1114:
826:(420,000 sq mi) of Canadian peat bog are used for peat moss mining. Some efforts are being made to restore peat bogs after peat mining, and some debate exists as to whether the peat bogs can be restored to their premining condition and how long the process takes. "The North American Wetlands Conservation Council estimates that harvested peatlands can be restored to 'ecologically balanced systems' within five to 20 years after peat harvesting." Some wetlands scientists assert that "a managed bog bears little resemblance to a natural one. Like tree farms, these peatlands tend toward monoculture, lacking the biodiversity of an unharvested bog."
1006:, for example, once had large areas of peatland, both fen and bog. Between 100 AD and the present, they were drained and converted to agricultural land. The English broadlands have small lakes that originated as peat mines. More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed. A handful of bogs has been preserved through government buyouts of peat-mining interests. Over longer time scales, however, some parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have seen expansion of bogs, particularly blanket bogs, in response to deforestation and abandonment of agricultural land.
710:
60:
1039:
568:
40:
323:
804:
1030:; it ensures the regeneration of the moss, while protecting the wildlife and the environment. Most harvesting in New Zealand swamps is done only using pitchforks without the use of heavy machinery. During transportation, helicopters are commonly employed to transfer the newly harvested moss from the swamp to the nearest road.
508:
is forced off, followed by a cloud of spores. The exact mechanism has traditionally attributed to a "pop gun" method using air compressed in the capsule, reaching a maximum velocity of 3.6 meters (12 feet) per second, but alternative mechanisms have been recently proposed. High-speed photography has
1025:
to ensure enough moss is remaining to allow regrowth. An 8-year cycle is suggested, but some sites require a longer cycle of 11 to 32 years for full recovery of biomass, depending on factors including whether reseeding is done, the light intensity, and the water table. This "farming" is based on a
1062:
soil, or plants that need increased or steady moisture content to flourish. A distinction is sometimes made between sphagnum moss, the live moss growing on top of a peat bog, and 'sphagnum peat moss' (North
American usage) or 'sphagnum peat' (British usage), the latter being the slowly decaying
825:
According to an article written in 2013, the U.S. got up to 80% of sphagnum peat moss it uses from Canada. At that time, in Canada, the peat bog mass harvested each year was roughly 1/60th of the peat mass that annually accumulated. About 0.02% of the 1.1 million km
441:, which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce a few rhizoids. Soon afterwards, the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and hyaline cells.
213:
can store water, since both living and dead plants can hold large quantities of water inside their cells; plants may hold 16 to 26 times as much water as their dry weight, depending on the species. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions.
555:
Peat moss can be distinguished from other moss species by its unique branch clusters. The plant and stem color, the shape of the branch and stem leaves, and the shape of the green cells are all characteristics used to identify peat moss to species.
1077:
Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments. They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are
2154:
Arroyo, M.T.K., P. Mihoc, P. Pliscoff and M. Arroyo-Kalin. (2005). The
Magellanic moorland. P. 424-445 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
822:, including the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River Valley. These areas provide habitat for common and rare species. They also store large amounts of carbon, which helps reduce global warming.
427:
is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of a shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses,
513:
are created during the discharge, which enable the spores to reach a height of 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in), further than would be expected by ballistics alone. The acceleration of the spores is about
318:
has compact clusters of young branches that give the plant its characteristic tuft-like appearance. Along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves; the shape varies according to
432:
stalks are produced by the maternal gametophyte. Tetrahedral haploid spores are produced in the sporophyte by meiosis, which are then dispersed when the capsule explosively discharges its cap, called an
2925:, explains reproductive biology, research history and phylogenesis of peat mosses. The systematic part: Description and identification of the sections, keys for all peat moss species by continent, and
2607:
Sphagnum research programme: the ecological effects of commercial harvesting
Department of Conservation R. P. Buxton, P. N. Johnson and P. R. Espie. Wellington, N.Z. Department of Conservation, 1996
837:
fiber. Semi-open cell polyurethane materials available in flaked and sheet stock are also finding application as sphagnum replacements with typical usage in green wall and roof garden substrates.
2436:
2410:
916:
643:
plants vary in color from green to yellow and orange (but never red), and are found in hollows, lawns, or are aquatic. Species always with unisexual gametophytes. Examples:
1102:. Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food. Up to 2000-year-old containers of
833:
has also been touted as a sustainable alternative to peat moss in growing media. Another peat moss alternative is manufactured in
California from sustainably harvested
387:, the haploid gametophyte generation is dominant and persistent. Unlike other mosses, the long-lived gametophytes do not rely upon rhizoids to assist in water uptake.
2852:
2929:
species lists for 20 phytogeographic regions of the world. Keys for Africa, Europe and North
America are based on existing data and were revised and supplemented.
2964:
919:. Some environmental organisations expressed regret as the original law project presented in 2018 sought the extablish a definitive ban on the harvest. Along
364:
or retort cells that are barrel shaped and have a pore at one end to allow for water absorption and improved water-holding capacity. These unique cells help
623:
plants have the largest gametophytes among the sections, forming large hummocks, their leaves form cuculate (hood-shaped) apices, and are green, except for
1843:"The ecological impact of oceanic island colonization - a palaeoecological perspective from the Azores: Palaeoecology of human colonization of the Azores"
2336:
2217:
1654:
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2301:
Molinet, Carlos; Solari, María
Eugenia; Díaz, Manuel; Marticorena, Francisca; Díaz, Patricio A.; Navarro, Magdalena; Niklitschek, Edwin (2018).
564:
species can be identified to one of four major sections of the genus—classification and descriptions follow Andrus 2007 (Flora North
America):
3142:
2914:
1841:
Connor, Simon E.; van
Leeuwen, Jacqueline F.N.; Rittenour, Tammy M.; van der Knaap, Willem O.; Ammann, Brigitta; Björck, Svante (June 2012).
1254:
1021:. The latest estimates for wetland loss in New Zealand are 90% over 150 years. In some cases, better care is taken during the harvesting of
2455:"Efectos de la extracción de turba sobre la composición y estructura de una turbera de Sphagnum explotada y abandonada hace 20 años, Chile"
560:
taxonomy has been very contentious since the early 1900s; most species require microscopic dissection to be identified. In the field, most
2590:
Peters, M. and
Clarkson, B. 2010. Wetland Restoration: A Handbook for New Zealand Freshwater Systems. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, N.Z.
2489:
Durán, Vanessa; Moncada, Eduardo; Natho, Federico (2018). "Megaparques eólicos, destrucción de turberas y conflictividad sociopolítica".
1173:
Since it is absorptive and extremely acidic, it inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi, so it is used for shipping seeds and live plants.
2835:
2457:[Effects of peat extraction on the structure and composition of Sphagnum peatland exploited and abandones for 20 years, Chile].
3191:
2955:
2236:
1180:
in areas that lack the proper conditions for ordinary disposal means. It is also used as an environmentally friendly alternative to
3077:
2514:
Moss B (1984). "Medieval man-made lakes: progeny and casualties of
English social history, patients of twentieth century ecology".
1027:
3116:
348:
to move water and nutrients around the plant. Thus tissues are thin and usually one cell thick to allow them to diffuse easily.
2303:"Fragmentos de la historia ambiental del sistema de fiordos y canales nor-patagónicos, Sur de Chile: Dos siglos de explotación"
1405:
O'Neill, Alexander; et al. (25 February 2020). "Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland".
2595:
2498:
2437:"Congreso despachó proyecto de protección de turberas que prohíbe extracción de la turba y permite la explotación del pompón"
2063:
2943:
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after harvest was not to be left with a length of less than 5 cm (2.0 in) over the water table. In the regions of
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3121:
2803:
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2932:
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in Chile is regulated by law since 2 August 2018. Between 2018 and 2024, Chilean law allowed for the manual extraction of
863:
has begun to be harvested at a large scale for export to countries like Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States.
829:
PittMoss, a peat moss alternative made from recycled newspaper, has emerged as a sustainable substitute in growing media.
3265:
393:
species can be unisexual (male or female, dioecious) or bisexual (male and female gametes produced from the same plant;
2898:
1898:
2454:
3260:
2878:
2106:
Nakatsubo, Takayuki; Uchida, Masaki; Sasaki, Akiko; Kondo, Miyuki; Yoshitake, Shinpei; Kanda, Hiroshi (1 June 2015).
3147:
911:(49–56°S) 85 years had to pass before the same area can be harvested again. According to a 2024 law harvesting of
883:
using only pitchforks or similar tools as an aid. In a given designated harvesting area (polygon) at least 30% of
525:
and cattle grazing are believed to promote the growth and expansion of Sphagnum moss. Oceanic islands such as the
990:
usually implies the removal of vegetation and the alteration of the soil, changing by the way also of the local
2612:
2271:
478:
that can survive the fungal attack and months later germinate to produce new protonema and leafy gametophytes.
314:
usually consisting of two or three spreading branches and two to four hanging branches. The top of the plant (
3129:
2659:
872:
518:. Spores are extremely important in establishment of new populations in disturbed habitats and on islands.
405:
2108:"Carbon accumulation rate of peatland in the High Arctic, Svalbard: Implications for carbon sequestration"
3025:
2010:"Newly resolved relationships in an early land plant lineage: Bryophyta class Sphagnopsida (peat mosses)"
807:
290:
have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, and any one peatland may have a number of different
3069:
2562:
1527:
1113:
1971:
515:
380:
1897:
Lawson, Ian T.; Church, Mike J.; Edwards, Kevin J.; Cook, Gordon T.; Dugmore, Andrew J. (March 2007).
3157:
2260:
EPA/SBIR Sponsored (Contract No. 68D60035)(C) 1997 Wabash Vallet Products, Inc. Crown Point, Indiana.
697:, phylogenetic distance is relatively short, and molecular dating methods suggest nearly all current
59:
2615:
979:
1185:
1055:
546:
142:
3196:
1280:
1094:. Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of the most noteworthy examples being
675:
reside in one clade; two other species have recently been separated into new families within the
263:. In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, which produces slower
3183:
783:. In the Southern Hemisphere, however, peat landscapes may contain many moss species other than
286:
Under the right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters. Different species of
3064:
2978:
1534:
1058:– uses that are particularly useful in gardening. This is often desired when dealing with very
494:
species disperse spores through the wind. The tops of spore capsules are only about 1 cm (
336:
has a distinctive cellular structure. The stem portion consists of two important sections. The
267:
rather than aerobic microbial action. Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up
3108:
2952:
583:
plants generally form hummocks above the water line, usually colored orange or red. Examples:
3178:
2856:
2832:
1548:
Rydin, Hakan and Jeglum, John K. 2006. Biology of Peatlands. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
1118:
625:
245:
accumulations then provide habitat for a wide array of peatland plants, including sedges and
3170:
1499:
1218:, long strand dried sphagnum moss is traditionally used as a potting medium for cultivating
3255:
2769:
2714:
2523:
2119:
2072:
1910:
1815:
1758:
1414:
1368:
834:
537:
have recorded a significant increase in their Sphagnum populations after human settlement.
2574:
8:
2641:
2548:
2233:
1655:"Exploding a myth: the capsule dehiscence mechanism and the function of pseudostomata in
1133:
1071:
983:
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723:
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458:
264:
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2773:
2718:
2527:
2123:
2076:
1914:
1819:
1762:
1418:
1372:
1310:
Bold, H. C. 1967. Morphology of Plants. second ed. Harper and Row, New York. p. 225-229.
1083:
3217:
3016:
2186:
1936:
1872:
1782:
1727:
1626:
1595:
1557:
Schofield, W. B. 1985. Introduction to Bryology. Macmillan Publ. Co., N.Y. & London
1430:
1337:
850:
505:
434:
154:
54:
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896:
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3165:
2894:
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2591:
2494:
2137:
2088:
2039:
1990:
1858:
1842:
1827:
1786:
1774:
1731:
1719:
1680:
1676:
1631:
1434:
1384:
1380:
1341:
1167:
1142:
924:
908:
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fibers we not allowed to exceed 15 cm (5.9 in) in length and the remaining
603:
plants are usually found in hollows, lawns, or are aquatic, and are green. Examples:
311:
2472:
2337:"Ministerio de Agricultura dicta decreto que regula extracción de musgo de turberas"
2321:
2302:
1940:
1899:"Peat initiation in the Faroe Islands: climate change, pedogenesis or human impact?"
1876:
3222:
2777:
2722:
2531:
2468:
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2178:
2127:
2080:
2029:
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1980:
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1918:
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1422:
1376:
1329:
1051:
1047:
941:
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903:(41–43°S) the same plots could be harvested after 12 years, while further south in
900:
868:
504:") above ground, and where wind is weak. As the spherical spore capsule dries, the
3030:
2369:
2061:) diversification associated with Miocene Northern Hemisphere climatic cooling?".
1046:
Decayed, dried sphagnum moss has the name of peat or peat moss. This is used as a
3270:
2959:
2947:
2937:
2839:
2702:
2240:
1806:
1663:
1159:
947:
585:
345:
3134:
2811:
2726:
2132:
2107:
2084:
935:
peatlands in Chile disturbed by peat extraction have been found to host various
904:
701:
species are descended from a radiation that occurred just 14 million years ago.
2645:
1650:
1426:
1356:
1087:
953:
522:
475:
352:
mosses have two distinct cell types. There are small, green, living cells with
256:
20:
2757:
2535:
1922:
1903:
Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
1050:
which increases the soil's capacity to hold water and nutrients by increasing
867:’s ability to absorb excess water and release it during dry months means that
709:
437:, and shoots the spores some distance. The spores germinate to produce minute
3250:
3239:
2789:
2734:
2141:
1388:
1219:
1189:
1128:
moss has been used for centuries as a dressing for wounds, including through
668:
526:
128:
1800:
Sundberg, S (2005). "Larger capsules enhance short-range spore dispersal in
1770:
1715:
1176:
Peat moss is used to dispose of the clarified liquid output (effluent) from
791:
species are also reported from "dripping rocks" in mountainous, subtropical
3209:
3001:
2742:
2092:
2043:
1994:
1985:
1962:
1778:
1723:
1684:
1635:
1154:
such as Sphagnol soap have been used for various skin conditions including
987:
920:
685:
91:
2627:
Hood, Gerry (January 1995). "Don't Confuse Sphagnum Moss with Peat Moss".
530:
3090:
3010:
1617:
1177:
1129:
1095:
1079:
1038:
1014:
1003:
776:
510:
420:
353:
230:
111:
2256:
2234:"Ask Natural Life: Does Peat Moss Have a Place In the Ecological Garden"
2025:
2009:
1238:
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1867:
1840:
1163:
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424:
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221:
moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger
101:
2491:
Archipiélago de Chiloé: nuevas lecturas de un territorio en movimiento
2453:
Domínguez, Erwin; Bahamonde, Nelson; Muñoz-Escobar, Christian (2012).
2034:
1931:
1150:
moss use as a medical dressing in place of cotton. Preparations using
360:
cells) that produce food for the plant. Additionally there are larger
3095:
3051:
3038:
2675:
991:
975:
764:
656:
467:
438:
276:
260:
246:
237:
can influence the composition of such habitats, with some describing
39:
2972:
2182:
1580:
1485:
1472:
relative to environmental factors in northern Minnesota peatlands".
241:
as 'habitat manipulators' or 'autogenic ecosystem engineers'. These
3204:
2995:
1744:
1333:
1181:
927:
there are some historically important harvesting fields of peat in
780:
745:
680:
453:
280:
3043:
344:
which serves to absorb water and protect the pith. Mosses have no
2616:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/sfc025.pdf
1596:"Size matters for violent discharge height and settling speed of
1458:(2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 397 pp.
1200:
1196:
1099:
1042:
Long strand Sphagnum moss used in mounting a Vanda Falcata orchid
967:
mosses or any where else is forbidden in Chile since April 2024.
361:
322:
272:
186:
2933:
Website about sphagnum farming in Germany, in English and German
1648:
1170:
during both World Wars to treat facial wounds and trench sores.
1002:
Europe has a long history of the exploitation of peatlands. The
775:
44,000 square km; 17,000 sq. mi.). Peat areas are also found in
744:
areas. Their northernmost populations lie in the archipelago of
462:, produces conspicuous dead patches. When this fungus and other
255:
and the peat formed from it do not decay readily because of the
2452:
1103:
1067:
818:
Several of the world's largest wetlands are sphagnum-dominated
792:
749:
741:
534:
463:
449:
408:, producing much of the living material in sphagnum peatlands.
268:
803:
2380:(in Spanish). Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional. 2 August 2017
1567:
Redhead, S.A. (1981). "Parasitism of bryophytes by agarics".
1215:
1211:
1207:
860:
760:
412:
182:
71:
2300:
2272:
Coir is sustainable alternative to peat moss in the garden.
1267:
species lists for 20 phytogeographic regions of the world)"
1155:
1107:
1059:
1018:
830:
819:
727:
487:
337:
242:
222:
206:
190:
81:
2288:
Soilless Culture: Theory and Practice: Theory and Practice
2105:
1468:
Vitt D. H., Slack N. G. (1984). "Niche diversification of
340:
which is the site of food production and storage, and the
2642:
Bogosphere: The Strangest Things Pulled Out of Peat Bogs.
1263:
bible: keys for all peat moss species by continents, and
1026:
sustainable management program approved by New Zealand's
226:
1698:
Johan L. van Leeuwen (23 July 2010). "Launched at 36,000
1017:
has, like other parts of the world, lost large areas of
974:
grows have also come under threat by the development of
915:
can only be done with land-management plans approved by
2853:
Time to fire the pool boy? Moss helps pools stay clean.
1896:
1467:
986:
was constructed in the 2010s. The construction of each
2403:"Ley 21660 Sobre protección ambiental de las turberas"
2205:
The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation
404:
Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by
2257:
Cellulose Based Soil Medium as a Peat Moss Substitute
1745:
Dwight L. Whitaker and Joan Edwards (23 July 2010). "
1600:
spores: important attributes for dispersal potential"
1400:
1398:
1192:
and reduces the need for chlorine in swimming pools.
1697:
2434:
2207:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. p. 488
249:shrubs, as well as orchids and carnivorous plants.
2804:"'Sphagnol soap' cake, London, England, 1945-1960"
1593:
1395:
1320:Gorham E. (1957). "The development of peatlands".
1199:, peat mosses have been used to make bread during
2833:Moss Proving An Alternative To Chlorine In Pools.
2516:Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa
2488:
3237:
1967:) evolution: who says bryophytes have no roots?"
1117:Sphagnum moss wound dressings being made at the
1653:; P’ng, Ken M. Y.; Renzaglia, Karen S. (2009).
1146:in 1918, was instrumental in the acceptance of
887:coverage had to be left unharvested. Harvested
205:(although that term is also sometimes used for
2370:"Dispone Medidas Para La Protección Del Musgo
1522:
1520:
689:and long phylogenetic distance to the rest of
679:reflecting an ancestral relationship with the
368:to retain water during prolonged UV exposure.
2891:Art of tradition and evolution: Fukiran, 2014
2435:Maldonado Caballero, Claudia (6 March 2024).
1566:
671:. All but two species normally identified as
2484:
2482:
2203:Fraser, L. H. and P. A. Keddy (eds.). 2005.
1960:
1456:Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation
659:of these sections and two other minor ones (
2953:Guide to wetland restoration in New Zealand
2430:
2428:
2397:
2395:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2358:
1799:
1517:
1404:
1354:
310:, with tightly arranged clusters of branch
2919:Species of the World. 435 p. Schweizerbart
2275:Oregon State University Extension Service.
2057:Shaw A.J.; et al. (2010). "Peatmoss (
1749:Moss Disperses Spores with Vortex Rings".
38:
2479:
2448:
2446:
2320:
2131:
2056:
2033:
2007:
1984:
1961:Shaw, A.J.; Cox, C.; Boles, S.B. (2003).
1930:
1866:
1625:
1319:
759:, the largest peat areas are in southern
740:in peat bogs, conifer forests, and moist
2425:
2392:
2355:
1112:
1066:Dried sphagnum moss is used in northern
1037:
802:
708:
566:
474:is induced to produce nonphotosynthetic
321:
2755:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
3238:
2700:
2513:
2443:
2164:
1306:
1304:
1302:
2977:
2976:
2064:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1357:"How Sphagnum bogs down other plants"
871:may threaten the water supply in the
667:) has been clarified using molecular
379:, like all other land plants, has an
3158:c175fc89-69e6-4430-b604-63942736c64d
2921:Describes anatomy and morphology of
2575:Bogs to be preserved for peat's sake
2493:(in Spanish). CESCH. pp. 7–17.
2460:Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia
1441:
2165:Crum H (1991). "Two new species of
1804:, but what happens further away?".
1299:
419:that remain attached to the female
13:
2549:Insight into threatened peat bogs.
1269:. Schweizerbart. 21 November 2019.
1188:. The moss inhibits the growth of
481:
14:
3287:
2908:
2869:Engman, Max; D. G. Kirby (1989).
2756:Thieret, John W. (January 1956).
2703:"Sphagnum as a Surgical Dressing"
2285:
1407:Wetlands Ecology & Management
1361:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2701:Hotson, J. W. (30 August 1918).
2411:Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional
1859:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02671.x
1828:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.12916.x
1677:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02905.x
1500:"Morphology of the Sphagnopsida"
978:in cool humid areas such as the
814:bog near Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
452:, and one fungus that is also a
58:
19:For a genus of crustaceans, see
2884:
2863:
2845:
2826:
2796:
2758:"Bryophytes as economic plants"
2749:
2694:
2668:
2653:
2634:
2621:
2601:
2584:
2567:
2556:
2542:
2507:
2473:10.4067/S0718-686X2012000200003
2329:
2322:10.4067/S0718-22442018000200107
2294:
2279:
2264:
2250:
2226:
2210:
2197:
2158:
2148:
2099:
2050:
2008:Shaw A.J.; et al. (2010).
2001:
1954:
1890:
1834:
1793:
1738:
1691:
1642:
1587:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1492:
1138:Sphagnum as a surgical dressing
798:
704:
2871:Finland: people, nation, state
2343:(in Spanish). 18 February 2018
1461:
1348:
1313:
1273:
1247:
1232:
1009:
716:with northern pitcher plants (
297:
185:of approximately 380 accepted
1:
2915:Michaelis, Dierk (2019): The
1255:"Dierk Michaelis (2019): The
1225:
970:Harvesting aside, bogs where
2873:. C. Hurst & Co. p. 45.
1381:10.1016/0169-5347(95)90007-1
917:Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero
873:fjords and channels of Chile
415:fertilize eggs contained in
397:); In North America, 80% of
371:
7:
3276:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
2727:10.1126/science.48.1235.203
2618:(Retrieved 10 January 2013)
2133:10.1016/j.polar.2014.12.002
2085:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.020
1594:Sebastian Sundberg (2010).
1322:Quarterly Review of Biology
1166:. The soap was used by the
808:Mer Bleue Conservation Area
736:mosses occur mainly in the
540:
448:may be attacked by various
10:
3292:
3266:Bryophyta of North America
2218:The truth about peat moss.
2014:American Journal of Botany
1972:American Journal of Botany
1474:Canadian Journal of Botany
1427:10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7
1355:van Breemen, Nico (1995).
1028:Department of Conservation
844:
544:
381:alternation of generations
18:
16:Genus of mosses, peat moss
2985:
2680:) – Encyclopedia of Life"
2536:10.1080/00359198409519477
1923:10.1017/S1755691007000035
997:
306:plant consists of a main
160:
153:
140:
135:
55:Scientific classification
53:
46:
37:
30:
3261:Bryophyta of Australasia
2676:"Facts about Peat Moss (
1186:swimming pool sanitation
1056:cation exchange capacity
963:. Harvesting of peat in
939:plant species including
840:
2946:12 October 2020 at the
2629:African Violet Magazine
1963:"Polarity of peatmoss (
1847:Journal of Biogeography
1771:10.1126/science.1190179
1716:10.1126/science.1193047
1033:
693:. Within main clade of
401:species are unisexual.
259:embedded in the moss's
2838:21 August 2008 at the
1986:10.3732/ajb.90.12.1777
1535:Flora of North America
1259:Species of the World (
1122:
1043:
980:Cordillera del Piuchén
815:
730:
572:
521:Human activities like
330:
3179:Paleobiology Database
2842:WCCO. 15 August 2008.
2372:Sphagnum magellanicum
2245:Natural Life Magazine
2216:Trail, Jesse Vernon.
1454:Keddy, P. A. (2010).
1119:University of Toronto
1116:
1041:
810:, a large, protected
806:
712:
570:
545:Further information:
325:
2814:on 13 September 2021
571:Red sphagnum closeup
209:). Accumulations of
193:, commonly known as
2958:8 June 2012 at the
2808:Wellcome Collection
2774:1956EcBot..10...75T
2719:1918Sci....48..203H
2581:. 27 February 2002.
2528:1984TRSSA..45..115M
2239:5 July 2014 at the
2124:2015PolSc...9..267N
2077:2010MolPE..55.1139S
2026:10.3732/ajb.1000055
1915:2007EESTR..98...15L
1820:2005Oikos.108..115S
1763:2010Sci...329..406W
1419:2020WetEM..28..375O
1373:1995TEcoE..10..270V
1134:John William Hotson
1063:matter underneath.
984:San Pedro Wind Farm
960:Hieracium pilosella
847:Magellanic moorland
769:Magellanic moorland
767:, part of the vast
757:Southern Hemisphere
738:Northern Hemisphere
719:Sarracenia purpurea
606:Sphagnum cuspidatum
591:S. warnstorfii
486:As with many other
459:Sphagnurus paluster
2860:. 29 October 2009.
2782:10.1007/BF02985319
2640:Madrigal, Alexis.
2232:Priesnitz, Wendy.
2223:. 25 January 2013.
1618:10.1093/aob/mcp288
1287:. Theplantlist.org
1123:
1044:
851:Urban Wetlands Law
816:
731:
573:
444:Carpets of living
331:
257:phenolic compounds
48:Sphagnum flexuosum
3233:
3232:
3166:Open Tree of Life
2979:Taxon identifiers
2938:On-line guide to
2713:(1235): 203–208.
2596:978-0-478-34707-4
2500:978-956-09219-0-1
2341:Chile Sustentable
1979:(12): 1777–1787.
1526:Andrus, Richard.
1504:ucmp.berkeley.edu
1168:British Red Cross
1110:have been found.
925:Magallanes Region
649:Sphagnum pylaesii
645:Sphagnum lescurii
631:Sphagnum austinii
611:S. flexuosum
174:
173:
168:
131:
3283:
3226:
3225:
3213:
3212:
3200:
3199:
3187:
3186:
3174:
3173:
3161:
3160:
3151:
3150:
3138:
3137:
3135:NHMSYS0000310652
3125:
3124:
3112:
3111:
3099:
3098:
3086:
3085:
3073:
3072:
3060:
3059:
3047:
3046:
3034:
3033:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3006:
3005:
3004:
2974:
2973:
2965:Poster guide to
2902:
2888:
2882:
2867:
2861:
2849:
2843:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2810:. Archived from
2800:
2794:
2793:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2672:
2666:
2665:. 20 March 2004.
2660:Bog Butter Test.
2657:
2651:
2638:
2632:
2625:
2619:
2605:
2599:
2588:
2582:
2573:Jeffery, Simon.
2571:
2565:
2563:The RSPB: Policy
2560:
2554:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2486:
2477:
2476:
2450:
2441:
2440:
2432:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2399:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2366:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2324:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2286:Raviv, Michael.
2283:
2277:
2270:Richards, Davi.
2268:
2262:
2254:
2248:
2230:
2224:
2214:
2208:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2162:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2135:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2071:(3): 1139–1145.
2054:
2048:
2047:
2037:
2020:(9): 1511–1531.
2005:
1999:
1998:
1988:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1934:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1870:
1853:(6): 1007–1023.
1838:
1832:
1831:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1629:
1605:Annals of Botany
1591:
1585:
1584:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1540:
1524:
1515:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1465:
1459:
1452:
1439:
1438:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1317:
1311:
1308:
1297:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1285:on theplantlist"
1277:
1271:
1270:
1251:
1245:
1236:
1084:Haraldskær Woman
1052:capillary forces
1048:soil conditioner
942:Rumex acetosella
875:. Extraction of
869:overexploitation
724:Brown's Lake Bog
503:
502:
498:
279:, and releasing
166:
127:
63:
62:
42:
28:
27:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3221:
3216:
3208:
3203:
3195:
3190:
3182:
3177:
3169:
3164:
3156:
3154:
3146:
3141:
3133:
3128:
3120:
3115:
3107:
3102:
3094:
3089:
3081:
3076:
3068:
3063:
3055:
3050:
3042:
3037:
3029:
3024:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2981:
2960:Wayback Machine
2948:Wayback Machine
2911:
2906:
2905:
2889:
2885:
2868:
2864:
2850:
2846:
2840:Wayback Machine
2831:
2827:
2817:
2815:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2762:Economic Botany
2754:
2750:
2699:
2695:
2685:
2683:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2658:
2654:
2639:
2635:
2626:
2622:
2606:
2602:
2589:
2585:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2557:
2547:
2543:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2487:
2480:
2451:
2444:
2433:
2426:
2416:
2414:
2413:. 10 April 2024
2401:
2400:
2393:
2383:
2381:
2368:
2367:
2356:
2346:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2299:
2295:
2284:
2280:
2269:
2265:
2255:
2251:
2241:Wayback Machine
2231:
2227:
2215:
2211:
2202:
2198:
2183:10.2307/3243970
2163:
2159:
2153:
2149:
2104:
2100:
2055:
2051:
2006:
2002:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1895:
1891:
1881:
1879:
1839:
1835:
1798:
1794:
1743:
1739:
1710:(5990): 395–6.
1696:
1692:
1664:New Phytologist
1651:Pressel, Silvia
1647:
1643:
1592:
1588:
1581:10.1139/b81-011
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1525:
1518:
1508:
1506:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1486:10.1139/b84-192
1466:
1462:
1453:
1442:
1403:
1396:
1353:
1349:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1300:
1290:
1288:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1253:
1252:
1248:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1140:, published in
1036:
1012:
1000:
948:Carex canescens
853:
843:
801:
707:
655:The reciprocal
626:S. magellanicum
586:Sphagnum fuscum
553:
543:
500:
496:
495:
484:
482:Spore dispersal
374:
346:vascular system
300:
265:anaerobic decay
126:
57:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3289:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3227:
3223:wfo-4000036022
3214:
3201:
3188:
3175:
3162:
3152:
3139:
3126:
3113:
3100:
3087:
3074:
3061:
3048:
3035:
3022:
3007:
2991:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2971:
2970:
2962:
2950:
2935:
2930:
2910:
2909:External links
2907:
2904:
2903:
2899:978-4886163103
2883:
2862:
2844:
2825:
2795:
2748:
2693:
2667:
2652:
2650:21 August 2009
2646:Wired Magazine
2633:
2620:
2600:
2583:
2566:
2555:
2541:
2506:
2499:
2478:
2463:(in Spanish).
2442:
2424:
2409:(in Spanish).
2391:
2354:
2328:
2315:(2): 107–128.
2311:(in Spanish).
2293:
2278:
2263:
2249:
2247:. 1 July 2012.
2225:
2209:
2196:
2177:(3): 301–303.
2171:The Bryologist
2169:from Brazil".
2157:
2147:
2118:(2): 267–275.
2098:
2049:
2000:
1953:
1889:
1833:
1814:(1): 115–124.
1792:
1737:
1690:
1671:(4): 1053–63.
1649:Jeff Duckett;
1641:
1612:(2): 291–300.
1586:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1516:
1491:
1480:(7): 1409–30.
1460:
1440:
1413:(2): 375–388.
1394:
1367:(7): 270–275.
1347:
1334:10.1086/401755
1312:
1298:
1272:
1246:
1230:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1088:Clonycavan Man
1070:regions as an
1035:
1032:
1011:
1008:
999:
996:
954:Holcus lanatus
907:(44–48°S) and
855:In the 2010s,
842:
839:
800:
797:
706:
703:
653:
652:
634:
614:
594:
542:
539:
523:slash-and-burn
483:
480:
373:
370:
358:chlorophyllose
342:cortical layer
302:An individual
299:
296:
225:, both raised
172:
171:
170:
169:
158:
157:
151:
150:
138:
137:
133:
132:
119:
115:
114:
109:
105:
104:
99:
95:
94:
89:
85:
84:
79:
75:
74:
69:
65:
64:
51:
50:
44:
43:
35:
34:
21:Sphaeromatidae
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3288:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3008:
3003:
2997:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2918:
2913:
2912:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2880:
2879:0-253-32067-4
2876:
2872:
2866:
2859:
2858:
2854:
2851:Hill, Catey.
2848:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2829:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2681:
2679:
2671:
2664:
2663:New Scientist
2661:
2656:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2630:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2550:
2545:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2522:(2): 115–28.
2521:
2517:
2510:
2502:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2483:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2449:
2447:
2439:(in Spanish).
2438:
2431:
2429:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2379:
2375:
2373:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2304:
2297:
2289:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2258:
2253:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2229:
2222:
2221:The Ecologist
2219:
2213:
2206:
2200:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2151:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2112:Polar Science
2109:
2102:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2053:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1957:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1808:
1803:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1757:(5990): 406.
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1652:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1554:
1545:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1523:
1521:
1505:
1501:
1495:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1399:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1328:(2): 145–66.
1327:
1323:
1316:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1286:
1284:
1276:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1221:
1220:Vanda falcata
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1120:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1040:
1031:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1007:
1005:
995:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
968:
966:
962:
961:
956:
955:
950:
949:
944:
943:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
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2818:13 September
2816:. Retrieved
2812:the original
2807:
2798:
2768:(1): 75–91.
2765:
2761:
2751:
2710:
2706:
2696:
2686:11 September
2684:. Retrieved
2677:
2670:
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2579:The Guardian
2578:
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2515:
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2490:
2467:(2): 37–45.
2464:
2458:
2417:11 September
2415:. Retrieved
2406:
2382:. Retrieved
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2345:. Retrieved
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2013:
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1976:
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1956:
1944:. Retrieved
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1880:. Retrieved
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1575:(1): 63–67.
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1507:. Retrieved
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1291:17 September
1289:. Retrieved
1282:
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1178:septic tanks
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824:
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811:
799:Conservation
788:
784:
772:
754:
752:, at 81° N.
733:
732:
717:
713:
705:Distribution
698:
694:
690:
686:Ambuchanania
684:
672:
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511:vortex rings
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291:
287:
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252:
251:
238:
234:
231:blanket bogs
218:
216:
210:
203:quacker moss
202:
198:
194:
177:
176:
175:
163:
144:
141:
122:
121:
92:Sphagnopsida
47:
31:
25:
3256:Moss genera
3091:iNaturalist
3011:Wikispecies
2378:leychile.cl
2290:. Elsevier.
1868:11343/55221
1569:Can. J. Bot
1132:. Botanist
1130:World War I
1096:Egtved Girl
1080:Tollund Man
1015:New Zealand
1010:New Zealand
1004:Netherlands
931:peatlands.
899:(40°S) and
777:New Zealand
466:attack the
421:gametophyte
354:chlorophyll
298:Description
112:Sphagnaceae
3240:Categories
2857:Daily News
2613:0478017871
2308:Magallania
2035:10161/4194
1946:13 January
1932:10023/5982
1882:13 January
1239:Tropicos,
1226:References
1136:'s paper,
1092:Lindow Man
1074:material.
1072:insulating
982:where the
976:wind farms
909:Magallanes
845:See also:
677:Sphagnales
641:Subsecunda
581:Acutifolia
439:protonemae
425:sporophyte
417:archegonia
395:monoecious
385:bryophytes
316:capitulum)
271:, such as
261:cell walls
247:ericaceous
102:Sphagnales
78:Division:
3052:FloraBase
2790:0013-0001
2735:0036-8075
2682:. Eol.org
2552:BBC News.
2142:1873-9652
1787:206526774
1732:206527957
1435:211081106
1389:0169-5347
1342:129085635
1241:Isocladus
1222:orchids.
992:hydrology
901:Los Lagos
765:Argentina
748:, Arctic
681:Tasmanian
665:Squarrosa
657:monophyly
629:Example:
601:Cuspidata
531:Galápagos
506:operculum
468:protonema
435:operculum
411:Swimming
372:Lifecycle
312:fascicles
294:species.
277:magnesium
164:Isocladus
82:Bryophyta
68:Kingdom:
3246:Sphagnum
3210:35001213
3205:Tropicos
3017:Sphagnum
2996:Wikidata
2987:Sphagnum
2967:Sphagnum
2956:Archived
2944:Archived
2940:Sphagnum
2927:Sphagnum
2923:Sphagnum
2917:Sphagnum
2836:Archived
2743:17779474
2678:Sphagnum
2598:(online)
2237:Archived
2167:Sphagnum
2093:20102745
2059:Sphagnum
2044:21616905
1995:21653354
1965:Sphagnum
1941:51730103
1877:86191735
1802:Sphagnum
1779:20651145
1747:Sphagnum
1724:20651138
1685:19552695
1657:Sphagnum
1636:20123930
1598:Sphagnum
1529:Sphagnum
1470:Sphagnum
1283:Sphagnum
1265:Sphagnum
1261:Sphagnum
1257:Sphagnum
1190:microbes
1182:chlorine
1160:ringworm
1152:Sphagnum
1148:Sphagnum
1126:Sphagnum
1023:Sphagnum
1019:peatland
972:Sphagnum
965:Sphagnum
937:invasive
933:Sphagnum
929:Sphagnum
913:Sphagnum
897:Los Ríos
893:Sphagnum
889:Sphagnum
885:Sphagnum
881:Sphagnum
877:Sphagnum
865:Sphagnum
859:peat in
857:Sphagnum
812:Sphagnum
789:Sphagnum
785:Sphagnum
781:Tasmania
746:Svalbard
734:Sphagnum
714:Sphagnum
699:Sphagnum
695:Sphagnum
691:Sphagnum
683:endemic
673:Sphagnum
637:Sphagnum
621:Sphagnum
617:Sphagnum
597:Sphagnum
577:Sphagnum
562:Sphagnum
558:Sphagnum
549:Sphagnum
547:List of
541:Taxonomy
492:Sphagnum
472:Sphagnum
454:mushroom
446:Sphagnum
430:Sphagnum
399:Sphagnum
391:Sphagnum
377:Sphagnum
366:Sphagnum
350:Sphagnum
334:Sphagnum
327:Sphagnum
319:species.
304:Sphagnum
292:Sphagnum
288:Sphagnum
281:hydrogen
253:Sphagnum
239:Sphagnum
235:Sphagnum
233:. Thus,
219:Sphagnum
211:Sphagnum
199:bog moss
178:Sphagnum
155:Synonyms
145:Sphagnum
143:List of
136:Species
123:Sphagnum
108:Family:
32:Sphagnum
3109:1296306
3083:2668958
2770:Bibcode
2715:Bibcode
2707:Science
2631:, p. 34
2524:Bibcode
2384:17 July
2347:14 July
2191:3243970
2120:Bibcode
2073:Bibcode
1911:Bibcode
1816:Bibcode
1759:Bibcode
1751:Science
1704:Science
1627:2814761
1509:6 April
1415:Bibcode
1369:Bibcode
1201:famines
1197:Finland
1143:Science
1121:c. 1914
1100:Denmark
835:redwood
755:In the
551:species
533:or the
499:⁄
464:agarics
362:hyaline
273:calcium
269:cations
197:, also
187:species
147:species
118:Genus:
98:Order:
88:Class:
72:Plantae
3271:Pakihi
3197:SPHAG2
3192:PLANTS
3184:321353
3171:738989
3155:NZOR:
3070:130947
3031:120805
3002:Q30019
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2611:
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2407:bcn.cl
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1634:
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1340:
1243:Lindb.
1164:eczema
1162:, and
1104:butter
1068:Arctic
998:Europe
793:Brazil
750:Norway
742:tundra
661:Rigida
639:sect.
619:sect.
599:sect.
579:sect.
535:Azores
529:, the
514:36,000
509:shown
488:mosses
476:gemmae
423:. The
283:ions.
191:mosses
167:Lindb.
3148:13804
3122:15683
3104:IRMNG
3096:54704
3057:22600
3044:1SHGG
2187:JSTOR
1937:S2CID
1873:S2CID
1807:Oikos
1783:S2CID
1728:S2CID
1431:S2CID
1338:S2CID
1216:Korea
1212:Japan
1208:China
1060:sandy
905:Aysén
861:Chile
841:Chile
773:circa
761:Chile
722:) at
450:fungi
413:sperm
329:cells
223:mires
183:genus
181:is a
3251:Bogs
3143:NCBI
3117:ITIS
3078:GBIF
3039:EPPO
3026:APNI
2895:ISBN
2875:ISBN
2820:2021
2786:ISSN
2739:PMID
2731:ISSN
2688:2013
2609:ISBN
2592:ISBN
2495:ISBN
2419:2024
2386:2019
2349:2019
2138:ISSN
2089:PMID
2040:PMID
1991:PMID
1948:2022
1884:2022
1775:PMID
1720:PMID
1681:PMID
1632:PMID
1539:2007
1511:2023
1385:ISSN
1293:2016
1214:and
1156:acne
1108:lard
1090:and
1054:and
1034:Uses
957:and
849:and
831:Coir
820:bogs
779:and
763:and
728:Ohio
663:and
647:and
609:and
589:and
338:pith
308:stem
275:and
243:peat
229:and
227:bogs
207:peat
201:and
3218:WFO
3130:NBN
3065:FNA
2778:doi
2723:doi
2532:doi
2469:doi
2317:doi
2179:doi
2155:UK.
2128:doi
2081:doi
2030:hdl
2022:doi
1981:doi
1927:hdl
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1855:doi
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1767:doi
1755:329
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1673:doi
1669:183
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