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their age, disability, interests, etc. Therefore, content organization is extremely time-consuming. Additionally, SGDs are rarely covered by health insurance companies. As a result, resources are very limited with regards to both funding and staffing. Dr. John
Costello of Boston Children's Hospital has been the driving force soliciting donations to keep these program running and well-staffed both within his hospital and in hospitals across the country.
596:, and some argue that the device user should be involved in the decision to monitor use in this way. Similar concerns have been raised regarding the proposals for devices with automatic content generation, and privacy is increasingly a factor in design of SGDs. As AAC devices are designed to be used in all areas of a user's life, there are sensitive legal, social, and technical issues centred on a wide family of
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age. The selection set for an AAC system may include words that the user does not know yet – they are included for the user to "grow into". The content installed on any given SGD may include a large number of preset pages provided by the manufacturer, with a number of additional pages produced by the user or the user's care team depending on the user's needs and the contexts that the device will be used in.
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is needed (for example, terms related directly to a user's interest in horse riding). The term "fringe vocabulary" refers to vocabulary that is specific or unique to the individual's personal interests or needs. A typical technique to develop fringe vocabulary for a device is to conduct interviews with multiple "informants": siblings, parents, teachers, co-workers and other involved persons.
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for automatically adding content. A number of research approaches have attempted to overcome this difficulty, these range from "inferred input", such as generating content based on a log of conversation with a user's friends and family, to data mined from the
Internet to find language materials, such as the Webcrawler Project. Moreover, by making use of
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Beukelman and
Mirenda emphasize that vocabulary selection also involves ongoing vocabulary maintenance; however, a difficulty in AAC is that users or their carers must program in any new utterances manually (e.g. names of new friends or personal stories) and there are no existing commercial solutions
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uses text-to-speech software that can carry less emotional information but permits the user to speak novel messages by typing new words. Today, individuals use a combination of recorded messages and text-to-speech techniques on their SGDs. However, some devices are limited to only one type of output.
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Low cost systems can also include a keyboard and audio speaker combination without a dynamic display or visual screen. This type of keyboard sends typed text direct to an audio speaker. It can permit any phrase to be spoken without the need for a visual screen that is not always required. One simple
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is often used for indirect selection. Unlike direct selection (e.g., typing on a keyboard, touching a screen), users of Target
Scanning can only make selections when the scanning indicator (or cursor) of the electronic device is on the desired choice. Those who are unable to point typically calibrate
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There are many methods of accessing messages on devices: directly, indirectly, and with specialized access devices. Direct access methods involve physical contact with the system, by using a keyboard or a touch screen. Users accessing SGDs indirectly and through specialized devices must manipulate an
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Other researchers, such as
Musselwhite and St. Louis suggest that initial vocabulary items should be of high interest to the user, be frequently applicable, have a range of meanings and be pragmatic in functionality. These criteria have been widely used in the AAC field as an ecological check of SGD
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Previous work has analyzed both vocabulary use of typically developing speakers and word use of AAC users to generate content for new AAC devices. Such processes work well for generating a core set of utterances or vocal expressions but are less effective in situations where a particular vocabulary
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The selection set of a SGD is the set of all messages, symbols and codes that are available to a person using that device. The content, organisation, and updating of this selection set are areas of active research and are influenced by a number of factors, including the user's ability, interests and
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and speech naturalness for the listener (e.g., person of the same age and gender as the AAC user can be selected to record the messages), and (b) it provides for additional sounds that may be important for the user such as laughing or whistling. Moreover, Digitized SGDs is that they provide a degree
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to accommodate a large number of vocal expressions, and thus only a portion of the symbols available are visible at any one time, with the communicator navigating the various pages. Speech-generating devices generally display a set of selections either using a dynamically changing screen, or a fixed
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Programming of
Dynamic Speech Generating devices is usually done by augmentative communication specialists. Specialists are required to cater to the needs of the patients because the patients usually choose what kinds of words/ phrases they want. For example, patients use different phrases based on
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Researchers
Beukelman and Mirenda list a number of possible sources (such as family members, friends, teachers, and care staff) for the selection of initial content for a SGD. A range of sources is required because, in general, one individual would not have the knowledge and experience to generate
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Synthesized SGDs may allow multiple methods of message creation that can be used individually or in combination: messages can be created from letters, words, phrases, sentences, pictures, or symbols. With synthesized speech there is virtually unlimited storage capacity for messages with few demands
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Starting in the early 2000s, specialists saw the benefit of using SGDs not only for adults but for children, as well. Neuro-linguists found that SGDs were just as effective in helping children who were at risk for temporary language deficits after undergoing brain surgery as it is for patients with
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to communicate. Beginning in the 1980s, improvements in technology led to a greatly increased number, variety, and performance of commercially available communication devices, and a reduction in their size and price. Alternative methods of access such as Target
Scanning (also known as eye pointing)
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software may determine the choices to be offered based on their frequency in language, association with other words, past choices of the user, or grammatical suitability. However, users have been shown to produce more words per minute (using a scanning interface) with a static keyboard layout than
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combine sequences of icons (picture symbols) to produce words or phrases. In numeric, alpha-numeric, and letter encoding (also known as
Abbreviation-Expansion), words and sentences are coded as sequences of letters and numbers. For example, typing "HH" or "G1" (for Greeting 1) may retrieve "Hello,
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The content, organization, and updating of the vocabulary on an SGD is influenced by a number of factors, such as the user's needs and the contexts that the device will be used in. The development of techniques to improve the available vocabulary and rate of speech production is an active research
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Johansen, A. S., Hansen, J. P., Hansen, D. W., Itoh, K., and
Mashino, S. 2003. Language technology in a predictive, restricted on-screen keyboard with dynamic layout for severely disabled people. In Proceedings of the 2003 EACL Workshop on Language Modeling for Text Entry Methods (TextEntry '03).
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Dempster, M., Alm, N., and Reiter, E.. 2010. Automatic generation of conversational utterances and narrative for augmentative and alternative communication: a prototype system. In Proceedings of the NAACL HLT 2010 Workshop on Speech and Language Processing for Assistive Technologies (SLPAT '10).
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The "home" page of a dynamic display device may show symbols related to many different contexts or conversational topics. Pressing any one of these symbols may open a different screen with messages related to that topic. For example, when watching a volleyball game, a user may press the "sport"
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in the Netherlands created the lightspot operated typewriter (LOT) in 1970, which made use of small movements of the head to point a small spot of light at a matrix of characters, each equipped with a photoelectric cell. Although it was commercially unsuccessful, the LOT was well received by its
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There are several input and display methods for users of varying abilities to make use of SGDs. Some SGDs have multiple pages of symbols to accommodate a large number of utterances, and thus only a portion of the symbols available are visible at any one time, with the communicator navigating the
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Roark, B., de Villiers, J., Gibbons, C., and Fried-Oken, M.. 2010. Scanning methods and language modeling for binary switch typing. In Proceedings of the NAACL HLT 2010 Workshop on Speech and Language Processing for Assistive Technologies (SLPAT '10). Association for Computational Linguistics,
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In 1979, Mark Dahmke developed software for a vocal communication aid program using the Computalker CT-1 analog speech synthesizer with a microcomputer. The software utilized phonemes to generate speech, assisting individuals with communication impairments in constructing words and sentences.
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Black, R., Reddington, J., Reiter, E., Tintarev, N., and Waller A.. 2010. Using NLG and sensors to support personal narrative for children with complex communication needs. In Proceedings of the NAACL HLT 2010 Workshop on Speech and Language Processing for Assistive Technologies (SLPAT '10).
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Advantages of dynamic display devices include the availability of a much larger vocabulary, and the ability to see the sentence under construction A further advantage of dynamic display devices is that the underlying operating system is capable of providing options for multiple communication
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Augmentative and alternative communication is typically much slower than speech, with users generally producing 8–10 words per minute. Rate enhancement strategies can increase the user's rate of output to around 12–15 words per minute, and as a result enhance the efficiency of communication.
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Reddington, J., & Coles-Kemp, L. (2011). Trap Hunting: Finding Personal Data Management Issues in Next Generation AAC Devices. In Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Speech and Language Processing for Assistive Technologies (pp. 32–42). Edinburgh, Scotland, UK: Association for
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calibrate the movement of a user's eyes to direct an SGD to produce the desired speech phase. Scanning, in which alternatives are presented to the user sequentially, became available on communication devices. Speech output possibilities included both digitized and synthesized speech.
368:. They share some of disadvantages; for example they are typically restricted to a limited number of symbols and hence messages. It is important to note that with technological advances made in the twenty-first century, fixed-display SGDs are not commonly used anymore.
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There are multiple methods of accessing messages on devices: directly or indirectly, or using specialized access devices—although the specific access method will depend on the skills and abilities of the user. SGD output is typically much slower than speech, although
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their eyes to use eye gaze as a way to point and blocking as a way to select desired words and phrases. The speed and pattern of scanning, as well as the way items are selected, are individualized to the physical, visual and cognitive capabilities of the user.
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based approaches, a device's content can be changed based on events that occur to a user during their day. By accessing more of a user's data, more high-quality messages can be generated at a risk of exposing sensitive user data. For example, by making use of
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devices. They typically generate electronically produced visual symbols that, when pressed, change the set of selections that is displayed. The user can change the symbols available using page links to navigate to appropriate pages of vocabulary and messages.
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Prediction is a rate enhancement strategy in which the SGD attempts to reduce the number of keystrokes used by predicting the word or phrase being written by the user. The user can then select the correct prediction without needing to write the entire word.
51:, enabling them to verbally communicate. SGDs are important for people who have limited means of interacting verbally, as they allow individuals to become active participants in communication interactions. They are particularly helpful for patients with
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Ashraf, S.; Warden, A.; Shearer, A. J.; Judson, A.; Ricketts, I. W.; Waller, A.; Alm, N.; Gordon, B.; MacAulay, F.; Brodie, J. K.; Etchels, M. (2002). "Capturing phrases for ICU-Talk, a communication aid for intubated intensive care patients.".
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A major disadvantage of using only recorded speech is that users are unable to produce novel messages; they are limited to the messages pre-recorded into the device. Depending on the device, there may be a limit to the length of the recordings.
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Rackensperger, T.; Krezman, C.; McNaughton, D.; Williams, M. B.; d'Silva, K. (2005). ""When I First Got It, I Wanted to Throw It off a Cliff": The Challenges and Benefits of Learning AAC Technologies as Described by Adults who use AAC".
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Words, phrases or entire messages can be digitised and stored onto the device for playback to be activated by the user. This process is formally known as Voice Banking. Advantages of recorded speech include that it (a) provides natural
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Fixed display devices refer to those in which the symbols and items are "fixed" in a particular format; some sources refer to these as "static" displays. Such display devices have a simpler learning curve than some other devices.
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The rate of words produced can depend greatly on the conceptual level of the system: the TALK system, which allows users to choose between large numbers of sentence-level utterances, demonstrated output rates in excess of 60 wpm.
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Hochstein, D. D.; McDaniel, M. A.; Nettleton, S.; Neufeld, K. H. (2003). "The Fruitfulness of a Nomothetic Approach to Investigating AAC: Comparing Two Speech Encoding Schemes Across Cerebral Palsied and Nondisabled Children".
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Synthesized speech engines are available in many languages, and the engine's parameters, such as speech rate, pitch range, gender, stress patterns, pauses, and pronunciation exceptions can be manipulated by the user.
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In any given SGD there may be a large number of vocal expressions that facilitate efficient and effective communication, including greetings, expressing desires, and asking questions. Some SGDs have multiple pages of
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508:, providing a way to use a speech-generating device without having to visit a doctor's office or learn to use specialized machinery. In many cases, these options are also more affordable than a dedicated device.
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problems that can be found in contexts of AAC use. For example, SGDs may have to be designed so that they support the user's right to delete logs of conversations or content that has been added automatically.
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Dominowska, E., Roy, D., & Patel, R. (2002). An adaptive context-sensitive communication aid. Proceedings of the CSUN International Conference on Technology and Persons with Disabilities, Northridge,
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In 1966, Barry Romich, a freshman engineering student at Case Western Reserve University, and Ed Prentke, an engineer at Highland View Hospital in Cleveland, Ohio formed a partnership, creating the
1478:"Whose Voice is That?: Issues of Identity, Voice and Representation Arising in an Ethnographic Study of the Lives of Disabled Teenagers who use Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)"
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Speech-generating systems may be dedicated devices developed solely for AAC, or non-dedicated devices such as computers running additional software to allow them to function as AAC devices.
204:. The first commercially available dynamic screen speech-generating devices were developed in the 1990s. Software programs were developed that allowed the computer-based production of
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Dahmke's work contributed to the advancement of assistive technology for people with disabilities. Notably, he designed the "Vocabulary Management System" for Bill Rush, a student with
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Luo, F., Higginbotham, D. J., & Lesher, G. (2007). Webcrawler: Enhanced augmentative communication. Paper presented at CSUN Conference on Disability Technology, March, Los Angeles.
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with a predictive grid layout, suggesting that the cognitive overhead of reviewing a new arrangement cancels out the benefits of the predictive layout when using a scanning interface.
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Fixed display devices replicate the typical arrangement of low-tech AAC devices (low-tech is defined as those devices that do not need batteries, electricity or electronics), like
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Hourcade, J.; Everhart Pilotte, T.; West, E.; Parette, P. (2004). "A History of Augmentative and Alternative Communication for Individuals with Severe and Profound Disabilities".
231:. In the past 20 or so years SGD have gained popularity amongst young children with speech deficiencies, such as autism, Down syndrome, and predicted brain damage due to surgery.
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Hochstein, D. D.; McDaniel, M. A.; Nettleton, S. (2004). "Recognition of Vocabulary in Children and Adolescents with Cerebral Palsy: A Comparison of Two Speech Coding Schemes".
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Stephen Hawking came to be associated with the unique voice of his particular synthesis equipment. Hawking was unable to speak due to a combination of disabilities caused by
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Blischak, D. M., Lombardino, L. J., & Dyson, A. T. (2003). Use of speech-generating devices: In support of natural speech. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 19
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benefit is that a talking keyboard, when used with a standard telephone or speakerphone can enable a voice impaired individual have 2 way conversation over a telephone.
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Mathy; Yorkston, Guttman (2000). "Augmentative Communication for Individuals with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis". In Beukelman, D.; Yorkston, K.; Reichle, J. (eds.).
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technology facilitated improved communication for Rush and was featured in a 1980 issue of LIFE Magazine. Dahmke's contributions have influenced the development of
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Venkatagiri, H. S. 1995. Techniques for enhancing communication productivity in AAC: A review of research. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 4, 36–45.
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Glennen, Sharon L. and Decoste, Denise C. (1997). The Handbook of Augmentative and Alternative Communication. Singular Publishing Group, Inc.: San Diego, CA.
208:. High-tech devices have continued to become smaller and lighter, while increasing accessibility and capability; communication devices can be accessed using
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R. Patel and R. Radhakrishnan. 2007. Enhancing Access to Situational Vocabulary by Leveraging Geographic Context. Assistive Technology Outcomes and Benefits
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has shown that such email writing practices allowed children who were SGD users to develop new social skills and increase their social participation.
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area. Vocabulary items should be of high interest to the user, be frequently applicable, have a range of meanings, and be pragmatic in functionality.
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Sundqvist, A.; Rönnberg, J. (2010). "A Qualitative Analysis of Email Interactions of Children who use Augmentative and Alternative Communication".
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There are two main options for increasing the rate of communication for an SGD: encoding, a translator such as Nicole Schatzmann. and prediction.
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481:). Users have the freedom to create novel words and messages and are not limited to those that have been pre-recorded on their device by others.
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Encoding permits a user to produce a word, sentence or phrase using only one or two activations of their SGD. Iconic encoding strategies such as
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all the vocal expressions needed in any given environment. For example, parents and therapists might not think to add slang terms, such as "
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symbol to open a page with messages relating to sport, then press the symbol showing a scoreboard to utter the phrase "What's the score?".
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typewriter controller named the patient-operated selector mechanism (Naman) prototyped by Reg Maling in the United Kingdom in 1960. POSSUM
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Friedman, M.B., Kiliany, G. and Dzmura, M. (1985) An Eye Gaze Controlled Keyboard. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
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The use of synthesized speech has increased due to the creation of software that takes advantage of the user's existing computers and
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The specific access method will depend on the skills and abilities of the user. With direct selection a body part, pointer, adapted
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During the 1970s and early 1980s, several other companies began to emerge that have since become prominent manufacturers of SGDs.
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ALS. In particular, digitized SGDs have been used as communication aids for pediatric patients during the recovery process.
1074:"LIFE Magazine January 1980 @ Original LIFE Magazines.com, Unique Gift Idea, Vintage LIFE Magazine, Classic LIFE Magazine"
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The output of a SGD may be digitized and/or synthesized: digitized systems play directly recorded words or phrases while
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153:. In 1969, the company produced its first communication device, a typing system based on a discarded Teletype machine.
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Todman, J. (2000). "Rate and quality of conversations using a text-storage AAC system: Single-case training study".
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Zangari, C.; Lloyd, L.; Vicker, B. (1994). "Augmentative and alternative communication: An historic perspective".
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to present alternative letter targets on the screen with size relative to their likelihood given the history.
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2490:; MacKay, D. J. C. (2000). "Dasher---a data entry interface using continuous gestures and language models".
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Blackstone, S. W.; Williams, M. B.; Joyce, M. (2002). "Future AAC Technology Needs: Consumer Perspectives".
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of normalcy both for the patient and for their families when they lose their ability to speak on their own.
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A speech-generating device with dynamic display, capable of outputting both synthesized and digitized speech
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Higginbotham, D. J.; Shane, H.; Russell, S.; Caves, K. (2007). "Access to AAC: Present, past, and future".
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Augmentative and Alternative Communication Disorders for Adults with Acquired Neurologic Disorders
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Proceedings of the 13th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology - UIST '00
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founded Toby Churchill Ltd in 1973, after losing his speech following encephalitis. In the US,
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Communication programming for persons with severe handicaps: vocal and augmentative strategies
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Friedman, M. B., G. Kiliany, M. Dzmura, D. Anderson. "The Eyetracker Communication System,"
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Proceedings of the fifth international ACM conference on Assistive technologies - Assets '02
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The efficacy of augmentative and alternative communication: towards evidence-based practice
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can increase the user's rate of output, resulting in enhanced efficiency of communication.
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Reddington, J.; Tintarev, N. (2011). "Automatically generating stories from sensor data".
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The patient-operated selector mechanism (POSM or POSSUM), was developed in the early 1960s
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SGDs have their roots in early electronic communication aids. The first such aid was a
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various pages. Speech-generating devices can produce electronic voice output by using
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development has meant that SGD capabilities can now be integrated into devices like
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to help monitor the content used by an individual. This raises concerns about
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for independent access to other equipment such as TV, radio and telephones.
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rules of the language to translate the user's message into voice output (
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Perspectives on the human controller: essays in honor of Henk G. Stassen
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Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 59–66.
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Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 10–18.
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Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 1–9.
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through a set of symbols on an illuminated display. Researchers at
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object in order to access the system, such as maneuvering a
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Schlosser, R. W.; Blischak, D. M.; K., Rajinder K. (2003).
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Stassen, H. G.; Sheridan, T. B.; Van Lunteren, T. (1997).
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development continued, including projects funded by the
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Augmentative Communication in Practice: An Introduction
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Information theory, inference, and learning algorithms
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Radomski, M. V. & Trombly Latham, C. A. (2007).
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Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
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28:(1942–2018), astrophysicist and prominent SGD user
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959:. National Student Volunteer Program. 1980.
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2286:. San Diego: Academic. pp. 472–532.
1702:(3rd ed.). Paul H. Brookes Pub. Co.
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446:
416:
383:
351:
347:
327:Another approach to rate-enhancement is
281:
124:
20:
2598:Applications of artificial intelligence
2073:. University of Edinburgh CALL Centre.
2064:"High Technology Aids to Communication"
1460:
1206:
1204:
796:
651:
649:
647:
645:
643:
641:
277:
2585:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1312:
1301:
1223:
1221:
1219:
787:
785:
671:
1915:
1860:"Stephen Hawking chooses a new voice"
1767:"'Technology Gives Young Boy A Voice"
1690:
1582:
1540:
1454:
1434:
1428:
1416:
1397:Schlosser, Blischak & Koul (2003)
1323:
1268:
1257:
1246:
1241:
1237:
1235:
1227:
1210:
982:
980:
715:
588:Many recently developed SGDs include
468:
1823:. Blogs.suntimes.com. Archived from
1357:
1201:
1116:
1003:
638:
412:
1554:
1502:
1401:
1346:
1216:
826:
782:
583:
442:
13:
1982:
1779:
1617:Reddington & Coles-Kemp (2011)
1560:
1535:
1375:Dynavox at www.speechbubble.org.uk
1252:
1232:
1032:"BYTE - the small systems journal"
977:
14:
2629:
2562:
2102:
2011:
1307:
1149:
761:
566:AAC user with custom-built device
343:Fixed and dynamic display devices
331:, which uses language models and
238:
2568:
2480:
2443:
1514:Reddington & Tintarev (2011)
1285:
791:
94:. Notable users of SGDs include
2524:
2280:"Roles of Speech Output in AAC"
2132:
2118:. Baltimore: P.H. Brookes Pub.
1785:
1722:
1624:
1610:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1576:
1565:
1518:
1422:
1386:Sundqvist & Rönnberg (2010)
1379:
1374:
1368:
1340:
1334:
1189:
1178:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1127:
1091:
1066:
1041:
1024:
997:
963:
947:
930:
914:
889:
863:
837:
751:University of Washington (2009)
750:
41:voice output communication aids
2342:
2113:
2061:
1901:. Routledge. pp. 100–01.
1848:
1737:10.1080/10400435.2002.10132051
1694:; Mirenda, P. (15 June 2005).
1385:
1184:
971:"LateBlt's Computer Book List"
847:. 15 July 2015. Archived from
776:
660:
628: – Accessibility software
1:
2608:Speech and language pathology
1839:
1765:Brewer, N (8 February 2011).
1759:
666:
632:
604:
558:Automatic content maintenance
63:of natural speech or through
53:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
2554:10.1080/07434619412331276740
2539:
2394:10.1080/07434610012331279024
2357:10.3109/07434618.2010.528796
2321:
2282:. In R. W. Schlosser (ed.).
2273:Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 28–36.
2265:
2062:Jans, D.; Clark, S. (1998).
2026:10.1177/10883576040190040501
1997:10.1080/07434610410001699708
1878:
1873:
1798:
1616:
1482:Disability Studies Quarterly
1195:
1173:
1133:
820:
809:
688:
528:Selection set and vocabulary
218:environmental control device
216:and Internet use, and as an
212:, perform as a computer for
7:
2444:Vanderheide, G. C. (2002).
2300:
2133:David J. C. MacKay (2003).
1968:10.1044/1058-0360(2003/057)
1894:
1857:
1654:
1606:Rackensperger et al. (2005)
1524:
626:Orca (assistive technology)
613:
77:rate enhancement strategies
10:
2634:
2425:"Toby Churchill, About Us"
2271:
2267:Computational Linguistics.
2209:
2174:
2069:. In Wilson, Allan (ed.).
1952:
1858:Hanlon, M. (4 June 2004).
1851:Rehabilitation Engineering
1818:
1716:
1631:
1571:
1549:
1449:
1363:
1329:
1296:
655:
578:global positioning systems
242:
182:Carnegie-Mellon University
120:
2603:Computational linguistics
2575:Speech generating devices
2485:
2423:
2195:10.1080/07434610500140360
2179:
1930:10.1080/07434610701571058
1898:Rehabilitation Technology
1881:"Stephen Hawking and ALS"
1800:"Dynavox Company History"
1773:
1764:
1605:
1572:Patel & Radhakrishnan
1318:
1228:Higginbotham et al (2007)
1134:Dynavox (Company History)
1123:Toby Churchill (About Us)
1122:
537:Initial content selection
429:
33:Speech-generating devices
2379:
2230:
2040:
1595:Blackstone et al. (2002)
1513:
1352:
598:personal data management
290:rate enhancement program
112:ALS Ice Bucket Challenge
16:Augmenting speech device
2241:10.1145/1943403.1943477
1583:Beukelman & Mirenda
1495:10.18061/dsq.v31i4.1724
1461:Beukelman & Mirenda
1429:Beukelman & Mirenda
1417:Beukelman & Mirenda
1269:Beukelman & Mirenda
1242:Beukelman & Mirenda
1211:Beukelman & Mirenda
1174:Stephen Hawking and ALS
1078:Original Life Magazines
777:Jans & Clark (1998)
731:Musselwhite & Louis
716:Beukelman & Mirenda
372:Dynamic display devices
1895:Hedman, Glenn (1990).
1476:Wickenden, M. (2011).
1364:Hochstein et al (2003)
1253:Hochstein et al (2004)
1007:Journey Out of Silence
1004:Rush, William (2008).
567:
524:
452:
422:
389:
357:
291:
271:switch access scanning
245:Switch access scanning
151:Prentke Romich Company
130:
29:
2500:10.1145/354401.354427
1666:10.1145/638249.638288
1450:Radomski et al (2007)
1308:Johansen et al (2003)
1196:Glennen & Decoste
689:Glennen & Decoste
667:Blischak et al (2003)
565:
522:
450:
420:
387:
355:
348:Fixed display devices
285:
256:switch access scanner
128:
24:
2613:Occupational therapy
2577:at Wikimedia Commons
2328:. Psychology Press.
1725:Assistive Technology
1525:Ashraf et al. (2002)
407:Linköping University
405:and e-mail. Work by
397:channels, including
366:communication boards
286:A screenshot of the
278:Message construction
210:eye-tracking systems
206:communication boards
169:(AAC) technologies.
61:digitized recordings
2431:on 10 December 2011
2307:Scientific American
2090:on 21 February 2007
1632:Aetna Inc. (2010).
1049:"Minspeak™ History"
875:www.mark.dahmke.com
312:Semantic compaction
227:, and an emergency
2456:(6 Suppl): 39–53.
1788:"Dynavox Series 5"
1550:Black et al (2010)
1330:Roark et al (2010)
1286:Venkatagiri (1995)
1103:empichon72.free.fr
792:Vanderheide (2002)
568:
525:
469:Synthesized speech
453:
436:synthesized speech
423:
390:
358:
292:
202:European Community
192:Rapid progress in
131:
49:speech impairments
30:
2573:Media related to
2468:on 1 October 2011
2335:978-0-8058-2190-1
2223:978-0-7817-6312-7
2167:978-0-89079-388-6
2146:978-0-521-64298-9
2125:978-1-55766-473-0
2080:978-1-898042-15-0
1908:978-1-56024-033-4
1827:on 19 August 2011
1794:on 25 April 2012.
1709:978-1-55766-684-0
1319:Ward et al (2000)
1017:978-1-4357-1497-7
877:. 14 January 2024
656:Aetna Inc. (2010)
512:on memory space.
500:are available on
413:Talking Keyboards
333:arithmetic coding
43:, are electronic
39:), also known as
2625:
2593:Speech synthesis
2572:
2557:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2521:
2488:Blackwell, A. F.
2482:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2464:. Archived from
2440:
2438:
2436:
2427:. Archived from
2420:
2418:
2416:
2405:
2376:
2339:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2297:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2227:
2206:
2176:
2171:
2150:
2129:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2089:
2083:. Archived from
2068:
2058:
2056:
2054:
2045:. Archived from
2037:
2008:
1979:
1949:
1912:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1854:
1845:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1806:on 5 August 2016
1802:. Archived from
1795:
1790:. Archived from
1782:
1776:
1770:
1761:
1756:
1719:
1713:
1701:
1687:
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1561:Dominowska et al
1558:
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1536:Luo et al (2007)
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1059:
1053:Minspeak Academy
1045:
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1038:
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686:
669:
664:
658:
653:
584:Ethical concerns
479:speech synthesis
443:Digitized speech
163:speech synthesis
143:Delft University
110:(founder of the
65:speech synthesis
2633:
2632:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2583:
2582:
2565:
2560:
2530:
2528:
2510:
2494:. p. 129.
2471:
2469:
2434:
2432:
2414:
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2408:
2336:
2312:
2310:
2294:
2251:
2235:. p. 407.
2224:
2168:
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2093:
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2081:
2066:
2052:
2050:
2041:Infinitec.org.
1909:
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1676:
1660:. p. 213.
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1150:Hourcade (2004)
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852:
851:on 15 July 2015
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350:
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321:Word prediction
315:how are you?".
280:
247:
241:
214:word-processing
123:
96:Stephen Hawking
26:Stephen Hawking
17:
12:
11:
5:
2631:
2621:
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2564:
2563:External links
2561:
2559:
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2421:
2406:
2388:(3): 164–179.
2377:
2351:(4): 255–266.
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2100:
2079:
2059:
2049:on 16 May 2011
2038:
2020:(4): 235–244.
2009:
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1164:, pp. 151–153.
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1099:"byte en 1981"
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403:text messaging
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279:
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239:Access methods
237:
186:cerebral palsy
174:Toby Churchill
159:cerebral palsy
122:
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104:Tony Proudfoot
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1810:26 December
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833:PRC History
718:, Chapter 2
573:Lifelogging
486:smartphones
378:touchscreen
229:tracheotomy
108:Pete Frates
100:Roger Ebert
92:smartphones
2587:Categories
2509:1581132123
2472:21 October
2189:(3): 165.
2160:. Pro-Ed.
1831:17 October
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1419:p. 105-106
1162:Robitaille
633:References
605:Challenges
399:cell phone
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2313:10 August
2203:143533447
1886:10 August
1865:10 August
1853:, 446–447
1819:Lund, J.
1431:, p. 105.
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691:pp. 88–90
554:content.
304:display.
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1271:p. 84-85
1198:pp 62–63
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475:phonetic
267:joystick
252:joystick
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194:hardware
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458:prosody
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139:scanned
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