842:, are supportive of free and private media. Public interest theory holds that when operated correctly, government ownership of media is a public good that benefits the nation in question. It contradicts the belief that all state media is propaganda and argues that most states require an unbiased, easily accessible, and reliable stream of information. Public interest theory suggests that the only way to maintain an independent media is to cut it off from any economic needs, therefore a state-run media organization can avoid issues associated with private media companies, namely the prioritization of the profit motive. State media can be established as a mean for the state to provide a consistent news outlet while private news companies operate as well. The benefits and detriments of this approach often depend on the editorial independence of the media organization from the government.
838:, also referred to as the Pigouvian theory, states that government ownership of media is desirable. Three reasons are offered. Firstly, the dissemination of information is a public good, and to withhold it would be costly even if it is not paid for. Secondly, the cost of the provision and dissemination of information is high, but once costs are incurred, marginal costs for providing the information are low and so are subject to increasing returns. Thirdly, state media ownership can be less biased, more complete and accurate if consumers are ignorant and in addition to private media that would serve the governing classes. However, Pigouvian economists, who advocate regulation and
879:. States are dependent on the public for their legitimacy that allows them to operate. The flow of information becomes critical to their survival, and public choice theory argues that states cannot be expected to ignore their own interests, and instead the sources of information must remain as independent from the state as possible. Public choice theory argues that the only way to retain independence in a media organization is to allow the public to seek the best sources of information themselves. This approach is effective at creating a free press that is capable of criticizing government institutions and investigating incidents of government corruption.
38:
588:
883:
organizations that are reliant on the attention of the public. Sensationalism becomes the key focus and turns away from stories in the public interest in favor of stories that capture the attention of the most people. The focus on sensationalism and public attention can lead to the dissemination of misinformation to appease their consumer base. In these instances, the goal of providing accurate information to the public collapses and instead becomes biased toward a dominant ideology.
1059:
643:, which are designed to serve the public interest, operate independently of government control, and are financed through a combination of public funding, licensing fees, and sometimes advertising. The crucial difference lies in the level of independence from government influence and the commitment to serving a broad public interest rather than the interests of a specific political party or government agenda.
846:
often be critical of their work. The reliability of a state-run media outlet is often heavily dependent on the reliability of the state to promote a free press, many state-run media outlets in western democracies are capable of providing independent journalism while others in authoritarian regimes become mouthpieces for the state to legitimize their actions.
859:
allowing individuals to choose politicians, goods, services, etc. without fear from functioning. Additionally, that would inhibit competition among media firms that would ensure that consumers usually acquire unbiased, accurate information. Moreover, this competition is part of a checks-and-balances system of a
1245:
opportunity for a regime to influence public sentiment. Mass protests against governments considered to be authoritarian, such as those in China, Russia, Egypt, and Iran are often distorted by state-run media organizations in order to defame protesters and provide a positive light on the government's actions.
904:
non-democratic countries with highly interventionist governments that have some interest in controlling the flow of information. Countries with "weak" governments do not possess the political will to break up state media monopolies. Media control is also usually consistent with state ownership in the
729:
These media entities receive funding from the state and may have some level of state involvement in their management, but they maintain editorial independence. This category is considered at risk because it is susceptible to slipping into state control if the political or economic pressures increase.
1244:
after restrictions were lifted in the 1990s, but government-controlled media defended officials. Heavily influenced state media can provide corrupt regimes with a method to combat efforts by protestors. Propaganda spread by state-media organizations can detract from accurate reporting and provide an
858:
asserts that state-owned media would manipulate and distort information in favor of the ruling party and entrench its rule and prevent the public from making informed decisions, which undermines democratic institutions. That would prevent private and independent media, which provide alternate voices
1253:
It is common for countries with strict control of newspapers to have fewer firms listed per capita on their markets and less developed banking systems. These findings support the public choice theory, which suggests higher levels of state ownership of the press would be detrimental to economic and
882:
Those critical of the public choice theory argue that the economic incentives involved in a public business force media organizations to stray from unbiased journalism and towards sensationalist editorials in order to capture public interest. This has become a debate over the effectiveness of media
845:
Many criticisms of public interest theory center on the possibility of true editorial independence from the state. While there is little profit motive, the media organization must be funded by the government instead which can create a dependency on the government's willingness to fund an entity may
738:
Its content, according to some sources, is usually more prescriptive, telling the audience what to think, particularly as it is under no pressure to attract high ratings or generate advertising revenue and therefore may cater to the forces in control of the state as opposed to the forces in control
797:
Additionally, the state-controlled media may only report on legislation after it has already become law to stifle any debate. The media legitimizes its presence by emphasizing "national unity" against domestic or foreign "aggressors". In more open and competitive contexts, the state may control or
699:, state-controlled media are media outlets that Facebook believes may be partially or wholly under the editorial control of their government. State-controlled media extends beyond just assessing financial control or ownership and includes an assessment of editorial control exerted by a government.
1132:"Worse outcomes" are associated with higher levels of state ownership of the media, which would reject Pigouvian theory. The news media are more independent and fewer journalists are arrested, detained or harassed in countries with less state control. Harassment, imprisonment and higher levels of
747:
content which it deems illegal, immoral or unfavorable to the government and likewise regulate any programming related to the media; therefore, it is not independent of the governing party. In this type of environment, journalists may be required to be members or affiliated with the ruling party,
646:
State media serve as tools for public diplomacy and narrative shaping. These media outlets can broadcast via television, radio, print, and increasingly on social media, to convey government viewpoints to domestic and international audiences. The approach to using state media can vary, focusing on
659:
of a country. Three factors that can affect the independence of state media over time are: funding, ownership/governance, and editorial autonomy. These entities can range from being completely state-controlled, where the government has full control over their funding, management, and editorial
720:
These are media that manage to maintain high levels of independence in funding, governance, and editorial decisions. These media are primarily funded by the public, either through taxation or a specific license fee. This funding model is designed to insulate them from commercial pressures and
891:
Both theories have implications regarding the determinants and consequences of ownership of the media. The public interest theory suggests that more benign governments should have higher levels of control of the media which would in turn increase
798:
fund its own outlet and is in competition with opposition-controlled and/or independent media. The state media usually have less government control in more open societies and can provide more balanced coverage than media outside of state control.
1232:. State ownership of the press can compromise election monitoring efforts and obscure the integrity of electoral processes. Independent media sees higher oversight by the media of the government. For example, reporting of corruption increased in
1303:
1128:
media. Compared to most autocratic nations which attempt to limit press freedom to control the spread of information. A 2003 study found that government ownership of media organizations was associated with worse democratic outcomes.
707:
These are media outlets that, while they may not be directly controlled by the state in terms of ownership, are effectively under government influence due to financial dependencies or managerial control. This category includes both
1254:
financial development. This is due to state media being commonly associated with autocratic regimes where economic freedom is severely restricted and there is a large amount of corruption within the economic and political system.
678:
uses State Media Matrix, a typology of state and public media that allows their classification according to three sets of factors that affect the independence of these media: funding, ownership/governance, and editorial autonomy.
817:
Two contrasting theories of state control of the media exist; the public interest or
Pigouvian theory states that government ownership is beneficial, whereas the public choice theory suggests that state control undermines
896:
as well as economic and political freedoms. Conversely, the public choice theory affirms that the opposite is true - "public spirited", benevolent governments should have less control which would increase these freedoms.
687:
This category includes media outlets that are predominantly funded, managed, and editorially controlled by the government. It represents the highest level of state control over media entities. These outlets lack
1228:. High to absolute government control of the media is primarily associated with lower levels of political and civil rights, higher levels of corruption, quality of regulation, security of property and
1180:
experience a "Castro effect", where state control is powerful enough that no journalistic harassment is required in order to restrict press freedom. Historically, state media also existed during the
1034:
media outlets" take advantage of both domestic and foreign media due to state censorship in their native countries and the openness of democratic nations to which they broadcast. He cites China's
1377:
801:
State media outlets usually enjoy increased funding and subsidies compared to private media counterparts, but this can create inefficiency in the state media. However, in the
1351:
664:, which, despite receiving government funding, operate with editorial autonomy and are governed by structures designed to protect them from direct political interference.
948:
has virtually always been the responsibility of the private commercial sector since these countries' earliest days. Levels of state ownership are higher in some
2671:
1421:
1448:
639:
are typically understood as media outlets that are owned, operated, or significantly influenced by the government. They are distinguished from
2190:
Surveys have consistently identified state-run television as one of the most trusted and authoritative political institutions in the country.
623:
2331:
2722:
2483:
The politics of the
Internet in Third World development: challenges in contrasting regimes with case studies of Costa Rica and Cuba.
647:
positive narratives, adjusting narratives retroactively, or spreading misinformation through sophisticated social media campaigns.
667:
State media is often associated with authoritarian governments that use state media to control, influence, and limit information.
1355:
2356:
2701:
2683:
2664:
2634:
2619:
2604:
2589:
2571:
2542:
2523:
2505:
2490:
2448:
1561:
1224:; whilst under the public choice theory, it curtails them by suppressing public oversight of the government and facilitating
809:
media to sidestep official restrictions on content or publish "soft" editions, such as weekend editions, to generate income.
2267:
1416:
675:
2535:
Nations in transit, 2001: civil society, democracy, and markets in East
Central Europe and the newly independent states.
2131:
1914:
805:, where state control of the media is high, levels of funding have been reduced for state outlets, which have forced
655:
State media is also referred to media entities that are administered, funded, managed, or directly controlled by the
2513:
616:
1411:
2380:
1459:
1329:
1205:
62:
1943:
1268:
1201:
802:
233:
112:
1197:
712:
that have lost their independence and private media that operate under significant government influence.
609:
2732:
2148:
1378:"Pandemics & propaganda: How Chinese state media creates and propagates CCP coronavirus narratives"
1221:
1809:
1124:
Nations such as
Denmark, Norway and Finland that have both the highest degree of freedom of press and
1606:
1050:
is viewed by the
Russian public as one of the country's most authoritative and trusted institutions.
2559:
1035:
1017:
329:
269:
148:
143:
77:
2123:
1263:
806:
765:
721:
government influence, ensuring that their programming decisions are made in the public interest.
324:
66:
2470:
1971:
1494:
37:
1295:
872:
835:
689:
299:
224:
102:
1324:
2381:"Russia Continues Crackdown On Spreading Anti-Mobilization Protests As Draft Criticism Grows"
1532:
1209:
455:
440:
349:
334:
193:
183:
2717:
1848:
1225:
1047:
1022:
430:
339:
319:
314:
279:
249:
168:
2597:
Media and
Sovereignty: The Global Information Revolution and Its Challenge to State Power.
8:
2737:
2727:
2156:
1972:"Control the money, control the media: How government uses funding to keep media in line"
1849:"Control the money, control the media: How government uses funding to keep media in line"
1273:
1133:
1125:
1065:
709:
661:
640:
597:
492:
399:
289:
239:
229:
203:
133:
87:
20:
1700:
in support of maintaining publicly subsidised radio and television in the United
Kingdom
2295:
2181:
2100:
2075:
Walker, Christopher (2016). "The
Authoritarian Threat: The Hijacking of 'Soft Power'".
1991:
1876:
1790:
1762:
1514:
379:
354:
294:
259:
173:
158:
153:
72:
2697:
1696:
Coase, R. H. British
Broadcasting, 1950. The following argument was formulated by the
2679:
2660:
2630:
2615:
2600:
2585:
2567:
2538:
2519:
2501:
2486:
2444:
2299:
2287:
2173:
2127:
2092:
1995:
1910:
1880:
1868:
1829:
1782:
1518:
823:
592:
518:
503:
470:
394:
384:
374:
274:
198:
188:
178:
107:
2104:
1794:
2279:
2165:
2084:
1983:
1902:
1860:
1821:
1774:
1761:
Djankov, Simeon; McLiesh, Caralee; Nenova, Tatiana; Shleifer, Andrei (2003-10-01).
1506:
1385:
819:
740:
508:
465:
460:
389:
359:
309:
264:
163:
2169:
2120:
The Art of State
Persuasion: China's Strategic Use of Media in Interstate Disputes
1894:
1825:
1553:
2498:
Regulating Media: The Licensing and Supervision of Broadcasting in Six Countries.
2456:
1906:
839:
569:
364:
284:
138:
128:
1582:
2654:
2436:
564:
344:
97:
2676:
Anti-corruption measures in South Eastern Europe: civil society's involvement.
2711:
2577:
2530:
2291:
2177:
2096:
1987:
1872:
1864:
1833:
1786:
1510:
1027:
1013:
941:
929:
893:
864:
855:
559:
449:
420:
369:
304:
2454:
Djankov, Simeon; La Porta, Rafael; Lopez-de-Silanes & Shleifer, Andrei.
2548:
La Porta, Rafael; Lopez-de-Silanes, Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert.
2468:
Djankov, Simeon; McLeish, Caralee; Nenova, Tatiana & Shleifer, Andrei.
1189:
1185:
1165:
1039:
1031:
992:
where large areas of private press exist.) Full state monopolies exist in
786:
753:
749:
554:
435:
425:
2283:
2088:
692:, with the government controlling their editorial agenda in various ways.
1389:
1173:
1001:
985:
981:
953:
876:
761:
513:
82:
2185:
1220:
The public interest theory claims state ownership of the press enhances
928:) is mostly private and free of state control and ownership, along with
2430:
1229:
1169:
901:
769:
744:
656:
534:
479:
445:
254:
208:
92:
52:
29:
1137:
1058:
969:
945:
937:
868:
860:
539:
488:
415:
1778:
1495:"Remote Control: How the Media Sustain Authoritarian Rule in China"
1325:"Public Media: State, Government and Public Service Broadcasting —"
1181:
1149:
989:
973:
790:
696:
498:
2514:
The right to tell: the role of mass media in economic development
1145:
1141:
1043:
997:
925:
917:
906:
549:
56:
2332:"Journalists Charged With Propaganda Over Iran Protest Coverage"
2008:
Djankov, La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes & Sheleifer, 2002, 28-29
940:) The press "role" in the national and societal dynamics of the
779:
Vilify opposition to the government by launching smear campaigns
2612:
Media reform: democratizing the media, democratizing the state.
1233:
1193:
1136:
occur in countries with high levels of state ownership such as
949:
921:
913:
574:
1651:
Karatnycky, Motyl & Schnetzer, 2001, p. 105, 106, 228, 384
2202:
1241:
1237:
1161:
1153:
993:
977:
965:
961:
757:
743:
of the mass media. In more controlled regions, the state may
2704:
that evaluates their editorial independence from governments
2610:
Price, Monroe; Rozumilowicz, Beata & Verhulst, Stefaan.
2582:
The Political Element in the Development of Economic Theory.
1901:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 102–113, 1998-02-13,
1760:
1533:"State Media Matrix - Media and Journalism Research Center"
1177:
1157:
957:
933:
544:
244:
47:
2584:
Transaction Publishers, 1990 (originally published 1953).
1172:. Countries with a total state monopoly in the media like
900:
Generally, state ownership of the media is found in poor,
2529:
Karatnycky, Adrian; Motyl, Alexander; Schnetzer, Amanda;
1697:
1493:
Stockmann, Daniela; Mary, Gallagher (February 14, 2011).
2511:
Islam, Roumeen; Djankov, Simeon & McLiesh, Caralee.
2425:
Beck, Thorsten; Demirguc-Kunt, Asli & Levine, Ross.
1410:
Dragomir, Marius; Söderström, Astrid (October 1, 2022).
2672:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
2427:
A New Database on Financial Development and Structure.
2357:"Reporter's Notebook: Tahrir Square, Five Years Later"
1678:
Stability Pact Anti-Corruption Initiative, 2002, p. 78
2247:
Djankov, McLeish, Nenova & Shleifer, 2003, p. 367
2219:
Djankov, McLeish, Nenova & Shleifer, 2003, p. 344
2017:
Djankov, McLeish, Nenova & Shleifer, 2003, p. 343
1727:
Djankov, McLeish, Nenova & Shleifer, 2003, p. 342
1709:
Djankov, McLeish, Nenova & Shleifer, 2003, p. 341
2149:"Mind the Gaps: Media Use and Mass Action in Russia"
1942:
Groseclose, Tim; Milyo, Jeffrey (November 1, 2005).
1296:"Unesco Freedom of Expression and Media Development"
1012:Issues with state media include complications with
715:
1409:
1007:
1808:Gehlbach, Scott; Sonin, Konstantin (2014-10-01).
2709:
886:
1941:
1669:Karatnycky, Motyl & Schnetzer, 2001, p. 149
1376:Molter, Vanessa; DiResta, Renee (8 June 2020).
1642:Price, Rozumilowicz & Verhulst, 2002, p. 6
812:
782:Giving skewed coverage to opposition views, or
2566:Routledge, 2003 (originally published 1955).
1807:
1607:"Labeling State-Controlled Media On Facebook"
1492:
1375:
1215:
768:in the media, it may use the state press for
617:
16:Media under editorial control of a government
1382:Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review
764:. Within countries that have high levels of
2670:Stability Pact Anti-Corruption Initiative,
1046:as examples. Surveys find that state-owned
724:
2147:Smyth, Regina; Oates, Sarah (2015-02-07).
2146:
776:To promote the state in a favorable light,
624:
610:
1629:
1627:
1020:. According to Christopher Walker in the
932:and South America (with the exception of
829:
682:
2627:Political regimes and the media in Asia.
2268:"Election Monitoring Vs. Disinformation"
1969:
1846:
1057:
739:of the corporation, as described in the
2550:Legal Determinants of External Finance.
2243:
2241:
2239:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
849:
2710:
2702:Media & Journalism Research Center
2412:Beck, Demirguc-Kunt & Levine, 1999
2265:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2074:
2052:
2050:
1970:Dragomir, Marius (September 3, 2017).
1624:
702:
670:
2111:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1633:Silverblatt & Zlobin, 2004, p. 22
2429:Policy Research Working paper 2146,
2236:
2117:
1712:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1456:Media and Journalism Research Center
1443:
1441:
1439:
1417:Media and Journalism Research Center
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1290:
1288:
1184:in authoritarian states such as the
1071:
676:Media and Journalism Research Center
650:
2315:
2222:
2047:
1248:
13:
2651:Silverbatt, Art; Zlobin, Nikolai.
1958:
1928:
1801:
1739:
14:
2749:
2691:
1810:"Government control of the media"
1477:
1436:
1396:
1285:
960:countries (with the exception of
912:As of 2002, the press in most of
2723:Concentration of media ownership
2653:International communications: a
2203:"2022 World Press Freedom Index"
1847:Dragomir, Marius (August 2018).
1767:The Journal of Law and Economics
1564:from the original on 28 Feb 2024
1554:"Typology – State Media Monitor"
1424:from the original on 28 Feb 2024
1053:
716:Independent Public Service Media
586:
36:
2518:World Bank Publications, 2002.
2443:World Bank Publications, 2002.
2406:
2397:
2373:
2349:
2324:
2306:
2259:
2250:
2213:
2195:
2140:
2068:
2059:
2038:
2029:
2020:
2011:
2002:
1887:
1840:
1730:
1703:
1690:
1681:
1672:
1663:
1654:
1645:
1636:
1599:
1575:
1330:ACE Electoral Knowledge Network
1306:from the original on 3 May 2023
1008:Consequences of state ownership
2564:The Theory of Economic Growth.
2537:Transaction Publishers, 2001.
2474:Journal of Law and Economics,
1546:
1525:
1369:
1344:
1317:
1269:List of state media by country
1113: Not classified / No data
660:content, to being independent
1:
2418:
2170:10.1080/09668136.2014.1002682
2118:Wang, Frances Yaping (2024).
1826:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.06.004
1499:Comparative Political Studies
1352:"Public Service Broadcasting"
887:Determinants of state control
575:Pundit / commentator
2644:Columbia Journalism Review,
2625:Sen, Krishna; Lee, Terence.
2461:The Quarterly of Economics,
2385:RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
1907:10.1017/cbo9780511609121.006
1899:An Essay on the Modern State
1354:. 2017-01-27. Archived from
1085: Moderately Controlled
752:former Socialist States the
113:Index of journalism articles
7:
2698:List of media organizations
1814:Journal of Public Economics
1257:
1099: Relatively Free Press
813:Theories of state ownership
733:
10:
2754:
2648:(1), pp. 13–22, 1998.
1687:Sen & Lee, 2008, p. 14
1449:"The State of State Media"
1412:"The State of State Media"
1222:civil and political rights
1216:Civil and political rights
1194:Republic of China (Taiwan)
1154:People's Republic of China
803:People's Republic of China
18:
2496:Hoffmann-Riem, Wolfgang.
2478:, pp. 341–381, 2003.
2465:(1), pp. 1–37. 2002.
2207:Reporters Without Borders
2065:Hoffmann-Riem, 1996, p. 3
1944:"A Measure of Media Bias"
1736:Lewis, 1955; Myrdal, 1953
598:Category: Journalism
2433:, Washington D.C., 1999.
2266:Merloe, Patrick (2015).
1988:10.1177/1464884917724621
1865:10.1177/1464884917724621
1511:10.1177/0010414010394773
1279:
1093: Lightly Controlled
1018:journalistic objectivity
725:Independent State-Funded
19:Not to be confused with
2678:OECD Publishing, 2002.
2642:Hot on the Money Trail.
2124:Oxford University Press
1948:A Measure of Media Bias
1264:Legislature broadcaster
1079: Highly Controlled
916:(with the exception of
807:Chinese Communist Party
766:government interference
535:Journalists (reporters)
2500:Guilford Press, 1996.
1121:
836:public interest theory
830:Public interest theory
789:to advocate a state's
690:editorial independence
683:State-Controlled Media
103:Editorial independence
2556:(3), 1131–1150, 1997.
2284:10.1353/jod.2015.0053
2089:10.1353/jod.2016.0007
1763:"Who Owns the Media?"
1558:statemediamonitor.com
1061:
593:Journalism portal
456:Pink-slime journalism
441:Horse race journalism
2552:Journal of Finance,
2403:La Porta et al, 1997
2321:Djankov, 2002, p. 25
2272:Journal of Democracy
2256:Djankov, 2002, p. 24
2233:Djankov, 2002, p. 23
2077:Journal of Democracy
2056:Djankov, 2002, p. 19
2044:Djankov, 2002, p. 20
2026:Djankov, 2002, p. 21
1390:10.37016/mr-2020-025
1226:political corruption
1048:television in Russia
1023:Journal of Democracy
856:public choice theory
850:Public choice theory
662:public service media
641:public service media
431:Freedom of the press
2659:M.E. Sharpe, 2004.
2471:Who owns the media?
2457:Regulation of Entry
2441:Who owns the media?
2157:Europe-Asia Studies
2035:Price, 2004, p. 195
1274:Public broadcasting
1134:internet censorship
1126:public broadcasting
1066:Press Freedom Index
703:State-Managed Media
671:MJRC Classification
493:Newspaper of record
21:Public broadcasting
1300:unesdoc.unesco.org
1122:
1042:, and Venezuela's
824:political freedoms
2733:Mass media issues
2684:978-92-64-19746-6
2665:978-0-7656-0975-5
2635:978-0-415-40297-2
2629:Routledge, 2008.
2620:978-0-415-24353-7
2614:Routledge, 2002.
2605:978-0-262-66186-7
2599:MIT Press, 2004.
2590:978-0-88738-827-9
2572:978-0-415-31301-8
2543:978-0-7658-0897-4
2524:978-0-8213-5203-8
2506:978-1-57230-029-3
2491:978-0-415-94959-0
2485:Routledge, 2004.
2449:978-0-7060-4285-6
2338:. 8 November 2022
1119:
1118:
867:, along with the
651:Other definitions
634:
633:
519:Alternative media
471:Yellow journalism
108:Journalism school
2745:
2481:Hoffmann, Bert.
2413:
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2018:
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2009:
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1982:(8): 1131–1148.
1967:
1956:
1955:
1939:
1926:
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1924:
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1891:
1885:
1884:
1859:(8): 1131–1148.
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1587:www.facebook.com
1579:
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1490:
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1472:
1470:
1464:
1458:. Archived from
1453:
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1433:
1431:
1429:
1420:. pp. 2–4.
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1249:Economic freedom
1112:
1107: Free Press
1106:
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1084:
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1072:
741:propaganda model
626:
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466:Propaganda model
461:Public relations
40:
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2595:Price, Monroe.
2437:Djankov, Simeon
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2126:. p. 223.
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1968:
1959:
1954:(4): 1191–1237.
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1664:
1660:Hoffmann, p. 48
1659:
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952:countries, the
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863:, known as the
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840:nationalisation
832:
815:
748:such as in the
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727:
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685:
673:
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587:
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365:Photojournalism
234:Interventionism
24:
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12:
11:
5:
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2692:External links
2690:
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2655:media literacy
2649:
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2578:Myrdal, Gunnar
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2164:(2): 285–305.
2139:
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2019:
2010:
2001:
1957:
1927:
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1800:
1779:10.1086/377116
1773:(2): 341–382.
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1505:(4): 436–467.
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15:
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2640:Simon, Joel.
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2560:Lewis, Arthur
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2133:9780197757512
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1358:on 2017-01-27
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1102:
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1068:
1067:
1060:
1054:Press freedom
1051:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1028:authoritarian
1025:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1014:press freedom
1005:
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987:
983:
979:
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942:United States
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898:
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894:press freedom
884:
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865:Fourth Estate
862:
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837:
827:
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695:According to
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560:Meteorologist
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144:Entertainment
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53:Writing style
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35:
34:
31:
28:
27:
22:
2675:
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2611:
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2549:
2534:
2512:
2497:
2482:
2475:
2469:
2462:
2455:
2440:
2426:
2408:
2399:
2388:. Retrieved
2384:
2375:
2364:. Retrieved
2360:
2351:
2340:. Retrieved
2335:
2326:
2317:
2308:
2278:(3): 79–93.
2275:
2271:
2261:
2252:
2215:
2206:
2197:
2189:
2161:
2155:
2142:
2119:
2113:
2083:(1): 49–63.
2080:
2076:
2070:
2061:
2040:
2031:
2022:
2013:
2004:
1979:
1975:
1951:
1947:
1920:, retrieved
1898:
1895:"Legitimacy"
1889:
1856:
1852:
1842:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1770:
1766:
1732:
1705:
1692:
1683:
1674:
1665:
1656:
1647:
1638:
1615:. Retrieved
1613:. 2020-06-04
1610:
1601:
1590:. Retrieved
1586:
1577:
1566:. Retrieved
1557:
1548:
1537:. Retrieved
1535:. 2023-10-24
1527:
1502:
1498:
1467:. Retrieved
1460:the original
1455:
1426:. Retrieved
1415:
1381:
1371:
1360:. Retrieved
1356:the original
1346:
1335:. Retrieved
1328:
1319:
1308:. Retrieved
1299:
1252:
1219:
1190:East Germany
1186:Soviet Union
1166:Turkmenistan
1131:
1123:
1063:
1032:totalitarian
1021:
1011:
911:
899:
890:
881:
853:
844:
833:
816:
800:
796:
754:Soviet Union
750:Eastern Bloc
737:
728:
719:
710:public media
706:
694:
686:
674:
666:
654:
645:
636:
635:
570:Photographer
504:TV and radio
436:Infotainment
426:Fifth Estate
325:Interpretive
275:Comics-based
2718:State media
2312:Simon, 1998
1820:: 163–171.
1174:North Korea
1038:, Russia's
1002:North Korea
986:South Korea
982:Philippines
954:Middle East
877:legislature
762:North Korea
637:State media
555:Copy editor
385:Underground
300:Explanatory
225:Adversarial
194:Video games
149:Environment
88:Attribution
83:News values
78:Objectivity
2738:News media
2728:Journalism
2712:Categories
2431:World Bank
2419:References
2390:2022-12-15
2366:2022-12-15
2342:2022-12-15
1976:Journalism
1922:2022-12-15
1853:Journalism
1617:2024-04-06
1592:2024-04-06
1583:"Facebook"
1568:2024-04-07
1539:2024-04-08
1362:2024-04-08
1337:2022-02-05
1310:2024-04-07
1230:media bias
1170:Uzbekistan
902:autocratic
787:mouthpiece
772:purposes:
770:propaganda
657:government
489:Newspapers
480:News media
446:Media bias
350:Non-profit
335:Multimedia
255:Churnalism
184:Technology
93:Defamation
30:Journalism
2657:approach.
2361:FRONTLINE
2300:146751430
2292:1086-3214
2178:0966-8136
2097:1086-3214
1996:149138184
1881:149138184
1873:1464-8849
1834:0047-2727
1787:0022-2186
1519:154523315
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