1193:, political, military, and ideological power is concentrated to be conducive to policy continuation. The bureaucracies implemented are well-trained, well-paid and highly competitive in recruitment and promotion. Economically successful states in East Asia have taken on programs to create infrastructure, subsidize the farming sector, provide credit, support spending on targeted research, and invest in health and education. However, most governments are non-developmental and unstable. Furthermore, even when countries have tried to pursue authoritarian strategies that have worked, specifically Brazil, a divided military, regional oligarchs in power, and vast disparities in inequality delegitimized the regime. A democratic regime engages citizens more actively than a top-down government. It respects the right of citizens to contest policies. Successful democracies developed political capacities by nurturing active citizenship, maintaining electoral competitiveness that gave value to the votes of the poor, fostering political parties that were strongly oriented towards equality and having strong party-social movement ties.
920:
autonomous recovery exists as a process that offers "lasting peace, a systematic reduction in violence, and post-war political and economic development in the absence of international intervention." The argument suggests that external interference detracts from the state-building by-products produced from war or military victories, given that military intervention makes rebel victories less likely and that peace-building discourages violence. External support undermines the creation of a self-sustaining relationship between rulers or political leaders and their constituents. Foreign aid promotes governments that maintain the same leaders in power and discourages developing a revenue extraction plan that would bind local politicians and local populations. War or military victories create conditions for self-sustaining and representative institutional arrangements through the domestic legitimacy and capacity of state revenue extraction that are by-products of war.
916:(1992-1995), East Timor, and Sierra Leone. Such interventions are alternatively described as "neotrusteeship" or "neoimperialism". Under this framework, strong states take over part of all of the governance of territories with underdeveloped existing governing structures, often with the backing of international legal authority. Unlike the classic imperialism of the 19th and early 20th centuries, this type of intervention is aimed at (re)building local state structures and turning over governance to them as quickly as possible. Such efforts vary in the scope of their objectives, however, with some believing that sweeping change can be accomplished through the sufficient and intelligent application of personnel, money, and time, while others believe that any such plans will founder on the inherent unpredictability of interventions and that lengthy, sustained interventions often prevent local leaders from taking responsibility and strengthen insurgent forces.
968:
power and authority with certain factions within the military, allowing them to carve up state resources to the detriment of state-building exercises. However, in weak states where the government has not sufficient power to control peripheries of the territory, alliances with the elites could strengthen the state's governing power. Yet, these alliances are successful if the agreement is mutually beneficial for the parties e.g. elites' power is threatened by competition and the entitlement of the government would help them to diminish it. In return, the government would acquire information and control over the peripheries' policies. Afghanistan since 2001, is an example of a beneficial pact between government and elites; entitling some select set of warlords as governors yielded a strongman brand of governance in two key provinces.
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protection... whether people want it or not". Furthermore, Lane argued that a monopoly was best equipped to produce and control violence. This, he argued, was due to the fact that competition within a monopoly raised costs, and that producing violence renders larger economies of scale. Although the logic was consistent with the predatory theory of the state in early modern Europe, Herbst's point of view was criticized by several scholars including
Richard Joseph who were concerned that the application of the predatory theory was an excessive approach to Darwinism. Many have disregarded the limited view of this theory and have instead extended it to include strong external threats of any kind. External threats to the state produce stronger institutional capacities to extract resources from the state.
964:– appears to remain. Therefore, while the Accords may be deemed successful because they prevented the outbreak of war, this 'success' was tainted by the implications made by a subsequent report published by the Commission of Historical Clarification in February 1999. Its particular institutions were singled out as responsible for extensive human rights abuses. State institutions were assigned responsibility for 93% of these, and the guerrilla forces for 3%. In unexpectedly strong language, the report described Guatemalan governmental policy at the height of the war as a policy of genocide. The reinforcement of these state institutions as part of the peace-building process taints it by association.
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for the bottom 15 countries to reach the state capability level of the best performer if their capabilities keep growing at the same average rate with which they have grown since their political independence. Other indexes suggest that countries are not catching up: the bureaucratic quality and corruption index from the
International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) has a negative pace of growth for the bottom 30 countries. The authors argue that the capability trap shows that external assistance to increase state capacity has not been successful in accelerating the development process. They identify that this implementation failure may occur through two techniques: i)
819:
elites. In open access orders, entry is open to all. The logic of the open access state is based on impersonality. Both systems are interdependent and are only stable when both have similar access frameworks, either limited or open. Transitioning from a limited access order to an open access order involves difficult, radical changes based on three "doorstep conditions": 1) rule of law for elites, 2) perpetual life for organizations, and 3) political control of the military. Once all three initial conditions are satisfied, more incremental changes can be made to move the state further in the direction of an open access order.
955:. Where it has accomplished a degree of stability such as in Haiti and Liberia, it endures pressure 'to transition from heavy and costly security-oriented peacekeeping operations to lighter, peace-building-oriented missions'. Introducing state-building to mandates is controversial not only because this would entail extra costs and commitments but also because 'the expansion of peacekeeping into these areas has de facto extended the authority of the Security Council, with political, financial, institutional, and bureaucratic implications that have yet to be fully addressed'.
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environment in order to make wider political and economic development possible. So far, the results of using the state-building approach to peacebuilding have been mixed, and in many places, such as in the
Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq, the initial high expectations set by the international community have not been met. The literature on state-building has always been very clear that building states has historically been a violent process and the outcomes in the above-mentioned cases and many others confirm the destabilizing and often violent nature of state-building.
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governance capabilities for a market-friendly state. These include, in particular, the capabilities to protect stable property rights, enforce the rule of law, effectively implement anti-corruption policies and achieve government accountability." This good governance paradigm is a market-enhancing process that emerged in the 1990s. This approach involves enforcing the rule of law, creating stronger property rights, and reducing corruption. By focusing on improving these three traits, a country can improve its market efficiency. There is a theoretical cycle of
1262:, a number of scholars have suggested that in focusing on internal rivalries, rather than challenging colonial borders, rulers were "less likely to see their economies as a resource to be nurtured than as an object of periodic plunder—the analogy to Olson's (1993) roving bandits should be clear" (Thies, 2004: 58). In the absence of external threats, rulers thus had no impetus to replicate the patterns described by Tilly — war-making, coercion and resource extraction — that had proven crucial to the process of centralization of power in the states of Europe.
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primary education to teach a common culture, political values and beliefs, and political behaviors. Education can also improve human capital and encourage economic growth; however, the correlation between access to education and the level of skills of the population is weak. While some suggest that education has a destabilizing effect on authoritarian states, and therefore authoritarian states will refrain from providing it, the historical record shows that authoritarian governments frequently expanded education provision rather than reduced it.
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drivers, the political and military machine of the state has no direction to follow, and therefore, without this direction, war and the increased resources extracted from war can not be used for growth. On the other hand, internal wars, i.e. civil wars, have a negative effect on the extraction of a state. Internal rivals to the state decrease the state's capacity to unify and extract from its citizens. Rivals usually will bargain with the state to lower their tax burden, and gain economic or political privileges.
1301:, another dimension of state-building, which includes the management of human capital within the realm of service along with the delivery of public services, remains another major challenge for post-conflict African nations. Academics have built models of the political economy in post-conflict African societies to understand the trade-off between the capability, delivery, and stability of public-service administration, and policies that result in weak civil service rooted in the nations' legacies of conflict.
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property rights, regulatory quality, corruption, and voice and accountability. There was little correlation found between increasing property rights and growth rates per capita GDP. Similarly, there is disagreement among development researchers as to whether it is more beneficial to promote a comprehensive set of reforms or to promote a minimal set of necessary reforms in contexts of poor institutionalization. Proponents of the latter approach have put forward the concept of "good enough governance".
1289:, but after the Tanzanians had removed Amin, they left the country. Although African states do not experience widespread interstate war, Herbst argues they need it to reform the tax structure and to build a national identity. Herbst concludes that war in Africa is likely to occur when African leaders realize that their economic reforms and efforts to build a national identity do not work and in desperation will start wars to build the states that their countries need.
582:
934:
order to institutionalise peace'. Paris' model including the peace-building and state-building is one of the better-known ones. He advocates an
Internationalisation Before Liberalisation (IBL) approach, arguing that peace-building must be geared towards building liberal and effective states, thus 'avoiding the pathologies of liberalization, while placing war-shattered states on a long-term path to democracy and market-oriented economics'.
943:
democracy in order to reduce the tendency toward arbitrary power and give voice to all segments of society; the rule of law in order to reduce human rights violations; a market economy free from corruption in order to discourage individuals from believing that the surest path to fortune is by capturing the state; conflict management tools; and a culture of tolerance and respect'. Such ambitious goals are questionable when the
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these lords and their private armies could become potential threats to the king's power during peacetime. Originally, structures were created to facilitate extraction from the king's subordinates in exchange for protection (from their enemies and from the state), covering the expenses of war campaigns. However, extraction also economically strengthened the states, allowing them to expand their hold over the use of violence.
662:
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ineffective redistribution of resources. Therefore, for these policies to work, there must be coordination efforts to ensure that growth-oriented and redistributive strategies initiated by the central government are implemented regionally. Furthermore, government elites must be in favor of low-income groups and grass root groups should be able to engage with local authorities during policy making.
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counterparts did. This can be explained by the predatory theory. Studies on the extraction of tax revenues have demonstrated that both external and internal rivals affect the ability of a state to develop and extract resources from its citizens. Interstate rivals had a positive effect on the state's capacity to extract resources while intrastate rivals had a negative effect on state building.
1246:'s theory that external threats strengthen the state's capacity to extract taxes from its citizens can apply to developing countries in Africa. The presence of both external state rivals and internal ethnic rivals prompted states to increase their extraction of taxes from citizens while internal political rivals failed to affect the extraction of taxes. The
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population's support for the "national project" (2000: 126). In a later article, Herbst argues that war in Europe led to strong states and that without war
African states will remain weak. In Europe, external threats allowed states to tax, increase taxation, and forge a national identity. Additionally, the states that were invaded and taken over (such as
1150:
policy regimes like New
Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Continental Europe has been more resistant to implementing this type of policy. In developing countries, the implementation of these types of infrastructure has been difficult because the markets for the delivery of services are imperfect and increase the danger of
909:. The conflation of these two concepts has been highly controversial and has been used by opposing ideological and political forces to attempt to justify or reject as an illegal military occupation the invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan. Hence, regime change by outside intervention should be differentiated from state-building.
1280:
or
Ireland) by stronger countries were militarily and politically weak. African states are poor, have weak governments, and are fragmented on ethnic or regional lines. According to theory, these weak African states should be susceptible to external threats, but this is not the case. In Africa, Herbst
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in 1854, Brazil in 1888), socializing property rights over land, and eliminating public monopolies, which fostered long-term stability that facilitated economic growth and established a new political economy for these new nations. The growth and stability seen in Latin
America, however, did come at a
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were considered successful, 'the formal substance of these agreements has not altered power structures that have been in place for decades (if not centuries) in any substantial manner. The underlying (informal) understanding among elites – that their privileges and hold on power are not to be touched
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to the right path'. The second Saudi state was born only six years after the demise of the first, during which time the land formerly ruled by the Saudi-Wahhabi alliance had 'returned to unbridled tribal rivalry and feuding'. The second Saudi
Kingdom ended in 1887 and was characterised by internal
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Pritchett, Woolcock & Andrews (2013) offer a criticism of why state-building fails to work. They claim that many countries are in a capability trap – countries are, at most, converging at a very low pace to the same levels of state capacity. They estimate that on average, it would take 672 years
1020:
is the process of collecting rents in order to provide resources for the governed. Taxing is the most common form of extraction. Tilly argues that state-building was not intended, but once it has begun, extraction capacity was necessary. Furthermore, Herbst argues that war is a catalyst to start or
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emphasises that peace-building and state-building are not the same, it does recognise the nexus between them and the reinforcement of one component has on the other: 'peace-building is primarily associated with post-conflict environments, and state-building is likely to be a central element of it in
836:
In his study on countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
America, Joel Migdal presented the necessary and sufficient conditions for establishing a strong state. He considered "massive societal dislocation" that weakens old social control and institutions as the necessary condition. Such cases include the
809:
In harnessing this increased capacity, Cameron Thies describes the state as a machine that requires a "driver" that is able to use the increased capacity to expand the influence and power of government. The driver can be a state personnel, a dominant class, or a charismatic individual. Without these
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approach first emerged in New Zealand and the United Kingdom in the 1980s. New Public management uses market-like reforms within the public sector to provide the government with the necessary power to implement a development plan for the economy while also using competitive market-based techniques
1079:
Education is used in both democratic and authoritarian contexts to promote state-building. In both democratic and authoritarian contexts, education seeks to promote social order and political stability by teaching citizens to respect the state’s authority from a young age. Governments often turn to
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While it is understood that improving rule of law and reducing corruption are important methods for increasing the stability and legitimacy of a government, it is not certain whether this approach is a good basis for a state-building approach. Researchers have looked at this approach by measuring
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is a very broadly used term for successful ways a government can create public institutions that protect people's rights. There has been a shift in good governance ideals, and as Kahn states, "The dominant 'good governance' paradigm identifies a series of capabilities that, it argues are necessary
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stated that "along with establishing security, the core task of peace-building is to build effective public institutions that, through negotiations with civil society, can establish a consensual framework for governance with the rule of law". Additionally, a 2004 UN study found that a number of UN
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Conversely, state corruption can mean that state-building efforts serve only one ethnic, religious or other minority group, exacerbating tensions that could escalate toward violence. State building can also assist predatory states to strengthen their institutions, reinforcing abusive authority and
971:
Sometimes peace-building efforts bypass the state in an effort to bring peace and development more quickly, for example, it was found that many NGOs in the Democratic Republic of Congo were building schools without involving the state. The state also may be part of the problem and over-reliance on
919:
Neotrusteeship, shared sovereignty and other new models of intervention rest on the assumptions that intervention is the most effective strategy for state-building and that countries cannot recover from the failures of government without external interference. However, Jeremy M. Weinstein proposes
1179:
European states replicated or bequeathed their institutions in the territories they colonized, but many new emerging states have evolved differently. European states consolidated after long years of internal and external struggles that greatly differ in context from the struggles of some recently
1166:
is beneficial because "It seeks to reduce rent-seeking behavior and inefficient resource allocation associated with centralized power by dispersing such power to lower levels of government, where the poor are likely to exercise influence and a variety of actors may participate in the provision of
1006:. Higher state capacity has been strongly linked to long-term economic development, as state capacity can establish law and order, private property rights, and external defense, as well as support development by establishing a competitive market, transportation infrastructure, and mass education.
818:
In their paper, Douglass North, John Wallis, and Barry Weingast offer an alternative framework - limited access orders - for understanding the predatory role of the state. In limited access orders, entry is restricted in both economic and political systems to produce rents that benefit the ruling
793:
For Tilly, these activities are interdependent and rely on the state's ability to monopolize violence. Before the consolidation of European states, kings relied on their lords’ troops to emerge victorious from war, setting the final boundaries of their territories after years of campaigns. Still,
701:
The general argument in the academic literature on state-building is that without security, other tasks of state-building are not possible. Consequently, when state-building as an approach to peacebuilding is employed in conflict and post-conflict societies, the first priority is to create a safe
1308:
politics and that this type of structure may resolve to produce an increased level of political order. A number of scholars have criticized this claim for its "excessively Darwinian", overly deterministic and Euro-centric understanding of the process of state-formation (Thies, 2004: 69, see also
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Efforts to "appease" or 'buy off' certain interest groups in the interest of peace may undermine state-building exercises, as may power-sharing exercises that could favor the establishment of a political settlement over effective state institutions. Such political settlements could also enshrine
1205:
and subsequent decades of decline caused by violence, reduced state capacity, and fiscal fragmentation. This trajectory is markedly successful relative to other post-conflict societies at the time. Latin Americans also enacted a number of liberal public policies swiftly and effectively, such as
1149:
In this type of government, large bureaucracies within a ministry (the principal) no longer maintain their hierarchical structure but rather are composed of operational arms of ministries that perform the role of an individual agent. The strategy has been more prominent in liberal market-driven
958:
Due to the inherently political nature of state building, interventions to build the state can hinder peace, increasing group tensions and sparking off further conflict. The strength of the consensus that has emerged stressing that 'a minimally functioning state is essential to maintain peace',
937:
Despite the advantages of incorporating peace-building and state-building in the same model, applicational limitations should be recognised. In practice, foreign and security policymaking still largely treat them as separate issues. Moreover, academics often approach the subjects from different
1421:
A number of scholars have questioned whether the Palestinian Authority was ever in a position to build a viable state. Edward Said, Neve Gordon and Sara Roy – among others – have argued that the PNA was designed as an "occupation subcontractor", only strengthening the power asymmetries between
942:
peacekeeping missions for there have been instances where peace-builders aspire not only to go a step further and eradicate the causes of violence, which are oftentimes not agreed upon by the parties to the conflict, but also to invest 'post-conflict societies with various qualities, including
1275:
explains that "domestic security threats, of the type African countries face so often, may force the state to increase revenue; however, civil conflicts result in fragmentation and considerable hostility among different segments of the population", undermining the state's ability to rally the
1188:
Governments that have implemented the top-down method present the idea that there is a great external threat that can diminish the capabilities of a state and its citizens. The perceived threat creates an incentive that focuses policy, makes elites cooperate, and facilitates the adoption of a
1170:
Limitations to decentralization are the reduction of the meritocratic basis can limit the state's capacity to serve citizens, limited control of the fiscal funds at the local level can prevent effectiveness and substantial inequalities in fiscal capacity among different regions can create an
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the House of Saud subscribes to a strict adherence of Wahhabi interpretations of Islam, which engenders legitimacy. The state narrative of the Kingdom's history begins in the eighteenth century, a time of chaos akin to the Hobbesian state of nature. The emergence of the first Saudi state
1429:", stuck in a situation where core functions of the state remain in the hands of the Israeli state. They identify structural issues within the Oslo process and disunity and corruption prevalent among the Palestinian elite as key reasons for the failure of Palestinian state-building efforts.
1234:
In the 21st century it became economically and politically difficult for Latin American countries to increase revenues, which led states to turn to debt for the necessary resources to pay for war. As a result, Latin American countries did not establish the same tax basis that their European
717:
up to modern times. Historical science views state-building as a complex phenomenon, influenced by various contributing factors (geopolitical, economic, social, cultural, ethnic, religious) and analyzes those factors and their mutual relations from the perspective of a particular historical
1037:
State capacity is widely cited as an essential element to why some countries are rich and others are not: "It has been established that the richest countries in the world are characterized by long-lasting and centralized political institutions"; "that poverty is particularly widespread and
928:
State-building does not automatically guarantee peace-building, a term denoting actions that identify and support structures that strengthen and solidify peace in order to prevent a relapse into conflict. Whilst they have traditionally been considered two individual concepts with a complex
1390:
found international assistance to have been "sporadic and fragmented". Besides the lack of consistent outside support, the report identified key challenges to Palestinian state-building at the international level, including the lack of horizon on "final status" negotiations, failed peace
900:
Similarly, state-building (nation-building) has at times been conflated with military invasions that aim at regime change. This derives in part from the military invasions by Germany and Japan in World War II and resulting states and became especially prevalent following the October 2001
805:
to propose allowing failed states to dissolve or engage in war to re-create the process endured by European countries. The process of extraction in exchange for protection was further argued by economic historian Frederic Lane. Lane argued that "governments are in the business of selling
892:
conventionally refers to the population itself, as united by identity history, culture and language). The issues debated related to the structures of the state (and its relationship to society) and as a result, state-building is the more broadly accepted term. In political science
1346:. Nonetheless, the PLO and other Palestinian organisations have historically made great efforts to install institutions of a type commonly associated with states in the Palestinian territories - as well as in countries with large numbers of Palestinian residents. Examples include:
1250:
in power try to maintain their position by catering to the majority ethnic group and by increasing taxes to gain the resources to diminish threats from minority ethnic groups. Thus the presence of internal ethnic rivals creates the capacity to significantly increase the
1058:
While many specific techniques exist for creating a successful state-building strategy, three specific approaches have been identified by the recent 2010 UNRISD report. These three approaches would all fall under the endogenous school of thinking, and are:
897:' usually has a quite distinct meaning, defined as the process of encouraging a sense of national identity within a given group of people, a definition that relates more to socialisation than state capacity (see the ODI, OECD, and DFID reports cited above).
2151:
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Hilal, J., and Khan, M.H. State Formation under the PA:Potential Outcomes and their Viability. In M.H. Khan, G. Giacaman and I. Amundsen (eds.), State Formation in Palestine: Viability and Governance during a Social Transformation. Abingdon: Routledge,
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relationship giving rise to dilemmas and necessitating trade-offs, as Grävingholt, Gänzle and Ziaja argue, the two actually representative two diverging perspectives on the same issue: a shaky social peace and a breakdown of political order. Whilst the
887:
Some commentators have used the term "nation-building" interchangeably with "state-building" (e.g. Rand report on America's role in nation-building). However, in both major schools of theory, the state is the focus of thinking rather than the "nation"
1386:, calling for the "establishment of an independent, democratic and viable Palestinian state". Despite this official acknowledgement of the legitimacy of PNA state-building by the international community, a 2011 report prepared by the London-based
1116:
Corruption and rent-seeking from interest groups will lead to weak property rights that prevent citizens and smaller businesses from the assurance that their property is safe under national law. Also, corruption will result in welfare-reducing
827:
According to Didac Queralt, cheap access to credit in the 19th century inhibited state building, as the access to external loans made it unnecessary for rulers to undertake domestic political reforms to enhance internal resource extraction.
938:
angles. Heathershaw and Lambach caution that in practice, interventions that attempt the ambitious goals that Paris (amongst others) sets out may be coercive and driven by a 'the end justifies the means' outlook. This concern is acute in
1293:
disagrees with Herbst in the grade of influence of war on state-building, stating that European colonization and European influences in the continent impacted more deeply the creation of institutions, and therefore, states in Africa.
1334:, a claim that is universally recognized. However, it does not have sole jurisdiction over the areas it claims. In addition, many of those it aims to represent currently reside elsewhere, most notably in Arab countries such as
685:
by the international community. Observers across the political and academic spectra have come to see the state-building approach as the preferred strategy to peacebuilding in a number of high-profile conflicts, including the
3425:
3130:
The story of Saudi state-building is, to an unusual extent, an internal one the impetus behind the Saudi process - a quest for taxes and a unified army - matches that of Europe more than that of post-colonial states
1357:(June 1967), where the installation of parallel structures of power and mechanisms for taxation and education led to largely independent Palestinian enclaves which formed a threat to the power and legitimacy of the
2148:
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intractable in countries that lack a history of centralized government... and are internally fragmented"; "and countries with weak state capacity are particularly vulnerable to civil war and internal conflict".
3446:
Persson, Anders (2012). "Building a state or maintaining the occupation? International support for Fayyad’s state-building project", Journal of Conflict Transformation and Security, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp: 101–119.
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In response to the unsuccessful attempts to strengthen government administrations, developing countries began to adopt market-oriented managerial reforms under the pressure of the IMF and the World Bank. The
2105:
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continues to engage in state-building activities in its territories and has referred to the "State of Palestine" in official documents since 2013. In 2003 the United Nations Security Council passed
1267:
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approaches to complex questions related to the role of various contributing factors (geopolitical, economic, social, cultural, ethnic, religious, internal, external) in state-building processes.
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A second approach conceptualizes state-building as an activity undertaken by external actors (foreign countries) attempting to build, or re-build, the institutions of a weaker, post-conflict or
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by companies. For successful implementation, governments must have the infrastructure to measure reliable performance indicators and the capacity to regulate the behavior of private providers.
1142:
to enhance public sector production. It changed public sector employment practices from career tenure positions towards limited-term contracts for senior staff, locally determined pay, and
1146:. Secondly, the provision of government services shifted towards contracts, franchising, vouchers, and user charges in an effort to promote efficiency in service provision to citizens.
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Out of these four activities, war making was the main stimulus to increasing the level of taxation, thus increasing the capacity of the state to extract resources otherwise known as
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Bastian, S. and Luckham, R. ) In Can Democracy Be Designed? : The Politics of Institutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies (Ed, Luckham, R.) Zed, London Collier, P., 2003.
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Bates, Robert H., John H. Coatsworth, and Jeffrey G. Williamson. 2007. “Lost Decades: Post-independence Performance in Latin America and Africa.” The Journal of Economic History
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http://mercury.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/37978/ipublicationdocument_singledocument/c1f807e7-a86a-4a6d-a248-10c6c1315551/en/2002_03_Guatemala+Five+Years+After+the+Peace.pdf
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The cycle starts with economic stagnation, which can enhance and expose the inefficiencies of a weak government and rule of law that cannot effectively respond to the problem.
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State Building and the Consequences of Constitutional Choices in Conflictual Environments: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Fiji, Lebanon, Northern Ireland, South Africa and Uganda
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of a state to collect taxes, enforce law and order, and provide public goods." Berwick and Christia consolidate the literature on state capacity into 3 different domains:
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State capacity is the ability of a government to accomplish policy goals, either generally or in reference to specific aims. A state that lacks capacity is defined as a
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They use three index to estimate state capability: i) ‘government effectiveness’ from the World Bank World Governance Indicators, ii) resource efficiency, from the
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Thies, Cameron G. (2004-01-01). "State Building, Interstate and Intrastate Rivalry: A Study of Post-Colonial Developing Country Extractive Efforts, 1975-2000".
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is the capacity of the state to provide output for the citizens. This output can include the enforcement of laws and the setting of policies for the citizens.
2336:"Understanding, Defining, and Measuring State Capacity in India: Traditional, Modern, and Everything in Between An Asian Survey Special Issue on India"
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1046:, by which the structures of institutions are imitated (specific rules are followed) but they do not serve purposes functional to the society; and ii)
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Evans, P.; Rauch, J. E. (1999). "Bureaucracy and growth: A cross-national analysis of the effects of "Weberian" state structures on economic growth".
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Thies, C. G. (2004). "State building, interstate and intrastate rivalry: A study of post-colonial developing country extractive efforts, 1975–2000".
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There have been some examples of military interventions by international or multilateral actors with a focus on building state capacity, including
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No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions - Law, State-Building and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630-1769
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Peter B. Evans, D. R.; Skocpol, T., War Making and State Making as Organized Crime Bringing the State Back In. Cambridge University Press: 1985.
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notes, there are rarely conflicts between states, and if there are, war does not threaten the existence of the state. For example, in the 1979
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There are various definitions of state capacity among scholars. Economic historians Noel Johnson and Mark Koyama define state capacity as "the
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ignores the complications that poor legitimacy and inclusion can lead to in the future, undermining the whole process. For instance, while the
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Khan, Mushtaq H. Governance, Growth and Poverty Reduction. Governance, Growth and Poverty Reduction. DESA, June 2009. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. <
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occupier and occupied. Another strand of analysis, associated with Jamil Hilal and Mushtaq Khan (2004), portrays the PNA as a "transitional
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in Europe, the expansion of world economy into Asia, Africa and Latin America in the 19th century, the combination of war and revolution in
3536:
1444:) and monarchical dynastic control, Saudi Arabia formed as a 20th-century state with the support of tax revenues and military development.
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officials felt that the establishment of effective and legitimate state institutions was a key indicator of a successful peace operation.
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Kay, C., Why East Asia overtook Latin America: agrarian reform, industrialisation and development. Third World Q 2002, 23 (6), 1073-1102.
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Herbst, J.: States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. (Second edition) (eBook, Paperback and Hardcover)
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Because a government is unaccountable or weak, small interest groups can use the government for their specific interests, resulting in
610:
1991:
Grävingholt J, Gänzle S & ZiajaS (2009), Policy Brief: Concepts of Peacebuilding and State Building – How Compatible Are They?,
3279:
Engin, Kenan. 2013, Nation-Building' - Theoretische Betrachtung und Fallbeispiel: Irak. (Dissertation), Nomos, Baden-Baden 2013,
2103:
http://www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENT/4997~v~Implications_of_Peacebuilding_and_Statebuilding_in_United_Nations_Mandates.pdf
673:, wearing White Crown of Upper Egypt (recto), and Red Crown of Lower Egypt (verso), thus representing the unification of the land
2127:
1996:
1330:
whose legal statehood is widely recognized (though not by some major global powers), as well as representative status over the
746:
When studying the development of European states, Charles Tilly identified that European countries engaged in four activities:
3069:. Library of Modern Middle East Studies. Vol. 132 (reprint ed.). London: I.B. Tauris (published 2015). p. 80.
2288:
1794:
902:
695:
3006:
3292:: State Building. Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004a,
1201:
Latin America experienced a period of rapid economic growth and political stability in the late-19th century, following
3551:
1952:
1927:
1277:
979:
In practice, however, there remains confusion over the differences between state-building and peace-building. The UN's
2080:
Barnett M & Zuercher C (n.D), The Peacebuilder's Contract: How External State-building Reinforces Weak Statehood,
3472:
3397:
3297:
3284:
3251:
Darden, Keith; Mylonas, Harris (2012). "The Promethean Dilemma: Third-Party State-building in Occupied Territories".
3117:
3074:
3045:
2840:
1982:
Boutros-Ghali, Boutros (1992) "An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping", paragraph 21
1852:
1819:
1323:
478:
3511:: `States in Development: Understanding State-building,' UK Department for International Development, London, 2008
3153:
1102:
which explains how a lack of property rights and strong corruption, among other problems, leads to market failure:
952:
687:
84:
2428:
2013:
2469:
Hameiri, Shahar (2007). "Failed states or a failed paradigm? State capacity and the limits of institutionalism".
1521:
2097:
Sherman J & Tortolani B (2009), Implications of Peacebuilding and Statebuilding in United Nations Mandates,
801:. The increased capacity of the state to extract taxes from its citizens while facing external threats prompted
3541:
2086:
http://www.sfb-governance.de/teilprojekte/projekte_phase_1/projektbereich_c/c1/barnettzuercherstatebuilding.pdf
1387:
1379:
603:
473:
251:
99:
1290:
1202:
1027:
is the ability of lower-level governmental workers to implement the agenda of the higher level of government.
691:
488:
3502:
3230:
2954:
Blum, Jurgen, Fotini Christia, and Daniel Rogger. 2016. “Public Service Reform in Post-Conflict Societies.”
1464:
237:
69:
40:
2008:
OECD (2008), Concepts and Dilemmas of State Building in Fragile Situations: from Fragility to Resilience,
1812:
Strong societies and weak states : state-society relations and state capabilities in the third world
1358:
541:
2143:
Salvesen H (2002), Guatemala: Five Years after the Peace Accords: The Challenges of Implementing Peace,
1845:
Strong societes and weak states : state-society relations and state capabilities in the third world
1510:
882:
74:
45:
3482:, in: The Formation of National States in Western Europe, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975.
1635:
3546:
2572:
Johnson, Noel D.; Koyama, Mark (April 2017). "States and economic growth: Capacity and constraints".
1505:
1479:
1050:, in which the pressure exerted by outsiders undermines the organic evolution of local institutions.
869:
World historical timing when exogenous political forces were in favor of concentrated social control;
596:
201:
2868:
1304:
Several researchers have emphasized that the internal violence seen in Africa was characteristic of
1120:
These weak property rights and welfare-reducing interventions lead to high transaction cost markets.
1454:
1395:, and the weak economic base, in addition to profound challenges at the domestic level, including:
1190:
316:
206:
2538:"State Capacity Redux: Integrating Classical and Experimental Contributions to an Enduring Debate"
3316:
Hehir, A. and Robinson, N. (eds.) "State-building: Theory and Practice", Routledge, London, 2007.
3238:
The Quest for Viable Peace: International Intervention and Strategies for Conflict Transformation
1578:, eds P.B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, & T. Skocpol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
1327:
1282:
1143:
642:
processes of creation, institutional consolidation, stabilization and sustainable development of
246:
3556:
913:
483:
425:
371:
2320:
2124:
Menocal, Alina Rocha (2009) 'State-building for peace’: navigating an arena of contradictions
2928:
Robinson, James A (2002). "States and Power in Africa by Jeffrey I. Herbst: A Review Essay".
1138:
1064:
906:
842:
789:– control of the creation and transformation of goods and services produced by the population
303:
136:
1997:
https://www.die-gdi.de/uploads/media/Peacebuilding_and_Statebuilding__Draft_11-03-09__01.pdf
3497:
1490:
413:
284:
274:
259:
186:
104:
2554:
2537:
713:
A historical approach focuses on state-building processes, from the earliest emergence of
8:
3178:
1485:
1305:
525:
435:
289:
191:
141:
79:
3415:
State in Society. Studying how States and Societies Transform and Constitute one another
1231:
high social cost in the form of social inequality that continued into the 21st century.
3377:
3337:
3268:
2984:
2910:
2902:
2856:
2811:
2758:
2714:
2678:
2486:
2451:
2410:
2363:
2238:
2188:
2063:
1900:
1736:
1694:
1614:
1375:
1331:
1151:
563:
156:
3156:, and iii) ‘progressive deterioration in public services’ from the Failed State Index.
3088:(1744-1818) is introduced in Saudi literature as a 'corrective mechanism bringing the
2598:
Herbst, Jeffrey. "War and the State in Africa." International Security (1990): 117-139
3468:
3408:
Latecomer State Formation: Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America.
3393:
3293:
3280:
3272:
3113:
3070:
3041:
2914:
2836:
2807:
2718:
2709:
2692:
2655:
2490:
2414:
2402:
2355:
2316:
2284:
2242:
2192:
2067:
1948:
1923:
1858:
1848:
1825:
1815:
1790:
1663:
1459:
651:
647:
558:
232:
94:
89:
50:
23:
3352:, Working Paper, March, Department of Political Science, University of Aarhus, 2002.
3213:
You, The People: The United Nations, Transitional Administration, and State-Building
2125:
1904:
1698:
1618:
3369:
3329:
3302:
3289:
3260:
3208:
2976:
2937:
2894:
2803:
2750:
2704:
2645:
2622:
UNRISD 2010. "Building State Capacity for Poverty Reduction." Chapter 10, pp. 3–36.
2581:
2549:
2478:
2455:
2443:
2394:
2347:
2230:
2180:
2053:
2045:
1892:
1763:
1728:
1686:
1659:
1606:
1163:
1068:
655:
508:
264:
118:
3182:
2482:
2381:
Brambor, Thomas; Goenaga, Agustín; Lindvall, Johannes; Teorell, Jan (2020-02-01).
2264:
Call, Charles T (2008), "The Fallacy of the 'Failed State', 'Third World Quarterly
865:
in the 20th century. Furthermore, he listed the sufficient conditions as follows:
3264:
3107:
3062:
3035:
2533:
2155:
2131:
2109:
1784:
1554:
1495:
1469:
1417:(perceived) securitization of authority across the occupied Palestinian territory
1298:
1259:
1094:
1089:
1060:
894:
798:
627:
586:
568:
393:
378:
2731:
UNRISD 2010. “Building State Capacity for Poverty Reduction.” Chapter 10, p. 30.
3436:
2830:
2014:
http://www.oecd.org/dac/governance-peace/conflictandfragility/docs/41100930.pdf
1500:
1272:
1215:
1099:
993:
944:
939:
875:
A group of skillful and independent people to build an independent bureaucracy;
802:
666:
643:
464:
383:
337:
279:
3520:
The Sovereignty Paradox: The Norms and Politics of International Statebuilding
2967:
Jabber, F (1973). "The Arab regimes and the Palestinian revolution, 1967-71".
2650:
2633:
2585:
2506:"State Capacity in Historical Political Economy: What, How, Why, and Why Not?"
2234:
2184:
2049:
3530:
2659:
2406:
2398:
2359:
2351:
1971:
Autonomous Recovery and International Intervention in Comparative Perspective
1896:
1862:
1829:
1474:
1243:
999:
947:
has been seen to struggle in high-profile conflict-ridden situations such as
783:– intervention in the allocation of goods among the members of the population
682:
681:
has developed into becoming an integral part and even a specific approach to
665:
One of the earliest examples of state-building iconography: Two sides of the
388:
366:
341:
171:
1574:
Tilly, Charles (1985). "War making and state making as organized crime," in
3320:
Joseph, R (1997). "Correspondence: Responding to State Failure in Africa".
2382:
2308:
1516:
1423:
1371:
1207:
1110:
1003:
777:– authoritative settlement of disputes among members of the population
722:
151:
1719:
Thies, C. G. (2005). "War, rivalry, and state building in Latin America".
1690:
1610:
972:
the state by international actors can worsen security inside the country.
883:
Differentiating "nation-building", military intervention and regime change
878:
Skillful top leadership that would take advantage of the above conditions.
646:, from the earliest emergence of statehood up to the modern times. Within
3196:
International Governance of War-torn Territories: Rule and Reconstruction
2941:
1426:
1354:
872:
Existence of military threat from outside or other groups in the country;
838:
455:
420:
323:
311:
176:
3358:
Approaches to the State: Alternative Conceptions and Historical Dynamics
2367:
2335:
1677:
Joseph, R.; Herbst, J. (1997). "Responding to State Failure in Africa".
581:
3485:
3341:
2988:
2906:
2815:
2762:
2058:
1740:
631:
545:
535:
530:
269:
131:
3441:
A Free City in the Balkans: Reconstructing a Divided Society in Bosnia
3381:
1634:
Tilly, Charles: War Making and State Making as Organized Crime. 1985.
3174:
in: American Political Science Review, Vol. 82, No. 3, 853–874, 1988.
2634:"The Non-Democratic Roots of Mass Education: Evidence from 200 Years"
2447:
1755:
1438:
1223:
960:
759:– eliminating or neutralizing their rivals inside their own territory
714:
430:
328:
211:
166:
146:
3333:
2980:
2898:
2754:
2147:
for the Norwegian Ministry for Foreign Affairs, p. 13, Available at
2031:"Introduction: Post-Conflict Spaces and Approaches to Statebuilding"
1732:
718:
situation, that is characteristic of every state-building process.
3373:
3184:
State-building in Medieval France: Studies in Early Angevin History
1768:
1636:
http://www.jesusradicals.com/uploads/2/6/3/8/26388433/warmaking.pdf
1366:, where a similar process exacerbated ethnic and religious tensions
1286:
635:
553:
513:
196:
181:
161:
30:
3112:. Cornell Studies in Political Economy. Cornell University Press.
3109:
The Price of Wealth: Economies and Institutions in the Middle East
1437:
Based on kernels of tribalism, fundamentalist religious ideology (
2255:
High-Level Panel of Threats, Challenges and Change, paragraph 229
1786:
Pawned States: State Building in the Era of International Finance
1363:
1339:
1211:
854:
771:– acquiring the means of carrying out the first three activities.
661:
639:
468:
126:
2383:"The Lay of the Land: Information Capacity and the Modern State"
1756:"A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History"
1754:
North, Douglass; Wallis, John; Weingast, Barry (December 2006).
1350:
1335:
1247:
1123:
High transaction cost markets lead back to economic stagnation.
948:
862:
858:
728:
A third approach conceptualizes state-building as development.
670:
518:
460:
358:
2885:
Herbst, Jeffery (Spring 1990). "War and the State in Africa".
3480:
Western-State Making and Theories of Political Transformation
3460:, in: Social Science Research Items, Vol. 36, June 1–8, 1982.
2962:
2960:
2380:
2221:
Call, Charles T (2008). "The Fallacy of the 'Failed State'".
2171:
Call, Charles T (2008). "The Fallacy of the 'Failed State'".
1441:
1402:
weak linkages between ruling authorities and society at large
1343:
1219:
850:
846:
3490:
World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World
3220:
Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy
3067:
Saudi Arabia and Iran: Power and Rivalry in the Middle East
2208:
Warlords, strongman governors, and the state in Afghanistan
1597:
Herbst, J (1996). "Responding to State Failure in Africa".
1227:
3348:
Kjær, Anne M./Hansen, Ole H./Frølund Thomsen, Jens Peter:
2957:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2604:
1973:. Jeremy M. Weinstein. Working Paper Number 57. April 2005
765:– eliminating or neutralizing the enemies of their clients
710:
State-building has been conceptualized in different ways.
3309:, in: Journal of Democracy, Vol. 15, No. 2, 17–31, 2004b.
3229:, Center for Strategic and International Studies and the
2280:
State Capacity and Economic Development: Present and Past
731:
3388:
Kuzio, Taras/Kravchuk, Robert S./D’Anieri, Paul (eds.):
3063:"3: History, politics and narratives of state-building"
2601:
2166:
2164:
1074:
2679:
http://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2009/wp75_2009.pdf
2161:
3465:
Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 900–1990
2313:
The Oxford Handbook of Historical Political Economy
2145:
International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO)
2099:
International Forum Challengers of Peace Operations
1753:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1645:
1643:
1630:
1628:
1556:
Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992
1534:
976:further fueling grievances and popular resistance.
2471:Journal of International Relations and Development
2028:
1581:
981:High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change
831:
3037:Routledge Handbook of International Statebuilding
2283:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 15–24.
3528:
3225:The Commission on Post-Conflict Reconstruction,
3203:Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-building
3034:Chandler, David; Sisk, Timothy D. (2013-09-02).
1814:. Princeton University press. pp. 269–275.
1705:
1640:
1625:
3498:The U.S. Army Stability Operations Field Manual
3245:A Review of Peace Operations: A Case for Change
2531:
1878:"Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States"
3417:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
2333:
2082:Research Partnership on Postwar State-Building
1847:. Princeton University press. pp. 91–92.
1258:Drawing on Charles Tilly's theory of European
753:– eliminating or neutralizing their own rivals
3250:
3004:
2571:
1374:of 1993-2000 and the ongoing construction of
1174:
604:
3033:
2306:
2205:
1942:
1876:Fearon, James; Laitin, David (Spring 2004).
1875:
1676:
3410:New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021.
2429:"State Capacity, Conflict, and Development"
2334:Akbar, Nafisa; Ostermann, Susan L. (2015).
1414:lack of capacity of formal PNA institutions
2740:
1399:a lack of an internal political settlement
1285:War, Tanzania invaded Uganda to overthrow
1162:In reference to state-building approaches
611:
597:
3390:State and Institution Building in Ukraine
3093:feuding, tribal rivalries, and civil war.
2880:
2878:
2708:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2649:
2553:
2057:
2038:Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding
1767:
3522:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
3433:, University of Colorado, Boulder, 2004.
3177:
3105:
2927:
2829:Herbst, Jeffrey Ira (21 December 2014).
2631:
2503:
2276:
1540:
1131:
923:
813:
660:
3355:
3007:"The Palestinian State-building Agenda"
2690:
2632:Paglayan, Agustina S. (February 2021).
2468:
1920:The Beginner's Guide to Nation-Building
1917:
1782:
736:
3529:
3319:
2966:
2884:
2875:
2828:
2666:
2302:
2300:
2134:London: Overseas Development Institute
1842:
1809:
1596:
732:Application of state-building theories
16:Term in social sciences and humanities
3060:
3000:
2998:
2793:
2567:
2565:
2555:10.1146/annurev-polisci-072215-012907
2527:
2525:
2120:
2118:
2024:
2022:
1966:
1964:
1943:Stewart, Rory; Knaus, Gerald (2012).
1721:American Journal of Political Science
1718:
1649:
1552:
903:United States invasion of Afghanistan
2307:Dincecco, Mark; Wang, Yuhua (2023).
2220:
2170:
1918:Dobbins, James; et al. (2007).
1760:National Bureau of Economic Research
1570:
1568:
1566:
1391:negotiations, the tightening of the
669:(31st century BC) depicting pharaoh
3537:International relations terminology
3453:, IPA Policy Paper, New York, 2006.
2297:
2270:
2029:Heathershaw, J; Lambach, D (2008).
1157:
822:
677:Since the end of the 20th century,
13:
3492:, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1997
3240:, USIP Press, Washington DC, 2005.
2995:
2693:"Good Enough Governance Revisited"
2562:
2542:Annual Review of Political Science
2522:
2115:
2019:
1961:
1326:(PLO) claims sovereignty over the
1083:
1075:Education as a state-building tool
14:
3568:
3356:Krasner, Stephen D (1984). "1984
2638:American Political Science Review
1993:German Institute for Development,
1563:
1324:Palestine Liberation Organization
987:
479:Biology and political orientation
3307:The Imperative of State-Building
3215:. Oxford University Press, 2004.
3154:Bertelsmann Transformation Index
2808:10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00291.x
2710:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2007.00385.x
2574:Explorations in Economic History
1664:10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00291.x
1196:
953:Democratic Republic of the Congo
580:
3247:, King's College, London, 2003.
3236:Covey, Dziedzic, et al. (eds.)
3146:
3098:
3054:
3027:
2948:
2921:
2822:
2796:International Studies Quarterly
2787:
2778:
2769:
2734:
2725:
2684:
2625:
2592:
2497:
2462:
2421:
2374:
2327:
2258:
2249:
2214:
2199:
2137:
2091:
2074:
2002:
1985:
1976:
1936:
1911:
1869:
1836:
1803:
1776:
1747:
1652:International Studies Quarterly
1522:Stabilization of fragile states
1432:
832:Social changes and social order
690:, and war-related conflicts in
3350:Conceptualizing State Capacity
3014:Overseas Development Institute
2930:Journal of Economic Literature
2835:. Princeton University Press.
2158:. (Retrieved 23 January 2016).
2012:, Vol 9, Issue 3, Available at
1947:. W. W. Norton & Company.
1789:. Princeton University Press.
1670:
1590:
1546:
1388:Overseas Development Institute
1380:Palestinian National Authority
1370:Despite the break-down of the
1189:nationalistic ideology. In an
1183:
1031:Regulatory–productive capacity
1002:or, in a more extreme case, a
474:Theories of political behavior
100:Political history of the world
1:
3513:(States in Development paper)
3163:
3106:Chaudhry, Kiren Aziz (2015).
3005:Rocha Menocal, Alina (2011).
2504:Dincecco, Mark (2022-05-02).
2483:10.1057/palgrave.jird.1800120
2387:Comparative Political Studies
2210:. Cambridge University Press.
2206:Mukhopadhyay, Dipali (2014).
1999:(Retrieved 23 January 2016).
1528:
1053:
1021:increase extractive capacity.
741:
705:
489:Critique of political economy
3503:University of Michigan Press
3265:10.1080/17449057.2011.596127
3231:Association of the U.S. Army
2969:Journal of Palestine Studies
2743:American Sociological Review
2691:Grindle, Merilee S. (2007).
2112:(Retrieved 23 January 2016).
2088:(Retrieved 23 January 2016).
1559:. Blackwell. pp. 96–97.
1465:Rule according to higher law
1317:
1297:As of 2017 the provision of
688:Israeli–Palestinian conflict
654:sciences, there are several
70:Outline of political science
7:
3467:, Malden: Blackwell, 2000,
3443:, London: I.B.Tauris, 2009.
3392:, London: Routledge, 1998,
2016:(Retrieved 23 January 2016)
1447:
1044:systemic isomorphic mimicry
10:
3573:
3458:Bringing the State Back In
1576:Bringing the State Back In
1511:States and Power in Africa
1268:States and Power in Africa
1175:Examples of state-building
1087:
991:
75:Index of politics articles
3552:International development
2697:Development Policy Review
2651:10.1017/S0003055420000647
2586:10.1016/j.eeh.2016.11.002
2235:10.1080/01436590802544207
2185:10.1080/01436590802544207
2050:10.1080/17502970802436296
1506:Environmental determinism
1238:
2399:10.1177/0010414019843432
2352:10.1525/as.2015.55.5.845
1897:10.1162/0162288041588296
1843:Migdal, Joel S. (1988).
1810:Migdal, Joel S. (1988).
1762:. Working Paper Series.
1455:Constitutional economics
1405:weakened social cohesion
1191:authoritarian government
3172:The Return to the State
2277:Dincecco, Mark (2017).
1783:Queralt, Didac (2022).
1553:Tilly, Charles (1990).
1378:(1967 to present), the
1328:Palestinian Territories
1312:
1144:performance-related pay
961:Guatemala Peace Accords
484:Political organisations
247:International relations
85:Politics by subdivision
3478:Tilly, Charles (ed.):
3322:International Security
3233:, Washington DC, 2003.
3187:. Aldershot: Variorum.
2887:International Security
2010:Journal on Development
1945:Can Intervention Work?
1885:International Security
1679:International Security
1599:International Security
1480:The White Man's Burden
1048:premature load-bearing
914:Bosnia and Herzegovina
857:and mass migration in
692:Bosnia and Herzegovina
674:
626:as a specific term in
3542:Public administration
3404:Mazzuca, Sebastián L.
3243:Dahrendorf, N. (Ed.)
3061:Mabon, Simon (2013).
2223:Third World Quarterly
2173:Third World Quarterly
1691:10.1162/isec.22.2.175
1611:10.1162/isec.21.3.120
1306:early modern European
1139:New Public Management
1132:New Public Management
1065:New Public Management
1025:Governmental capacity
924:Versus peace-building
907:2003 invasion of Iraq
814:Limited access orders
664:
564:Political campaigning
304:Public administration
137:Collective leadership
3362:Comparative Politics
3205:. Pluto Press, 2006.
3198:, Oxford: OUP, 2005.
3179:Bachrach, Bernard S.
2942:10.1257/jel.40.2.510
2084:, p.2, Available at
1922:. RAND Corporation.
1491:Political settlement
737:The predatory theory
414:Separation of powers
285:Political psychology
260:Comparative politics
238:political scientists
225:Academic disciplines
105:Political philosophy
3449:Samuels, Kirsti S,
2101:, p.2, Available at
1486:Disaster capitalism
1376:Israeli settlements
1018:Extractive capacity
587:Politics portal
436:Election commission
407:Government branches
290:Political sociology
142:Confessional system
80:Politics by country
3222:OUP, Oxford, 2003.
2154:2016-10-08 at the
2130:2009-12-22 at the
2108:2016-10-08 at the
1995:p.2, Available at
1411:weak civil-society
1384:UN Resolution 1515
1359:Hashemite monarchy
1332:Palestinian people
1152:regulatory capture
843:Hundred Years' War
675:
270:Political analysis
202:Semi-parliamentary
3413:Migdal, Joel S.:
3303:Fukuyama, Francis
3290:Fukuyama, Francis
3209:Chesterman, Simon
3194:Caplan, Richard,
3170:Almond, Gabriel:
2532:Berwick, Elissa;
2442:(1): 1–34. 2010.
2290:978-1-108-33755-7
1796:978-0-691-23152-5
1460:Political economy
1408:gender inequality
621:
620:
569:Political parties
509:Electoral systems
233:Political science
207:Semi-presidential
119:Political systems
95:Political history
90:Political economy
3564:
3547:Decentralization
3463:Tilly, Charles:
3456:Skopcol, Theda:
3385:
3345:
3276:
3188:
3157:
3150:
3134:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3102:
3096:
3095:
3084:
3083:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2993:
2992:
2964:
2955:
2952:
2946:
2945:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2882:
2873:
2872:
2866:
2862:
2860:
2852:
2850:
2849:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2776:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2738:
2732:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2712:
2688:
2682:
2675:
2664:
2663:
2653:
2629:
2623:
2620:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2569:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2534:Christia, Fotini
2529:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2448:10.3982/ECTA8073
2433:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2309:"State Capacity"
2304:
2295:
2294:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2256:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2168:
2159:
2141:
2135:
2122:
2113:
2095:
2089:
2078:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2035:
2026:
2017:
2006:
2000:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1974:
1968:
1959:
1958:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1716:
1703:
1702:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1647:
1638:
1632:
1623:
1622:
1594:
1588:
1585:
1579:
1572:
1561:
1560:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1278:Poland-Lithuania
1265:For example, in
1180:emerged states.
1164:decentralization
1158:Decentralization
1069:Decentralization
823:External lending
613:
606:
599:
585:
584:
375:
320:
275:Political theory
265:Election science
255:
241:
19:
18:
3572:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3518:Zaum, Dominik:
3495:The U.S. Army.
3437:Parish, Matthew
3429:Paris, Roland,
3420:Nagl, Dominik.
3334:10.2307/2539373
3166:
3161:
3160:
3151:
3147:
3137:
3124:
3122:
3120:
3103:
3099:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3059:
3055:
3048:
3032:
3028:
3018:
3016:
3009:
3003:
2996:
2981:10.2307/2535482
2965:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2926:
2922:
2899:10.2307/2538753
2883:
2876:
2864:
2863:
2854:
2853:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2827:
2823:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2755:10.2307/2657374
2739:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2689:
2685:
2676:
2667:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2570:
2563:
2530:
2523:
2514:
2512:
2502:
2498:
2467:
2463:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2379:
2375:
2332:
2328:
2305:
2298:
2291:
2275:
2271:
2266:, 29:8, p 1498.
2263:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2219:
2215:
2204:
2200:
2169:
2162:
2156:Wayback Machine
2142:
2138:
2132:Wayback Machine
2123:
2116:
2110:Wayback Machine
2096:
2092:
2079:
2075:
2033:
2027:
2020:
2007:
2003:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1969:
1962:
1955:
1941:
1937:
1930:
1916:
1912:
1880:
1874:
1870:
1855:
1841:
1837:
1822:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1781:
1777:
1752:
1748:
1733:10.2307/3647725
1717:
1706:
1675:
1671:
1648:
1641:
1633:
1626:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1573:
1564:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1496:Sovereign state
1470:Nation-building
1450:
1435:
1320:
1315:
1309:Joseph, 1997).
1299:public services
1283:Uganda-Tanzania
1260:state formation
1241:
1199:
1186:
1177:
1160:
1134:
1113:and corruption.
1095:Good governance
1092:
1090:Good governance
1086:
1084:Good governance
1077:
1061:Good Governance
1056:
996:
990:
926:
895:nation-building
885:
834:
825:
816:
799:fiscal capacity
744:
739:
734:
708:
628:social sciences
617:
579:
574:
573:
504:
503:
494:
493:
451:
450:
441:
440:
409:
408:
399:
398:
394:Public interest
379:Domestic policy
369:
362:
361:
350:
349:
314:
307:
306:
295:
294:
256:
249:
242:
235:
227:
226:
217:
216:
122:
121:
110:
109:
65:
64:
55:
24:Politics series
17:
12:
11:
5:
3570:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3524:
3523:
3516:
3506:
3493:
3483:
3476:
3461:
3454:
3447:
3444:
3434:
3427:
3418:
3411:
3401:
3386:
3374:10.2307/421608
3368:(2): 223–246.
3353:
3346:
3328:(2): 175–181.
3317:
3314:
3310:
3300:
3287:
3277:
3248:
3241:
3234:
3223:
3218:Collier, Paul
3216:
3206:
3199:
3192:
3189:
3175:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3118:
3097:
3075:
3053:
3046:
3026:
2994:
2956:
2947:
2936:(2): 510–519.
2920:
2893:(4): 117–139.
2874:
2865:|website=
2841:
2821:
2786:
2777:
2768:
2749:(5): 748–765.
2733:
2724:
2703:(5): 553–574.
2683:
2665:
2644:(1): 179–198.
2624:
2600:
2591:
2561:
2521:
2496:
2477:(2): 122–149.
2461:
2420:
2393:(2): 175–213.
2373:
2346:(5): 845–861.
2326:
2296:
2289:
2269:
2257:
2248:
2213:
2198:
2160:
2136:
2114:
2090:
2073:
2044:(3): 269–289.
2018:
2001:
1984:
1975:
1960:
1954:978-0393342246
1953:
1935:
1929:978-0833039880
1928:
1910:
1868:
1853:
1835:
1820:
1802:
1795:
1775:
1769:10.3386/w12795
1746:
1727:(3): 451–465.
1704:
1685:(2): 175–184.
1669:
1639:
1624:
1605:(3): 120–144.
1589:
1580:
1562:
1545:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1508:
1503:
1501:State (polity)
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1434:
1431:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1368:
1367:
1361:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1291:James Robinson
1273:Jeffrey Herbst
1240:
1237:
1216:Saint-Domingue
1198:
1195:
1185:
1182:
1176:
1173:
1159:
1156:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1117:interventions.
1114:
1107:
1100:market failure
1088:Main article:
1085:
1082:
1076:
1073:
1055:
1052:
1035:
1034:
1028:
1022:
994:State capacity
992:Main article:
989:
988:State capacity
986:
945:United Nations
940:United Nations
925:
922:
884:
881:
880:
879:
876:
873:
870:
833:
830:
824:
821:
815:
812:
803:Jeffrey Herbst
791:
790:
784:
778:
772:
766:
760:
754:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
707:
704:
679:state-building
667:Narmer Palette
624:State-building
619:
618:
616:
615:
608:
601:
593:
590:
589:
576:
575:
572:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
550:
549:
533:
528:
523:
522:
521:
511:
505:
501:
500:
499:
496:
495:
492:
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
458:
452:
449:Related topics
448:
447:
446:
443:
442:
439:
438:
433:
428:
423:
417:
416:
410:
406:
405:
404:
401:
400:
397:
396:
391:
386:
384:Foreign policy
381:
376:
363:
357:
356:
355:
352:
351:
348:
347:
346:
345:
331:
326:
321:
308:
302:
301:
300:
297:
296:
293:
292:
287:
282:
280:Policy studies
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
245:
243:
231:
228:
224:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
123:
117:
116:
115:
112:
111:
108:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
66:
63:Primary topics
62:
61:
60:
57:
56:
54:
53:
48:
43:
37:
34:
33:
27:
26:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3569:
3558:
3557:Peacebuilding
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3510:
3509:Whaites, Alan
3507:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3494:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3473:1-55786-067-X
3470:
3466:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3452:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3399:
3398:0-415-17195-4
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3354:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3318:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3298:0-8014-4292-3
3295:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3285:9783848706846
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3253:Ethnopolitics
3249:
3246:
3242:
3239:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:Chandler, D.
3200:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3169:
3168:
3155:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3138:
3132:
3121:
3119:9781501700330
3115:
3111:
3110:
3101:
3094:
3091:
3078:
3076:9780857722423
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3049:
3047:9781135940010
3043:
3040:. Routledge.
3039:
3038:
3030:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2999:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2975:(2): 79–101.
2974:
2970:
2963:
2961:
2951:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2870:
2858:
2844:
2842:9780691164137
2838:
2834:
2833:
2825:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2790:
2781:
2772:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2728:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2605:
2595:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2568:
2566:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2526:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2301:
2292:
2286:
2282:
2281:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2252:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2133:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2025:
2023:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1998:
1994:
1988:
1979:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1956:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1931:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1854:9780691010731
1850:
1846:
1839:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1821:9780691010731
1817:
1813:
1806:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1644:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1584:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1558:
1557:
1549:
1542:
1541:Bachrach 1995
1537:
1533:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1475:Regime change
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1310:
1307:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1263:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1197:Latin America
1194:
1192:
1181:
1172:
1168:
1165:
1155:
1153:
1147:
1145:
1140:
1129:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1081:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1051:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1007:
1005:
1001:
1000:fragile state
995:
985:
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
962:
956:
954:
950:
946:
941:
935:
932:
921:
917:
915:
910:
908:
904:
898:
896:
891:
877:
874:
871:
868:
867:
866:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
829:
820:
811:
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3123:. Retrieved
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3089:
3086:
3080:. Retrieved
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3017:. Retrieved
3013:
2972:
2968:
2950:
2933:
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2923:
2890:
2886:
2846:. Retrieved
2831:
2824:
2802:(1): 53–72.
2799:
2795:
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2573:
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2541:
2536:(May 2018).
2513:. Retrieved
2509:
2499:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2439:
2436:Econometrica
2435:
2423:
2390:
2386:
2376:
2343:
2340:Asian Survey
2339:
2329:
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2201:
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2098:
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2041:
2037:
2009:
2004:
1992:
1987:
1978:
1970:
1944:
1938:
1919:
1913:
1888:
1884:
1871:
1844:
1838:
1811:
1805:
1785:
1778:
1759:
1749:
1724:
1720:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1658:(1): 53–72.
1655:
1651:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1583:
1575:
1555:
1548:
1536:
1517:Peacekeeping
1436:
1433:Saudi Arabia
1420:
1372:Oslo process
1369:
1321:
1303:
1296:
1266:
1264:
1257:
1242:
1233:
1203:independence
1200:
1187:
1178:
1169:
1161:
1148:
1135:
1126:
1111:rent-seeking
1093:
1078:
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1004:failed state
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927:
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835:
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786:
781:Distribution
780:
775:Adjudication
774:
768:
762:
757:State making
756:
750:
745:
727:
720:
712:
709:
700:
694:, Iraq, and
678:
676:
634:, refers to
623:
622:
317:street-level
192:Presidential
152:Dictatorship
22:Part of the
3501:Ann Arbor,
3431:A War's End
3227:Play to Win
2510:Broadstreet
2229:(8): 1498.
2179:(8): 1499.
2059:10036/58174
1891:(4): 5–43.
1427:quasi-state
1355:Six-Day War
1184:Regime type
1167:services".
839:Black Death
696:Afghanistan
656:theoretical
456:Sovereignty
421:Legislature
324:Technocracy
312:Bureaucracy
177:Meritocracy
157:Directorial
3531:Categories
3486:World Bank
3164:Literature
3125:2017-09-27
3082:2017-09-27
3019:24 January
2848:2016-01-24
2515:2022-05-02
1529:References
1393:occupation
1353:after the
1054:Approaches
905:and March
787:Production
769:Extraction
763:Protection
751:War making
742:War making
706:Definition
648:historical
640:historical
632:humanities
546:Governance
536:Government
531:Federalism
132:City-state
3273:145382064
3259:: 85–93.
3104:Compare:
2915:153804691
2867:ignored (
2857:cite book
2719:154987071
2660:0003-0554
2548:: 71–91.
2491:143220503
2415:133292367
2407:0010-4140
2360:0004-4687
2243:153402082
2193:153402082
2068:147118661
1863:876100982
1830:876100982
1439:Wahhabist
1318:Palestine
1253:tax ratio
1226:in 1813,
1224:New Spain
1222:in 1804,
1218:in 1793,
1208:abolition
715:statehood
652:political
636:political
526:Unitarism
514:Elections
502:Subseries
431:Judiciary
426:Executive
329:Adhocracy
212:Theocracy
167:Feudalism
147:Democracy
3488: :
3181:(1995).
2580:: 1–20.
2368:26364315
2152:Archived
2128:Archived
2106:Archived
1905:57559356
1699:57566369
1619:57565552
1513:– a book
1482:– a poem
1448:See also
1287:Idi Amin
1271:(2000),
951:and the
841:and the
554:Ideology
372:doctrine
333:Service
197:Republic
182:Monarchy
162:Federacy
51:Category
31:Politics
3505:, 2009.
3424:(2013).
3342:2539373
2989:2535482
2907:2538753
2816:3693563
2763:2657374
2456:2887246
2321:4022645
1741:3647725
1364:Lebanon
1340:Lebanon
1248:leaders
1212:slavery
1011:ability
855:Vietnam
559:Culture
469:Country
127:Anarchy
41:Outline
3471:
3396:
3382:421608
3380:
3340:
3296:
3283:
3271:
3116:
3073:
3044:
2987:
2913:
2905:
2839:
2814:
2761:
2717:
2658:
2489:
2454:
2413:
2405:
2366:
2358:
2319:
2287:
2241:
2191:
2066:
1951:
1926:
1903:
1861:
1851:
1828:
1818:
1793:
1739:
1697:
1617:
1424:client
1351:Jordan
1342:, and
1336:Jordan
1239:Africa
1067:, and
949:Darfur
890:nation
863:Israel
859:Taiwan
671:Narmer
644:states
519:voting
461:Polity
359:Policy
338:Public
252:theory
3378:JSTOR
3338:JSTOR
3313:2004.
3269:S2CID
3140:Notes
3010:(PDF)
2985:JSTOR
2911:S2CID
2903:JSTOR
2812:JSTOR
2759:JSTOR
2715:S2CID
2681:>.
2487:S2CID
2452:S2CID
2432:(PDF)
2411:S2CID
2364:JSTOR
2239:S2CID
2189:S2CID
2064:S2CID
2034:(PDF)
1901:S2CID
1881:(PDF)
1737:JSTOR
1695:S2CID
1615:S2CID
1442:Islam
1344:Syria
1244:Tilly
1220:Haiti
851:Korea
847:China
542:forms
465:State
342:Civil
46:Index
3469:ISBN
3394:ISBN
3294:ISBN
3281:ISBN
3114:ISBN
3090:umma
3071:ISBN
3042:ISBN
3021:2016
2869:help
2837:ISBN
2656:ISSN
2403:ISSN
2356:ISSN
2317:SSRN
2285:ISBN
1949:ISBN
1924:ISBN
1859:OCLC
1849:ISBN
1826:OCLC
1816:ISBN
1791:ISBN
1322:The
1313:Asia
1228:Peru
931:OECD
861:and
853:and
650:and
638:and
630:and
3370:doi
3360:".
3330:doi
3261:doi
2977:doi
2938:doi
2895:doi
2804:doi
2751:doi
2705:doi
2646:doi
2642:115
2582:doi
2550:doi
2479:doi
2444:doi
2395:doi
2348:doi
2231:doi
2181:doi
2054:hdl
2046:doi
1893:doi
1764:doi
1729:doi
1687:doi
1660:doi
1607:doi
1210:of
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698:.
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3406:,
3376:.
3366:16
3364:.
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1932:.
1907:.
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