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non-destructive technique. In addition, precious sample can be saved by utilizing a micro-volume platform where as little as 1uL of sample is required for complete analyses. A brief explanation of the procedure of spectrophotometry includes comparing the absorbency of a blank sample that does not contain a colored compound to a sample that contains a colored compound. This coloring can be accomplished by either a dye such as
Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250 dye measured at 595 nm or by an enzymatic reaction as seen between β-galactosidase and ONPG (turns sample yellow) measured at 420 nm. The spectrophotometer is used to measure colored compounds in the visible region of light (between 350 nm and 800 nm), thus it can be used to find more information about the substance being studied. In biochemical experiments, a chemical and/or physical property is chosen and the procedure that is used is specific to that property to derive more information about the sample, such as the quantity, purity, enzyme activity, etc. Spectrophotometry can be used for a number of techniques such as determining optimal wavelength absorbance of samples, determining optimal pH for absorbance of samples, determining concentrations of unknown samples, and determining the pKa of various samples. Spectrophotometry is also a helpful process for protein purification and can also be used as a method to create optical assays of a compound. Spectrophotometric data can also be used in conjunction with the Beer–Lambert Equation,
435:, to determine various relationships between transmittance and concentration, and absorbance and concentration. Because a spectrophotometer measures the wavelength of a compound through its color, a dye-binding substance can be added so that it can undergo a color change and be measured. It is possible to know the concentrations of a two-component mixture using the absorption spectra of the standard solutions of each component. To do this, it is necessary to know the extinction coefficient of this mixture at two wavelengths and the extinction coefficients of solutions that contain the known weights of the two components. In addition to the traditional Beer-Lamberts law model, cuvette based label free spectroscopy can be used, which add an optical filter in the pathways of the light, enabling the spectrophotometer to quantify concentration, size and refractive index of samples following the hands law. Spectrophotometers have been developed and improved over decades and have been widely used among chemists. Additionally, Spectrophotometers are specialized to measure either UV or Visible light wavelength absorbance values. It is considered to be a highly accurate instrument that is also very sensitive and therefore extremely precise, especially in determining color change. This method is also convenient for use in laboratory experiments because it is an inexpensive and relatively simple process.
295:
to the reference standard. For reflectance measurements, the spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that reflects from the reference and test samples. Light from the source lamp is passed through a monochromator, which diffracts the light into a "rainbow" of wavelengths through a rotating prism and outputs narrow bandwidths of this diffracted spectrum through a mechanical slit on the output side of the monochromator. These bandwidths are transmitted through the test sample. Then the photon flux density (watts per meter squared usually) of the transmitted or reflected light is measured with a photodiode, CCD or other
214:. This would come as a solution to the previously created spectrophotometers which were unable to absorb the ultraviolet correctly. He would start with the invention of Model A where a glass prism was used to absorb the UV light. It would be found that this did not give satisfactory results, therefore in Model B, there was a shift from a glass to a quartz prism which allowed for better absorbance results. From there, Model C was born with an adjustment to the wavelength resolution which ended up having three units of it produced. The last and most popular model became Model D which is better recognized now as the
175:. They are widely used in many industries including semiconductors, laser and optical manufacturing, printing and forensic examination, as well as in laboratories for the study of chemical substances. Spectrophotometry is often used in measurements of enzyme activities, determinations of protein concentrations, determinations of enzymatic kinetic constants, and measurements of ligand binding reactions. Ultimately, a spectrophotometer is able to determine, depending on the control or calibration, what substances are present in a target and exactly how much through calculations of observed wavelengths.
39:
495:
53:
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absorbance properties (the intensity of the color) of the compound at each wavelength. One experiment that can demonstrate the various uses that visible spectrophotometry can have is the separation of β-galactosidase from a mixture of various proteins. Largely, spectrophotometry is best used to help quantify the amount of purification your sample has undergone relative to total protein concentration. By running an affinity chromatography, B-Galactosidase can be isolated and tested by reacting collected samples with
363:
identification of chemical bonds and functional groups. 2. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS): Uses absorption of light by vaporized analyte atoms to determine concentrations of metals and metalloids. 3. Fluorescence spectrophotometer: Measures intensity of fluorescent light emitted from samples after excitation. Allows highly sensitive analysis of samples with native or induced fluorescence. 4. Colorimeter: Simple spectrophotometers used to measure light absorption for colorimetric assays and tests.
61:
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wavelengths at a time in seconds. It irradiates the sample with polychromatic light which the sample absorbs depending on its properties. Then it is transmitted back by grating the photodiode array which detects the wavelength region of the spectrum. Since then, the creation and implementation of spectrophotometry devices has increased immensely and has become one of the most innovative instruments of our time.
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point, this chemical reaction will reach a point of balance called an equilibrium point. To determine the respective concentrations of reactants and products at this point, the light transmittance of the solution can be tested using spectrophotometry. The amount of light that passes through the solution is indicative of the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through.
557:(ONPG) and determining if the sample turns yellow. Following this testing the sample at 420 nm for specific interaction with ONPG and at 595 for a Bradford Assay the amount of purification can be assessed quantitatively. In addition to this spectrophotometry can be used in tandem with other techniques such as SDS-Page electrophoresis in order to purify and isolate various protein samples.
251:
beam before and after a test sample is inserted. Although comparison measurements from double-beam instruments are easier and more stable, single-beam instruments can have a larger dynamic range and are optically simpler and more compact. Additionally, some specialized instruments, such as spectrophotometers built onto
485:
is used. There are two major setups for visual spectrum spectrophotometers, d/8 (spherical) and 0/45. The names are due to the geometry of the light source, observer and interior of the measurement chamber. Scientists use this instrument to measure the amount of compounds in a sample. If the compound
371:
Spectrophotometry is an important technique used in many biochemical experiments that involve DNA, RNA, and protein isolation, enzyme kinetics and biochemical analyses. Since samples in these applications are not readily available in large quantities, they are especially suited to be analyzed in this
250:
There are two major classes of devices: single-beam and double-beam. A double-beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two light paths, one path containing a reference sample and the other the test sample. A single-beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the
147:
The absorption of light is due to the interaction of light with the electronic and vibrational modes of molecules. Each type of molecule has an individual set of energy levels associated with the makeup of its chemical bonds and nuclei and thus will absorb light of specific wavelengths, or energies,
571:
Spectrophotometers designed for the infrared region are quite different because of the technical requirements of measurement in that region. One major factor is the type of photosensors that are available for different spectral regions, but infrared measurement is also challenging because virtually
461:
region as well. The concentration of a protein can be estimated by measuring the OD at 280 nm due to the presence of tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine. This method is not very accurate since the composition of proteins varies greatly and proteins with none of these amino acids do not have
307:
value for each wavelength of the test sample is then compared with the transmission or reflectance values from the reference sample. Most instruments will apply a logarithmic function to the linear transmittance ratio to calculate the 'absorbency' of the sample, a value which is proportional to the
294:
When making transmission measurements, the spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that passes through a reference solution and a test solution, then electronically compares the intensities of the two signals and computes the percentage of transmission of the sample compared
233:
created the first commercially available diode-array spectrophotometer in 1979 known as the HP 8450A. Diode-array spectrophotometers differed from the original spectrophotometer created by
Beckman because it was the first single-beam microprocessor-controlled spectrophotometer that scanned multiple
353:
Many older spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as "zeroing", to balance the null current output of the two beams at the detector. The transmission of a reference substance is set as a baseline (datum) value, so the transmission of all other substances is recorded relative to
123:
A spectrophotometer is commonly used for the measurement of transmittance or reflectance of solutions, transparent or opaque solids, such as polished glass, or gases. Although many biochemicals are colored, as in, they absorb visible light and therefore can be measured by colorimetric procedures,
143:
An example of an experiment in which spectrophotometry is used is the determination of the equilibrium constant of a solution. A certain chemical reaction within a solution may occur in a forward and reverse direction, where reactants form products and products break down into reactants. At some
362:
There are some common types of spectrophotometers include: UV-vis spectrophotometer: Measures light absorption in UV and visible ranges (200-800 nm). Used for quantification of many inorganic and organic compounds. 1. Infrared spectrophotometer: Measures infrared light absorption, allowing
119:
Spectrophotometry is a tool that hinges on the quantitative analysis of molecules depending on how much light is absorbed by colored compounds. Important features of spectrophotometers are spectral bandwidth (the range of colors it can transmit through the test sample), the percentage of sample
552:
As described in the applications section, spectrophotometry can be used in both qualitative and quantitative analysis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. Qualitative analysis can be used and spectrophotometers are used to record spectra of compounds by scanning broad wavelength regions to determine the
472:
science. It is a known fact that it operates best at the range of 0.2–0.8 O.D. Ink manufacturers, printing companies, textiles vendors, and many more, need the data provided through colorimetry. They take readings in the region of every 5–20 nanometers along the visible region, and produce a
480:
Traditional visible region spectrophotometers cannot detect if a colorant or the base material has fluorescence. This can make it difficult to manage color issues if for example one or more of the printing inks is fluorescent. Where a colorant contains fluorescence, a
490:
holds and the absorbance between samples vary with concentration linearly. In the case of printing measurements two alternative settings are commonly used- without/with uv filter to control better the effect of uv brighteners within the paper stock.
274:
is used, the grating can be scanned stepwise (scanning spectrophotometer) so that the detector can measure the light intensity at each wavelength (which will correspond to each "step"). Arrays of detectors (array spectrophotometer), such as
124:
even colorless biochemicals can often be converted to colored compounds suitable for chromogenic color-forming reactions to yield compounds suitable for colorimetric analysis. However, they can also be designed to measure the
602:
of illuminants. Applications may include evaluation and categorization of lighting for sales by the manufacturer, or for the customers to confirm the lamp they decided to purchase is within their specifications. Components:
4325:
283:(PDA) can also be used. In such systems, the grating is fixed and the intensity of each wavelength of light is measured by a different detector in the array. Additionally, most modern mid-infrared spectrophotometers use a
354:
the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then converts the transmission ratio into 'absorbency', the concentration of specific components of the test sample relative to the initial substance.
482:
210:
in 1940 , the spectrophotometer was created with the aid of his colleagues at his company
National Technical Laboratories founded in 1935 which would become Beckman Instrument Company and ultimately
465:
Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy involves energy levels that excite electronic transitions. Absorption of UV-vis light excites molecules that are in ground-states to their excited-states.
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477:
curve or a data stream for alternative presentations. These curves can be used to test a new batch of colorant to check if it makes a match to specifications, e.g., ISO printing standards.
433:
462:
maximum absorption at 280 nm. Nucleic acid contamination can also interfere. This method requires a spectrophotometer capable of measuring in the UV region with quartz cuvettes.
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which contained the instrument case, hydrogen lamp with ultraviolet continuum, and a better monochromator. It was produced from 1941 to 1976 where the price for it in 1941 was
3704:
3164:
79:, known as spectrophotometers, that can measure the intensity of a light beam at different wavelengths. Although spectrophotometry is most commonly applied to ultraviolet,
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ISO 12647-2: Graphic technology — Process control for the production of halftone colour separations, proof and production prints — Part 2: Offset lithographic processes
575:
Another complication is that quite a few materials such as glass and plastic absorb infrared, making it incompatible as an optical medium. Ideal optical materials are
315:
The light source is shone into a monochromator, diffracted into a rainbow, and split into two beams. It is then scanned through the sample and the reference solutions.
1127:
5320:
636:
4445:
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1167:
Trumbo, Toni A.; Schultz, Emeric; Borland, Michael G.; Pugh, Michael Eugene (April 27, 2013). "Applied
Spectrophotometry: Analysis of a Biochemical Mixture".
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326:
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198:, usually by comparison with an observation of a spectrophotometric standard star, and corrected for the absorption of light by the Earth's atmosphere.
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concerned with the quantitative measurement of the absorption or emission properties of a material as a function of wavelength. Spectrophotometry uses
4366:
1403:. U.S. Department of Commerce National Bureau of Standards special publication; 378. Washington, D.C.: U.S. National Bureau of Standards. p. 2.
933:
4115:
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708:
685:
518:(Far UV spectrum region of interest). Some applications require small volume measurements which can be performed with micro-volume platforms.
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Beckman, A. O.; Gallaway, W. S.; Kaye, W.; Ulrich, W. F. (March 1977). "History of spectrophotometry at
Beckman Instruments, Inc".
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Electronic circuits convert the relative currents into linear transmission percentages and/or absorbance/concentration values.
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Electronic circuits convert the relative currents into linear transmission percentages and/or absorbance/concentration values
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132:. Within these ranges of light, calibrations are needed on the machine using standards that vary in type depending on the
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Hermannsson, Pétur G.; Vannahme, Christoph; Smith, Cameron L. C.; Sørensen, Kristian T.; Kristensen, Anders (2015).
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or ground with potassium bromide and pressed into a pellet. Where aqueous solutions are to be measured, insoluble
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transmission, the logarithmic range of sample absorption, and sometimes a percentage of reflectance measurement.
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to produce the analytical spectrum. The grating can either be movable or fixed. If a single detector, such as a
5360:
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Fractions of the incident wavelengths are transmitted through, or reflected from, the sample and the reference.
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on any of the listed light ranges that usually cover around 200–2500 nm using different controls and
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226:, it was "probably the most important instrument ever developed towards the advancement of bioscience."
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579:, which do not absorb strongly. Samples for IR spectrophotometry may be smeared between two discs of
222:
723 (far-UV accessories were an option at additional cost). In the words of Nobel chemistry laureate
5206:
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183:
88:
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5337:
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1606:
1514:
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2330:
2078:
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1704:
651:
598:, which operate almost like the visible region spectrophotometers, are designed to measure the
276:
1233:"Exploring Proteins Purification Techniques Animations as Tools for the Biochemistry Teaching"
148:
resulting in unique spectral properties. This is based upon its specific and distinct makeup.
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The resulting light strikes the photodetector device which compares the intensity of the beam
191:
1824:
1352:"Refractive index dispersion sensing using an array of photonic crystal resonant reflectors"
963:"A Classic Instrument: The Beckman DU Spectrophotometer and Its Inventor, Arnold O. Beckman"
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The detector then converts how much light the sample transmitted or reflected into a number.
572:
everything emits IR as thermal radiation, especially at wavelengths beyond about 5 ÎĽm.
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906:
897:
Oke, J. B.; Gunn, J. E. (1983). "Secondary standard stars for absolute spectrophotometry".
703:
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38:
8:
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1965:
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The detector detects how much light was reflected from or transmitted through the sample.
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is more concentrated more light will be absorbed by the sample; within small ranges, the
263:
1367:
1030:"Hewlett Packard: Compound Identification with HP 8450 A UV Visible Spectrophotometer".
910:
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656:
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1960:
1764:
1697:
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1509:
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1332:
1283:
1273:
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1080:
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1047:
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835:
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661:
595:
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284:
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172:
156:
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1955:
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1314:
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1012:
975:
914:
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100:
80:
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regions of the spectrum, and some of these instruments also operate into the near-
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3114:
2841:
2707:
2489:
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1432:
584:
230:
211:
311:
In short, the sequence of events in a scanning spectrophotometer is as follows:
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3908:
3903:
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3254:
3109:
3059:
2949:
2923:
2867:
2824:
2819:
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2407:
2068:
1950:
1915:
1877:
1862:
1550:
540:
52:
5521:
4736:
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4543:
4267:
4149:
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2933:
2763:
2432:
2369:
2033:
1867:
1616:
1287:
1099:"Fully Automatic Double Beam - Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AA 8000)"
1084:
1051:
989:
839:
768:
343:
The transmitted light is refracted into a rainbow with the reflection grating
322:
300:
296:
259:
801:
5002:
4901:
4727:
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4262:
4194:
3356:
3094:
2882:
2846:
2773:
2669:
2639:
2634:
2562:
2397:
2183:
2138:
2055:
2023:
2006:
1985:
1975:
1905:
1887:
1652:
1575:
1336:
1188:
515:
164:
129:
125:
60:
1425:
1408:
1249:
1232:
883:
3008:
2836:
2796:
2732:
2715:
2588:
2557:
2542:
2537:
2499:
2374:
2338:
2188:
1990:
1945:
1545:
469:
304:
96:
1400:
1043:
1016:
468:
Visible region 400–700 nm spectrophotometry is used extensively in
287:
technique to acquire the spectral information. This technique is called
87:
radiation, modern spectrophotometers can interrogate wide swaths of the
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4523:
4413:
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3921:
3914:
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3013:
3003:
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2872:
2684:
2529:
2504:
2364:
2243:
2203:
2173:
2128:
2123:
2103:
2073:
1970:
1872:
1793:
1611:
1519:
1437:
962:
271:
195:
151:
The use of spectrophotometers spans various scientific fields, such as
133:
76:
1375:
1318:
1180:
242:
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4673:
4529:
4518:
4513:
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4278:
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3945:
3939:
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3418:
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3363:
3345:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3104:
2902:
2552:
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1980:
1940:
1882:
1580:
179:
160:
108:
3172:
1067:
Fundamental
Laboratory Approaches for Biochemistry and Biotechnology
822:
Fundamental laboratory approaches for biochemistry and biotechnology
751:
Fundamental
Laboratory Approaches for Biochemistry and Biotechnology
4853:
4846:
4715:
4371:
3934:
3754:
3479:
3412:
3400:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3049:
2928:
2918:
2674:
2583:
2547:
2228:
2178:
918:
458:
104:
84:
30:
506:; depending on the region of interest, they may be constructed of
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3854:
3828:
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3723:
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2484:
2412:
2233:
2193:
1269:
786:. Translated by Brooks H. Chichester, NY: Wiley. pp. 16–17.
511:
503:
340:
The light source is shone into the sample and focused into a slit
152:
1349:
255:
or telescopes, are single-beam instruments due to practicality.
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3531:
3486:
3308:
3219:
3214:
3209:
2422:
1069:(3, rev. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. p. 77.
56:
Beckman Model DB Spectrophotometer (a double beam model), 1960
4166:
4102:
3608:
3039:
3018:
1231:
Cortez, C.; Szepaniuk, A.; Gomes da Silva, L. (May 1, 2010).
1230:
576:
507:
92:
3987:
3613:
3291:
2593:
1892:
1154:"Spectrometer vs Spectrophotometer: What's the Difference?"
646:
336:
In an array spectrophotometer, the sequence is as follows:
219:
1105:. Labindia Analytical Instruments Pvt. Ltd. Archived from
961:
Simoni, RD; Hill, RL; Vaughan, M; Tabor, H (Dec 5, 2003).
1002:
1396:
1166:
637:
Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
450:
960:
378:
864:. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Company. pp.
498:
194:
scale of the spectrum is calibrated as a function of
64:
Hand-held spectrophotometer used in graphic industry
607:
The light source shines onto or through the sample.
1397:Mavrodineanu R, Schultz JI, Menis O, eds. (1973).
857:
427:
1128:"Spectrophotometry Applications and Fundamentals"
1064:
748:
5519:
3173:Science instruments on satellites and spacecraft
702:Allen, DW; Cooksey, C; Tsai, BK (Nov 13, 2009).
701:
308:'concentration' of the chemical being measured.
934:"The first commercial UV-vis spectrophotometer"
438:
366:
1263:
686:International Organization for Standardization
357:
4987:
3158:
1809:
1453:
5059:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
1169:Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education
642:Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
2769:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
860:Experimental Methods in Modern Biochemistry
819:
784:The essential guide to analytical chemistry
753:(2nd ed.). Hoboken: Wiley & Sons.
547:
182:, the term spectrophotometry refers to the
5054:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
4994:
4980:
3165:
3151:
1816:
1802:
1460:
1446:
514:(visible spectrum region of interest), or
428:{\textstyle A=-\log _{10}T=\epsilon cl=OD}
5427:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
5107:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
4046:
1326:
1248:
979:
674:
483:bi-spectral fluorescent spectrophotometer
5195:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
3444:
3134:Instruments used in medical laboratories
2615:
1823:
1467:
493:
449:Most spectrophotometers are used in the
241:
59:
51:
37:
29:
2650:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
1300:
996:
896:
855:
781:
610:The sample transmits or reflects light.
560:
289:Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
258:Historically, spectrophotometers use a
14:
5520:
2698:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
1712:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
1301:Holiday, Ensor Roslyn (May 27, 1936).
1065:Ninfa AJ, Ballou DP, Benore M (2015).
931:
749:Ninfa AJ, Ballou DP, Benore M (2010).
246:Single-beam scanning spectrophotometer
4975:
3146:
2975:
2794:
2614:
2274:
1835:
1797:
1500:High-performance liquid chromatograph
1441:
1212:. Mettler-Toledo AG, Analytical. 2016
590:
229:Once it became discontinued in 1976,
5500:
1752:
851:
849:
815:
813:
811:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
732:
730:
728:
726:
697:
695:
4956:Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter
1776:
627:Atomic absorption spectrophotometry
24:
2693:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1134:. Mettler-Toledo International Inc
25:
5549:
5412:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
5164:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
1419:
1237:Journal of Biochemistry Education
846:
808:
723:
692:
5499:
5488:
5487:
5417:Dual-polarization interferometry
5001:
2738:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
2548:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
1775:
1763:
1751:
1740:
1739:
1203:"FastTrack™ UV/VIS Spectroscopy"
502:Samples are usually prepared in
445:Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
321:The resultant light strikes the
42:Beckman IR-1 Spectrophotometer,
5432:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
5407:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
5402:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
4925:International Lunar Observatory
3736:(TRMM, Terra, Aura, Suomi NPP,
2795:
1390:
1343:
1303:"Spectrophotometry of proteins"
1294:
1264:Garrett RH, Grisham CM (2013).
1257:
1224:
1195:
1160:
1146:
1120:
1091:
1058:
1038:(12): 1188A–1189A. 1979-10-01.
1023:
587:is used to construct the cell.
555:Ortho-Nitrophenyl-β-galactoside
535:Specific ultraviolet absorbance
521:
5361:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
5049:Vibrational circular dichroism
1485:Atomic absorption spectrometer
954:
925:
890:
824:. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 66.
775:
13:
1:
5159:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
5064:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
4871:High Resolution Stereo Camera
2275:
981:10.1016/S0021-9258(20)75750-9
667:
543:for concentration of pentoses
43:
5293:Inelastic neutron scattering
820:Ninfa AJ, Ballou DP (2004).
632:Atomic emission spectroscopy
439:UV-visible spectrophotometry
367:Applications in biochemistry
73:electromagnetic spectroscopy
7:
5354:Data collection, processing
5230:Photoelectron/photoemission
3802:Radiation Budget Instrument
1836:
1490:Flame emission spectrometer
620:
358:Types Of Spectrophotometers
325:device, which compares the
184:measurement of the spectrum
114:
34:Table-top spectrophotometer
10:
5554:
5439:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
5381:Time-resolved spectroscopy
4128:Infrared Space Observatory
2976:
1426:Spectrophotometry Handbook
564:
442:
201:
5483:
5465:Astronomical spectroscopy
5457:
5444:Photothermal spectroscopy
5394:
5353:
5346:
5308:
5280:
5222:
5172:
5072:
5009:
4938:
4915:
4894:
4863:
4832:
4797:
4788:
4708:
4698:
4656:
4624:
4617:
4608:
4582:
4566:
4557:
4484:
4468:
4459:
4393:
4359:
4350:
4308:
4299:
4226:
4217:
4095:
4054:
4045:
4025:
4018:
4011:
3973:
3966:
3838:
3692:
3685:
3632:
3453:
3435:
3263:
3178:
3131:
3082:
3032:
2999:
2986:
2982:
2971:
2942:
2911:
2893:Time-domain reflectometer
2855:
2807:
2803:
2790:
2746:
2706:
2683:
2660:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
2627:
2623:
2610:
2571:
2528:
2477:
2446:
2383:
2352:
2329:
2313:
2287:
2283:
2270:
2153:
2087:
1999:
1924:
1846:
1842:
1831:
1735:
1686:
1645:
1589:
1566:Ion mobility spectrometry
1556:Electroanalytical methods
1538:
1475:
899:The Astrophysical Journal
537:for metric of aromaticity
237:
138:photometric determination
4951:Inertial Stellar Compass
4316:Raman Laser Spectrometer
548:Experimental application
529:dissolved organic carbon
89:electromagnetic spectrum
5449:Pump–probe spectroscopy
5338:Ferromagnetic resonance
5130:Laser-induced breakdown
4946:Deep Space Atomic Clock
4205:Venus Emissivity Mapper
2728:Melting-point apparatus
2109:Cryogenic storage dewar
1726:Analytical Biochemistry
1515:Melting point apparatus
1356:Applied Physics Letters
5145:Glow-discharge optical
5125:Raman optical activity
5039:Rotational–vibrational
2665:Mass spectrometer (MS)
2655:Gas chromatograph (GC)
1705:Analytica Chimica Acta
652:Microspectrophotometry
499:
429:
277:charge-coupled devices
247:
65:
57:
49:
35:
27:Branch of spectroscopy
5366:Hyperspectral imaging
4961:Plasma Wave Subsystem
4072:Multispectral Scanner
3396:Pioneer Venus Orbiter
3200:Pioneer Venus Orbiter
3040:Acid-resistant gloves
2721:differential scanning
1597:Coning and quartering
1505:Infrared spectrometer
1250:10.16923/reb.v8i2.215
567:Infrared spectroscopy
497:
430:
245:
63:
55:
41:
33:
5118:Coherent anti-Stokes
5073:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
3929:Mars Climate Orbiter
3571:RM-08 and MTVZA-OK (
2617:Analytical chemistry
2119:Laminar flow cabinet
1825:Laboratory equipment
1719:Analytical Chemistry
1561:Gravimetric analysis
1525:Optical spectrometer
1469:Analytical chemistry
1103:Laboratory Equipment
1032:Analytical Chemistry
1005:Analytical Chemistry
561:IR spectrophotometry
475:spectral reflectance
376:
268:photomultiplier tube
216:DU spectrophotometer
169:chemical engineering
5422:Hadron spectroscopy
5212:Conversion electron
5173:X-ray and Gamma ray
5080:Ultraviolet–visible
4886:Mars Orbiter Camera
2989:Personal protective
1898:Meker–Fisher burner
1368:2015ApPhL.107f1101H
1307:Biochemical Journal
1044:10.1021/ac50048a728
1017:10.1021/ac50011a001
911:1983ApJ...266..713O
704:"Spectrophotometry"
688:. 2013. p. 13.
264:diffraction grating
5470:Force spectroscopy
5395:Measured phenomena
5386:Video spectroscopy
5090:Cold vapour atomic
4864:Imagers/telescopes
4012:Spectrophotometers
2832:Function generator
2815:Bench power supply
2754:Analytical balance
2515:Ostwald viscometer
2510:Graduated cylinder
2249:Inoculation needle
1632:Separation process
1627:Sample preparation
1431:2008-12-05 at the
1156:. 14 January 2024.
932:Ishani, G (2006).
856:Rendina G (1976).
782:Schwedt G (1997).
657:Slope spectroscopy
596:Spectroradiometers
591:Spectroradiometers
500:
425:
327:relative intensity
248:
66:
58:
50:
36:
5515:
5514:
5479:
5478:
5371:Spectrophotometry
5298:Neutron spin echo
5272:Beta spectroscopy
5185:Energy-dispersive
4969:
4968:
4906:Rosalind Franklin
4828:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4815:Rosalind Franklin
4790:Mass spectrometer
4784:
4783:
4720:Rosalind Franklin
4694:
4693:
4604:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4553:
4552:
4461:Triaxial fluxgate
4346:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4320:Rosalind Franklin
4295:
4294:
4219:UV-visible (UVVS)
4213:
4212:
4109:Rosalind Franklin
4047:Visible-IR (VIRS)
4041:
4040:
4007:
4006:
4003:
4002:
3962:
3961:
3681:
3680:
3493:DMSP 5D-2/F13-F15
3140:
3139:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3100:Fire extinguisher
3090:Biosafety cabinet
3078:
3077:
2967:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2898:Transistor tester
2888:Spectrum analyzer
2786:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2606:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2478:Measuring devices
2300:Soxhlet extractor
2266:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2214:Spectrophotometer
2209:Pipeclay triangle
1961:Mortar and pestle
1791:
1790:
1673:Standard addition
1668:Internal standard
1658:Calibration curve
1571:Mass spectrometry
1530:Spectrophotometer
1510:Mass spectrometer
1495:Gas chromatograph
1376:10.1063/1.4928548
1319:10.1042/bj0301795
1313:(10): 1795–1803.
1181:10.1002/bmb.20694
662:Spectroradiometry
581:potassium bromide
329:of the two beams.
285:Fourier transform
281:photodiode arrays
208:Arnold O. Beckman
173:molecular biology
157:materials science
69:Spectrophotometry
18:Spectrophotometer
16:(Redirected from
5545:
5503:
5502:
5491:
5490:
5351:
5350:
5262:phenomenological
5011:Vibrational (IR)
4996:
4989:
4982:
4973:
4972:
4807:(Europa Clipper)
4795:
4794:
4756:(on ExoMars TGO)
4706:
4705:
4700:Neutral particle
4622:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4564:
4563:
4466:
4465:
4452:(Europa Clipper)
4357:
4356:
4306:
4305:
4224:
4223:
4052:
4051:
4023:
4022:
4016:
4015:
3971:
3970:
3967:Ultraviolet (UV)
3690:
3689:
3686:Infrared-visible
3451:
3450:
3442:
3441:
3167:
3160:
3153:
3144:
3143:
2997:
2996:
2984:
2983:
2973:
2972:
2878:Network analyzer
2805:
2804:
2792:
2791:
2625:
2624:
2612:
2611:
2285:
2284:
2272:
2271:
2254:Inoculation loop
2124:Microtiter plate
2064:Test tube holder
1956:Magnetic stirrer
1844:
1843:
1833:
1832:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1795:
1794:
1779:
1778:
1767:
1755:
1754:
1743:
1742:
1678:Isotope dilution
1462:
1455:
1448:
1439:
1438:
1413:
1412:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1330:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1207:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1114:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1027:
1021:
1020:
1011:(3): 280A–300A.
1000:
994:
993:
983:
958:
952:
951:
949:
947:
929:
923:
922:
894:
888:
887:
863:
853:
844:
843:
817:
806:
805:
779:
773:
772:
746:
721:
720:
718:
716:
699:
690:
689:
678:
600:spectral density
488:Beer–Lambert law
434:
432:
431:
426:
397:
396:
224:Bruce Merrifield
188:celestial object
48:
45:
21:
5553:
5552:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5543:
5542:
5518:
5517:
5516:
5511:
5475:
5453:
5390:
5342:
5304:
5276:
5218:
5168:
5068:
5029:Resonance Raman
5005:
5000:
4970:
4965:
4934:
4917:
4911:
4890:
4859:
4820:
4780:
4690:
4652:
4610:
4596:
4591:Cassini–Huygens
4578:
4549:
4493:Cassini–Huygens
4480:
4455:
4389:
4338:
4291:
4239:Mariner 6 and 7
4209:
4155:Mariner 6 and 7
4091:
4037:
4019:Long wavelength
3999:
3958:
3887:Mariner 6 and 7
3834:
3763:MESSR and VTIR
3677:
3647:Electra (radio)
3641:Cassini-Huygens
3628:
3431:
3281:Cassini–Huygens
3259:
3187:Cassini–Huygens
3174:
3171:
3141:
3136:
3119:
3115:Solvent cabinet
3074:
3045:Eyewash station
3028:
2993:
2991:equipment (PPE)
2990:
2978:
2959:
2938:
2907:
2851:
2842:Pulse generator
2808:Control devices
2799:
2778:
2742:
2708:Thermochemistry
2702:
2679:
2619:
2598:
2567:
2524:
2490:Conical measure
2473:
2442:
2379:
2348:
2325:
2309:
2279:
2258:
2239:Test tube brush
2149:
2134:Picotiter plate
2097:
2083:
2079:Lab drying rack
2038:Extension clamp
2014:
1995:
1934:
1920:
1856:
1838:
1827:
1822:
1792:
1787:
1731:
1682:
1641:
1585:
1534:
1477:Instrumentation
1471:
1466:
1433:Wayback Machine
1422:
1417:
1416:
1395:
1391:
1348:
1344:
1299:
1295:
1280:
1272:. p. 106.
1268:. Belmont, CA:
1262:
1258:
1229:
1225:
1215:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1165:
1161:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1137:
1135:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1112:
1110:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1077:
1063:
1059:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1001:
997:
959:
955:
945:
943:
930:
926:
895:
891:
876:
854:
847:
832:
818:
809:
794:
780:
776:
761:
747:
724:
714:
712:
700:
693:
680:
679:
675:
670:
623:
593:
585:silver chloride
569:
563:
550:
524:
447:
441:
392:
388:
377:
374:
373:
369:
360:
240:
231:Hewlett-Packard
212:Beckman Coulter
204:
117:
71:is a branch of
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5551:
5541:
5540:
5535:
5533:Photochemistry
5530:
5513:
5512:
5510:
5509:
5497:
5484:
5481:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5473:
5467:
5461:
5459:
5455:
5454:
5452:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5398:
5396:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5357:
5355:
5348:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5324:
5323:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5305:
5303:
5302:
5301:
5300:
5290:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5277:
5275:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5253:
5252:
5247:
5245:Angle-resolved
5242:
5237:
5226:
5224:
5220:
5219:
5217:
5216:
5215:
5214:
5204:
5199:
5198:
5197:
5192:
5187:
5176:
5174:
5170:
5169:
5167:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5149:
5148:
5147:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5110:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5093:
5092:
5082:
5076:
5074:
5070:
5069:
5067:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5015:
5013:
5007:
5006:
4999:
4998:
4991:
4984:
4976:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4942:
4940:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4932:
4927:
4921:
4919:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4909:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4891:
4889:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4857:
4850:
4843:
4836:
4834:
4830:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4819:
4818:
4808:
4801:
4799:
4798:Interplanetary
4792:
4786:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4771:
4764:
4757:
4751:
4741:
4732:
4723:
4712:
4710:
4709:Interplanetary
4703:
4696:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4688:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4660:
4658:
4657:Interplanetary
4654:
4653:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4648:
4634:
4628:
4626:
4619:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4594:
4586:
4584:
4583:Interplanetary
4580:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4570:
4568:
4561:
4555:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4547:
4540:
4533:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4488:
4486:
4485:Interplanetary
4482:
4481:
4479:
4478:
4472:
4470:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4453:
4443:
4431:
4424:
4417:
4410:
4403:
4397:
4395:
4394:Interplanetary
4391:
4390:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4375:
4369:
4363:
4361:
4354:
4348:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4336:
4323:
4312:
4310:
4309:Interplanetary
4303:
4297:
4296:
4293:
4292:
4290:
4289:
4282:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4248:
4241:
4236:
4230:
4228:
4227:Interplanetary
4221:
4215:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4184:Europa Clipper
4169:
4164:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4141:
4130:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4105:
4099:
4097:
4096:Interplanetary
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4058:
4056:
4049:
4043:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4036:
4035:
4029:
4027:
4026:Interplanetary
4020:
4013:
4009:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3997:
3996:
3995:
3985:
3977:
3975:
3968:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3949:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3925:
3918:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3862:
3852:
3842:
3840:
3839:Interplanetary
3836:
3835:
3833:
3832:
3818:
3811:
3804:
3799:
3792:
3785:
3779:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3769:
3761:
3758:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3702:
3696:
3694:
3687:
3683:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3668:
3656:
3649:
3644:
3636:
3634:
3633:Interplanetary
3630:
3629:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3569:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3553:
3546:
3539:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3483:
3476:
3470:
3463:
3457:
3455:
3448:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3422:
3415:
3410:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3386:
3379:
3374:
3367:
3360:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3294:
3292:ExoMars lander
3289:
3284:
3277:
3269:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3190:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3162:
3155:
3147:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3125:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3117:
3112:
3110:Safety cabinet
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3076:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3070:Safety goggles
3067:
3065:Safety glasses
3062:
3060:Nitrile gloves
3057:
3055:Medical gloves
3052:
3047:
3042:
3036:
3034:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2950:Alligator clip
2946:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2924:Soldering iron
2921:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2868:Logic analyzer
2865:
2859:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2825:Voltage source
2822:
2820:Current source
2811:
2809:
2801:
2800:
2788:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2759:Colony counter
2756:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2712:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2689:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2631:
2629:
2621:
2620:
2608:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2398:Vacuum (Dewar)
2395:
2389:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2335:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2291:
2289:
2281:
2280:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2069:Test tube rack
2066:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2050:
2045:
2044:Funnel support
2042:
2039:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1951:Liquid whistle
1948:
1943:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1916:Vacuum dry box
1913:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1878:Heating mantle
1875:
1870:
1865:
1863:Alcohol burner
1859:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1839:
1829:
1828:
1821:
1820:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1773:
1761:
1749:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1691:
1684:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1551:Chromatography
1548:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1481:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1465:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1421:
1420:External links
1418:
1415:
1414:
1389:
1342:
1293:
1279:978-1133106296
1278:
1256:
1223:
1194:
1159:
1145:
1119:
1090:
1075:
1057:
1022:
995:
968:J. Biol. Chem.
953:
924:
919:10.1086/160817
889:
874:
845:
830:
807:
792:
774:
759:
722:
691:
672:
671:
669:
666:
665:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
639:
634:
629:
622:
619:
618:
617:
614:
611:
608:
592:
589:
565:Main article:
562:
559:
549:
546:
545:
544:
538:
532:
523:
520:
443:Main article:
440:
437:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
395:
391:
387:
384:
381:
368:
365:
359:
356:
351:
350:
347:
344:
341:
334:
333:
330:
319:
316:
239:
236:
203:
200:
116:
113:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5550:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5525:
5523:
5508:
5507:
5498:
5496:
5495:
5486:
5485:
5482:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5462:
5460:
5456:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5399:
5397:
5393:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5345:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5322:
5319:
5318:
5317:
5314:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5296:
5295:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5221:
5213:
5210:
5209:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5146:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5119:
5116:
5115:
5114:
5111:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5102:Near-infrared
5100:
5098:
5095:
5091:
5088:
5087:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5071:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5012:
5008:
5004:
4997:
4992:
4990:
4985:
4983:
4978:
4977:
4974:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4943:
4941:
4937:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4914:
4907:
4903:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4893:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4862:
4856:
4855:
4851:
4849:
4848:
4844:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4831:
4816:
4812:
4809:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4777:
4776:
4772:
4769:
4765:
4763:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4745:
4742:
4739:
4738:
4737:Venus Express
4734:ASPERA-4 (on
4733:
4730:
4729:
4725:ASPERA-3 (on
4724:
4721:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4687:
4686:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4659:
4655:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4620:
4618:Ion detectors
4616:
4613:
4607:
4593:
4592:
4588:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4556:
4546:
4545:
4544:Venus Express
4541:
4539:
4538:
4534:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4483:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4458:
4451:
4447:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4429:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4418:
4416:
4415:
4411:
4409:
4408:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4376:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4349:
4334:
4332:
4327:
4324:
4321:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4281:
4280:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4253:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4216:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4094:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4044:
4034:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4010:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3955:
3954:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3926:
3924:
3923:
3919:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
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3900:
3897:
3895:
3894:
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3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3863:
3860:
3856:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3837:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3784:(Terra, Aqua)
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3691:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3642:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3498:DMSP 5D-2/F16
3496:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3407:Venus Express
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3265:Radio science
3262:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3189:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3168:
3163:
3161:
3156:
3154:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3135:
3130:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3024:Safety shower
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2985:
2981:
2974:
2970:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2934:Wire stripper
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2854:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
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2826:
2823:
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2818:
2817:
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2813:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2764:Spiral plater
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2745:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
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2705:
2699:
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2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:Compositional
2626:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
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2580:
2577:
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2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:Balance brush
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2146:Weighing dish
2145:
2143:Weighing boat
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
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2115:
2112:
2110:
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2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2034:Burette clamp
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
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1881:
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1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1868:Bunsen burner
1866:
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1845:
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1700:
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1695:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1685:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1663:Matrix effect
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1622:Pulverization
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
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1594:
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1444:
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1434:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1401:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1362:(6): 061101.
1361:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1297:
1289:
1285:
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1275:
1271:
1267:
1260:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1211:
1204:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:(4): 242–50.
1174:
1170:
1163:
1155:
1149:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1109:on 2018-12-02
1108:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1076:9780470924525
1072:
1068:
1061:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1026:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
999:
991:
987:
982:
977:
973:
970:
969:
964:
957:
942:. p. 100
941:
940:
939:The Scientist
935:
928:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
885:
881:
877:
871:
867:
862:
861:
852:
850:
841:
837:
833:
831:9781891786006
827:
823:
816:
814:
812:
803:
799:
795:
793:9780471974123
789:
785:
778:
770:
766:
762:
760:9780470087664
756:
752:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
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733:
731:
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711:
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604:
601:
597:
588:
586:
582:
578:
573:
568:
558:
556:
542:
539:
536:
533:
531:concentration
530:
526:
525:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
496:
492:
489:
484:
478:
476:
471:
466:
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460:
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436:
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407:
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401:
398:
393:
389:
385:
382:
379:
364:
355:
348:
345:
342:
339:
338:
337:
331:
328:
324:
323:photodetector
320:
317:
314:
313:
312:
309:
306:
302:
301:transmittance
298:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
269:
265:
262:containing a
261:
260:monochromator
256:
254:
244:
235:
232:
227:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
199:
197:
193:
190:in which the
189:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
145:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
121:
112:
111:wavelengths.
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
62:
54:
40:
32:
19:
5528:Spectroscopy
5504:
5492:
5472:(a misnomer)
5458:Applications
5376:Time-stretch
5370:
5267:paramagnetic
5085:Fluorescence
5003:Spectroscopy
4916:Astronomical
4905:
4902:MicrOmega-IR
4852:
4845:
4842:(on InSight)
4833:Seismometers
4814:
4773:
4759:
4747:
4735:
4728:Mars Express
4726:
4719:
4683:
4589:
4559:Helium vapor
4542:
4535:
4528:
4491:
4437:
4426:
4419:
4412:
4405:
4352:Magnetometer
4331:Perseverance
4330:
4319:
4284:
4277:
4250:
4243:
4159:
4137:
4133:
4108:
3951:
3944:
3920:
3913:
3891:
3848:Schiaparelli
3846:
3845:COMARS+ (on
3760:Kanopus-V-IK
3670:
3662:
3651:
3639:
3424:
3417:
3405:
3388:
3381:
3369:
3362:
3357:Mars Express
3355:
3313:
3296:
3279:
3272:
3192:
3185:
3095:Fire blanket
3033:Eye and hand
3019:Rubber apron
2883:Oscilloscope
2847:Potentiostat
2774:Plate reader
2670:pH indicator
2640:CHN analyzer
2635:AutoAnalyzer
2428:Round-bottom
2321:Boston round
2213:
2184:Filter paper
2139:Refrigerator
2056:Retort stand
2024:Clamp holder
2020:Beaker clamp
1986:Vortex mixer
1981:Stirring rod
1976:Static mixer
1906:Teclu burner
1780:
1768:
1756:
1744:
1724:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1696:
1689:publications
1653:Chemometrics
1637:Sub-sampling
1576:Spectroscopy
1529:
1399:
1392:
1359:
1355:
1345:
1310:
1306:
1296:
1266:Biochemistry
1265:
1259:
1240:
1236:
1226:
1214:. Retrieved
1209:
1197:
1172:
1168:
1162:
1148:
1136:. Retrieved
1131:
1122:
1111:. Retrieved
1107:the original
1102:
1093:
1066:
1060:
1035:
1031:
1025:
1008:
1004:
998:
971:
966:
956:
944:. Retrieved
937:
927:
902:
898:
892:
859:
821:
783:
777:
750:
713:. Retrieved
707:
681:
676:
594:
574:
570:
551:
522:Applications
501:
479:
467:
464:
448:
370:
361:
352:
335:
310:
297:light sensor
293:
257:
249:
228:
206:Invented by
205:
177:
165:biochemistry
150:
146:
142:
137:
130:calibrations
122:
118:
91:, including
68:
67:
5044:Vibrational
4918:instruments
4895:Microscopes
3561:Meteor-M2-1
3550:Meteor-3M-1
3083:Other items
3009:Face shield
2856:Measurement
2837:Galvanostat
2797:Electronics
2747:Other items
2733:Thermometer
2716:Calorimeter
2645:Colorimeter
2589:Gas syringe
2572:Other items
2500:Eye dropper
2375:Watch glass
2360:Evaporating
2339:Cold finger
2154:Other items
2060:Screw clamp
2052:Pinch clamp
2041:Flask clamp
1991:Wash bottle
1946:Homogenizer
1782:WikiProject
1646:Calibration
1607:Dissolution
1546:Calorimetry
541:Bial's test
527:Estimating
470:colorimetry
305:reflectance
253:microscopes
126:diffusivity
97:ultraviolet
77:photometers
47: 1941
5538:Radiometry
5522:Categories
5250:Two-photon
5152:absorption
5034:Rotational
4625:Near-Earth
4567:Near-Earth
4537:Pioneer 11
4469:Near-Earth
4407:Pioneer 10
4360:Near-Earth
4245:Mariner 10
4055:Near-Earth
3974:Near-Earth
3927:PMIRR (on
3915:Pioneer 10
3893:Mariner 10
3815:Sentinel-3
3693:Near-Earth
3584:Sentinel-3
3555:MTVZA-GYa
3518:Kanopus-ST
3467:Sentinel-6
3454:Near-Earth
3437:Radiometer
3287:Europa-UVS
3014:Respirator
2955:Test probe
2873:Multimeter
2685:Microscopy
2505:Eudiometer
2469:Separatory
2438:Volumetric
2403:Erlenmeyer
2331:Condensers
2295:Dean–Stark
2244:Wire brush
2204:Microscope
2199:Centrifuge
2174:Cork borer
2129:Petri dish
2104:Agar plate
2091:Containers
2074:Wire gauze
1911:Water bath
1873:Desiccator
1687:Prominent
1612:Filtration
1539:Techniques
1520:Microscope
1210:www.mt.com
1132:www.mt.com
1113:2018-01-31
974:(49): e1.
875:0721675506
684:. Geneva:
668:References
272:photodiode
196:wavelength
134:wavelength
5328:Terahertz
5309:Radiowave
5207:Mössbauer
4930:MoonLIGHT
4768:Mariner 2
4748:Curiosity
4674:Mariner 2
4611:detectors
4530:MESSENGER
4509:Mariner 2
4421:Voyager 1
4279:Voyager 1
4252:MESSENGER
4161:MESSENGER
4146:(on Juno)
4134:Voyager 1
4077:SCIAMACHY
3946:Voyager 1
3909:2M No.522
3904:2M No.521
3825:Suomi NPP
3653:Mariner 2
3558:Meteor-M2
3545:, MOS-1b)
3446:Microwave
3419:Voyager 1
3377:Pioneer 7
3364:MESSENGER
3321:Mariner 2
3105:Fume hood
3050:Glove box
2903:Voltmeter
2288:Apparatus
2277:Glassware
2166:Autoclave
2161:Aspirator
2114:Incubator
2048:Iron ring
1971:Sonicator
1941:Chemostat
1883:Hot plate
1581:Titration
1288:801650341
1243:(2): 12.
1085:915641828
1052:0003-2700
990:1083-351X
840:633862582
769:488246403
408:ϵ
399:
386:−
279:(CCD) or
180:astronomy
161:chemistry
109:microwave
107:, and/or
5494:Category
5223:Electron
5190:Emission
5140:emission
5097:Vibronic
4847:Viking 1
4766:SPS (on
4716:ADRON-RM
4702:detector
4669:ASPERA-4
4664:ASPERA-3
4609:Particle
4372:QuakeSat
4172:E-THEMIS
3935:Venera 9
3777:Meteor-2
3755:ADEOS II
3567:Nimbus 7
3513:GPM Core
3480:ADEOS II
3413:Venera 9
3401:Sakigake
3315:Magellan
3274:Akatsuki
3225:Venera 4
3194:Magellan
3004:Lab coat
2929:Tweezers
2919:Heat gun
2675:pH meter
2584:Bell jar
2464:Dropping
2418:Florence
2408:Fernbach
2370:Syracuse
2229:Scoopula
2179:Crucible
1888:Lab oven
1746:Category
1602:Dilution
1590:Sampling
1429:Archived
1384:62897708
1337:16746224
1189:23625877
802:36543293
621:See also
504:cuvettes
459:infrared
115:Overview
105:infrared
85:infrared
5506:Commons
5333:ESR/EPR
5281:Nucleon
5109:(REMPI)
4775:Ulysses
4685:Ulysses
4646:Proba-2
4632:DEMETER
4383:Proba-2
4374:1 and 2
4326:SHERLOC
4116:MA-MISS
3993:Proba-2
3899:Mars 96
3882:Luna 13
3869:InSight
3855:Diviner
3829:NOAA-21
3813:SLSTR (
3738:NOAA-20
3729:AVNIR-2
3672:Rosetta
3624:Zond-PP
3573:Sich-1M
3548:MTVZA (
3508:Envisat
3487:Shizuku
3485:AMSR2 (
3465:AMR-C (
3304:InSight
3298:Galileo
2943:General
2863:Ammeter
2563:Thistle
2520:Pipette
2495:Cuvette
2485:Burette
2454:BĂĽchner
2447:Funnels
2433:Schlenk
2413:Fleaker
2393:BĂĽchner
2314:Bottles
2234:Spatula
2224:Stopper
2194:Forceps
2094:Storage
2011:Holders
1931:Shakers
1902:Striker
1850:Heaters
1837:General
1758:Commons
1698:Analyst
1617:Masking
1364:Bibcode
1328:1263262
1270:Cengage
1216:Dec 23,
946:Dec 23,
907:Bibcode
905:: 713.
715:Dec 23,
512:plastic
455:visible
202:History
153:physics
136:of the
101:visible
81:visible
5347:Others
5135:Atomic
4908:rover)
4876:HiRISE
4817:rover)
4805:MASPEX
4761:Nozomi
4722:rover)
4504:Magsat
4499:FIELDS
4446:ICEMAG
4401:FIELDS
4322:rover)
4268:SPICAV
4263:SPICAM
4200:SPICAV
4195:SPICAM
4132:IRIS (
3982:EURECA
3808:GCOM-C
3806:SGLI (
3796:EURECA
3789:JERS-1
3579:Seasat
3532:MOPITT
3478:AMSR (
3475:(AQUA)
3473:AMSR-E
3371:Nozomi
3309:Kaguya
3255:WISDOM
3220:MARSIS
3215:SHARAD
3210:SELENE
3205:REASON
2977:Safety
2579:Beaker
2558:Thiele
2543:Cragie
2538:Drying
2459:Hirsch
2423:Retort
2385:Flasks
2353:Dishes
2344:Liebig
2305:Kipp's
2219:Splint
2029:Tripod
2007:Clamps
2003:Stands
1966:Shaker
1928:Mixers
1853:Dryers
1770:Portal
1409:920079
1407:
1382:
1335:
1325:
1286:
1276:
1187:
1138:Jul 4,
1083:
1073:
1050:
988:
884:147990
882:
872:
838:
828:
800:
790:
767:
757:
516:quartz
299:. The
238:Design
171:, and
83:, and
5288:Alpha
5257:Auger
5235:X-ray
5202:Gamma
5180:X-ray
5113:Raman
5024:Raman
5019:FT-IR
4881:LORRI
4754:FREND
4574:Swarm
4476:Swarm
4333:rover
4301:Raman
4258:NOMAD
4234:Alice
4190:Ralph
4167:MERIS
4144:JIRAM
4111:rover
4103:AKARI
3980:ORI (
3821:VIIRS
3794:ORI (
3787:OPS (
3782:MODIS
3767:MOS-1
3753:GLI (
3734:CERES
3724:AVNIR
3713:Terra
3705:ASTER
3700:AVHRR
3619:WSF-M
3609:SSMIS
3604:SSM/I
3543:MOS-1
3541:MSR (
3536:Terra
3523:MIRAS
3179:Radar
2912:Tools
2530:Tubes
2365:Petri
1380:S2CID
1206:(PDF)
866:46-55
577:salts
508:glass
186:of a
93:x-ray
4939:Misc
4840:SEIS
4811:MOMA
4746:(on
4641:DSLP
4639:and
4637:TPMU
4450:PIMS
4448:and
4439:Juno
4378:SGVM
4367:GOES
4182:(on
4180:SUDA
4176:MISE
4136:and
4121:ISEM
4087:TRMM
4067:MOMS
4062:CASE
3988:LYRA
3877:IRIS
3867:(on
3857:(on
3749:ERSS
3744:ERBS
3719:AIRS
3709:MISR
3664:Juno
3614:TRMM
3599:SMOS
3594:SMMR
3589:SMAP
3528:MISR
3503:ERSS
3461:AQUA
3341:6, 7
2594:Vial
2553:Test
2189:File
1893:Kiln
1405:OCLC
1333:PMID
1284:OCLC
1274:ISBN
1218:2018
1185:PMID
1140:2018
1081:OCLC
1071:ISBN
1048:ISSN
986:ISSN
948:2018
880:OCLC
870:ISBN
836:OCLC
826:ISBN
798:OCLC
788:ISBN
765:OCLC
755:ISBN
717:2018
709:NIST
647:LBOZ
453:and
220:US$
192:flux
5316:NMR
4744:DAN
4679:SPS
4434:MAG
4273:UVS
4082:TES
4033:ISO
3865:HP3
3859:LRO
3659:MWR
1372:doi
1360:107
1323:PMC
1315:doi
1245:doi
1177:doi
1040:doi
1013:doi
976:doi
972:278
915:doi
903:266
390:log
303:or
270:or
178:In
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5321:2D
5240:UV
4524:10
4414:11
4178:,
4174:,
3940:10
3922:11
3827:,
3771:1b
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3530:,
3390:11
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3351:10
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451:UV
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167:,
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103:,
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4995:e
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4981:v
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1339:.
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1290:.
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1116:.
1087:.
1054:.
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1019:.
1015::
992:.
978::
950:.
921:.
917::
909::
886:.
842:.
804:.
771:.
719:.
423:D
420:O
417:=
414:l
411:c
405:=
402:T
383:=
380:A
20:)
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