in the receiver. When tuned correctly in this manner, the need for external cooling or quenching airflow was eliminated, as was
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steps the input voltage up to the high voltage needed. The sinusoidal voltage from the transformer is applied directly to the capacitor, so the voltage on the capacitor varies from a high positive voltage, to zero, to a high negative voltage. The spark gap is adjusted so sparks only occur near the
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audiences and aviation authorities were complaining of the disruption to radio reception that noisy legacy marine spark transmitters were causing. But shipping interests vigorously fought a blanket prohibition on damped waves, due to the capital expenditure that would be required to replace spark
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can only have low damping (high Q, narrow bandwidth) if it is a "closed" circuit, with no energy dissipating components. But such a circuit does not produce radio waves. A resonant circuit with an antenna radiating radio waves (an "open" tuned circuit) loses energy quickly, giving it high damping
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The speed at which signals may be transmitted is naturally limited by the time taken for the spark to be extinguished. If, as described above, the conductive plasma does not, during the zero points of the alternating current, cool enough to extinguish the spark, a 'persistent spark' is maintained
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waves (CW), had theoretical advantages over damped waves for radio transmission. Because their energy is essentially concentrated at a single frequency, in addition to causing almost no interference to other transmitters on adjacent frequencies, continuous wave transmitters could transmit longer
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and reinforced each other. The result was essentially a continuous sinusoidal wave, whose amplitude varied with a ripple at the spark rate. This system was necessary to give
Marconi's transoceanic stations a narrow enough bandwidth that they didn't interfere with other transmitters on the narrow
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repeatedly breaks the circuit that provides current to the primary winding, causing the coil to generate pulses of high voltage. When the primary current to the coil is turned on, the primary winding creates a magnetic field in the iron core which pulls the springy interrupter arm away from its
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This troublesome backflow of energy to the primary circuit could be prevented by extinguishing (quenching) the spark at the right instant, after all the energy from the capacitors was transferred to the antenna circuit. Inventors tried various methods to accomplish this, such as air blasts and
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were developed, which were less expensive and produced continuous waves which had a greater range, produced less interference, and could also carry audio, making spark transmitters obsolete by 1920. The radio signals produced by spark-gap transmitters are electrically "noisy"; they have a wide
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and others. It consisted of multiple electrodes equally spaced around a disk rotor spun at high speed by a motor, which created sparks as they passed by a stationary electrode. By using the correct motor speed, the rapidly separating electrodes extinguished the spark after the energy had been
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of the radiated signal, it would occupy a smaller range of frequencies around its center frequency, so that the signals of transmitters "tuned" to transmit on different frequencies would no longer overlap. A receiver which had its own resonant circuit could receive a particular transmitter by
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of the coil when the capacitor voltage reaches zero the current doesn't stop but keeps flowing, charging the capacitor plates with an opposite polarity, until the charge is stored in the capacitor again, on the opposite plates. Then the process repeats, with the charge flowing in the opposite
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to carry sound. The problem was no techniques were known for generating them. The efforts described above to reduce the damping of spark transmitters can be seen as attempts to make their output approach closer to the ideal of a continuous wave, but spark transmitters could not produce true
1905:. The advantage of the inductively coupled circuit was that the "loosely coupled" transformer transferred the oscillating energy of the tank circuit to the radiating antenna circuit gradually, creating long "ringing" waves. A second advantage was that it allowed a large primary capacitance
402:
The cycle begins when current from the transformer charges up the capacitor, storing positive electric charge on one of its plates and negative charge on the other. While the capacitor is charging the spark gap is in its nonconductive state, preventing the charge from escaping through the
846:". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one knew how to confirm this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths. By 1883 it was theorized that accelerated electric charges could produce electromagnetic waves, and
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Pictorial diagram of a simple spark-gap transmitter from a 1917 boy's hobby book, showing examples of the early electronic components used. It is typical of the low-power transmitters homebuilt by thousands of amateurs during this period to explore the exciting new technology of
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1946:) attached to an elevated wire monopole antenna transmitted radio waves, which were received across the room by a similar wire antenna attached to a receiver consisting of a second grounded resonant transformer tuned to the transmitter's frequency, which lighted a
2249:("static") in their earphones for the clicks of the transmitter. Marconi made many subsequent transatlantic transmissions which clearly establish his priority, but reliable transatlantic communication was not achieved until 1907 with more powerful transmitters.
1282:, mainly by combining and tinkering with the inventions of others. Starting at age 21 on his family's estate in Italy, between 1894 and 1901 he conducted a long series of experiments to increase the transmission range of Hertz's spark oscillators and receivers.
1392:. The length of the antenna determined the wavelength of the waves produced and thus their frequency. Longer, lower frequency waves have less attenuation with distance. As Marconi tried longer antennas, which radiated lower frequency waves, probably in the
854:. Fitzgerald in a brief note published in 1883 suggested that electromagnetic waves could be generated practically by discharging a capacitor rapidly; the method used in spark transmitters, however there is no indication that this inspired other inventors.
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gas, eroded the spark electrodes, and could be a fire hazard. Despite its drawbacks, most wireless experts believed along with
Marconi that the impulsive "whipcrack" of a spark was necessary to produce radio waves that would communicate long distances.
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The first application of radio was on ships, to keep in touch with shore, and send out a distress call if the ship were sinking. The
Marconi Company built a string of shore stations and in 1904 established the first Morse code distress call, the letters
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to carry sound. Due to the development of the first high-power transmitting tubes by the end of World War I, in the 1920s tube transmitters replaced the arc converter and alternator transmitters, as well as the last of the old noisy spark transmitters.
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and capacitor in the primary circuit of the induction coil produced a continuous string of damped waves. Hertz often just used a pushbutton switch, which created a single spark and pulse of radio waves when pushed, resulting in a single spark in his
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the "spark" era. A drawback of the plain inductively coupled transmitter was that unless the primary and secondary coils were very loosely coupled it radiated on two frequencies. This was remedied by the quenched-spark and rotary gap transmitters
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The energy in the resonant circuit is limited to the amount of energy originally stored in the capacitor. The radiated radio waves, along with the heat generated by the spark, uses up this energy, causing the oscillations to decrease quickly in
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The largest spark transmitters were powerful transoceanic radiotelegraphy stations with input power of 100 - 300 kW. Beginning about 1910, industrial countries built global networks of these stations to exchange commercial and diplomatic
1950:. This system, patented by Tesla 2 September 1897, 4 months after Lodge's "syntonic" patent, was in effect an inductively coupled radio transmitter and receiver, the first use of the "four circuit" system claimed by Marconi in his 1900 patent
1380:
He was unable to communicate beyond a half-mile until 1895, when he discovered that the range of transmission could be increased greatly by replacing one side of the Hertzian dipole antenna in his transmitter and receiver with a connection to
1582:(also called LC circuits, tank circuits, or tuned circuits), the spark gap was in the antenna, which functioned as the resonator to determine the frequency of the radio waves. These were called "unsyntonized" or "plain antenna" transmitters.
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attempted to report the New York Yacht Race to newspapers from ships with their untuned spark transmitters. The Morse code transmissions interfered, and the reporters on shore failed to receive any information from the garbled signals.
2558:. These were discharged sequentially by multiple rotary discharger wheels on the same shaft to create overlapping damped waves shifted progressively in time, which were added together in the oscillation transformer so the output was a
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produce continuous oscillations, and tried to make an electronic oscillator by exciting a tuned circuit with negative resistance from a dynamo, what would today be called a parametric oscillator, but was unsuccessful. G. Fitzgerald,
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sinking 14 April 1912 increased public appreciation for the role of radio, but the loss of life brought attention to the disorganized state of the new radio industry, and prompted regulation which corrected some abuses. Although the
5013:(1) the idea of inductive coupling between the driving and the working circuits (2) the importance of tuning both circuits, i.e. the idea of an 'oscillation transformer' (3) the idea of a capacitance loaded open secondary circuit
1505:
funded his experiments. Marconi applied for a patent on his radio system 2 June 1896, often considered the first wireless patent. In May 1897 he transmitted 14 km (8.7 miles), on 27 March 1899 he transmitted across the
1000:
2771:", many of them teenage boys, who used their homebuilt sets recreationally to contact distant amateurs and chat with them by Morse code, and relay messages. Low-power amateur transmitters ("squeak boxes") were often built with "
1609:" antennas characteristic of the "spark" era. The only other way to increase the energy stored in the antenna was to charge it up to very high voltages. However the voltage that could be used was limited to about 100 kV by
965:
700:(Ruhmkorff coil) was used in low-power transmitters, usually less than 500 watts, often battery-powered. An induction coil is a type of transformer powered by DC, in which a vibrating arm switch contact on the coil called an
301:. The advantage of this circuit was that the oscillating current persisted in the antenna circuit even after the spark stopped, creating long, ringing, lightly damped waves, in which the energy was concentrated in a narrower
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were applied between the two sides of the antenna. Each pulse stored electric charge in the capacitance of the antenna, which was immediately discharged by a spark across the spark gap. The spark excited brief oscillating
1248:, limiting their power output. Therefore, these devices were not capable of long distance transmission; their reception range with the primitive receivers employed was typically limited to roughly 100 yards (100 meters).
806:
had come close to discovering radio in 1875; he had generated and detected radio waves which he called "etheric currents" experimenting with high-voltage spark circuits, but due to lack of time did not pursue the matter.
101:
around 1896. One of the first uses for spark-gap transmitters was on ships, to communicate with shore and broadcast a distress call if the ship was sinking. They played a crucial role in maritime rescues such as the 1912
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The inductively-coupled transmitter had a more complicated output waveform than the non-syntonic transmitter, due to the interaction of the two resonant circuits. The two magnetically coupled tuned circuits acted as a
297:. The antenna and ground were connected to the secondary winding. The capacitance of the antenna resonated with the secondary winding to make a second resonant circuit. The two resonant circuits were tuned to the same
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signals without wires. Experiments by a number of inventors had shown that electrical disturbances could be transmitted short distances through the air. However most of these systems worked not by radio waves but by
3882:. The text in full: "This is by utilizing the alternating currents produced when an accumulator is discharged through a small resistance. It would be possible to produce waves of ten meters wavelength, or even less"
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of 15 or greater). Virtually the only spark transmitters which could satisfy this condition were the quenched-spark and rotary gap types above, and they dominated wireless telegraphy for the rest of the spark era.
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It became clear that for multiple transmitters to operate, some system of "selective signaling" had to be devised to allow a receiver to select which transmitter's signal to receive, and reject the others. In 1892
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of damped waves. The speed of the discharger wheel was controlled so that the time between sparks was equal to an integer multiple of the wave period. Therefore, oscillations of the successive wave trains were
1086:, which radiated waves roughly twice the length of the antenna (for example a dipole 1 meter long would generate 150 MHz radio waves). Hertz detected the waves by observing tiny sparks in micrometer spark gaps
1917:. The receiver in most systems also used two inductively coupled circuits, with the antenna an "open" resonant circuit coupled through an oscillation transformer to a "closed" resonant circuit containing the
1514:
communication at increasingly long distances convinced the world that radio, or "wireless telegraphy" as it was called, was not just a scientific curiosity but a commercially useful communication technology.
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of the transmitter, the number of sparks and resulting damped wave pulses it produces per second, which determines the tone of the signal heard in the receiver. The spark rate should not be confused with the
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toy trucks, boats and robots called Radicon, which used a low-power spark transmitter in the controller as an inexpensive way to produce the radio control signals. The signals were received in the toy by a
608:
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Standard Marconi inductively coupled transmitter on ship 1902. Spark gap is in front of induction coil, lower right. The spiral oscillation transformer is in the wooden box on the wall above the Leyden
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Beginning about 1904, continuous wave transmitters were developed using new principles, which competed with spark transmitters. Continuous waves were first generated by two short-lived technologies:
2003:
819:. Neither of these individuals are usually credited with the discovery of radio, because they did not understand the significance of their observations and did not publish their work before Hertz.
3307:
Individual nations enforce this prohibition in their communication laws. In the United States, Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations make it a felony to operate a spark transmitter:
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used to receive them were simple enough that they were widely built by hobbyists. During the first decades of the 20th century this exciting new high tech hobby attracted a growing community of "
1510:, 46 km (28 miles), in fall 1899 he extended the range to 136 km (85 miles), and by January 1901 he had reached 315 km (196 miles). These demonstrations of wireless
1225:
of radio waves. He also measured the speed of radio waves, showing they traveled at the same speed as light. These experiments established that light and radio waves were both forms of Maxwell's
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910:
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is radiated as electromagnetic waves by the antenna. The transmitter repeats this cycle at a rapid rate, so the spark appeared continuous, and the radio signal sounded like a whine or buzz in a
198:; the charge flows rapidly back and forth through the spark gap for a brief period, charging the conductors on each side alternately positive and negative, until the oscillations die away.
1146:, and therefore was not capable of longer distance communication. As late as 1894 Oliver Lodge speculated that the maximum distance Hertzian waves could be transmitted was a half mile.
2502:
US Navy 100 kW rotary gap transmitter built by Fessenden in 1913 at Arlington, Virginia. It transmitted on 113 kHz to Europe, and broadcast the US's first radio time signal.
2490:'s 35 kW synchronous rotary spark transmitter, built 1905 at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, with which he achieved the first 2 way transatlantic communication in 1906 on 88 kHz.
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Co. which was dominant outside the British Empire. Marconi transmitters used the timed spark rotary discharger, while Telefunken transmitters used its quenched spark gap technology.
268:. However, this meant that the electromagnetic energy produced by the transmitter was dissipated across a wide band, thereby limiting its effective range to a few kilometers at most.
226:
to 75-100 kilovolts in powerful transmitters) to jump across the spark gap. The transformer charges the capacitor. In low-power transmitters powered by batteries this was usually an
2059:
invalidated the inductive coupling claims of Marconi's patent due to the prior patents of Lodge, Tesla, and Stone, but this came long after spark transmitters had become obsolete.
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4180:
3064:
The 1927 International Radiotelegraph Convention in Washington, D.C. saw a political battle to finally eliminate spark radio. Spark transmitters were obsolete at this point, and
2035:
1830:(low Q, wide bandwidth). There was a fundamental tradeoff between a circuit which produced persistent oscillations which had narrow bandwidth, and one which radiated high power.
1712:
to the frequency of the desired transmitter, analogously to the way one musical instrument could be tuned to resonance with another. This is the system used in all modern radio.
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in the secondary circuit and antenna may continue some time after the spark has terminated. Then the transformer begins charging the capacitor again, and the whole cycle repeats.
1644:, which made it impossible for other transmitters to be heard. When multiple transmitters attempted to operate in the same area, their broad signals overlapped in frequency and
1416:
propagation. Marconi did not understand any of this at the time; he simply found empirically that the higher his vertical antenna was suspended, the further it would transmit.
2533:
To reduce interference caused by the "noisy" signals of the burgeoning numbers of spark transmitters, the 1912 US Congress "Act to Regulate Radio Communication" required that "
434:
direction through the coil. This continues, resulting in oscillating currents flowing rapidly back and forth between the plates of the capacitor through the coil and spark gap.
2550:
In 1912 in his high-power stations Marconi developed a refinement of the rotary discharger called the "timed spark" system, which generated what was probably the nearest to a
1019:
Hertz's first oscillator: a pair of one meter copper wires with a 7.5 mm spark gap between them, ending in 30 cm zinc spheres. When 20,000 volt pulses from an induction coil
895:
1094:
was also experimenting with spark oscillators at this time and came close to discovering radio waves before Hertz, but his focus was on waves on wires, not in free space.
437:
The resonant circuit is connected to the antenna, so these oscillating currents also flow in the antenna, charging and discharging it. The current creates an oscillating
172:
between two conductors was the first device known which could generate radio waves. The spark itself doesn't produce the radio waves, it merely serves as a fast acting
2298:
Quenched spark gap from transmitter, left. The handle turns a screw which puts pressure on the stack of cylindrical electrodes, allowing the gap widths to be adjusted.
2852:, radio became a strategic defensive technology, as it was realized a nation without long distance radiotelegraph stations could be isolated by an enemy cutting its
4560:
881:, which were called "Hertzian waves" until about 1910. Hertz was inspired to try spark excited circuits by experiments with "Reiss spirals", a pair of flat spiral
3904:
Translated from German by A. E. Selig. Zenneck describes the Marconi, Braun, and Wien transmitters on p. 173, and the early "lineal" or Hertz oscillators on p. 41.
1757:
370:
2163:, which generated the output. The spark rate was low, perhaps as low as 2 - 3 sparks per second. Fleming estimated the radiated power was around 10 - 12 kW.
1601:
of the antenna. To increase their capacitance to ground, antennas were made with multiple parallel wires, often with capacitive toploads, in the "harp", "cage", "
1244:
The high frequencies produced by Hertzian oscillators could not travel beyond the horizon. The dipole resonators also had low capacitance and couldn't store much
2260:
549:
526:
499:
2572:
band. Timed spark transmitters achieved the longest transmission range of any spark transmitters, but these behemoths represented the end of spark technology.
6761:
2876:
were used to transmit Morse code text at high speed. To achieve a maximum range of around 3000 – 6000 miles, transoceanic stations transmitted mainly in the
289:
of the transformer made one resonant circuit, which generated the oscillating current. The oscillating current in the primary winding created an oscillating
2217:(including Marconi) understood how the waves had managed to propagate around the 300 mile high curve of the Earth between Britain and Newfoundland. In 1902
7213:
4666:
2529:
with the line frequency. The synchronous gap was said to produce a more musical, easily heard tone in the receiver, which cut through interference better.
857:
The division of the history of spark transmitters into the different types below follows the organization of the subject used in many wireless textbooks.
1408:
that followed the contour of the Earth. Under certain conditions they could also reach beyond the horizon by reflecting off layers of charged particles (
3011:
could not operate as long as the transmitter was powered up. Therefore, these stations could not receive messages until the transmitter was turned off.
2912:, which due to their large bandwidth caused interference between transmitters. The spark also made a very loud noise when operating, produced corrosive
1271:
was one of the first people to believe that radio waves could be used for long distance communication, and singlehandedly developed the first practical
802:
claimed to have transmitted an electrical signal through the atmosphere between two 600 foot wires held aloft by kites on mountaintops 14 miles apart.
1530:
throughout the spark era. Inspired by Marconi, in the late 1890s other researchers also began developing competing spark radio communication systems;
6575:
5440:
1404:
waves produced by Hertz's horizontal antennas. These longer vertically polarized waves could travel beyond the horizon, because they propagated as a
2469:
2434:
A second type of spark gap that had a similar quenching effect was the "rotary gap", invented by Tesla in 1896 and applied to radio transmitters by
2411:
it after the current stopped. In the inductively coupled transmitter, the narrow gaps extinguished ("quenched") the spark at the first nodal point (
6560:
3356:
325:, a metal conductor such as an elevated wire, that radiates the power in the oscillating electric currents from the resonant circuit into space as
3386:
1201:
bands. In his various experiments, Hertz produced waves with frequencies from 50 to 450 MHz, roughly the frequencies used today by broadcast
1057:
a common lab power source which produced pulses of high voltage, 5 to 30 kV. In addition to radiating the waves, the antenna also acted as a
4983:
662:
in the primary circuit of the transformer, producing sequences of short (dot) and long (dash) strings of damped waves, to spell out messages in
3794:
1731:, who had been researching electrical resonance for years, patented the first "syntonic" transmitter and receiver in May 1897 Lodge added an
3562:
59:
built the first experimental spark-gap transmitters in 1887, with which he proved the existence of radio waves and studied their properties.
3413:
7921:
7893:
7888:
6913:
5615:. Proceedings of the 1995 International Conference on 100 Years of Radio. London: Institute of Engineering and Technology. pp. 32–34.
1670:
4148:
Signor Marconi's Magic Box: The Most Remarkable Invention Of The 19th Century & The Amateur Inventor Whose Genius Sparked A Revolution
3109:
discovered that RF currents applied to a scalpel could cut and cauterize tissue in medical operations, and spark oscillators were used as
2608:
2445:
462:
The cycle is very rapid, taking less than a millisecond. With each spark, this cycle produces a radio signal consisting of an oscillating
6546:
4811:
3197:
5922:
2136:
of University College, London, who applied power engineering principles. Fleming designed a complicated inductively-coupled transmitter
1909:
to be used which could store a lot of energy, increasing the power output enormously. Powerful transoceanic transmitters often had huge
4845:
4503:
4476:
3088:
The spark gap oscillator was also used in nonradio applications, continuing long after it became obsolete in radio. In the form of the
709:
was used. This could break the current at rates up to several thousand hertz, and the rate could be adjusted to produce the best tone.
1490:
French non-syntonic transmitter used for ship-to-shore communication around 1900. It had a range of about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi).
613:
The transmitter repeats this cycle rapidly, so the output is a repeating string of damped waves. This is equivalent to a radio signal
4543:
2128:
Marconi decided in 1900 to attempt transatlantic communication, which would allow him to dominate Atlantic shipping and compete with
6865:
5961:
Improvements relating to the production, regulation, and utilization of electric currents of high frequency, and apparatus therefore
1825:
In developing these syntonic transmitters, researchers found it impossible to achieve low damping with a single resonant circuit. A
1257:
I could scarcely conceive it possible that application to useful purposes could have escaped the notice of such eminent scientists.
2120:
1522:. and radio communication began to be used commercially around 1900. His first large contract in 1901 was with the insurance firm
557:
122:(RFI) that can disrupt other radio transmissions. This type of radio emission has been prohibited by international law since 1934.
4927:
4865:
Wireless telegraphy and wireless telephony: An understandable presentation of the science of wireless transmission of intelligence
4705:
Wireless Telegraphy and Wireless Telephony: An understandable presentation of the science of wireless transmission of intelligence
264:
The earliest spark-gap transmitters before 1897 did not have a resonant circuit; the antenna performed this function, acting as a
62:
A fundamental limitation of spark-gap transmitters is that they generate a series of brief transient pulses of radio waves called
5411:
7915:
5770:
2896:
antennas up to several miles long with large capacitive toploads, to achieve adequate efficiency. The antenna required a large
2093:
Marconi's transmitting station at Poldhu, Cornwall, showing the original 400-wire vertical inverted cone aerial which collapsed
2654:
was agreed on. The first significant marine rescue due to radiotelegraphy was the 23 January 1909 sinking of the luxury liner
2087:
7910:
7900:
7880:
7682:
6093:
6043:
5308:
3309:
3224:
2592:
1396:
band around 2 MHz, he found that he could transmit further. Another advantage was that these vertical antennas radiated
2457:
2334:
A powerful quenched-spark transmitter in Australia. The 6 cylinders in front of the Leyden jars are the quenched spark gaps.
1613:
which caused charge to leak off the antenna, particularly in wet weather, and also energy lost as heat in the longer spark.
869:
in 1887 built the first experimental spark gap transmitters during his historic experiments to demonstrate the existence of
7993:
6853:
5854:
7047:
4025:
187:
in the conductors of the attached circuit. The conductors radiate the energy in this oscillating current as radio waves.
7972:
7905:
7751:
6728:
5613:
Fessenden and Marconi: Their differing technologies and transatlantic experiments during the first decade of this century
3251:
1921:. A radio system with a "two circuit" (inductively coupled) transmitter and receiver was called a "four circuit" system.
654:
In order to transmit information with this signal, the operator turns the transmitter on and off rapidly by tapping on a
6886:
6371:
4528:
3281:
2554:
that sparks could produce. He used several identical resonant circuits in parallel, with the capacitors charged by a DC
2439:
transferred to the secondary. The rotating wheel also kept the electrodes cooler, important in high-power transmitters.
1715:
During the period 1897 to 1900 wireless researchers realized the advantages of "syntonic" or "tuned" systems, and added
1329:
Marconi's first monopole antenna transmitter, 1895. One side of spark gap grounded, the other attached to a metal plate
8008:
7677:
6612:
6517:
5884:
5830:
5803:
5550:
5421:
5281:
5190:
5160:
5120:
5093:
4623:. Proceedings of the 1995 International Conference on 100 Years of Radio. London: Institute of Engineering Technology.
4570:
4513:
4486:
4450:
4418:
4334:
4307:
4190:
4156:
4129:
4067:
4035:
3853:
3804:
3774:
3457:
3423:
3396:
3366:
3234:
3207:
2827:
2415:) when the primary current momentarily went to zero after all the energy had been transferred to the secondary winding
4910:
2112:
7771:
4636:
4097:
4005:
706:
5708:
5298:
4774:
1932:
in 1891. At a March 1893 St. Louis lecture he had demonstrated a wireless system that, although it was intended for
1849:
The solution found by a number of researchers was to use two resonant circuits in the transmitter, with their coils
1585:
The average power output of these transmitters was low, because due to its low capacitance the antenna was a highly
1074:
of current between the sides of the antenna. The antenna radiated the energy as a momentary pulse of radio waves; a
7556:
7104:
6906:
6701:
2909:
2535:
the logarithmic decrement per oscillation in the wave trains emitted by the transmitter shall not exceed two tenths
1075:
475:
63:
6765:
2580:
971:
Hertz's 450 MHz transmitter; a 26 cm dipole with spark gap at focus of a sheet metal parabolic reflector
7667:
4408:
4324:
4057:
1222:
6667:
3128:
Spark gap oscillators are still used to generate high-frequency high voltage needed to initiate welding arcs in
2880:(VLF) band, from 50 kHz to as low as 15 – 20 kHz. At these wavelengths even the largest antennas were
2099:
1369:
Later researchers found that multiple parallel wires were a better way to increase capacitance. "Cage antennas"
7662:
2116:
Circuit of Poldhu transmitter. Fleming's curious dual spark gap design was not used in subsequent transmitters.
82:
radio transmission. So spark-gap transmitters could not transmit audio, and instead transmitted information by
3868:
Fitzgerald, George "On a method of producing electromagnetic disturbances of comparatively short wavelength",
3339:
7687:
6315:
5820:
5793:
2857:
1936:, had many of the elements of later radio communication systems. A grounded capacitance-loaded spark-excited
1727:(coils of wire) to transmitters and receivers, to make resonant circuits (tuned circuits, or tank circuits).
1704:
1629:
1519:
302:
115:
97:
The first practical spark gap transmitters and receivers for radiotelegraphy communication were developed by
6848:
4650:
4440:
7962:
7723:
7620:
7163:
6958:
6930:
2234:
1645:
119:
5482:
5083:
4592:
3662:
1385:
and the other side with a long wire antenna suspended high above the ground. These antennas functioned as
738:, that produced AC at a higher frequency, usually 500 Hz, resulting in a spark rate of 1000 Hz.
47:. Spark-gap transmitters were the first type of radio transmitter, and were the main type used during the
7952:
7459:
6899:
6650:
5661:
5180:
5110:
4214:
Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity Through Space
3925:
Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity Through Space
2358:
1933:
1531:
271:
Most spark transmitters had two resonant circuits coupled together with an air core transformer called a
194:
of circuit conductors, the discharge of a capacitor through a low enough resistance (such as a spark) is
6077:
5443:, filed: 26 April 1900, granted: 13 April 1901. Corresponding US Patent no. 763,772, Guglielmo Marconi,
3081:
were regularly nicknamed "Sparky" long after the devices ceased to be used. Even today, the German verb
2426:
Co., Marconi's rival, acquired the patent rights and used the quenched spark gap in their transmitters.
7998:
7811:
7733:
7672:
7379:
3843:
2809:
which rescued 705 survivors, the rescue operation was delayed four hours because the nearest ship, the
2210:
1977:
in February 1900. Braun made the crucial discovery that low damping required "loose coupling" (reduced
1658:
6406:
6026:
5580:
222:
electricity from the power source, a battery or electric outlet, to a high enough voltage (from a few
7583:
7544:
7389:
7289:
7218:
7151:
6978:
5994:
2856:. Most of these networks were built by the two giant wireless corporations of the age: the British
2853:
2832:
2129:
1805:
1119:
847:
816:
795:
5621:
2201:. Marconi announced the first transatlantic radio transmission took place on 12 December 1901, from
1889:) formed a "closed" resonant circuit which generated the oscillations, while the secondary winding (
1833:
764:
the loss of power directly from the charging circuit (parallel to the capacitor) through the spark.
7942:
7184:
7119:
7072:
7032:
3129:
2586:
Transmitter building, showing the 36 feedlines feeding power to the 3,600 ft. flattop wire antenna.
2187:
6187:
5065:
4893:
4761:
4218:
3764:
3598:
2525:
Thus the spark had a steady frequency equal to a multiple of the AC line frequency, which created
936:
Hertzian spark oscillator, 1902. Visible are antenna consisting of 2 wires ending in metal plates
7781:
7766:
7610:
7561:
7484:
7384:
7062:
6948:
6943:
6635:
5902:
5691:
4869:
4087:
3929:
3899:
3532:
2972:
2861:
2629:
2559:
1775:
Amateur inductively coupled spark transmitter and receiver, 1910. The spark gap is in glass bulb
1620:
Emission bandwidth of a spark gap transmitter showing signal strength versus wavelength in meters
1401:
1313:
Marconi first tried enlarging the dipole antenna with 6×6 foot metal sheet "capacity areas"
791:
361:
5975:
4963:
3019:
3007:
was not turned off between Morse code symbols, words, or sentences but just detuned, so a local
1458:
during a demonstration 1897. The pole supporting the vertical wire antenna is visible at center.
1361:
Marconi found suspending the metal plate "capacity area" high above the ground increased range.
8003:
7703:
7489:
7304:
7249:
7244:
7057:
7022:
5938:
5616:
2908:
Although their damping had been reduced as much as possible, spark transmitters still produced
2238:
2071:
1202:
831:
782:
The invention of the radio transmitter resulted from the convergence of two lines of research.
429:
The charge on the capacitor discharges as a current through the coil and spark gap. Due to the
257:
or tuning coil, connected together. The values of the capacitance and inductance determine the
110:
6604:
6540:
6507:
6426:
5874:
5540:
5271:
5150:
4297:
3875:
3826:
7605:
7409:
7374:
7294:
7274:
7196:
7084:
7005:
6264:
5205:
4797:
4702:
4234:
4146:
3133:
3056:. Vacuum tube oscillators were a far cheaper source of continuous waves, and could be easily
3034:
2179:
1397:
1234:
1135:
1111:
1110:
Hertz and the first generation of physicists who built these "Hertzian oscillators", such as
983:
419:
6938:
6881:
6778:...the number one maintenance item on a TIG machine is cleaning and adjusting the spark gap.
5381:, applied: 3 November 1899, complete specification: 30 June 1900, granted: 22 September 1900
4119:
3447:
2598:
5 ft diameter primary coil of oscillation transformer, consisting of 3 turns of specialized
2229:
atoms in the upper atmosphere, enabling them to return to Earth beyond the horizon. In 1924
889:
capacitor discharged through one spiral, would cause sparks in the gap of the other spiral.
7519:
7479:
7449:
7206:
7141:
6963:
6438:
5720:
2885:
2133:
1970:
1937:
1929:
1854:
1547:
1523:
1386:
1382:
1226:
1218:
1194:
1097:
870:
843:
625:
614:
446:
273:
253:) which stores high-voltage electricity from the transformer, and a coil of wire called an
130:
6492:
5498:
4719:
2344:
2105:
The temporary antenna used in the transatlantic transmission, a fan-shaped 50-wire aerial.
1497:
After failing to interest the Italian government, in 1896 Marconi moved to England, where
1323:
678:
The circuit which charges the capacitors, along with the spark gap itself, determines the
8:
8013:
7529:
7469:
7228:
7190:
6988:
6973:
6869:
6795:
6535:
On the Driving of Electromagnetic Vibrations by Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Engines
6015:, July 27, 1914 edition, Department of Commerce, United States government printing office
3819:
Fitzgerald, George "On the energy lost by radiation from alternating electric currents",
3592:
2953:
2655:
1502:
1424:
1307:
1190:
1186:
1058:
874:
827:
808:
727:
48:
6819:
6629:
6442:
6181:
5724:
4887:
4863:
4755:
4357:
Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals, and in apparatus therefore
4212:
3923:
2839:, Germany was the most powerful radio transmitter in the world when it was built in 1911
1065:) which generated the oscillating currents. High-voltage pulses from the induction coil
501:
of the oscillations, which is the frequency of the emitted radio waves, is equal to the
7756:
7713:
7644:
7514:
7444:
7419:
7354:
7201:
6922:
6843:
6554:
6464:
5746:
5642:
5042:
4939:
3893:
3150:
3065:
3042:
2992:
2980:
2976:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2569:
2487:
2435:
2230:
2183:
1902:
1850:
1709:
1539:
1079:
777:
534:
511:
502:
484:
298:
1897:) and ground, forming an "open" resonant circuit with the capacitance of the antenna (
1616:
1535:
1339:
1010:
in 1894. Its 5-inch resonator ball produced waves of around 12 cm or 2.5 GHz
201:
157:
flowing through a conductor which suddenly change their velocity, thus accelerating.
7796:
7718:
7632:
7615:
7578:
7424:
7254:
7223:
7089:
6983:
6608:
6598:
6513:
5880:
5826:
5799:
5646:
5634:
5546:
5417:
5304:
5277:
5240:
5186:
5156:
5116:
5089:
5034:
4791:
4632:
4566:
4509:
4482:
4446:
4414:
4330:
4303:
4186:
4152:
4125:
4093:
4063:
4031:
4001:
3849:
3800:
3770:
3453:
3419:
3392:
3362:
3310:"Section 2.201: Emission, modulation, and transmission characteristics, footnote (f)"
3230:
3203:
3031:
2521:
1978:
1570:
1464:
1295:
1268:
1123:
812:
773:
471:
407:
294:
98:
7464:
5046:
27:, Austria. The spark gap is inside the box with the transparent cover at top center.
7801:
7761:
7741:
7708:
7637:
7595:
7509:
7364:
7349:
7324:
7299:
7259:
7109:
6968:
6953:
6815:
6509:
The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940
6468:
6459:
6454:
6446:
6383:
5934:
5750:
5741:
5736:
5728:
5626:
5026:
4624:
4593:
The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations, 2nd Ed.
4246:
3663:
The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations, 2nd Ed.
3145:
3106:
2965:
2949:
2889:
2648:, used until the Second International Radiotelegraphic Convention in 1906 at which
2526:
2392:
2222:
2056:
1974:
1918:
1826:
1700:
1610:
1602:
1579:
1574:
Circuit of Marconi's monopole transmitter and all other transmitters prior to 1897.
1393:
1389:
1241:
of 12 and 60 GHz respectively, using small metal balls as resonator-antennas.
1083:
823:
632:
628:
234:
184:
150:
23:
Low-power inductively coupled spark-gap transmitter on display in Electric Museum,
2848:
traffic with other countries and communicate with their overseas colonies. During
1965:
In addition to Tesla's system, inductively coupled radio systems were patented by
1628:
was that the radio transmissions were electrically "noisy"; they had a very large
7429:
7284:
7052:
7027:
7015:
5413:
Semiconductors and the Information Revolution: Magic Crystals that made IT Happen
3995:
3314:
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47, Chapter I, Subchapter A, Part 2, Subpart C
3038:
2988:
2921:
2551:
2218:
2070:
In recognition of their achievements in radio, Marconi and Braun shared the 1909
1874:
1688:
1594:
1518:
In 1897 Marconi started a company to produce his radio systems, which became the
1507:
1272:
1245:
987:
644:
322:
286:
238:
180:
134:
83:
79:
75:
67:
6486:
2667:
Radio frequencies used by spark transmitters during the wireless telegraphy era
2144:
firing at different rates, and three resonant circuits, powered by a 25 kW
1597:
could be stored in the antenna before each spark, which was proportional to the
811:
in 1879 had also stumbled on radio wave transmission which he received with his
7627:
7499:
7474:
7434:
7404:
7279:
7114:
7067:
7042:
7000:
6127:
5462:
Tesla: Master of Lightning - companion site for 2000 PBS television documentary
5457:
3117:
3110:
3102:
3078:
3008:
2865:
2810:
2377:
2194:
1955:
1649:
1641:
1555:
1498:
1351:
1279:
1166:
1050:
1032:
866:
839:
835:
731:
697:
442:
438:
415:
350:
290:
227:
165:
56:
44:
4618:
4250:
1841:
is not an actual capacitor but represents the capacitance between the antenna
1049:
attached to the outer ends. The two sides of the antenna were connected to an
994:
generated 60 GHz (5 mm) waves using 3 mm metal ball resonators.
7987:
7776:
7549:
7539:
7454:
7344:
7339:
7329:
7314:
7136:
6995:
6537:, read at the January 22, 1892 meeting of the Physical Society of London, in
6286:
5638:
5444:
5394:
5324:
5225:
5038:
4362:
3170:
3160:
3155:
3053:
2945:
2803:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2520:: In this type, invented by Fessenden around 1904, the rotor was turned by a
2388:
2055:
infringement but didn't have the resources to pursue the action. In 1943 the
1947:
1703:(also called tuned circuit or tank circuit) in transmitters would narrow the
1654:
1625:
1586:
1543:
1230:
1206:
1182:
1170:
1127:
1115:
1071:
953:
803:
799:
659:
636:
333:
87:
5378:
Improvements in or related to telegraphy without the use of continuous wires
5030:
1763:
Demonstration inductively coupled spark transmitter 1909, with parts labeled
7654:
7494:
7439:
7369:
7334:
7269:
7168:
7158:
7010:
4235:"On a complete apparatus for the study of the properties of electric waves"
3004:
2957:
2933:
2897:
2780:
2175:
2048:
1966:
1925:
1748:
1728:
1527:
1174:
1131:
1091:
1007:
851:
618:
138:
71:
6427:"Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system"
6237:
6154:
5923:"The New Telefunken Telegraph: A combination of the arc and spark systems"
5709:"Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system"
5630:
5241:"Misreading the Supreme Court: A Puzzling Chapter in the History of Radio"
4628:
3845:
The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations
3796:
The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations
3415:
The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations
2614:
The three 5 ft rotary spark discharger wheels of the "timed spark" system.
2310:
Cross section of portion of quenched spark gap, consisting of metal disks
1808:, Nauen, Germany, showing large 360 Leyden jar 400 μF capacitor bank
445:. These oscillating fields radiate away from the antenna into space as an
7854:
7504:
7414:
7399:
7359:
7319:
7178:
6655:(5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. pp. 187–188, 197–200.
5347:
5009:
Tesla is entitled to either distinct priority or independent discovery of
3116:
In the 1950s a Japanese toy company, Matsudaya, produced a line of cheap
3049:
3028:
2900:
at the base, 6 – 10 feet tall, to make it resonant with the transmitter.
2849:
2663:
2373:
2246:
1739:
1637:
1598:
1551:
1526:
to equip their ships with wireless stations. Marconi's company dominated
1438:, which recorded the Morse code symbols with an ink line on a paper tape.
1405:
1275:
1214:
1162:
1043:
1015:
718:
701:
506:
242:
215:
195:
161:
36:
6322:. San Francisco, California: Charles Shortridge. 7 July 1912. p. 22
5905:
Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system
5694:
Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system
5017:
Wheeler, L. P. (August 1943). "Tesla's contribution to high frequency".
2620:
Marconi 300 kW transatlantic timed spark transmitter built 1916 at
2151:
turned by a combustion engine. The first spark gap and resonant circuit
1484:
1444:
7859:
7566:
7264:
7173:
7129:
7099:
7077:
4089:
Radio's Conquest of Space: The experimental rise of radio communication
3093:
3089:
2984:
2929:
2924:
2869:
2621:
2423:
2226:
2145:
1942:
1910:
1720:
1559:
1511:
1210:
1154:
1150:
886:
878:
735:
663:
529:
463:
430:
411:
385:
337:
326:
250:
191:
142:
91:
40:
6858:
6205:
2987:) driven by an electric motor at a high enough speed that it produced
2266:
Ship radio room with 1.5 kW Telefunken quenched-spark transmitter
2225:
independently theorized that radio waves were reflected by a layer of
1691:
had given an influential lecture on radio in which he suggested using
7844:
7309:
7124:
6891:
6450:
5856:
Text-book on Wireless Telegraphy, Vol. 1: General Theory and Practice
5732:
3418:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 27–28.
3097:
3057:
2893:
2599:
1924:
The first person to use resonant circuits in a radio application was
1716:
1692:
1633:
1606:
1238:
1198:
1143:
1062:
1036:
1024:
786:
760:
723:
640:
622:
479:
467:
454:
389:
311:
265:
258:
246:
169:
146:
6824:. Translated by Alfred E. Seelig. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company
318:
in the resonant circuit, discharging the capacitor through the coil.
7839:
7829:
7746:
7571:
7394:
3505:
3000:
2999:
These transmitters, which could produce power outputs of up to one
2961:
2920:
From the beginning, physicists knew that another type of waveform,
2845:
2564:
2538:
2399:
2398:
In 1906, a new type of spark gap was developed by German physicist
2206:
2171:
1779:
next to tuning coil, on top of box containing glass plate capacitor
1743:
1732:
1724:
1590:
1373:
distributed current more equally between wires, reducing resistance
1288:
Evolution of Marconi's monopole antenna from Hertz's dipole antenna
882:
648:
356:
254:
223:
177:
154:
24:
6351:. New York, NY: James Gordon Bennett, Jr. 17 April 1912. p. 2
5825:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. p. 972.
2888:(often below 1 ohm), so these transmitters required enormous wire
2831:
Telefunken 100 kW transoceanic quenched spark transmitter at
2178:
was building his own transatlantic radiotelegraphy transmitter on
1101:
Circuit of Hertz's spark oscillator and receiver. The interrupter
1090:
in loops of wire which functioned as resonant receiving antennas.
1082:
of the antenna, which was determined by its length; it acted as a
647:
range, typically 50 to 1000 sparks per second, so in a receiver's
7834:
7819:
7037:
5499:"No. 369 (1943) Marconi Wireless Co. of America v. United States"
3848:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. p. 18.
3165:
3132:. Powerful spark gap pulse generators are still used to simulate
3122:
2787:
2191:
2041:
Marconi's inductively coupled transmitter patented 26 April 1900.
1699:) to reduce the bandwidth of transmitters and receivers. Using a
1413:
1139:
1035:
made of a pair of collinear metal rods of various lengths with a
901:
Heinrich Hertz discovering radio waves with his spark oscillator
219:
103:
19:
6180:
Moorcroft, John Harold; Pinto, A.; Curry, Walter Andrew (1921).
5066:
The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla, 2nd Ed.
4329:(2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–39.
4062:(2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–36.
3870:
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
3821:
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science
3799:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. p. 7.
2009:
Braun's inductively coupled transmitter patented 3 November 1899
1205:. Hertz used them to perform historic experiments demonstrating
336:
to switch the transmitter on and off to communicate messages by
7864:
7824:
7146:
5795:
Communications: An International History of the Formative Years
4777:
The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed.
4562:
Communications: An International History of the Formative Years
3085:, literally, "to spark", also means "to send a radio message".
3046:
2555:
2202:
2167:
1178:
1158:
834:. Maxwell's theory predicted that a combination of oscillating
655:
315:
173:
90:, creating pulses of radio waves to spell out text messages in
6583:. Hartford, CN: American Radio Relay league. pp. 123–124.
6128:"The first direct wireless messages from England to Australia"
5958:
British patent GB189620981 Henry Harris Lake for Nikola Tesla
1804:
Telefunken 25 kW long distance transmitter built 1906 at
1682:
of the first "syntonic" radio system, from Lodge's 1897 patent
1636:, but a continuous band of frequencies. They were essentially
1450:
British Post Office officials examining Marconi's transmitter
822:
The other was research by physicists to confirm the theory of
426:). This closes the circuit between the capacitor and the coil.
7849:
7786:
7094:
6542:
The Scientific Writings of the late George Francis Fitzgerald
3877:
The Scientific Writings of the Late George Francis Fitzgerald
3828:
The Scientific Writings of the Late George Francis Fitzgerald
3449:
The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932
2913:
2836:
2625:
1157:
high-frequency waves with which they could duplicate classic
815:
detector, however he was persuaded that what he observed was
667:
603:{\displaystyle f={\frac {1}{2\pi }}{\sqrt {\frac {1}{LC}}}\,}
441:
around the antenna, while the voltage creates an oscillating
52:
6600:
The History of Communications - Electronics in the U.S. Navy
6266:
The History of Communications - Electronics in the U.S. Navy
4793:
The History of Communications - Electronics in the U.S. Navy
785:
One was efforts by inventors to devise a system to transmit
245:
when excited by the spark. A resonant circuit consists of a
7791:
6876:
3763:
Sarkar, T. K.; Mailloux, Robert; Oliner, Arthur A. (2006).
3286:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 6–9
2198:
210:
A practical spark gap transmitter consists of these parts:
6280:
6278:
6276:
5777:. This author misspells the word "quenched" as "squenched"
3341:
Contact at Sea: A History of Maritime Radio Communications
2233:
demonstrated the existence of this layer, now called the "
1365:
He found that a simple elevated wire worked just as well.
285:
transmitter. The spark gap and capacitor connected to the
86:; the operator switched the transmitter on and off with a
4862:
Ashley, Charles Grinnell; Hayward, Charles Brian (1912).
3316:. US Government Publishing Office website. 1 October 2007
2650:
2451:
A typical rotary spark gap used in low-power transmitters
2077:
1409:
1031:
See circuit diagram. Hertz's transmitters consisted of a
423:
4968:. London: The Electrician Publishing Co. pp. 50–58.
4846:
Improvements in Syntonized Telegraphy without Line Wires
4239:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine
2928:
distances with a given output power. They could also be
1742:, storing oscillating electrical energy, increasing the
55:, from 1887 to the end of World War I. German physicist
6512:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 126–130.
6273:
5798:. Institute of Electrical Engineers. pp. 361–362.
4960:
Lodge's explanation of his syntonic radio system is in
4565:. Institute of Electrical Engineers. pp. 313–329.
4502:
Dosi, Giovanni; Teece, David J.; Chytry, Josef (2004).
4030:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 51–53.
4027:
Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher
2884:, a tiny fraction of a wavelength tall, and so had low
1632:. These transmitters did not produce waves of a single
1317:, 1895 Metal sheets and spark balls not shown to scale.
1042:
between their inner ends and metal balls or plates for
798:, which had too short a range to be practical. In 1866
5819:
Bard, Allen J.; Inzelt, György; Scholz, Fritz (2012).
5152:
Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists
4326:
The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits
4059:
The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits
3355:
Serway, Raymond; Faughn, Jerry; Vuille, Chris (2008).
1149:
To investigate the similarity between radio waves and
651:
the signal sounds like a steady tone, whine, or buzz.
6044:"The Marconi Timed-Spark Continuous-Wave Transmitter"
3499:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3489:
2983:, was a huge rotating alternating current generator (
2166:
The transmitter was built in secrecy on the coast at
560:
537:
514:
487:
6545:. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 277–281.
6310:
6308:
6199:
6197:
6134:. VK2DYM's military radio and radar information site
5464:. PBS.org, Public Broadcasting Service website. 2000
5371:
5369:
3762:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3481:
3479:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3195:
3096:
it was used until the 1940s in the medical field of
3027:
All these early technologies were superseded by the
1189:. Their short antennas generated radio waves in the
1153:, these researchers concentrated on producing short
6179:
5964:
filed: 22 September 1896, granted: 21 November 1896
5375:British patent no. 189922020 Karl Ferdinand Braun,
4804:
4209:, Vol. 36, December 13, 1988, p. 769, reprinted in
4023:
3831:. London: Hodges, Figgis, and Co. pp. 128–129.
3226:
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology
2159:powering the second spark gap and resonant circuit
2155:generated the high voltage to charge the capacitor
1589:oscillator (in modern terminology, it had very low
1345:
Re-creation of Marconi's first monopole transmitter
305:, creating less interference to other transmitters.
6411:. New York: Wireless Press, Inc. pp. 288–307.
6031:. New York: Wireless Press, Inc. pp. 274–275.
5859:. London: Longmans Green and Co. pp. 200–204.
5585:. London: Longmans Green and Co. pp. 449–454.
5397:, filed: 8 February 1900, granted: 2 December 1902
3916:Hertz, H., "On very rapid electric oscillations",
3354:
2507:There were two types of rotary spark transmitter:
2197:with a 400 ft. wire antenna suspended from a
1640:sources radiating energy over a large part of the
673:
602:
543:
520:
493:
6305:
6194:
5447:, filed: 10 November 1900, granted: 28 June 1904.
5441:Improvements in apparatus for wireless telegraphy
5366:
5348:"Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN'T "Invent Radio""
5327:, filed: 1 February 1898, granted: 16 August 1898
5229:, filed: 2 September 1897; granted: 20 March 1900
4812:"Reporting the yacht races by wireless telegraph"
3466:
3023:Marconi 2 kilowatt ship spark transmitter, 1920.
1738:The resonant circuit functioned analogously to a
1430:Marconi in 1901 with his early spark transmitter
1142:like existing optical signalling methods such as
916:Hertz's drawing of one of his spark oscillators.
7985:
6849:Fessenden and the Early History of Radio Science
6764:. Lincoln Electric website. 2006. Archived from
6754:
6082:. New York: Wireless Press, Inc. pp. 73–75.
5980:. London: Ernst Benn, Ltd. pp. 25, 138–148.
5818:
4350:
4348:
4346:
3997:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion
3537:. London: Longmans Green and Co. pp. 15–16.
2975:transmitter, developed between 1906 and 1915 by
2213:, a distance of 2100 miles (3400 km).
1578:The primitive transmitters prior to 1897 had no
6480:
6478:
5989:
5987:
5435:
5433:
5389:
5387:
5219:
5217:
5115:. Barnes and Noble Publishing. pp. 65–70.
4501:
4366:, filed 7 December 1896, accepted: 13 July 1897
3361:(8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 714.
3196:Hempstead, Colin; Worthington, William (2005).
2545:
2237:" or "E-layer", for which he received the 1947
1478:Induction coil, telegraph key, and battery box.
237:(tuned circuits or tank circuits) which create
6866:"The Sounds of a Spark Transmitter with audio"
6491:. Scientific American Publishing Co. pp.
6342:"President Moves to Stop Mob Rule of Wireless"
6334:
5185:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 21–23.
4868:. American School of Correspondence. pp.
4839:
4837:
4711:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4392:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4024:Baird, D.; Hughes, R.I.; Nordmann, A. (2013).
3880:. London: Hodges, Figgis, and Co. p. 129.
3391:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17.
3229:. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 2045.
2252:
1993:Tesla's inductively coupled power transmitter
1078:. The frequency of the waves was equal to the
885:with their conductors ending in spark gaps. A
717:In higher power transmitters powered by AC, a
406:When the voltage on the capacitor reaches the
6907:
6887:Spark gap transmitter history & operation
6238:"Section 12: Pioneering Amateurs (1900-1912)"
6086:
6013:Radio Communication Laws of the United States
6001:. United States Congress. 1912. pp. 6–14
5868:
5866:
5766:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5534:
5532:
5530:
5528:
5526:
5524:
5522:
5520:
4861:
4849:filed: May 10, 1897, granted: August 10, 1898
4505:Understanding Industrial and Corporate Change
4434:
4432:
4430:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4343:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4269:
4267:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3435:
3113:generators or "Bovies" as late as the 1980s.
3077:One legacy of spark-gap transmitters is that
1134:, were mainly interested in radio waves as a
639:used during the wireless telegraphy era. The
6559:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6475:
6420:
6418:
5984:
5439:British patent no. 7777, Guglielmo Marconi,
5430:
5384:
5317:
5214:
4660:
4658:
4354:British patent 189612039 Marconi, Guglielmo
4174:
4172:
4170:
4168:
2638:
1251:
7922:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
6592:
6590:
6526:
6484:
6372:"Marconi´s 200kW transatlantic transmitter"
5952:
5898:
5896:
5848:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5773:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications
5687:
5685:
5683:
5323:US Patent no. 609,154 Oliver Joseph Lodge,
5226:System of transmission of electrical energy
5085:Biographical Encyclopedia of American Radio
5077:
5075:
5061:On light and other high frequency phenomena
4977:
4975:
4892:. New York: Moffat, Yard, and Co. pp.
4889:Wireless Telegraphy: An Elementary Treatise
4834:
4546:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications
4442:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications
4185:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 159.
3862:
3813:
3380:
3378:
3333:
3331:
3190:
3188:
3186:
2174:, UK. Marconi was pressed for time because
1981:) between the primary and secondary coils.
1006:Microwave spark oscillator demonstrated by
755:In a transmitter with a "rotary" spark gap
505:of the resonant circuit, determined by the
422:to a very low level (usually less than one
51:or "spark" era, the first three decades of
7958:
6914:
6900:
6762:"TIG Welding Series: The Power to Perform"
6363:
6231:
6229:
6227:
6173:
5999:Public 264 S. 6412 approved 13 August 1912
5939:10.1038/scientificamerican06191909-390supp
5863:
5757:
5606:
5604:
5602:
5600:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5592:
5582:The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy
5574:
5572:
5570:
5568:
5566:
5564:
5562:
5517:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5132:
4857:
4855:
4760:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp.
4749:
4747:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4698:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4612:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4537:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4427:
4369:
4264:
4081:
4079:
3898:. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co. pp.
3873:
3824:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3597:. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp.
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3534:The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy
3432:
2816:, only a few miles away, did not hear the
2475:1 kilowatt rotary spark transmitter, 1914.
2429:
2314:separated by thin insulating mica washers
1954:. However, Tesla was mainly interested in
6882:Radio Technology in common use circa 1914
6861:The new England Wireless and Steam Museum
6793:
6702:"Flotsam & Jetsam – Control by Radio"
6499:
6458:
6415:
6369:
6125:
6119:
6075:
6069:
5872:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5740:
5620:
5538:
5341:
5339:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5155:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 196–199.
4954:
4655:
4586:
4584:
4582:
4445:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 207–209.
4438:
4295:
4178:
4165:
4144:
4138:
3912:
3910:
3788:
3786:
3690:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3672:
3590:
3584:
3384:
3337:
3249:
1624:A more significant drawback of the large
599:
6720:
6587:
6505:
6398:
6256:
5995:"An act to regulate radio communication"
5920:
5893:
5839:
5700:
5680:
5659:
5653:
5405:
5403:
5393:US Patent no. 714,756, John Stone Stone
5174:
5172:
5081:
5072:
4972:
4885:
4879:
4843:British patent GB189711575 Lodge, O. J.
4664:
4019:
4017:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3983:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3892:Zenneck, Jonathan Adolf Wilhelm (1915).
3626:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3524:
3375:
3328:
3275:
3273:
3252:"The spark era - the beginning of radio"
3243:
3183:
3018:
2826:
2350:Ordinary inductively coupled transmitter
2318:to make multiple microscopic spark gaps
2119:
2111:
2021:Stone's inductively coupled transmitter
1901:). Both circuits were tuned to the same
1873:" transmitter. See circuit diagram. The
1832:
1669:
1665:
1615:
1569:
1412:) in the upper atmosphere, later called
1096:
1014:
986:in 1894 was the first person to produce
617:with a steady frequency, so it could be
355:
200:
18:
6814:
6727:Findlay, David A. (September 1, 1957).
6726:
6693:
6642:
6621:
6424:
6284:
6224:
6203:
6146:
6041:
6035:
6018:
5916:
5914:
5706:
5610:
5589:
5578:
5559:
5491:
5199:
5148:
5129:
5053:
5016:
5001:
4981:
4925:
4919:
4913:Syntony and Spark: The origins of radio
4852:
4783:
4738:
4717:
4689:
4616:
4599:
4481:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 30–33.
4459:
4410:Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio
4233:Bose, Jagadish Chandra (January 1897).
4182:The Britannica Guide to Sound and Light
4113:
4111:
4109:
4076:
4051:
4049:
4047:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3891:
3885:
3560:
3541:
3530:
3503:
3199:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology
2964:atmosphere to excite oscillations in a
2948:(Poulsen arc) transmitter, invented by
1837:Inductively coupled spark transmitter.
860:
826:proposed in 1864 by Scottish physicist
7986:
6921:
6699:
6648:
6627:
6596:
6567:
6538:
6404:
6262:
6155:"Section 12: Radio at Sea (1891-1922)"
6042:Coursey, Phillip R. (September 1919).
6024:
5967:
5852:
5780:
5476:
5330:
5238:
5232:
5063:", in Thomas Cummerford Martin (1894)
5011:" three concepts in wireless theory: "
4903:
4789:
4753:
4720:"Aerials, Attachments, and Audibility"
4579:
4552:
4522:
4474:
4406:
4199:
4085:
3907:
3835:
3783:
3669:
3654:
3570:The history of QST Vol. 1 - Technology
3445:
3279:
3222:
2078:First transatlantic radio transmission
1958:and never developed a practical radio
688:one of three types of power circuits:
466:wave that increases rapidly to a high
371:Audio of Massie spark gap transmission
125:
6895:
6729:"Radio Controlled Toys Use Spark Gap"
6659:
6573:
6235:
6152:
5973:
5791:
5660:Margolis, Laurie (11 December 2001).
5611:Belrose, John S. (5 September 1995).
5409:
5400:
5345:
5296:
5290:
5182:Radio: The Life Story of a Technology
5178:
5169:
4965:Signaling through space without wires
4961:
4926:Crookes, William (February 1, 1892).
4558:
4478:Array and Phased Array Antenna Basics
4210:
4014:
3921:
3920:, Vol. 31, p. 421, 1887 reprinted in
3841:
3792:
3630:
3605:
3411:
3405:
3348:
3303:
3301:
3270:
3216:
2182:, in a bid to be first (this was the
1893:) was connected to the wire antenna (
1820:
850:had calculated the output power of a
741:
643:of repetition (spark rate) is in the
410:of the spark gap, the air in the gap
7968:
6665:
6577:The Radio Amateur's Handbook, 1st Ed
6094:"Great Wireless Stations: Carnarvon"
5911:
5812:
5505:. Findlaw.com website. June 21, 1943
5503:United States Supreme Court decision
5346:White, Thomas H. (1 November 2012).
5263:
5223:US Patent No. 645576, Nikola Tesla,
4768:
4495:
4316:
4232:
4226:
4223:translated to English by D. E. Jones
4106:
4044:
3993:
3940:
3937:translated to English by D. E. Jones
3642:. American Radio Relay League: 29–32
2463:Small rotary spark transmitter, 1918
2286:oscillation transformer, Leyden jars
1470:Marconi's transmitter in July 1897.
1161:experiments with radio waves, using
1023:was applied, it produced waves at a
722:maximum voltage, at peaks of the AC
6802:. New York: Wiley. pp. 275–363
5450:
5269:
5108:
5102:
4982:Marconi, Guglielmo (May 24, 1901).
4928:"Some Possibilities of Electricity"
4617:Thrower, K. R. (5 September 1995).
4322:
4117:
4055:
2903:
2779:from early automobiles such as the
2661:, in which 1500 people were saved.
750:
360:Demonstration of the restored 1907
314:which acts as a voltage-controlled
149:, can be generated by time-varying
13:
6787:
6370:Pickworth, George (January 1994).
5239:Wunsch, A. David (November 1998).
3344:. The Gregg Press. pp. 26–30.
3298:
1851:inductively (magnetically) coupled
1558:in Germany who in 1903 formed the
1520:Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company
842:could travel through space as an "
343:
14:
8025:
6837:
6800:Principles of Radio Communication
6242:United States Early Radio History
6183:Principles of Radio Communication
6159:United States Early Radio History
5445:Apparatus for wireless telegraphy
5352:United States Early Radio History
5082:Sterling, Christopher H. (2013).
4667:"United States Radio Development"
4665:Marriott, Robert H. (June 1917).
3594:Principles of Radio Communication
3512:. C. F. Codella's private website
3280:Terman, Frederick Emmons (1937).
712:
691:
670:that breaks the primary circuit.
145:, electromagnetic waves of radio
66:; they are unable to produce the
7967:
7957:
7948:
7947:
7936:
7557:Free-space optical communication
6652:Electrotherapy and Light Therapy
6628:Strong, Frederick Finch (1908).
6549:from the original on 2014-07-07.
6285:Codella, Christopher F. (2016).
6204:Codella, Christopher F. (2016).
6186:. John Wiley and Sons. pp.
6161:. T. H. White's personal website
6132:Australian Amateur Radio History
5921:von Arco, Georg (19 June 1909).
5579:Fleming, John Archibald (1906).
5354:. T. H. White's personal website
4754:Jansky, Cyril Methodius (1919).
4718:Codella, Christopher F. (2016).
3531:Fleming, John Archibald (1906).
3504:Codella, Christopher F. (2016).
3250:Champness, Rodney (April 2010).
2607:
2591:
2579:
2495:
2480:
2468:
2456:
2444:
2357:
2343:
2327:
2303:
2291:
2271:
2259:
2245:could have mistaken atmospheric
2098:
2086:
2034:
2014:
2002:
1986:
1877:of the oscillation transformer (
1797:
1784:
1768:
1756:
1565:
1483:
1463:
1443:
1423:
1350:
1338:
1322:
1306:
1294:
999:
976:
964:
929:
909:
894:
877:in 1864, in which he discovered
375:
6877:The Sparks Telegraph Key Review
6794:Morecroft, John Harold (1921).
6700:Parker, John (September 2017).
6634:. New York: Rebman Co. p.
6485:Lescarboura, Austin C. (1922).
5276:. McFarland. pp. 111–113.
5088:. Routledge. pp. 382–383.
4886:Kennelly, Arthur Edwin (1906).
4822:(15): 596–597. October 12, 1901
4363:Transmitting electrical signals
4217:. Dover Publications. pp.
4124:. McFarland. pp. 4–6, 13.
3928:. Dover Publications. pp.
3223:Morris, Christopher G. (1992).
3202:. Routledge. pp. 649–650.
3194:"Radio Transmitters, Early" in
3014:
2864:to link the possessions of the
1229:, differing only in frequency.
674:Charging circuit and spark rate
249:(in early days a type called a
6574:Handy, Frances Edward (1926).
6425:Leggett, Bernard John (1921).
6269:. U.S. Navy. pp. 69, 117.
5927:Scientific American Supplement
5707:Leggett, Bernard John (1921).
5416:. Academic Press. p. 37.
4984:"Syntonic Wireless Telegraphy"
3631:Hyder, Harry R. (March 1992).
3452:. Princeton University Press.
2278:Tuned circuit of transmitter.
1913:capacitor banks filling rooms
1:
6408:Practical Wireless Telegraphy
6107:(78): 301–307. September 1919
6076:Goldsmith, Alfred N. (1918).
6028:Practical Wireless Telegraphy
4757:Principles of Radiotelegraphy
4151:. Da Capo Press. p. 52.
3633:"The final days of ham spark"
3572:. American Radio Relay League
3563:"How spark transmitters work"
3385:Ellingson, Steven W. (2016).
3176:
2140:with two cascaded spark gaps
261:of the radio waves produced.
109:disaster. After World War I,
7943:Telecommunication portal
7724:Telecommunications equipment
6666:Carr, Joseph J. (May 1990).
6539:Larmor, Joseph, Ed. (1902).
6506:Headrick, Daniel R. (1988).
5395:Method of electric signaling
5303:. Dockside Consultants Inc.
5300:Lightning: Fire from the Sky
4439:Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003).
3872:, 1883, p.405, reprinted in
3338:Schroeder, Peter B. (1967).
2802:distress calls summoned the
2546:Marconi's timed spark system
1562:Co., Marconi's chief rival.
293:that induced current in the
120:radio frequency interference
7:
7994:History of radio technology
7460:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
6316:"To Check Wireless Anarchy"
6293:. Codella's private website
6212:. Codella's private website
5149:Rockman, Howard B. (2004).
4726:. Codella's private website
4508:. OUP Oxford. p. 251.
4475:Visser, Hubregt J. (2006).
4205:Hertz, H., "On radiation",
3874:Fitzgerald, George (1902).
3825:Fitzgerald, George (1902).
3591:Morecroft, John H. (1921).
3139:
2763:Spark transmitters and the
2734:Moderate size land stations
2537:" (this is equivalent to a
2253:Quenched-spark transmitters
1934:wireless power transmission
707:mercury turbine interrupter
10:
8030:
7164:Telecommunications history
6668:"Early radio transmitters"
5822:Electrochemical Dictionary
5792:Burns, Russell W. (2004).
5112:Tesla, Master of Lightning
4559:Burns, Russell W. (2004).
4407:Aitken, Hugh G.J. (1985).
4092:. Murray Hill Books, Inc.
3446:Aitken, Hugh G.J. (2014).
2854:submarine telegraph cables
2691:
2422:The German wireless giant
2364:Quenched-spark transmitter
2130:submarine telegraph cables
2124:View of Poldhu transmitter
771:
767:
734:with its shaft turning an
8009:Electric power conversion
7931:
7873:
7810:
7772:Public Switched Telephone
7732:
7696:
7653:
7594:
7584:telecommunication circuit
7545:Fiber-optic communication
7528:
7290:Francis Blake (telephone)
7237:
7085:Optical telecommunication
6929:
6844:Alternator, Arc and Spark
6405:Bucher, Elmer E. (1917).
6236:White, Thomas H. (2003).
6153:White, Thomas H. (2003).
6126:MacKinnon, Colin (2004).
6025:Bucher, Elmer E. (1917).
5977:Radio: Beam and Broadcast
5879:. IET. pp. 194–197.
5545:. IET. pp. 192–194.
5485:Radio: Beam and Broadcast
5273:Wireless Radio: A History
4938:: 174–176. Archived from
4531:Radio: Beam and Broadcast
4413:. Princeton Univ. Press.
4302:. IET. pp. 186–190.
4251:10.1080/14786449708620959
4145:Weightman, Gavin (2009).
4121:Wireless Radio: A History
3388:Radio Systems Engineering
3072:
2833:Nauen Transmitter Station
2666:
2211:Signal Hill, Newfoundland
1997:patented 2 September 1897
1806:Nauen Transmitter Station
1357:Early vertical antennas.
1301:Hertz's dipole oscillator
1252:Non-syntonic transmitters
796:electromagnetic induction
621:in a radio receiver by a
528:of the capacitor and the
16:Type of radio transmitter
7683:Orbital angular-momentum
7120:Satellite communications
6959:Communications satellite
6859:Massie Spark Transmitter
6649:Kovács, Richard (1945).
5853:Rupert, Stanley (1919).
5771:Huurdeman, Anton (2003)
5297:Smith, Craig B. (2008).
5206:Cheney, Margaret (2011)
4671:Proceedings of the I.R.E
4544:Huurdeman, Anton (2003)
4211:Hertz, Heinrich (1893).
4179:Gregersen, Erik (2011).
4086:Donald, McNicol (1946).
3922:Hertz, Heinrich (1893).
3130:gas tungsten arc welding
2860:, which constructed the
2235:Kennelly–Heaviside layer
2029:patented 8 February 1900
1973:, in November 1899, and
1812:and vertical spark gaps
1474:4 ball Righi spark gap,
160:An electrically charged
111:vacuum tube transmitters
7562:Molecular communication
7385:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
7214:Undersea telegraph line
6949:Cable protection system
6631:High Frequency Currents
6460:2027/mdp.39015063598398
6287:"The first regulations"
5903:Bernard Leggett (1921)
5873:Beauchamp, Ken (2001).
5742:2027/mdp.39015063598398
5692:Bernard Leggett (1921)
5539:Beauchamp, Ken (2001).
5410:Orton, John W. (2009).
5031:10.1109/EE.1943.6435874
4703:Ashley, Hayward (1912)
4323:Lee, Thomas H. (2004).
4296:Beauchamp, Ken (2001).
4056:Lee, Thomas H. (2004).
3842:Nahin, Paul J. (2001).
3793:Nahin, Paul J. (2001).
3769:. John Wiley and Sons.
3412:Nahin, Paul J. (2001).
2973:Alexanderson alternator
2862:Imperial Wireless Chain
2630:Alexanderson alternator
2430:Rotary gap transmitters
1861:); this was called an "
1859:oscillation transformer
1203:television transmitters
990:; his spark oscillator
792:electrostatic induction
364:spark gap transmitter
362:Massie Wireless Station
279:oscillation transformer
218:, to transform the low-
35:is an obsolete type of
7704:Communication protocol
7490:Charles Sumner Tainter
7305:Walter Houser Brattain
7250:Edwin Howard Armstrong
7058:Information revolution
6854:Brief history of spark
6708:. MyTimeMedia Ltd., UK
6603:. U.S. Navy. pp.
6597:Howeth, L. S. (1963).
6382:(1718). Archived from
6263:Howeth, L. S. (1963).
6244:. earlyradiohistory.us
5208:Tesla: Man Out Of Time
5019:Electrical Engineering
4962:Lodge, Oliver (1900).
4932:The Fortnightly Review
4796:. U.S. Navy. pp.
4790:Howeth, L. S. (1963).
4590:Nahin, Paul J. (2001)
3994:Hong, Sungook (2010).
3660:Nahin, Paul J. (2001)
3037:, invented in 1912 by
3024:
2840:
2239:Nobel Prize in Physics
2125:
2117:
2072:Nobel Prize in physics
1881:) with the capacitor (
1846:
1683:
1621:
1605:", "inverted-L", and "
1575:
1402:horizontally polarized
1400:waves, instead of the
1267:Italian radio pioneer
1265:
1237:around 1894 generated
1107:
1028:
604:
545:
522:
495:
398:
207:
164:discharged through an
28:
7678:Polarization-division
7410:Narinder Singh Kapany
7375:Erna Schneider Hoover
7295:Jagadish Chandra Bose
7275:Alexander Graham Bell
7006:online video platform
5974:Morse, A. H. (1925).
5876:History of Telegraphy
5542:History of Telegraphy
5458:"Who invented radio?"
5179:Regal, Brian (2005).
4942:on September 29, 2018
4299:History of Telegraphy
3823:, 1883, reprinted in
3561:Kennedy, Hal (1990).
3035:electronic oscillator
3022:
2830:
2748:Transoceanic stations
2180:Long Island, New York
2123:
2115:
1836:
1673:
1666:Syntonic transmitters
1648:with each other. The
1619:
1573:
1434:and coherer receiver
1255:
1235:Jagadish Chandra Bose
1227:electromagnetic waves
1136:scientific phenomenon
1112:Jagadish Chandra Bose
1100:
1018:
984:Jagadish Chandra Bose
871:electromagnetic waves
772:Further information:
605:
546:
523:
496:
359:
281:. This was called an
204:
131:Electromagnetic waves
33:spark-gap transmitter
22:
7520:Vladimir K. Zworykin
7480:Almon Brown Strowger
7450:Charles Grafton Page
7105:Prepaid mobile phone
7033:Electrical telegraph
5109:Uth, Robert (1999).
4911:Aitken, Hugh (2014)
4898:selective signaling.
4874:selective signaling.
4775:Lee, Thomas H. 2004
3052:invented in 1906 by
2886:radiation resistance
2134:John Ambrose Fleming
2052:(J in circuit above)
1971:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1938:resonant transformer
1930:resonant transformer
1915:(see pictures above)
1855:resonant transformer
1747:tuned circuit using
1548:Karl Ferdinand Braun
1398:vertically polarized
1187:diffraction gratings
861:Hertzian oscillators
844:electromagnetic wave
558:
535:
512:
485:
447:electromagnetic wave
274:resonant transformer
190:Due to the inherent
7470:Johann Philipp Reis
7229:Wireless revolution
7191:The Telephone Cases
7048:Hydraulic telegraph
6821:Wireless Telegraphy
6706:Model Boats website
6675:Popular Electronics
6488:Radio for Everybody
6443:1921Natur.107..390.
5725:1921Natur.107..390.
5631:10.1049/cp:19950787
5325:Electric Telegraphy
5270:Coe, Lewis (2006).
4629:10.1049/cp:19950799
4207:Wiedemann's Annalen
4118:Coe, Lewis (2006).
3918:Wiedemann's Annalen
3895:Wireless Telegraphy
3766:History of Wireless
3256:Silicon Chip Online
2954:negative resistance
2874:Paper tape machines
1928:, who invented the
1863:inductively coupled
1503:General Post Office
1165:components such as
1059:harmonic oscillator
875:James Clerk Maxwell
832:Maxwell's equations
828:James Clerk Maxwell
809:David Edward Hughes
615:amplitude modulated
283:inductively-coupled
126:Theory of operation
49:wireless telegraphy
7668:Frequency-division
7645:Telephone exchange
7515:Charles Wheatstone
7445:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
7420:Innocenzo Manzetti
7355:Reginald Fessenden
7090:Optical telegraphy
6923:Telecommunications
6796:"Spark Telegraphy"
6320:San Francisco Call
5662:"Faking the waves"
3151:Invention of radio
3043:Alexander Meissner
3025:
2993:very low frequency
2981:Ernst Alexanderson
2977:Reginald Fessenden
2937:continuous waves.
2882:electrically short
2878:very low frequency
2841:
2436:Reginald Fessenden
2374:coupled oscillator
2231:Edward V. Appleton
2184:Wardenclyffe Tower
2126:
2118:
1969:in February 1898,
1903:resonant frequency
1847:
1821:Inductive coupling
1710:resonant frequency
1684:
1622:
1576:
1540:Reginald Fessenden
1108:
1080:resonant frequency
1029:
1027:of roughly 50 MHz.
778:Invention of radio
742:Quenched spark gap
600:
541:
518:
503:resonant frequency
491:
474:to zero, called a
399:
299:resonant frequency
208:
74:(sound) in modern
29:
7999:Radio electronics
7981:
7980:
7719:Store and forward
7714:Data transmission
7628:Network switching
7579:Transmission line
7425:Guglielmo Marconi
7390:Internet pioneers
7255:Mohamed M. Atalla
7224:Whistled language
6872:on July 18, 2011.
6816:Zenneck, Jonathan
6437:(2691): 299–305.
6376:Electronics World
6291:Ham Radio History
6210:Ham Radio History
5310:978-0-615-24869-1
4724:Ham Radio History
4620:History of tuning
3510:Ham Radio History
3283:Radio Engineering
3045:, which used the
2952:in 1904 used the
2868:, and the German
2798:radio operator's
2765:crystal receivers
2761:
2760:
2522:synchronous motor
2417:(see lower graph)
2190:using an untuned
1979:mutual inductance
1885:) and spark gap (
1580:resonant circuits
1524:Lloyd's of London
1390:monopole antennas
1269:Guglielmo Marconi
1262:Guglielmo Marconi
1124:Frederick Trouton
1120:George Fitzgerald
1053:(Ruhmkorff coil)
944:, induction coil
865:German physicist
848:George Fitzgerald
813:carbon microphone
774:Timeline of radio
597:
596:
580:
544:{\displaystyle L}
521:{\displaystyle C}
494:{\displaystyle f}
408:breakdown voltage
380:
295:secondary winding
235:resonant circuits
230:(Ruhmkorff coil).
185:electric currents
151:electric currents
99:Guglielmo Marconi
37:radio transmitter
8021:
7971:
7970:
7961:
7960:
7951:
7950:
7941:
7940:
7939:
7812:Notable networks
7802:Wireless network
7742:Cellular network
7734:Types of network
7709:Computer network
7596:Network topology
7510:Thomas A. Watson
7365:Oliver Heaviside
7350:Philo Farnsworth
7325:Daniel Davis Jr.
7300:Charles Bourseul
7260:John Logie Baird
6969:Data compression
6964:Computer network
6916:
6909:
6902:
6893:
6892:
6873:
6868:. Archived from
6833:
6831:
6829:
6811:
6809:
6807:
6781:
6780:
6775:
6773:
6758:
6752:
6751:
6749:
6747:
6733:
6724:
6718:
6717:
6715:
6713:
6697:
6691:
6690:
6688:
6686:
6672:
6663:
6657:
6656:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6594:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6571:
6565:
6564:
6558:
6550:
6530:
6524:
6523:
6503:
6497:
6496:
6482:
6473:
6472:
6462:
6451:10.1038/107390b0
6422:
6413:
6412:
6402:
6396:
6395:
6393:
6391:
6367:
6361:
6360:
6358:
6356:
6346:
6338:
6332:
6331:
6329:
6327:
6312:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6298:
6282:
6271:
6270:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6249:
6233:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6217:
6206:"The Squeak Box"
6201:
6192:
6191:
6177:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6166:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6123:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6112:
6098:
6090:
6084:
6083:
6073:
6067:
6066:
6064:
6062:
6048:
6039:
6033:
6032:
6022:
6016:
6010:
6008:
6006:
5991:
5982:
5981:
5971:
5965:
5956:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5918:
5909:
5900:
5891:
5890:
5870:
5861:
5860:
5850:
5837:
5836:
5816:
5810:
5809:
5789:
5778:
5768:
5755:
5754:
5744:
5733:10.1038/107390b0
5704:
5698:
5689:
5678:
5677:
5675:
5673:
5657:
5651:
5650:
5624:
5608:
5587:
5586:
5576:
5557:
5556:
5536:
5515:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5495:
5489:
5480:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5454:
5448:
5437:
5428:
5427:
5407:
5398:
5391:
5382:
5373:
5364:
5363:
5361:
5359:
5343:
5328:
5321:
5315:
5314:
5294:
5288:
5287:
5267:
5261:
5260:
5258:
5256:
5236:
5230:
5221:
5212:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5176:
5167:
5166:
5146:
5127:
5126:
5106:
5100:
5099:
5079:
5070:
5057:
5051:
5050:
5005:
4999:
4998:
4996:
4994:
4979:
4970:
4969:
4958:
4952:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4923:
4917:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4883:
4877:
4876:
4859:
4850:
4841:
4832:
4831:
4829:
4827:
4816:Electrical World
4808:
4802:
4801:
4787:
4781:
4772:
4766:
4765:
4751:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4715:
4709:
4700:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4682:
4662:
4653:
4649:
4647:
4645:
4614:
4597:
4588:
4577:
4576:
4556:
4550:
4541:
4535:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4472:
4457:
4456:
4436:
4425:
4424:
4404:
4367:
4352:
4341:
4340:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4293:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4230:
4224:
4222:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4176:
4163:
4162:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4115:
4104:
4103:
4083:
4074:
4073:
4053:
4042:
4041:
4021:
4012:
4011:
3991:
3938:
3936:
3934:heinrich hertz .
3914:
3905:
3903:
3889:
3883:
3881:
3866:
3860:
3859:
3839:
3833:
3832:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3790:
3781:
3780:
3760:
3667:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3637:
3628:
3603:
3602:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3567:
3558:
3539:
3538:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3517:
3501:
3464:
3463:
3443:
3430:
3429:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3382:
3373:
3372:
3352:
3346:
3345:
3335:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3321:
3305:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3277:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3263:
3247:
3241:
3240:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3192:
3146:History of radio
3107:William T. Bovie
2966:resonant circuit
2956:of a continuous
2950:Valdemar Poulsen
2904:Continuous waves
2822:
2664:
2611:
2595:
2583:
2499:
2484:
2472:
2460:
2448:
2414:
2393:magnetic blowout
2381:(see top graphs)
2361:
2347:
2331:
2307:
2295:
2275:
2263:
2223:Oliver Heaviside
2102:
2090:
2057:US Supreme Court
2038:
2018:
2006:
1990:
1975:John Stone Stone
1827:resonant circuit
1801:
1788:
1772:
1760:
1701:resonant circuit
1611:corona discharge
1546:in America, and
1487:
1467:
1447:
1427:
1354:
1342:
1326:
1310:
1298:
1263:
1084:half-wave dipole
1003:
988:millimeter waves
980:
968:
933:
913:
898:
824:electromagnetism
751:Rotary spark gap
728:motor–alternator
633:crystal detector
609:
607:
606:
601:
598:
595:
584:
583:
581:
579:
568:
550:
548:
547:
542:
527:
525:
524:
519:
500:
498:
497:
492:
382:
381:
153:, consisting of
135:electric charges
133:are radiated by
68:continuous waves
39:which generates
8029:
8028:
8024:
8023:
8022:
8020:
8019:
8018:
7984:
7983:
7982:
7977:
7937:
7935:
7927:
7869:
7806:
7728:
7692:
7649:
7598:
7590:
7531:
7524:
7430:Robert Metcalfe
7285:Tim Berners-Lee
7233:
7053:Information Age
6925:
6920:
6864:
6840:
6827:
6825:
6805:
6803:
6790:
6788:Further reading
6785:
6784:
6771:
6769:
6760:
6759:
6755:
6745:
6743:
6731:
6725:
6721:
6711:
6709:
6698:
6694:
6684:
6682:
6670:
6664:
6660:
6647:
6643:
6626:
6622:
6615:
6595:
6588:
6580:
6572:
6568:
6552:
6551:
6531:
6527:
6520:
6504:
6500:
6483:
6476:
6423:
6416:
6403:
6399:
6389:
6387:
6368:
6364:
6354:
6352:
6349:New York Herald
6344:
6340:
6339:
6335:
6325:
6323:
6314:
6313:
6306:
6296:
6294:
6283:
6274:
6261:
6257:
6247:
6245:
6234:
6225:
6215:
6213:
6202:
6195:
6178:
6174:
6164:
6162:
6151:
6147:
6137:
6135:
6124:
6120:
6110:
6108:
6096:
6092:
6091:
6087:
6079:Radio Telephony
6074:
6070:
6060:
6058:
6046:
6040:
6036:
6023:
6019:
6004:
6002:
5993:
5992:
5985:
5972:
5968:
5957:
5953:
5943:
5941:
5919:
5912:
5901:
5894:
5887:
5871:
5864:
5851:
5840:
5833:
5817:
5813:
5806:
5790:
5781:
5769:
5758:
5719:(2691): 51–55.
5705:
5701:
5690:
5681:
5671:
5669:
5658:
5654:
5622:10.1.1.205.7281
5609:
5590:
5577:
5560:
5553:
5537:
5518:
5508:
5506:
5497:
5496:
5492:
5481:
5477:
5467:
5465:
5456:
5455:
5451:
5438:
5431:
5424:
5408:
5401:
5392:
5385:
5374:
5367:
5357:
5355:
5344:
5331:
5322:
5318:
5311:
5295:
5291:
5284:
5268:
5264:
5254:
5252:
5237:
5233:
5222:
5215:
5204:
5200:
5193:
5177:
5170:
5163:
5147:
5130:
5123:
5107:
5103:
5096:
5080:
5073:
5058:
5054:
5006:
5002:
4992:
4990:
4988:The Electrician
4980:
4973:
4959:
4955:
4945:
4943:
4924:
4920:
4908:
4904:
4884:
4880:
4860:
4853:
4842:
4835:
4825:
4823:
4810:
4809:
4805:
4788:
4784:
4773:
4769:
4752:
4739:
4729:
4727:
4716:
4712:
4701:
4690:
4680:
4678:
4663:
4656:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4615:
4600:
4589:
4580:
4573:
4557:
4553:
4542:
4538:
4527:
4523:
4516:
4500:
4496:
4489:
4473:
4460:
4453:
4437:
4428:
4421:
4405:
4370:
4353:
4344:
4337:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4294:
4265:
4255:
4253:
4231:
4227:
4204:
4200:
4193:
4177:
4166:
4159:
4143:
4139:
4132:
4116:
4107:
4100:
4084:
4077:
4070:
4054:
4045:
4038:
4022:
4015:
4008:
3992:
3941:
3915:
3908:
3890:
3886:
3867:
3863:
3856:
3840:
3836:
3818:
3814:
3807:
3791:
3784:
3777:
3761:
3670:
3659:
3655:
3645:
3643:
3635:
3629:
3606:
3589:
3585:
3575:
3573:
3565:
3559:
3542:
3529:
3525:
3515:
3513:
3502:
3467:
3460:
3444:
3433:
3426:
3410:
3406:
3399:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3358:College Physics
3353:
3349:
3336:
3329:
3319:
3317:
3308:
3306:
3299:
3289:
3287:
3278:
3271:
3261:
3259:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3221:
3217:
3210:
3193:
3184:
3179:
3142:
3079:radio operators
3075:
3066:broadcast radio
3039:Edwin Armstrong
3017:
2991:current in the
2989:radio frequency
2906:
2858:Marconi Company
2820:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2641:
2639:The "spark" era
2636:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2604:
2603:
2596:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2552:continuous wave
2548:
2503:
2500:
2491:
2485:
2476:
2473:
2464:
2461:
2452:
2449:
2432:
2412:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2335:
2332:
2323:
2308:
2299:
2296:
2287:
2276:
2267:
2264:
2255:
2219:Arthur Kennelly
2110:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2080:
2042:
2039:
2030:
2019:
2010:
2007:
1998:
1991:
1875:primary winding
1867:coupled circuit
1823:
1816:
1802:
1793:
1789:
1780:
1773:
1764:
1761:
1689:William Crookes
1668:
1650:radio receivers
1595:electric charge
1568:
1536:Eugène Ducretet
1532:Alexander Popov
1508:English Channel
1501:of the British
1495:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1480:
1479:
1468:
1460:
1459:
1448:
1440:
1439:
1428:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1290:
1289:
1273:radiotelegraphy
1264:
1261:
1254:
1011:
1004:
995:
992:(in box, right)
981:
972:
969:
960:
948:, auto battery
934:
925:
914:
905:
899:
863:
840:magnetic fields
780:
770:
753:
744:
715:
694:
676:
588:
582:
572:
567:
559:
556:
555:
536:
533:
532:
513:
510:
509:
486:
483:
482:
449:; a radio wave.
418:, reducing its
397:
396:
395:
394:
393:
383:
376:
373:
346:
344:Operation cycle
287:primary winding
239:radio frequency
214:A high-voltage
181:radio frequency
128:
84:radiotelegraphy
43:by means of an
17:
12:
11:
5:
8027:
8017:
8016:
8011:
8006:
8001:
7996:
7979:
7978:
7976:
7975:
7965:
7955:
7945:
7932:
7929:
7928:
7926:
7925:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7897:
7896:
7891:
7883:
7877:
7875:
7871:
7870:
7868:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7816:
7814:
7808:
7807:
7805:
7804:
7799:
7794:
7789:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7738:
7736:
7730:
7729:
7727:
7726:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7706:
7700:
7698:
7694:
7693:
7691:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7663:Space-division
7659:
7657:
7651:
7650:
7648:
7647:
7642:
7641:
7640:
7635:
7625:
7624:
7623:
7613:
7608:
7602:
7600:
7592:
7591:
7589:
7588:
7587:
7586:
7576:
7575:
7574:
7564:
7559:
7554:
7553:
7552:
7542:
7536:
7534:
7526:
7525:
7523:
7522:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7500:Camille Tissot
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7475:Claude Shannon
7472:
7467:
7465:Tivadar Puskás
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7435:Antonio Meucci
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7407:
7405:Charles K. Kao
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7380:Harold Hopkins
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7280:Emile Berliner
7277:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7241:
7239:
7235:
7234:
7232:
7231:
7226:
7221:
7219:Videotelephony
7216:
7211:
7210:
7209:
7204:
7194:
7187:
7182:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7155:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7134:
7133:
7132:
7122:
7117:
7115:Radiotelephone
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7081:
7080:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7020:
7019:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7003:
7001:Internet video
6993:
6992:
6991:
6986:
6981:
6976:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6935:
6933:
6927:
6926:
6919:
6918:
6911:
6904:
6896:
6890:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6862:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6839:
6838:External links
6836:
6835:
6834:
6812:
6789:
6786:
6783:
6782:
6768:on 16 May 2006
6753:
6719:
6692:
6658:
6641:
6620:
6614:978-1365493225
6613:
6586:
6566:
6525:
6519:978-0198021780
6518:
6498:
6474:
6414:
6397:
6362:
6333:
6304:
6272:
6255:
6223:
6193:
6172:
6145:
6118:
6101:Wireless World
6085:
6068:
6051:Wireless World
6034:
6017:
5983:
5966:
5951:
5910:
5892:
5886:978-0852967928
5885:
5862:
5838:
5832:978-3642295515
5831:
5811:
5805:978-0863413278
5804:
5779:
5756:
5699:
5679:
5652:
5588:
5558:
5552:978-0852967928
5551:
5516:
5490:
5475:
5449:
5429:
5423:978-0080963907
5422:
5399:
5383:
5365:
5329:
5316:
5309:
5289:
5283:978-0786426621
5282:
5262:
5231:
5213:
5198:
5192:978-0313331671
5191:
5168:
5162:978-0471697398
5161:
5128:
5122:978-0760710050
5121:
5101:
5095:978-1136993756
5094:
5071:
5052:
5025:(8): 355–357.
5000:
4971:
4953:
4918:
4902:
4878:
4851:
4833:
4803:
4782:
4767:
4737:
4710:
4688:
4654:
4637:
4598:
4578:
4572:978-0863413278
4571:
4551:
4536:
4521:
4515:978-0191533457
4514:
4494:
4488:978-0470871188
4487:
4458:
4452:978-0471205050
4451:
4426:
4420:978-1400857883
4419:
4368:
4342:
4336:978-0521835398
4335:
4315:
4309:978-0852967928
4308:
4263:
4225:
4198:
4192:978-1615303007
4191:
4164:
4158:978-0786748549
4157:
4137:
4131:978-0786426621
4130:
4105:
4098:
4075:
4069:978-0521835398
4068:
4043:
4037:978-9401588553
4036:
4013:
4006:
3939:
3906:
3884:
3861:
3855:978-0387951508
3854:
3834:
3812:
3806:978-0387951508
3805:
3782:
3776:978-0471783015
3775:
3668:
3653:
3604:
3583:
3540:
3523:
3465:
3459:978-1400854608
3458:
3431:
3425:978-0387951508
3424:
3404:
3398:978-1316785164
3397:
3374:
3368:978-0495386933
3367:
3347:
3327:
3297:
3269:
3242:
3236:978-0122004001
3235:
3215:
3209:978-1135455514
3208:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3118:remote control
3111:electrosurgery
3103:electric shock
3074:
3071:
3016:
3013:
2997:
2996:
2969:
2905:
2902:
2866:British Empire
2777:ignition coils
2769:radio amateurs
2759:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2749:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2730:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2709:500, 660, 1000
2707:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2668:
2640:
2637:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2606:
2605:
2602:one foot thick
2597:
2590:
2589:
2585:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2547:
2544:
2531:
2530:
2515:
2512:Nonsynchronous
2505:
2504:
2501:
2494:
2492:
2486:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2443:
2431:
2428:
2363:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2326:
2324:
2309:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2290:
2288:
2282:quenched gap,
2277:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2104:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2044:
2043:
2040:
2033:
2031:
2020:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1992:
1985:
1956:wireless power
1822:
1819:
1818:
1817:
1803:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1781:
1777:(center right)
1774:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1755:
1667:
1664:
1642:radio spectrum
1567:
1564:
1556:Georg von Arco
1499:William Preece
1489:
1482:
1481:
1469:
1462:
1461:
1449:
1442:
1441:
1429:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1356:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1337:
1336:
1328:
1321:
1320:
1312:
1305:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1207:standing waves
1072:standing waves
1051:induction coil
1033:dipole antenna
1013:
1012:
1005:
998:
996:
982:
975:
973:
970:
963:
961:
935:
928:
926:
924:induction coil
915:
908:
906:
900:
893:
867:Heinrich Hertz
862:
859:
769:
766:
752:
749:
743:
740:
732:electric motor
714:
713:AC transformer
711:
698:induction coil
693:
692:Induction coil
690:
675:
672:
631:, such as the
611:
610:
594:
591:
587:
578:
575:
571:
566:
563:
540:
517:
490:
470:and decreases
460:
459:
450:
443:electric field
439:magnetic field
435:
427:
416:electric spark
414:, starting an
404:
384:
374:
369:
368:
367:
366:
365:
351:radio receiver
345:
342:
341:
340:
330:
319:
308:
307:
306:
291:magnetic field
269:
231:
228:induction coil
166:electric spark
137:when they are
127:
124:
70:used to carry
57:Heinrich Hertz
45:electric spark
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8026:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8004:Electric arcs
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7991:
7989:
7974:
7966:
7964:
7956:
7954:
7946:
7944:
7934:
7933:
7930:
7923:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7895:
7892:
7890:
7887:
7886:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7878:
7876:
7872:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7823:
7821:
7818:
7817:
7815:
7813:
7809:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7778:
7775:
7773:
7770:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7737:
7735:
7731:
7725:
7722:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7701:
7699:
7695:
7689:
7688:Code-division
7686:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7673:Time-division
7671:
7669:
7666:
7664:
7661:
7660:
7658:
7656:
7652:
7646:
7643:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7631:
7630:
7629:
7626:
7622:
7619:
7618:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7607:
7604:
7603:
7601:
7599:and switching
7597:
7593:
7585:
7582:
7581:
7580:
7577:
7573:
7570:
7569:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7551:
7550:optical fiber
7548:
7547:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7540:Coaxial cable
7538:
7537:
7535:
7533:
7527:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7455:Radia Perlman
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7345:Lee de Forest
7343:
7341:
7340:Thomas Edison
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7330:Donald Davies
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7315:Claude Chappe
7313:
7311:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7242:
7240:
7236:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7199:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7192:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7159:Smoke signals
7157:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7137:Semiconductor
7135:
7131:
7128:
7127:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7079:
7076:
7075:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6998:
6997:
6996:Digital media
6994:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6972:
6971:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6936:
6934:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6917:
6912:
6910:
6905:
6903:
6898:
6897:
6894:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6841:
6828:September 14,
6823:
6822:
6817:
6813:
6806:September 12,
6801:
6797:
6792:
6791:
6779:
6767:
6763:
6757:
6741:
6737:
6730:
6723:
6707:
6703:
6696:
6680:
6676:
6669:
6662:
6654:
6653:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6632:
6624:
6616:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6601:
6593:
6591:
6579:
6578:
6570:
6562:
6556:
6548:
6544:
6543:
6536:
6529:
6521:
6515:
6511:
6510:
6502:
6494:
6490:
6489:
6481:
6479:
6470:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6452:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6428:
6421:
6419:
6410:
6409:
6401:
6386:on 2002-10-20
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6366:
6350:
6343:
6337:
6321:
6317:
6311:
6309:
6292:
6288:
6281:
6279:
6277:
6268:
6267:
6259:
6243:
6239:
6232:
6230:
6228:
6211:
6207:
6200:
6198:
6189:
6185:
6184:
6176:
6160:
6156:
6149:
6133:
6129:
6122:
6106:
6102:
6095:
6089:
6081:
6080:
6072:
6057:(78): 310–316
6056:
6052:
6045:
6038:
6030:
6029:
6021:
6014:
6000:
5996:
5990:
5988:
5979:
5978:
5970:
5963:
5962:
5955:
5940:
5936:
5933:(1746): 390.
5932:
5928:
5924:
5917:
5915:
5908:
5906:
5899:
5897:
5888:
5882:
5878:
5877:
5869:
5867:
5858:
5857:
5849:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5834:
5828:
5824:
5823:
5815:
5807:
5801:
5797:
5796:
5788:
5786:
5784:
5776:
5774:
5767:
5765:
5763:
5761:
5752:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5703:
5697:
5695:
5688:
5686:
5684:
5667:
5663:
5656:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5614:
5607:
5605:
5603:
5601:
5599:
5597:
5595:
5593:
5584:
5583:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5563:
5554:
5548:
5544:
5543:
5535:
5533:
5531:
5529:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5521:
5504:
5500:
5494:
5488:
5486:
5483:Morse (1925)
5479:
5463:
5459:
5453:
5446:
5442:
5436:
5434:
5425:
5419:
5415:
5414:
5406:
5404:
5396:
5390:
5388:
5380:
5379:
5372:
5370:
5353:
5349:
5342:
5340:
5338:
5336:
5334:
5326:
5320:
5312:
5306:
5302:
5301:
5293:
5285:
5279:
5275:
5274:
5266:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5235:
5228:
5227:
5220:
5218:
5211:
5209:
5202:
5194:
5188:
5184:
5183:
5175:
5173:
5164:
5158:
5154:
5153:
5145:
5143:
5141:
5139:
5137:
5135:
5133:
5124:
5118:
5114:
5113:
5105:
5097:
5091:
5087:
5086:
5078:
5076:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5056:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5020:
5014:
5010:
5004:
4989:
4985:
4978:
4976:
4967:
4966:
4957:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4922:
4916:
4914:
4906:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4890:
4882:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4858:
4856:
4848:
4847:
4840:
4838:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4807:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4786:
4780:
4778:
4771:
4763:
4759:
4758:
4750:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4742:
4725:
4721:
4714:
4707:
4706:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4693:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4661:
4659:
4652:
4640:
4638:0-85296-649-0
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4621:
4613:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4595:
4594:
4587:
4585:
4583:
4574:
4568:
4564:
4563:
4555:
4549:
4547:
4540:
4534:
4532:
4529:Morse (1925)
4525:
4517:
4511:
4507:
4506:
4498:
4490:
4484:
4480:
4479:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4463:
4454:
4448:
4444:
4443:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4422:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4375:
4373:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4358:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4338:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4319:
4311:
4305:
4301:
4300:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4229:
4220:
4216:
4215:
4208:
4202:
4194:
4188:
4184:
4183:
4175:
4173:
4171:
4169:
4160:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4141:
4133:
4127:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4101:
4099:9780405060526
4095:
4091:
4090:
4082:
4080:
4071:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4039:
4033:
4029:
4028:
4020:
4018:
4009:
4007:9780262514194
4003:
4000:. MIT Press.
3999:
3998:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3950:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3926:
3919:
3913:
3911:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3888:
3879:
3878:
3871:
3865:
3857:
3851:
3847:
3846:
3838:
3830:
3829:
3822:
3816:
3808:
3802:
3798:
3797:
3789:
3787:
3778:
3772:
3768:
3767:
3759:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3665:
3664:
3657:
3641:
3634:
3627:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3611:
3609:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3587:
3571:
3564:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3536:
3535:
3527:
3511:
3507:
3506:"Spark Radio"
3500:
3498:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3488:
3486:
3484:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3470:
3461:
3455:
3451:
3450:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3436:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3416:
3408:
3400:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3381:
3379:
3370:
3364:
3360:
3359:
3351:
3343:
3342:
3334:
3332:
3315:
3311:
3304:
3302:
3290:September 14,
3285:
3284:
3276:
3274:
3257:
3253:
3246:
3238:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3219:
3211:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3182:
3172:
3171:Crystal radio
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3161:Antique radio
3159:
3157:
3156:Amateur radio
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3126:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3067:
3062:
3059:
3055:
3054:Lee de Forest
3051:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3021:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2946:arc converter
2943:
2942:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2923:
2918:
2915:
2911:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2791:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2754:20,000 - 1600
2753:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2712:600, 450, 300
2711:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2697:
2694:
2690:
2685:Typical power
2684:
2679:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2632:transmitters.
2631:
2627:
2623:
2610:
2601:
2594:
2582:
2573:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2560:superposition
2557:
2553:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2478:
2471:
2466:
2459:
2454:
2447:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2427:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2409:
2405:
2402:, called the
2401:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2389:Elihu Thomson
2384:
2382:
2379:
2375:
2360:
2346:
2330:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2301:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2269:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2138:(see circuit)
2135:
2131:
2122:
2114:
2101:
2089:
2075:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2060:
2058:
2053:
2050:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2025:and receiver
2024:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1960:communication
1957:
1953:
1949:
1948:Geissler tube
1945:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1795:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1766:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:loading coils
1745:
1741:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1711:
1708:"tuning" its
1706:
1702:
1698:
1695:(then called
1694:
1690:
1681:
1678:and receiver
1677:
1672:
1663:
1660:
1659:G. W. Pickard
1656:
1655:Lee de Forest
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1618:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1581:
1572:
1566:Disadvantages
1563:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1544:Lee de Forest
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1486:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1457:
1454:and receiver
1453:
1446:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1341:
1332:
1325:
1316:
1309:
1297:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1258:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1231:Augusto Righi
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1128:Augusto Righi
1125:
1121:
1117:
1116:Lord Rayleigh
1113:
1104:
1099:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1009:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
985:
979:
974:
967:
962:
958:
955:
954:telegraph key
951:
947:
943:
939:
932:
927:
923:
919:
912:
907:
904:
897:
892:
891:
890:
888:
884:
880:
876:
873:predicted by
872:
868:
858:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
830:, now called
829:
825:
820:
818:
814:
810:
805:
804:Thomas Edison
801:
800:Mahlon Loomis
797:
793:
788:
783:
779:
775:
765:
762:
758:
748:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
720:
710:
708:
703:
699:
689:
686:
681:
671:
669:
665:
661:
660:telegraph key
657:
652:
650:
646:
642:
638:
637:Fleming valve
634:
630:
627:
624:
620:
616:
592:
589:
585:
576:
573:
569:
564:
561:
554:
553:
552:
551:of the coil:
538:
531:
515:
508:
504:
488:
481:
477:
473:
472:exponentially
469:
465:
456:
451:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
400:
391:
387:
372:
363:
358:
354:
352:
339:
335:
334:telegraph key
331:
328:
324:
320:
317:
313:
309:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
275:
270:
267:
263:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
212:
211:
203:
199:
197:
193:
188:
186:
182:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
123:
121:
117:
112:
108:
107:
100:
95:
93:
89:
88:telegraph key
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
26:
21:
7655:Multiplexing
7530:Transmission
7495:Nikola Tesla
7485:Henry Sutton
7440:Samuel Morse
7370:Robert Hooke
7335:Amos Dolbear
7270:John Bardeen
7189:
7169:Telautograph
7073:Mobile phone
7028:Edholm's law
7011:social media
6944:Broadcasting
6870:the original
6826:. Retrieved
6820:
6804:. Retrieved
6799:
6777:
6770:. Retrieved
6766:the original
6756:
6746:November 11,
6744:. Retrieved
6739:
6735:
6722:
6710:. Retrieved
6705:
6695:
6683:. Retrieved
6678:
6674:
6661:
6651:
6644:
6630:
6623:
6599:
6576:
6569:
6541:
6534:
6528:
6508:
6501:
6487:
6434:
6430:
6407:
6400:
6388:. Retrieved
6384:the original
6379:
6375:
6365:
6353:. Retrieved
6348:
6336:
6324:. Retrieved
6319:
6295:. Retrieved
6290:
6265:
6258:
6246:. Retrieved
6241:
6214:. Retrieved
6209:
6182:
6175:
6163:. Retrieved
6158:
6148:
6136:. Retrieved
6131:
6121:
6109:. Retrieved
6104:
6100:
6088:
6078:
6071:
6059:. Retrieved
6054:
6050:
6037:
6027:
6020:
6012:
6011:included in
6003:. Retrieved
5998:
5976:
5969:
5959:
5954:
5942:. Retrieved
5930:
5926:
5904:
5875:
5855:
5821:
5814:
5794:
5775:, p. 271-272
5772:
5716:
5712:
5702:
5693:
5670:. Retrieved
5666:The Guardian
5665:
5655:
5612:
5581:
5541:
5507:. Retrieved
5502:
5493:
5484:
5478:
5466:. Retrieved
5461:
5452:
5412:
5377:
5356:. Retrieved
5351:
5319:
5299:
5292:
5272:
5265:
5253:. Retrieved
5248:
5244:
5234:
5224:
5207:
5201:
5181:
5151:
5111:
5104:
5084:
5069:, p. 294-373
5064:
5060:
5059:Tesla, N., "
5055:
5022:
5018:
5012:
5008:
5003:
4991:. Retrieved
4987:
4964:
4956:
4944:. Retrieved
4940:the original
4935:
4931:
4921:
4915:, p. 111-116
4912:
4905:
4897:
4888:
4881:
4873:
4864:
4844:
4824:. Retrieved
4819:
4815:
4806:
4792:
4785:
4776:
4770:
4756:
4728:. Retrieved
4723:
4713:
4704:
4679:. Retrieved
4677:(3): 179–188
4674:
4670:
4642:. Retrieved
4619:
4591:
4561:
4554:
4548:, p. 212-215
4545:
4539:
4530:
4524:
4504:
4497:
4477:
4441:
4409:
4361:
4355:
4325:
4318:
4298:
4254:. Retrieved
4245:(5): 55–88.
4242:
4238:
4228:
4213:
4206:
4201:
4181:
4147:
4140:
4120:
4088:
4058:
4026:
3996:
3933:
3924:
3917:
3894:
3887:
3876:
3869:
3864:
3844:
3837:
3827:
3820:
3815:
3795:
3765:
3661:
3656:
3644:. Retrieved
3639:
3593:
3586:
3574:. Retrieved
3569:
3533:
3526:
3514:. Retrieved
3509:
3448:
3414:
3407:
3387:
3357:
3350:
3340:
3318:. Retrieved
3313:
3288:. Retrieved
3282:
3260:. Retrieved
3255:
3245:
3225:
3218:
3198:
3127:
3115:
3087:
3082:
3076:
3063:
3026:
3015:Obsolescence
3005:carrier wave
2998:
2958:electric arc
2939:
2934:audio signal
2919:
2910:damped waves
2907:
2898:loading coil
2842:
2817:
2812:
2805:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2785:
2781:Ford Model T
2762:
2677:(kilohertz)
2657:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2549:
2534:
2532:
2517:
2511:
2506:
2433:
2421:
2416:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2385:
2380:
2376:, producing
2370:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2283:
2279:
2243:
2215:
2188:Newfoundland
2176:Nikola Tesla
2165:
2161:(S2, C2, T3)
2160:
2156:
2153:(S1, C1, T2)
2152:
2148:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2069:
2064:
2061:
2051:
2049:loading coil
2045:
2026:
2022:
1994:
1967:Oliver Lodge
1964:
1959:
1951:
1941:
1926:Nikola Tesla
1923:
1914:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1824:
1813:
1809:
1776:
1737:
1729:Oliver Lodge
1714:
1696:
1685:
1679:
1675:
1674:Transmitter
1623:
1584:
1577:
1528:marine radio
1517:
1496:
1475:
1471:
1455:
1451:
1435:
1431:
1387:quarter-wave
1379:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1330:
1314:
1276:transmitters
1266:
1256:
1243:
1223:interference
1219:polarization
1175:paraffin wax
1163:quasioptical
1148:
1132:Oliver Lodge
1109:
1102:
1092:Oliver Lodge
1087:
1066:
1054:
1046:
1039:
1030:
1020:
1008:Oliver Lodge
991:
956:
949:
945:
941:
940:, spark gap
937:
921:
917:
902:
864:
856:
852:loop antenna
821:
784:
781:
756:
754:
745:
716:
695:
684:
679:
677:
653:
612:
461:
347:
282:
278:
272:
243:oscillations
233:One or more
209:
189:
183:oscillating
159:
129:
105:
96:
64:damped waves
61:
32:
30:
7855:NPL network
7567:Radio waves
7505:Alfred Vail
7415:Hedy Lamarr
7400:Dawon Kahng
7360:Elisha Gray
7320:Yogen Dalal
7245:Nasir Ahmed
7179:Teleprinter
7043:Heliographs
6736:Electronics
5672:8 September
4256:January 30,
3050:vacuum tube
3029:vacuum tube
2850:World War I
2813:Californian
2737:187.5 - 333
2723:187.5 - 500
2701:0.25 - 0.5
2687:range (kW)
2518:Synchronous
2247:radio noise
1871:two circuit
1857:(called an
1853:, making a
1845:and ground.
1740:tuning fork
1721:Leyden jars
1638:radio noise
1599:capacitance
1552:Adolf Slaby
1538:in France,
1534:in Russia,
1406:ground wave
1215:diffraction
1151:light waves
1076:damped wave
1044:capacitance
1021:(not shown)
879:radio waves
719:transformer
702:interrupter
619:demodulated
507:capacitance
476:damped wave
327:radio waves
241:electrical
216:transformer
196:oscillatory
162:capacitance
143:Radio waves
139:accelerated
118:, creating
41:radio waves
8014:Telegraphy
7988:Categories
7901:Antarctica
7860:Toasternet
7782:Television
7265:Paul Baran
7197:Television
7181:(teletype)
7174:Telegraphy
7152:transistor
7130:Phryctoria
7100:Photophone
7078:Smartphone
7068:Mass media
6681:(5): 43–46
6355:5 February
6326:5 February
5944:5 December
5907:, p. 60-63
5696:, p. 55-59
5255:3 December
5210:, p. 96-97
4946:August 19,
4708:, p. 34-36
4533:, p. 24-26
3666:, p. 38-43
3646:5 February
3177:References
3125:receiver.
3105:. In 1926
3094:Oudin coil
3090:Tesla coil
2985:alternator
2925:sinusoidal
2922:continuous
2870:Telefunken
2751:15 - 187.5
2740:1600 - 900
2726:1600 - 600
2680:Wavelength
2424:Telefunken
2146:alternator
1943:Tesla coil
1911:Leyden jar
1717:capacitors
1646:interfered
1560:Telefunken
1512:Morse code
1239:microwaves
1211:refraction
1155:wavelength
887:Leyden jar
736:alternator
680:spark rate
664:Morse code
623:rectifying
530:inductance
464:sinusoidal
431:inductance
420:resistance
386:Morse code
338:Morse code
251:Leyden jar
192:inductance
176:to excite
92:Morse code
7885:Americas
7874:Locations
7845:Internet2
7606:Bandwidth
7310:Vint Cerf
7207:streaming
7185:Telephone
7125:Semaphore
7016:streaming
6772:6 January
6555:cite book
6165:2 October
6111:19 August
6061:19 August
5647:218471926
5639:0537-9989
5617:CiteSeerX
5509:March 14,
5039:0095-9197
3098:diathermy
3058:modulated
2930:modulated
2806:Carpathia
2804:RMS
2788:RMS
2757:20 - 500
2695:> 1500
2682:(meters)
2675:Frequency
2622:Carnarvon
2600:litz wire
2527:harmonics
2488:Fessenden
2322:in series
1725:inductors
1705:bandwidth
1693:resonance
1653:Marconi,
1634:frequency
1630:bandwidth
1280:receivers
1199:microwave
1185:and wire
1144:semaphore
1106:receiver.
1063:resonator
1037:spark gap
1025:frequency
920:antenna,
903:(at rear)
883:inductors
817:induction
787:telegraph
761:sine wave
724:sine wave
685:frequency
658:called a
649:earphones
641:frequency
577:π
480:frequency
468:amplitude
455:amplitude
312:spark gap
303:bandwidth
266:resonator
259:frequency
247:capacitor
224:kilovolts
170:spark gap
168:across a
155:electrons
147:frequency
116:bandwidth
7953:Category
7840:Internet
7830:CYCLADES
7747:Ethernet
7697:Concepts
7621:terminal
7572:wireless
7395:Bob Kahn
7238:Pioneers
7063:Internet
6954:Cable TV
6818:(1915).
6742:(9): 190
6712:20 March
6685:21 March
6547:Archived
6390:22 March
6005:14 April
5668:. London
5047:51671246
4993:April 8,
4779:, p. 6-7
4651:archived
3576:27 March
3320:16 March
3262:14 March
3140:See also
3032:feedback
3009:receiver
3001:megawatt
2962:hydrogen
2932:with an
2890:umbrella
2846:telegram
2773:trembler
2698:< 200
2658:Republic
2565:in phase
2539:Q factor
2408:quenched
2400:Max Wien
2284:(center)
2207:Cornwall
2195:receiver
2172:Cornwall
2142:(S1, S2)
1962:system.
1919:detector
1744:Q factor
1733:inductor
1676:(bottom)
1603:umbrella
1591:Q factor
1456:(bottom)
1452:(center)
1260:—
1173:made of
836:electric
730:set, an
629:detector
255:inductor
178:resonant
25:Frastanz
7973:Commons
7963:Outline
7916:Oceania
7835:FidoNet
7820:ARPANET
7633:circuit
7202:digital
6931:History
6469:4075587
6439:Bibcode
6248:26 June
5751:4075587
5721:Bibcode
5487:, p. 30
5468:9 April
5358:20 June
5245:Antenna
4826:8 March
4681:8 March
4644:20 June
4596:, p. 46
3258:: 92–97
3166:Coherer
3123:coherer
2894:flattop
2818:Titanic
2796:Titanic
2790:Titanic
2743:5 - 20
2729:5 - 20
2715:1 - 10
2692:Amateur
2227:ionized
2192:coherer
2065:(below)
2027:(right)
1952:(below)
1814:(right)
1697:syntony
1626:damping
1476:(right)
1432:(right)
1414:skywave
1140:horizon
768:History
757:(below)
412:ionizes
323:antenna
220:voltage
106:Titanic
7911:Europe
7881:Africa
7865:Usenet
7825:BITNET
7762:Mobile
7638:packet
7147:MOSFET
7142:device
6939:Beacon
6611:
6516:
6467:
6431:Nature
6297:22 May
6216:22 May
5883:
5829:
5802:
5749:
5713:Nature
5645:
5637:
5619:
5549:
5420:
5307:
5280:
5189:
5159:
5119:
5092:
5045:
5037:
4896:–180.
4730:22 May
4635:
4569:
4512:
4485:
4449:
4417:
4333:
4306:
4189:
4155:
4128:
4096:
4066:
4034:
4004:
3852:
3803:
3773:
3516:22 May
3456:
3422:
3395:
3365:
3233:
3206:
3083:funken
3073:Legacy
3047:triode
2995:range.
2556:dynamo
2404:series
2203:Poldhu
2168:Poldhu
2023:(left)
1995:(left)
1869:" or "
1810:(rear)
1723:) and
1657:, and
1587:damped
1554:, and
1472:(left)
1436:(left)
1246:charge
1181:, and
1179:sulfur
1171:lenses
1167:prisms
1159:optics
952:, and
918:(A,A')
656:switch
478:. The
316:switch
206:radio.
174:switch
7894:South
7889:North
7850:JANET
7787:Telex
7777:Radio
7616:Nodes
7611:Links
7532:media
7110:Radio
7095:Pager
7023:Drums
6989:video
6984:image
6974:audio
6732:(PDF)
6671:(PDF)
6581:(PDF)
6495:–263.
6465:S2CID
6345:(PDF)
6138:4 May
6097:(PDF)
6047:(PDF)
5747:S2CID
5643:S2CID
5043:S2CID
4764:–167.
4221:–185.
3932:–53.
3636:(PDF)
3601:–279.
3566:(PDF)
2960:in a
2914:ozone
2837:Nauen
2821:'
2706:Ships
2672:Uses
2626:Wales
2378:beats
2280:(top)
1940:(his
1792:jars.
1680:(top)
1383:Earth
1371:(E-F)
1367:(C-F)
1197:, or
1183:pitch
668:relay
645:audio
403:coil.
390:CQ DE
72:audio
53:radio
7906:Asia
7792:UUCP
7752:ISDN
6830:2015
6808:2015
6774:2019
6748:2015
6714:2018
6687:2018
6609:ISBN
6561:link
6514:ISBN
6392:2018
6357:2024
6328:2024
6299:2018
6250:2018
6218:2018
6167:2018
6140:2018
6113:2018
6063:2018
6007:2019
5946:2018
5881:ISBN
5827:ISBN
5800:ISBN
5674:2018
5635:ISSN
5547:ISBN
5511:2017
5470:2018
5418:ISBN
5360:2018
5305:ISBN
5278:ISBN
5257:2018
5187:ISBN
5157:ISBN
5117:ISBN
5090:ISBN
5035:ISSN
4995:2017
4948:2015
4828:2018
4800:–39.
4732:2018
4683:2018
4646:2018
4633:ISBN
4567:ISBN
4510:ISBN
4483:ISBN
4447:ISBN
4415:ISBN
4331:ISBN
4304:ISBN
4258:2018
4187:ISBN
4153:ISBN
4126:ISBN
4094:ISBN
4064:ISBN
4032:ISBN
4002:ISBN
3850:ISBN
3801:ISBN
3771:ISBN
3648:2022
3578:2018
3518:2018
3454:ISBN
3420:ISBN
3393:ISBN
3363:ISBN
3322:2018
3292:2015
3264:2018
3231:ISBN
3204:ISBN
3134:EMPs
3092:and
3041:and
2979:and
2971:The
2944:The
2892:and
2786:The
2720:Navy
2656:RMS
2221:and
2199:kite
2157:(C2)
1907:(C1)
1865:", "
1542:and
1410:ions
1278:and
1233:and
1221:and
1169:and
1130:and
838:and
776:and
388:of "
104:RMS
7797:WAN
7767:NGN
7757:LAN
7038:Fax
6979:DCT
6605:509
6493:259
6455:hdl
6447:doi
6435:107
6380:102
6188:357
5935:doi
5737:hdl
5729:doi
5717:107
5627:doi
5251:(1)
5027:doi
4894:173
4762:165
4625:doi
4247:doi
4219:172
3900:173
3640:QST
3599:275
2811:SS
2800:CQD
2651:SOS
2646:CQD
2570:VLF
2406:or
2391:'s
2320:(S)
2316:(M)
2312:(F)
2209:to
2149:(D)
1363:(B)
1359:(A)
1331:(W)
1315:(r)
1195:UHF
1191:VHF
1103:(I)
1088:(M)
1067:(T)
1055:(T)
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