6011:
468:
31:
451:
295:
6023:
6071:
5698:
645:
761:, which stirs the hydrogen fusion region and keeps it well mixed with the surrounding proton-rich region. This core convection occurs in stars where the CNO cycle contributes more than 20% of the total energy. As the star ages and the core temperature increases, the region occupied by the convection zone slowly shrinks from 20% of the mass down to the inner 8% of the mass. The Sun produces on the order of 1% of its energy from the CNO cycle.
425:. This review paper collected and refined earlier research into a heavily cited picture that gave promise of accounting for the observed relative abundances of the elements; but it did not itself enlarge Hoyle's 1954 picture for the origin of primary nuclei as much as many assumed, except in the understanding of nucleosynthesis of those elements heavier than iron by neutron capture. Significant improvements were made by
6059:
661:
6035:
6047:
5709:
1448:
1961:
2131:
397:
in 1938, is more important in more massive main-sequence stars. These works concerned the energy generation capable of keeping stars hot. A clear physical description of the protonâproton chain and of the CNO cycle appears in a 1968 textbook. Bethe's two papers did not address the creation of heavier
274:. The need for a physical description was already inspired by the relative abundances of the chemical elements in the solar system. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of the atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions (see
748:
emission. The CNO cycle is very temperature sensitive, a 10% rise of temperature would produce a 350% rise in energy production. About 90% of the CNO cycle energy generation occurs within the inner 15% of the star's mass, hence it is strongly concentrated at the core. This results in such an intense
719:
nucleus (one proton plus one neutron) along with an ejected positron and neutrino. In each complete fusion cycle, the protonâproton chain reaction releases about 26.2 MeV. The protonâproton chain reaction cycle is relatively insensitive to temperature; a 10% rise of temperature would increase
1245:
743:
that uses nuclei of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries and in the end produces a helium nucleus as with the protonâproton chain. During a complete CNO cycle, 25.0 MeV of energy is released. The difference in energy production of this cycle, compared to the protonâproton chain
879:. This can then form oxygen, neon, and heavier elements via the alpha process. In this way, the alpha process preferentially produces elements with even numbers of protons by the capture of helium nuclei. Elements with odd numbers of protons are formed by other fusion pathways.
1682:
433:. In 1957 Cameron presented his own independent approach to nucleosynthesis, informed by Hoyle's example, and introduced computers into time-dependent calculations of evolution of nuclear systems. Clayton calculated the first time-dependent models of the
1780:
1968:
2289:"This result therefore paves the way toward a direct measurement of the solar metallicity using CNO neutrinos. Our findings quantify the relative contribution of CNO fusion in the Sun to be of the order of 1 per cent."âM. Agostini, et al.
1766:
1225:
859:
and to nearby galaxies. Despite the name, stars on a blue loop from the red giant branch are typically not blue in colour but are rather yellow giants, possibly
Cepheid variables. They fuse helium until the core is largely
203:. However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances of elements in the universe as the elements are contained within the star. Later in its life, a low-mass star will slowly eject its atmosphere via
1443:{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}=n_{A}n_{B}\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {S(E)}{E}}\,e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}2{\sqrt {\frac {E}{\pi (kT)^{3}}}}e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}\,{\sqrt {\frac {2E}{m_{\text{R}}}}}dE}
764:
The type of hydrogen fusion process that dominates in a star is determined by the temperature dependency differences between the two reactions. The protonâproton chain reaction starts at temperatures about
1529:
822:
Main sequence stars accumulate helium in their cores as a result of hydrogen fusion, but the core does not become hot enough to initiate helium fusion. Helium fusion first begins when a star leaves the
1597:
720:
energy production by this method by 46%, hence, this hydrogen fusion process can occur in up to a third of the star's radius and occupy half the star's mass. For stars above 35% of the Sun's mass, the
447:
in 1965, as well as of the burning of silicon into the abundant alpha-particle nuclei and iron-group elements in 1968, and discovered radiogenic chronologies for determining the age of the elements.
278:). This suggested a natural process that is not random. A second stimulus to understanding the processes of stellar nucleosynthesis occurred during the 20th century, when it was realized that the
1011:
385:
analyzed the different possibilities for reactions by which hydrogen is fused into helium. He defined two processes that he believed to be the sources of energy in stars. The first one, the
2280:
Particle physicist Andrea Pocar points out, "Confirmation of CNO burning in our sun, where it operates at only one percent, reinforces our confidence that we understand how stars work."
1581:
5549:
1057:
3336:
Agostini, M.; AltenmĂŒller, K.; Appel, S.; Atroshchenko, V.; Bagdasarian, Z.; Basilico, D.; Bellini, G.; Benziger, J.; Biondi, R.; Bravo, D.; Caccianiga, B. (25 November 2020).
954:
259:
rebounding outward. The shock front briefly raises temperatures by roughly 50%, thereby causing furious burning for about a second. This final burning in massive stars, called
1689:
1091:
1122:
1956:{\displaystyle e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}\approx e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}\exp \left(-{\frac {(E-E_{0})^{2}}{{\frac {4}{3}}E_{0}kT}}\right)}
1148:
2126:{\displaystyle {\frac {r}{V}}\approx n_{A}\,n_{B}\,{\frac {4{\sqrt {2}}}{\sqrt {3m_{\text{R}}}}}\,{\sqrt {E_{0}}}{\frac {S(E_{0})}{kT}}e^{-{\frac {3E_{0}}{kT}}}}
402:. Hoyle followed that in 1954 with a paper describing how advanced fusion stages within massive stars would synthesize the elements from carbon to iron in mass.
792:, the CNO cycle becomes the dominant source of energy. This temperature is achieved in the cores of main-sequence stars with at least 1.3 times the mass of the
342:
and raised the possibility that the heavier elements are produced in stars. This was a preliminary step toward the idea of stellar nucleosynthesis. In 1928
2608:
827:
after accumulating sufficient helium in its core to ignite it. In stars around the mass of the Sun, this begins at the tip of the red giant branch with a
398:
nuclei, however. That theory was begun by Fred Hoyle in 1946 with his argument that a collection of very hot nuclei would assemble thermodynamically into
3642:
2318:
1239:
3710:; Buchmann, Lothar; Cecil, F. Edward; Champagne, Arthur E.; de Braeckeleer, Ludwig; Duba, Charles A. (1998-10-01). "Solar fusion cross sections".
405:
Hoyle's theory was extended to other processes, beginning with the publication of the 1957 review paper "Synthesis of the
Elements in Stars" by
2259:
in typical stars, the two reaction rates are equal at a temperature value that is within the core temperature ranges of main-sequence stars.
784:, but thereafter it increases more rapidly in efficiency as the temperature rises, than does the protonâproton reaction. Above approximately
374:
and Gamow himself to derive the rate at which nuclear reactions would occur at the high temperatures believed to exist in stellar interiors.
3612:
3567:
3323:
5746:
3592:
2944:
2862:
2360:
3538:
776:, making it the dominant fusion mechanism in smaller stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain requires a higher temperature of approximately
971:
1453:
804:. As a main-sequence star ages, the core temperature will rise, resulting in a steadily increasing contribution from its CNO cycle.
875:
In all cases, helium is fused to carbon via the triple-alpha process, i.e., three helium nuclei are transformed into carbon via
271:
6106:
4012:
2980:
2898:
2857:
5581:
4159:
4130:
3457:
3426:
3264:
3236:
3183:
3095:
3034:
2714:
872:. After the helium is exhausted in the core of a star, helium fusion will continue in a shell around the carbonâoxygen core.
868:. The most massive stars become supergiants when they leave the main sequence and quickly start helium fusion as they become
2819:
Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A.; Hull, T. E.; Zimmerman, B. A. (1961). "Neutron capture chains in heavy element synthesis".
2358:
Hoyle, F. (1954). "On
Nuclear Reactions Occurring in Very Hot STARS. I. The Synthesis of Elements from Carbon to Nickel".
1235:) depends on the details of the nuclear interaction, and has the dimension of an energy multiplied for a cross section.
5556:
4875:
911:
138:
715:. This creates a helium-4 nucleus through a sequence of reactions that begin with the fusion of two protons to form a
141:
of the elements. It explains why the observed abundances of elements change over time and why some elements and their
4185:
3280:
275:
183:
because of changes in their composition (the abundance of their constituent elements) over their lifespans, first by
1677:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial E}}\left(-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}-{\frac {E}{kT}}\right)\,=\,0}
3936:
3934:
Hoyle, F. (1954). "On
Nuclear Reactions occurring in very hot stars: Synthesis of elements from carbon to nickel".
3563:
3414:
2229:
2170:
712:
626:
386:
6010:
1583:
and at low energies from the Gamow factor, the integral almost vanished everywhere except around the peak, called
847:. Such a star initially moves away from the AGB toward bluer colours, then loops back again to what is called the
394:
5739:
5268:
2805:
2597:
839:
where it burns helium in its core. More massive stars ignite helium in their core without a flash and execute a
6111:
5561:
5198:
5182:
4217:
1541:
17:
389:, is the dominant energy source in stars with masses up to about the mass of the Sun. The second process, the
5608:
5475:
471:
A version of the periodic table indicating the origins â including stellar nucleosynthesis â of the elements.
303:
5591:
5542:
5517:
4810:
3649:
363:
5532:
5512:
2735:
4895:
1031:
6101:
6001:
5732:
5596:
5527:
5497:
4122:
3682:
3116:
3087:
2255:
keV·b. Incidentally, since the former reaction has a much higher Gamow factor, and due to the relative
729:
3472:
Schuler, S. C.; King, J. R.; The, L.-S. (2009), "Stellar
Nucleosynthesis in the Hyades Open Cluster",
362:
which is effective only at very short distances. In the following decade the Gamow factor was used by
270:
A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the
5603:
5480:
5457:
5039:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4078:
4020:
3474:
2985:
2502:
2446:
2407:
264:
216:
149:
in 1946, who later refined it in 1954. Further advances were made, especially to nucleosynthesis by
6096:
6091:
4746:
4620:
4255:
114:
1062:
732:. As a result, there is little mixing of fresh hydrogen into the core or fusion products outward.
5898:
5863:
5798:
5522:
5273:
5072:
4982:
4942:
4850:
4421:
4347:
4141:
3534:
2903:
844:
725:
697:
551:
491:
51:
1100:
5893:
5883:
5683:
5663:
5435:
5430:
5328:
5223:
5172:
4977:
4967:
4640:
4438:
4406:
4297:
4280:
4175:
4008:
3303:
961:
700:
and the carbonânitrogenâoxygen (CNO) cycle. Ninety percent of all stars, with the exception of
546:
536:
426:
235:
227:
3828:
3629:
3443:
3418:
3256:
3173:
2739:
2706:
2637:
5537:
5507:
5502:
5492:
5420:
5208:
4374:
3678:
3204:
3081:
3024:
2256:
414:
323:
166:
4655:
3139:
3077:
5888:
5878:
5678:
5576:
5566:
5415:
5383:
5177:
4972:
4957:
4270:
4087:
4029:
3945:
3904:
3859:
3790:
3729:
3686:
3493:
3359:
3216:
3135:
2994:
2953:
2912:
2871:
2830:
2665:
2560:
2511:
2455:
2416:
2399:
2369:
2327:
813:
724:
toward the surface is sufficiently low and energy transfer from the core region remains by
541:
511:
359:
358:
between them and approach each other closely enough to undergo nuclear reaction due to the
200:
70:
8:
6063:
5942:
5833:
5813:
5808:
5138:
5121:
4792:
4694:
4517:
4073:
3449:
3053:
2629:
696:
atmosphere. There are two predominant processes by which stellar hydrogen fusion occurs:
605:
354:
formula yielding the probability for two contiguous nuclei to overcome the electrostatic
5278:
4091:
4033:
3949:
3908:
3863:
3825:
Studying
Stellar Rotation and Convection: Theoretical Background and Seismic Diagnostics
3794:
3771:
Adelberger, E. G. (2011). "Solar fusion cross sections. II. Theppchain and CNO cycles".
3733:
3497:
3363:
3281:"Neutrinos yield first experimental evidence of catalyzed fusion dominant in many stars"
3220:
2998:
2957:
2916:
2875:
2834:
2669:
2564:
2515:
2459:
2420:
2373:
2331:
1761:{\displaystyle E_{0}=\left({\frac {1}{2}}kT{\sqrt {E_{\text{G}}}}\right)^{\frac {2}{3}}}
6051:
5673:
5634:
5586:
5571:
5485:
5425:
5348:
5258:
5228:
5218:
5162:
5084:
4775:
4411:
4210:
4103:
4000:
3986:
3806:
3780:
3753:
3719:
3703:
3699:
3509:
3483:
3391:
3349:
3307:
3151:
3125:
2779:
2174:
1142:
754:
378:
219:
is used to describe the creation of elements during the explosion of a massive star or
3505:
5823:
5793:
5763:
5624:
5049:
5022:
5002:
4802:
4586:
4574:
4401:
4381:
4335:
4317:
4285:
4155:
4126:
3970:
3965:
3922:
3877:
3810:
3745:
3453:
3422:
3395:
3383:
3375:
3260:
3232:
3179:
3178:, Astrophysics and space science library, vol. 179, Springer, pp. 200â214,
3091:
3030:
2939:
2842:
2821:
2783:
2771:
2754:
2710:
2683:
2633:
2578:
2527:
1128:
836:
832:
686:
430:
410:
406:
351:
196:
180:
162:
158:
34:
5109:
4107:
4055:
3757:
3513:
3337:
3155:
211:, while a higherâmass star will eject mass via a sudden catastrophic event called a
6039:
6027:
5853:
5818:
5803:
5755:
5452:
5405:
5355:
5343:
5321:
5316:
5243:
5203:
5150:
4932:
4855:
4830:
4724:
4645:
4369:
4330:
4147:
4095:
4045:
4037:
3953:
3912:
3867:
3798:
3737:
3604:
3501:
3367:
3224:
3143:
3002:
2961:
2920:
2879:
2838:
2763:
2673:
2568:
2551:
2519:
2463:
2424:
2377:
2335:
852:
824:
685:
stars. It is also called "hydrogen burning", which should not be confused with the
634:
485:
367:
319:
299:
252:
208:
184:
134:
102:
3999:
3147:
3114:(March 2009). "On the magnetic topology of partially and fully convective stars".
1220:{\displaystyle \sigma (E)={\frac {S(E)}{E}}e^{-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\text{G}}}{E}}}}}
5963:
5858:
5828:
5639:
5442:
5311:
5155:
5126:
5067:
5062:
4937:
4665:
4630:
4564:
4510:
4505:
4450:
4260:
4179:
4116:
4076:; A. Heger; T. A. Weaver (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars".
3895:
3850:
3707:
2656:
758:
740:
527:
467:
355:
239:
150:
98:
3338:"Experimental evidence of neutrinos produced in the CNO fusion cycle in the Sun"
2523:
1238:
One then integrates over all energies to get the total reaction rate, using the
314:
and also raised the possibility that the heavier elements are produced in stars.
6075:
6015:
5984:
5968:
5701:
5467:
5306:
5133:
5104:
5079:
5012:
4701:
4569:
4455:
4357:
4247:
4237:
4099:
3823:
Goupil, M., Belkacem, K., Neiner, C., LigniĂšres, F., & Green, J. J., eds.,
3741:
3319:
2924:
1538:
Since this integration has an exponential damping at high energies of the form
965:
869:
331:
231:
192:
106:
4041:
3802:
3371:
3228:
2429:
2340:
2313:
689:
619:
6085:
5873:
5788:
5653:
5447:
5410:
5378:
5253:
4962:
4785:
4756:
4734:
4352:
4325:
4302:
4203:
3749:
3550:
Karttunen, H., Kröger, P., Oja, H., Poutanen, M., & Donner, K. J., eds.,
3379:
2467:
851:. An important consequence of blue loops is that they give rise to classical
848:
817:
682:
517:
371:
188:
177:, which became one of the most heavily cited papers in astrophysics history.
2767:
450:
251:(from silicon to nickel) is actually caused by the upper layers of the star
30:
5947:
5713:
5388:
5338:
5333:
5233:
5116:
5099:
5057:
5027:
5017:
4952:
4835:
4780:
4761:
4741:
4719:
4711:
4554:
4547:
4386:
4307:
4290:
3926:
3917:
3890:
3881:
3872:
3845:
3387:
2775:
2687:
2678:
2651:
2582:
2531:
1532:
1132:
828:
701:
618:"Hydrogen burning" redirects here. For the combustion of hydrogen gas, see
347:
343:
294:
204:
90:
4151:
3985:
Ray, A. (2004). "Stars as thermonuclear reactors: Their fuels and ashes".
282:
released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the
5773:
5629:
5301:
5293:
5283:
5263:
5238:
5167:
5089:
4845:
4820:
4815:
4729:
4689:
4650:
4615:
4598:
4593:
4265:
3991:
3977:
3724:
3311:
3111:
2190:
2153:
1094:
876:
721:
531:
327:
245:
220:
145:
are much more abundant than others. The theory was initially proposed by
2798:
5924:
5778:
5213:
4910:
4883:
4860:
4840:
4825:
4677:
4581:
4559:
4537:
4532:
4396:
3559:
2158:
750:
681:
nucleus) is the dominant process that generates energy in the cores of
592:
455:
422:
418:
382:
256:
174:
170:
146:
6070:
4050:
3413:, Springer-Praxis books in astrophysics and astronomy (2nd ed.),
5919:
5911:
5903:
5868:
5783:
5400:
5248:
5032:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4947:
4900:
4890:
4684:
4660:
4635:
4542:
4493:
4426:
4416:
4391:
4364:
4340:
4275:
4004:
3588:
2573:
2233:
2185:
2166:
856:
840:
736:
716:
693:
630:
598:
578:
572:
497:
441:
434:
390:
212:
61:
5724:
3335:
2546:
2497:
735:
In higher-mass stars, the dominant energy production process is the
644:
5393:
5094:
4768:
4527:
4500:
3957:
3584:
3354:
3006:
2965:
2883:
2381:
2162:
745:
678:
479:
335:
307:
230:
and its associated heating, resulting in the subsequent burning of
130:
118:
3785:
3643:"University College London astrophysics course: lecture 7 â Stars"
3581:
Chemistry in Space: From
Interstellar Matter to the Origin of Life
3488:
3130:
2398:
Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W.A.; Hoyle, F. (1957).
1131:, there is an exponential damping at low energies that depends on
5668:
5143:
4905:
4672:
4625:
4608:
4603:
4522:
3698:
3411:
New light on dark stars: red dwarfs, low-mass stars, brown dwarfs
3057:
2161:, due to the relation between the intermediate bound state (e.g.
565:
142:
126:
2444:
Suess, H. E.; Urey, H. C. (1956). "Abundances of the
Elements".
5658:
5646:
4865:
4751:
3555:
3530:
2752:
Clayton, D. D. (2007). "History of
Science: Hoyle's Equation".
865:
861:
772:
585:
504:
339:
322:, on the basis of the precise measurements of atomic masses by
311:
279:
122:
84: The Sun's core temperature, at which PP is more efficient
41:) of the following fusion processes at different temperatures (
3029:, Greenwood guides to the universe, ABC-CLIO, pp. 65â67,
1524:{\displaystyle m_{\text{R}}={\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{m_{1}+m_{2}}}}
4013:"Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress"
1097:. Thus semi-classically the cross section is proportional to
3203:
Jeffrey, C. Simon (2010), Goswami, A.; Reddy, B. E. (eds.),
660:
78: Combined energy generation of PP and CNO within a star
5007:
4226:
4189:
4072:
2397:
707:
In the cores of lower-mass main-sequence stars such as the
559:
399:
154:
110:
5708:
2818:
2799:
Stellar
Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis
677:
Hydrogen fusion (nuclear fusion of four protons to form a
5373:
2149:
793:
708:
475:
The most important reactions in stellar nucleosynthesis:
283:
242:. However, most of the nucleosynthesis in the mass range
4195:
964:
of each single elementary binary reaction composing the
855:, of central importance in determining distances in the
1028:
Semi-classically, the cross section is proportional to
2858:"Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture"
1103:
744:
reaction, is accounted for by the energy lost through
5999:
2937:
2896:
2856:
Seeger, P. A.; Fowler, W. A.; Clayton, D. D. (1965).
1971:
1783:
1692:
1600:
1544:
1456:
1248:
1151:
1065:
1034:
974:
914:
2938:
Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968).
2897:
Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968).
670:
The helium nucleus is released at the top-left step.
226:
The advanced sequence of burning fuels is driven by
4011:; G. M. Hale; A. E. Champagne; et al. (1997).
3972:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
3435:
3167:
3165:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3066:
2855:
2732:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2483:
Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
2157:, but are damped by a huge factor when involving a
3969:
3175:Structure and evolution of single and binary stars
2940:"Nuclear Quasi-Equilibrium during Silicon Burning"
2125:
1955:
1760:
1676:
1575:
1523:
1442:
1219:
1116:
1085:
1051:
1025:, and averaging is performed over all velocities.
1005:
948:
3244:
2981:"Cosmoradiogenic Chronologies of Nucleosynthesis"
2319:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
796:. The Sun itself has a core temperature of about
753:energy transfer becomes more important than does
330:, proposed that stars obtained their energy from
267:, is the final epoch of stellar nucleosynthesis.
113:. Stellar nucleosynthesis has occurred since the
6083:
3162:
3063:
711:, the dominant energy production process is the
3611:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011),
3402:
3205:"Principles and Perspectives in Cosmochemistry"
1006:{\displaystyle k=\langle \sigma (v)\,v\rangle }
302:proposed that stars obtained their energy from
3471:
3441:
3198:
3196:
3194:
2607:. Houston Astronomical Society. pp. 6â8.
704:, are fusing hydrogen by these two processes.
5740:
4211:
2931:
2890:
2314:"The synthesis of the elements from hydrogen"
1770:The exponent can then be approximated around
3527:Physics and Technology of Sustainable Energy
3465:
3250:
3171:
3109:
3103:
3076:
3018:
3016:
1021:) is the cross-section at relative velocity
1000:
981:
458:showing nucleosynthesis and elements formed.
272:abundances of elements found in the universe
4182:(Nobel prize site, accessed 6 January 2020)
3409:Reid, I. Neill; Hawley, Suzanne L. (2005),
3191:
2945:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2863:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2361:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
2353:
2351:
2307:
2305:
5747:
5733:
4218:
4204:
3770:
3445:Evolution of stars and stellar populations
3442:Salaris, Maurizio; Cassisi, Santi (2005),
3408:
3209:Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings
2849:
2474:
2228:keV·b, while the limiting reaction in the
1965:And the reaction rate is approximated as:
887:The reaction rate density between species
27:Creation of chemical elements within stars
4049:
3990:
3916:
3871:
3784:
3723:
3487:
3353:
3172:de Loore, Camiel W. H.; Doom, C. (1992),
3129:
3013:
2677:
2572:
2544:
2495:
2443:
2428:
2339:
2173:. Note that typical core temperatures in
2038:
2006:
1995:
1670:
1666:
1576:{\displaystyle \sim e^{-{\frac {E}{kT}}}}
1409:
1318:
1038:
996:
942:
931:
757:. As a result, the core region becomes a
2899:"Nucleosynthesis During Silicon Burning"
2547:"The Internal Constitution of the Stars"
2498:"The internal constitution of the stars"
2348:
2302:
2169:and the beta decay half-life, as in the
466:
449:
293:
29:
4139:
4114:
3964:
3202:
2978:
2796:
2751:
2480:
835:helium core, and the star moves to the
381:entitled "Energy Production in Stars",
14:
6084:
3251:Karttunen, Hannu; Oja, Heikki (2007),
2705:. Cambridge University Press. p.
2393:
2391:
137:, it yields accurate estimates of the
5754:
5728:
4199:
3933:
3888:
3843:
3827:(Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2013),
3022:
2649:
2595:
2357:
2311:
1127:However, since the reaction involves
3702:; Austin, Sam M.; Bahcall, John N.;
3316:Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry
3083:Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics
2700:
2400:"Synthesis of the Elements in Stars"
558:Production of elements heavier than
37:plot of the relative energy output (
3984:
2388:
2236:from two protons, has a much lower
2184:Thus, the limiting reaction in the
530:: a process found most commonly in
421:, more commonly referred to as the
24:
4118:Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos
3837:
3255:(5th ed.), Springer, p.
1607:
1603:
1292:
1052:{\displaystyle \pi \,\lambda ^{2}}
613:
25:
6123:
4169:
949:{\displaystyle r=n_{A}\,n_{B}\,k}
276:history of nucleosynthesis theory
199:star), and progressively burning
6069:
6057:
6045:
6033:
6021:
6009:
5707:
5697:
5696:
3937:Astrophysical Journal Supplement
2614:from the original on 2013-12-03.
882:
807:
659:
643:
462:
326:and a preliminary suggestion by
3817:
3764:
3692:
3667:
3635:
3618:
3598:
3573:
3544:
3519:
3329:
3297:
3273:
3042:
2972:
2812:
2806:Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
2790:
2745:
2724:
2694:
2643:
2283:
2274:
393:, which was also considered by
346:derived what is now called the
286:as a source of heat and light.
2618:
2589:
2538:
2489:
2485:. University of Chicago Press.
2437:
2072:
2059:
1908:
1888:
1371:
1361:
1309:
1303:
1240:MaxwellâBoltzmann distribution
1179:
1173:
1161:
1155:
993:
987:
13:
1:
6107:Stellar astrophysics concepts
5609:Timeline of stellar astronomy
3628:(Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2015),
2262:
395:Carl Friedrich von WeizsÀcker
153:of the elements heavier than
3891:"Energy Production in Stars"
3846:"Energy Production in Stars"
3058:Wadsworth Publishing Company
2843:10.1016/0003-4916(61)90067-7
2652:"Energy Production in Stars"
2296:
2230:protonâproton chain reaction
2171:protonâproton chain reaction
1086:{\displaystyle \lambda =h/p}
713:protonâproton chain reaction
651:Protonâproton chain reaction
627:Protonâproton chain reaction
524:Fusion of heavier elements:
498:carbonânitrogenâoxygen cycle
391:carbonânitrogenâoxygen cycle
387:protonâproton chain reaction
7:
5269:HertzsprungâRussell diagram
4140:Iliadis, Christian (2007).
4115:Clayton, Donald D. (2003).
3506:10.1088/0004-637X/701/1/837
3148:10.1051/0004-6361:200811450
2736:University of Chicago Press
2703:The Life and Death of Stars
2524:10.1126/science.52.1341.233
1117:{\textstyle {\frac {m}{E}}}
255:, creating a compressional
10:
6128:
5183:KelvinâHelmholtz mechanism
4123:Cambridge University Press
4100:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015
3742:10.1103/RevModPhys.70.1265
3683:Princeton University Press
3675:Astrophysics in a Nutshell
3117:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3088:Cambridge University Press
2925:10.1103/PhysRevLett.20.161
2797:Cameron, A. G. W. (1957).
2596:Selle, D. (October 2012).
895:, having number densities
811:
624:
620:Hydrogen § Combustion
617:
289:
5977:
5956:
5933:
5842:
5762:
5692:
5617:
5466:
5364:
5292:
5191:
5048:
4923:
4801:
4710:
4446:
4437:
4316:
4246:
4233:
4225:
4079:Reviews of Modern Physics
4042:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995
4021:Reviews of Modern Physics
3803:10.1103/RevModPhys.83.195
3773:Reviews of Modern Physics
3712:Reviews of Modern Physics
3475:The Astrophysical Journal
3372:10.1038/s41586-020-2934-0
3229:10.1007/978-3-642-10352-0
3023:Jones, Lauren V. (2009),
2986:The Astrophysical Journal
2545:Eddington, A. S. (1920).
2496:Eddington, A. S. (1920).
2447:Reviews of Modern Physics
2430:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
2408:Reviews of Modern Physics
749:outward energy flux that
265:supernova nucleosynthesis
261:explosive nucleosynthesis
217:supernova nucleosynthesis
5562:With multiple exoplanets
4143:Nuclear Physics of Stars
3626:Nuclear Physics of Stars
3050:Foundations of Astronomy
2468:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53
2267:
730:convective heat transfer
253:collapsing onto the core
5799:Double electron capture
4348:Asymptotic giant branch
4146:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
3535:Oxford University Press
3140:2009A&A...496..787R
2979:Clayton, D. D. (1964).
2904:Physical Review Letters
2768:10.1126/science.1151167
2730:Clayton, D. D. (1968).
2481:Clayton, D. D. (1968).
2341:10.1093/mnras/106.5.343
845:asymptotic giant branch
726:radiative heat transfer
552:Silicon-burning process
95:stellar nucleosynthesis
5684:Tidal disruption event
5173:Circumstellar envelope
4407:Luminous blue variable
3918:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434
3873:10.1103/PhysRev.55.103
3609:The Exoplanet Handbook
2679:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434
2127:
1957:
1762:
1678:
1577:
1525:
1444:
1221:
1118:
1087:
1053:
1007:
962:reaction rate constant
950:
690:combustion of hydrogen
547:Oxygen-burning process
537:Carbon-burning process
472:
459:
427:Alastair G. W. Cameron
315:
228:gravitational collapse
86:
6112:Concepts in astronomy
5209:Effective temperature
4152:10.1002/9783527618750
3889:Bethe, H. A. (1939).
3844:Bethe, H. A. (1939).
3552:Fundamental Astronomy
3253:Fundamental astronomy
2650:Bethe, H. A. (1939).
2598:"Why the Stars Shine"
2257:abundance of elements
2181:of the order of keV.
2128:
1958:
1763:
1679:
1578:
1526:
1445:
1222:
1119:
1095:de Broglie wavelength
1088:
1054:
1008:
951:
470:
453:
297:
173:in their famous 1957
167:William Alfred Fowler
33:
5679:Planet-hosting stars
5557:With resolved images
5528:Historical brightest
5458:Photometric-standard
5384:Solar radio emission
5178:Eddington luminosity
4958:Triple-alpha process
4896:ThorneâĆ»ytkow object
4271:Young stellar object
4176:"How the Sun Shines"
3452:, pp. 119â123,
3314:, & Ekberg, C.,
2701:Lang, K. R. (2013).
2188:, proton capture by
1969:
1781:
1690:
1598:
1542:
1454:
1246:
1149:
1101:
1063:
1032:
972:
912:
843:before reaching the
814:Triple-alpha process
542:Neon-burning process
512:triple-alpha process
360:strong nuclear force
5943:Photodisintegration
5864:Protonâproton chain
5834:Spontaneous fission
5814:Isomeric transition
5809:Internal conversion
5503:Highest temperature
5274:Colorâcolor diagram
5139:Protoplanetary disk
4943:Protonâproton chain
4621:Chemically peculiar
4092:2002RvMP...74.1015W
4034:1997RvMP...69..995W
3950:1954ApJS....1..121H
3909:1939PhRv...55..434B
3864:1939PhRv...55..103B
3795:2011RvMP...83..195A
3734:1998RvMP...70.1265A
3706:; Bogaert, Gilles;
3700:Adelberger, Eric G.
3655:on January 15, 2017
3498:2009ApJ...701..837S
3450:John Wiley and Sons
3364:2020Natur.587..577B
3221:2010ASSP...16.....G
3215:, Springer: 64â66,
3090:, pp. 93â100,
3078:Böhm-Vitense, Erika
2999:1964ApJ...139..637C
2958:1968ApJS...16..299B
2917:1968PhRvL..20..161B
2876:1965ApJS...11..121S
2835:1961AnPhy..12..331C
2762:(5858): 1876â1877.
2670:1939PhRv...55..434B
2565:1920Natur.106...14E
2516:1920Obs....43..341E
2460:1956RvMP...28...53S
2421:1957RvMP...29..547B
2374:1954ApJS....1..121H
2332:1946MNRAS.106..343H
2175:main-sequence stars
1296:
698:protonâproton chain
606:Photodisintegration
492:protonâproton chain
454:Cross section of a
440:in 1961 and of the
139:observed abundances
52:Protonâproton chain
5508:Lowest temperature
5259:Photometric system
5229:Absolute magnitude
5163:Circumstellar dust
4776:Stellar black hole
4412:Stellar population
4298:HerbigâHaro object
3966:Clayton, Donald D.
3026:Stars and galaxies
2312:Hoyle, F. (1946).
2232:, the creation of
2123:
1953:
1758:
1674:
1573:
1521:
1440:
1282:
1242:and the relation:
1217:
1143:Arrhenius equation
1114:
1083:
1049:
1003:
946:
755:radiative transfer
473:
460:
352:quantum-mechanical
316:
87:
6102:Stellar astronomy
5997:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5824:Positron emission
5794:Double beta decay
5756:Nuclear processes
5722:
5721:
5625:Substellar object
5604:Planetary nebulae
5023:Luminous red nova
4933:Deuterium burning
4919:
4918:
4402:Instability strip
4382:Wolf-Rayet nebula
4336:Horizontal branch
4281:Pre-main-sequence
4161:978-3-527-40602-9
4132:978-0-521-82381-4
3704:Balantekin, A. B.
3459:978-0-470-09220-0
3428:978-3-540-25124-8
3348:(7835): 577â582.
3266:978-3-540-34143-7
3238:978-3-642-10368-1
3185:978-0-7923-1768-5
3110:Reiners, Ansgar;
3097:978-0-521-34871-3
3036:978-0-313-34075-8
2822:Annals of Physics
2716:978-1-107-01638-5
2559:(2653): 233â240.
2510:(1341): 341â358.
2119:
2084:
2051:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2018:
1980:
1946:
1927:
1867:
1827:
1826:
1820:
1805:
1755:
1740:
1737:
1720:
1659:
1641:
1640:
1634:
1614:
1569:
1519:
1464:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1405:
1382:
1381:
1344:
1343:
1337:
1316:
1257:
1213:
1212:
1206:
1186:
1129:quantum tunneling
1112:
853:Cepheid variables
837:horizontal branch
728:, rather than by
431:Donald D. Clayton
197:horizontal branch
163:Geoffrey Burbidge
135:predictive theory
115:original creation
109:reactions within
103:chemical elements
35:Logarithmic scale
16:(Redirected from
6119:
6074:
6073:
6062:
6061:
6060:
6050:
6049:
6048:
6038:
6037:
6036:
6026:
6025:
6024:
6014:
6013:
6005:
5954:
5953:
5854:Deuterium fusion
5819:Neutron emission
5804:Electron capture
5749:
5742:
5735:
5726:
5725:
5714:Stars portal
5712:
5711:
5700:
5699:
5356:Planetary system
5279:Strömgren sphere
5151:Asteroseismology
4872:Black hole star
4444:
4443:
4370:Planetary nebula
4331:Red-giant branch
4220:
4213:
4206:
4197:
4196:
4165:
4136:
4111:
4086:(4): 1015â1071.
4069:
4067:
4066:
4060:
4054:. Archived from
4053:
4017:
3996:
3994:
3992:astro-ph/0405568
3981:
3975:
3961:
3930:
3920:
3885:
3875:
3832:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3788:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3727:
3725:astro-ph/9805121
3718:(4): 1265â1291.
3708:Brown, Lowell S.
3696:
3690:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3654:
3648:. Archived from
3647:
3639:
3633:
3622:
3616:
3602:
3596:
3577:
3571:
3548:
3542:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3491:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3439:
3433:
3431:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3357:
3333:
3327:
3318:(Cambridge, MA:
3308:Liljenzin, J.-O.
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3291:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3200:
3189:
3188:
3169:
3160:
3159:
3133:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3074:
3061:
3060:, 1986), p. 245.
3046:
3040:
3039:
3020:
3011:
3010:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2816:
2810:
2809:
2808:. Report CRL-41.
2803:
2794:
2788:
2787:
2749:
2743:
2728:
2722:
2720:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2681:
2647:
2641:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2602:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2576:
2574:10.1038/106014a0
2542:
2536:
2535:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2404:
2395:
2386:
2385:
2355:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2309:
2290:
2287:
2281:
2278:
2254:
2227:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2198:
2197:
2156:
2146:) are typically
2132:
2130:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2095:
2085:
2083:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2005:
2004:
1994:
1993:
1981:
1973:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1938:
1937:
1928:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1886:
1870:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1843:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1804:
1793:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1721:
1713:
1702:
1701:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1647:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1615:
1613:
1602:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1557:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1516:
1504:
1503:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1482:
1481:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1449:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1420:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1393:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1317:
1312:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1270:
1258:
1250:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1187:
1182:
1168:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1113:
1105:
1092:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1012:
1010:
1009:
1004:
955:
953:
952:
947:
941:
940:
930:
929:
825:red giant branch
803:
801:
791:
789:
783:
781:
775:
770:
663:
647:
635:Deuterium fusion
486:Deuterium fusion
320:Arthur Eddington
300:Arthur Eddington
250:
209:planetary nebula
185:burning hydrogen
83:
77:
71:Triple-α process
68:
59:
49:
44:
40:
21:
6127:
6126:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6117:
6116:
6097:Nuclear physics
6092:Nucleosynthesis
6082:
6081:
6080:
6068:
6058:
6056:
6046:
6044:
6034:
6032:
6022:
6020:
6008:
6000:
5998:
5989:
5973:
5964:Neutron capture
5952:
5935:
5929:
5846:nucleosynthesis
5845:
5838:
5829:Proton emission
5784:Gamma radiation
5765:
5758:
5753:
5723:
5718:
5706:
5688:
5613:
5582:Milky Way novae
5518:Smallest volume
5462:
5443:Radial velocity
5366:
5360:
5312:Common envelope
5288:
5187:
5156:Helioseismology
5127:Bipolar outflow
5068:Microturbulence
5063:Convection zone
5044:
4938:Lithium burning
4925:Nucleosynthesis
4915:
4797:
4706:
4433:
4312:
4261:Molecular cloud
4242:
4229:
4224:
4186:Nucleosynthesis
4180:John N. Bahcall
4172:
4162:
4133:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4028:(4): 995â1084.
4015:
4009:A. M. Boesgaard
3896:Physical Review
3851:Physical Review
3840:
3838:Further reading
3835:
3822:
3818:
3769:
3765:
3697:
3693:
3672:
3668:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3645:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3623:
3619:
3603:
3599:
3578:
3574:
3549:
3545:
3524:
3520:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3407:
3403:
3334:
3330:
3302:
3298:
3289:
3287:
3279:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3249:
3245:
3239:
3201:
3192:
3186:
3170:
3163:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3086:, vol. 3,
3075:
3064:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3021:
3014:
2977:
2973:
2936:
2932:
2895:
2891:
2854:
2850:
2817:
2813:
2801:
2795:
2791:
2750:
2746:
2729:
2725:
2717:
2699:
2695:
2657:Physical Review
2648:
2644:
2623:
2619:
2611:
2600:
2594:
2590:
2543:
2539:
2503:The Observatory
2494:
2490:
2479:
2475:
2442:
2438:
2402:
2396:
2389:
2356:
2349:
2310:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2252:
2246:
2225:
2219:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2147:
2145:
2111:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2053:
2045:
2041:
2039:
2029:
2025:
2013:
2009:
2007:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1985:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1918:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1859:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1817:
1813:
1810:
1797:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1747:
1734:
1730:
1728:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1706:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1651:
1646:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1512:
1508:
1499:
1495:
1494:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1410:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1374:
1370:
1357:
1351:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1299:
1297:
1291:
1286:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1169:
1167:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1140:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1075:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1030:
1029:
973:
970:
969:
936:
932:
925:
921:
913:
910:
909:
908:, is given by:
907:
885:
870:red supergiants
820:
812:Main articles:
810:
799:
797:
787:
785:
779:
777:
768:
766:
759:convection zone
741:catalytic cycle
675:
674:
673:
672:
671:
669:
664:
655:
654:
653:
648:
637:
625:Main articles:
623:
616:
614:Hydrogen fusion
528:Lithium burning
465:
356:Coulomb barrier
292:
243:
201:higher elements
151:neutron capture
85:
81:
79:
75:
73:
66:
64:
57:
55:
47:
42:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6125:
6115:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6079:
6078:
6066:
6054:
6042:
6030:
6018:
5995:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5988:
5987:
5985:(n-p) reaction
5981:
5979:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5971:
5969:Proton capture
5966:
5960:
5958:
5951:
5950:
5945:
5939:
5937:
5931:
5930:
5928:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5909:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5850:
5848:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5770:
5768:
5760:
5759:
5752:
5751:
5744:
5737:
5729:
5720:
5719:
5717:
5716:
5704:
5693:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5650:
5649:
5644:
5643:
5642:
5637:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5614:
5612:
5611:
5606:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5594:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5553:
5552:
5547:
5546:
5545:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5513:Largest volume
5510:
5505:
5500:
5490:
5489:
5488:
5483:
5472:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5439:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5397:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5370:
5368:
5362:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5353:
5352:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5331:
5326:
5325:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5298:
5296:
5290:
5289:
5287:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5231:
5226:
5224:Magnetic field
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5195:
5193:
5189:
5188:
5186:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5159:
5158:
5148:
5147:
5146:
5141:
5134:Accretion disk
5131:
5130:
5129:
5124:
5114:
5113:
5112:
5110:Alfvén surface
5107:
5105:Stellar corona
5102:
5097:
5092:
5082:
5080:Radiation zone
5077:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5060:
5054:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5043:
5042:
5037:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4929:
4927:
4921:
4920:
4917:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4887:
4886:
4881:
4878:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4818:
4813:
4807:
4805:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4795:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4778:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4759:
4749:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4727:
4722:
4716:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4702:Blue straggler
4699:
4698:
4697:
4687:
4682:
4681:
4680:
4670:
4669:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4618:
4613:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4591:
4590:
4589:
4579:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4557:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4514:
4513:
4508:
4498:
4497:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4460:Main sequence
4458:
4453:
4447:
4441:
4439:Classification
4435:
4434:
4432:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4378:
4377:
4375:Protoplanetary
4367:
4362:
4361:
4360:
4355:
4345:
4344:
4343:
4333:
4328:
4322:
4320:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4294:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4252:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4223:
4222:
4215:
4208:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4183:
4171:
4170:External links
4168:
4167:
4166:
4160:
4137:
4131:
4112:
4074:Woosley, S. E.
4070:
4001:G. Wallerstein
3997:
3982:
3962:
3958:10.1086/190005
3931:
3903:(5): 434â456.
3886:
3858:(1): 541â547.
3839:
3836:
3834:
3833:
3816:
3779:(1): 195â245.
3763:
3691:
3666:
3634:
3617:
3597:
3572:
3543:
3518:
3482:(1): 837â849,
3464:
3458:
3434:
3427:
3401:
3328:
3320:Academic Press
3304:Choppin, G. R.
3296:
3272:
3265:
3243:
3237:
3190:
3184:
3161:
3124:(3): 787â790.
3102:
3096:
3062:
3048:Seeds, M. A.,
3041:
3035:
3012:
3007:10.1086/147791
2971:
2966:10.1086/190176
2930:
2911:(4): 161â164.
2889:
2884:10.1086/190111
2848:
2829:(3): 331â408.
2811:
2789:
2744:
2723:
2715:
2693:
2664:(5): 434â456.
2642:
2626:Modern Physics
2624:Krane, K. S.,
2617:
2588:
2537:
2488:
2473:
2436:
2415:(4): 547â650.
2387:
2382:10.1086/190005
2347:
2326:(5): 343â383.
2300:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2282:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2244:
2217:
2203:
2194:
2143:
2117:
2114:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2058:
2048:
2044:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2012:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1976:
1951:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1865:
1862:
1855:
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1841:
1837:
1833:
1825:
1816:
1809:
1803:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1774:
1754:
1751:
1745:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1716:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1639:
1630:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1605:
1591:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1460:
1439:
1436:
1424:
1419:
1416:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1342:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1253:
1211:
1202:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1138:
1111:
1108:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1002:
999:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
966:nuclear fusion
945:
939:
935:
928:
924:
920:
917:
899:
884:
881:
809:
806:
665:
658:
657:
656:
649:
642:
641:
640:
639:
638:
615:
612:
611:
610:
609:
608:
603:
602:
601:
595:
583:
582:
581:
575:
556:
555:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
522:
521:
520:
514:
502:
501:
500:
494:
488:
464:
461:
377:In 1939, in a
332:nuclear fusion
304:nuclear fusion
291:
288:
107:nuclear fusion
80:
74:
65:
56:
46:
26:
18:Stellar fusion
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6124:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6103:
6100:
6098:
6095:
6093:
6090:
6089:
6087:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6065:
6055:
6053:
6043:
6041:
6031:
6029:
6019:
6017:
6012:
6007:
6006:
6003:
5986:
5983:
5982:
5980:
5976:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5961:
5959:
5955:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5932:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5914:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5851:
5849:
5847:
5841:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5789:Cluster decay
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5771:
5769:
5767:
5761:
5757:
5750:
5745:
5743:
5738:
5736:
5731:
5730:
5727:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5703:
5695:
5694:
5691:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5675:
5674:Intergalactic
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5654:Galactic year
5652:
5648:
5645:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5631:
5628:
5627:
5626:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5616:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5551:
5548:
5544:
5541:
5540:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5533:Most luminous
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5477:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5448:Proper motion
5446:
5444:
5441:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5411:Constellation
5409:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5379:Solar eclipse
5377:
5376:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5369:
5365:Earth-centric
5363:
5357:
5354:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5300:
5299:
5297:
5295:
5291:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5190:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5157:
5154:
5153:
5152:
5149:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5135:
5132:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5118:
5115:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5087:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5065:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5047:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5010:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4963:Alpha process
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4922:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4885:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4804:
4800:
4794:
4791:
4787:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4770:
4767:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4744:
4743:
4740:
4736:
4735:Helium planet
4733:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4725:Parker's star
4723:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4703:
4700:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4671:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4656:Lambda Boötis
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
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4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4592:
4588:
4585:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
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4563:
4562:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
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4536:
4535:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4503:
4502:
4499:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4422:Superluminous
4420:
4419:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4326:Main sequence
4324:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4315:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4303:Hayashi track
4301:
4299:
4296:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4249:
4245:
4239:
4236:
4235:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4216:
4214:
4209:
4207:
4202:
4201:
4198:
4192:'s Cosmicopia
4191:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4163:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4144:
4138:
4134:
4128:
4124:
4121:. Cambridge:
4120:
4119:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4080:
4075:
4071:
4061:on 2009-03-26
4057:
4052:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4022:
4014:
4010:
4007:; P. Parker;
4006:
4002:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3974:
3973:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
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3924:
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3857:
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3826:
3820:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
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3774:
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3751:
3747:
3743:
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3735:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3670:
3651:
3644:
3638:
3631:
3627:
3624:Iliadis, C.,
3621:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3525:Wolf, E. L.,
3522:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3476:
3468:
3461:
3455:
3451:
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3430:
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3405:
3397:
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3321:
3317:
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3309:
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3300:
3286:
3282:
3276:
3268:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3247:
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3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3187:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3168:
3166:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3106:
3099:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3067:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3027:
3019:
3017:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2987:
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2967:
2963:
2959:
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2946:
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2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
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2905:
2900:
2893:
2885:
2881:
2877:
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2869:
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2864:
2859:
2852:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2815:
2807:
2800:
2793:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2756:
2748:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2718:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2646:
2639:
2635:
2631:
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2621:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2592:
2584:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2541:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2492:
2484:
2477:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2448:
2440:
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2418:
2414:
2410:
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2401:
2394:
2392:
2383:
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2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:
2354:
2352:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2308:
2306:
2301:
2286:
2277:
2273:
2260:
2258:
2250:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2223:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2187:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2115:
2112:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2080:
2077:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2046:
2042:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2010:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1963:
1949:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1912:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1863:
1860:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1823:
1814:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1773:
1768:
1752:
1749:
1743:
1731:
1725:
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1717:
1714:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1628:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1590:
1586:
1565:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1536:
1534:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1474:
1467:
1458:
1437:
1434:
1422:
1417:
1414:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1354:
1348:
1340:
1331:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1300:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1209:
1200:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1109:
1106:
1096:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
997:
990:
984:
978:
975:
967:
963:
959:
943:
937:
933:
926:
922:
918:
915:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
883:Reaction rate
880:
878:
873:
871:
867:
863:
858:
854:
850:
849:Hayashi track
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
819:
818:Alpha process
815:
808:Helium fusion
805:
795:
774:
762:
760:
756:
752:
747:
742:
739:, which is a
738:
733:
731:
727:
723:
718:
714:
710:
705:
703:
699:
695:
691:
688:
684:
683:main-sequence
680:
668:
662:
652:
646:
636:
632:
628:
621:
607:
604:
600:
596:
594:
590:
589:
587:
584:
580:
576:
574:
570:
569:
567:
564:
563:
561:
557:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
529:
526:
525:
523:
519:
518:alpha process
515:
513:
509:
508:
506:
503:
499:
495:
493:
489:
487:
484:
483:
481:
478:
477:
476:
469:
463:Key reactions
457:
452:
448:
446:
444:
439:
437:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
403:
401:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
379:Nobel lecture
375:
373:
372:Edward Teller
370:and later by
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
313:
309:
305:
301:
296:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
248:
247:
241:
237:
233:
229:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
189:main sequence
186:
182:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
72:
63:
53:
36:
32:
19:
6064:Solar System
5948:Photofission
5912:
5904:
5843:
5577:White dwarfs
5567:Brown dwarfs
5550:Most distant
5498:Most massive
5476:Proper names
5436:Photographic
5389:Solar System
5367:observations
5294:Star systems
5117:Stellar wind
5100:Chromosphere
5073:Oscillations
4953:Helium flash
4924:
4803:Hypothetical
4781:X-ray binary
4720:Compact star
4555:Bright giant
4308:Henyey track
4286:Herbig Ae/Be
4142:
4117:
4083:
4077:
4063:. Retrieved
4056:the original
4025:
4019:
4005:I. Iben, Jr.
3976:. New York:
3971:
3941:
3935:
3900:
3894:
3855:
3849:
3824:
3819:
3776:
3772:
3766:
3715:
3711:
3694:
3674:
3669:
3657:. Retrieved
3650:the original
3637:
3625:
3620:
3608:
3605:Perryman, M.
3600:
3580:
3579:Rehder, D.,
3575:
3551:
3546:
3526:
3521:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3444:
3437:
3410:
3404:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3315:
3299:
3288:. Retrieved
3284:
3275:
3252:
3246:
3212:
3208:
3174:
3121:
3115:
3112:Basri, Gibor
3105:
3082:
3049:
3044:
3025:
2990:
2984:
2974:
2949:
2943:
2933:
2908:
2902:
2892:
2867:
2861:
2851:
2826:
2820:
2814:
2792:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2731:
2726:
2702:
2696:
2661:
2655:
2645:
2625:
2620:
2604:
2591:
2556:
2550:
2540:
2507:
2501:
2491:
2482:
2476:
2454:(1): 53â74.
2451:
2445:
2439:
2412:
2406:
2365:
2359:
2323:
2317:
2285:
2276:
2248:
2241:
2237:
2221:
2214:
2210:
2183:
2178:
2140:
2136:
2134:
1964:
1771:
1769:
1685:
1588:
1584:
1537:
1533:reduced mass
1237:
1232:
1228:
1141:, giving an
1135:
1133:Gamow factor
1126:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1014:
957:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
886:
874:
829:helium flash
821:
763:
734:
706:
702:white dwarfs
676:
666:
650:
532:brown dwarfs
474:
442:
435:
404:
376:
348:Gamow factor
344:George Gamow
317:
269:
260:
244:
225:
207:, forming a
205:stellar wind
191:star), then
181:Stars evolve
179:
94:
91:astrophysics
88:
6052:Outer space
5774:Alpha decay
5764:Radioactive
5630:Brown dwarf
5406:Circumpolar
5284:Kraft break
5264:Color index
5239:Metallicity
5199:Designation
5168:Cosmic dust
5090:Photosphere
4856:Dark-energy
4831:Electroweak
4816:Black dwarf
4747:Radio-quiet
4730:White dwarf
4616:White dwarf
4266:Bok globule
3978:McGraw-Hill
3944:: 121â146.
3312:Rydberg, J.
3054:Belmont, CA
2870:: 121â126.
2630:Hoboken, NJ
722:energy flux
667:CNO-I cycle
328:Jean Perrin
221:white dwarf
215:. The term
129:during the
6086:Categories
5925:rp-process
5899:Si burning
5889:Ne burning
5859:Li burning
5779:Beta decay
5592:Candidates
5587:Supernovae
5572:Red dwarfs
5431:Extinction
5219:Kinematics
5214:Luminosity
5192:Properties
5085:Atmosphere
4983:Si burning
4973:Ne burning
4911:White hole
4884:Quasi-star
4811:Blue dwarf
4666:Technetium
4582:Hypergiant
4560:Supergiant
4065:2006-08-04
4051:2152/61093
3673:Maoz, D.,
3560:Heidelberg
3417:, p.
3355:2006.15115
3290:2020-11-26
2804:(Report).
2263:References
2251:(0) = 4Ă10
2159:beta decay
2135:Values of
1585:Gamow peak
833:degenerate
751:convective
593:rp-process
456:supergiant
383:Hans Bethe
368:Houtermans
324:F.W. Aston
257:shock wave
171:Fred Hoyle
147:Fred Hoyle
6040:Astronomy
6028:Chemistry
5936:processes
5920:p-process
5894:O burning
5884:C burning
5874:α process
5869:CNO cycle
5523:Brightest
5421:Magnitude
5401:Pole star
5322:Symbiotic
5317:Eclipsing
5249:Starlight
5050:Structure
5040:Supernova
5033:Micronova
5028:Recurrent
5013:Symbiotic
4998:p-process
4993:r-process
4988:s-process
4978:O burning
4968:C burning
4948:CNO cycle
4891:Gravastar
4427:Hypernova
4417:Supernova
4392:Dredge-up
4365:Blue loop
4358:super-AGB
4341:Red clump
4318:Evolution
4276:Protostar
4256:Accretion
4248:Formation
3811:119117147
3786:1004.2318
3750:0034-6861
3685:, 2007),
3679:Princeton
3591:, 2010),
3589:Wiley-VCH
3566:, 1987),
3537:, 2018),
3489:0906.4812
3396:227174644
3380:1476-4687
3322:, 2013),
3131:0901.1659
2784:118423007
2636:, 1983),
2605:Guidestar
2297:Citations
2234:deuterium
2224:(0) = 3.5
2186:CNO cycle
2167:half-life
2092:−
1983:≈
1895:−
1883:−
1875:
1840:−
1832:≈
1808:−
1790:−
1644:−
1622:−
1608:∂
1604:∂
1594:, where:
1554:−
1546:∼
1390:−
1359:π
1325:−
1293:∞
1284:∫
1194:−
1153:σ
1067:λ
1041:λ
1036:π
1001:⟩
985:σ
982:⟨
968:process:
857:Milky Way
841:blue loop
802:10 K
790:10 K
782:10 K
737:CNO cycle
717:deuterium
694:oxidizing
631:CNO cycle
599:p-process
588:capture:
579:s-process
573:r-process
568:capture:
423:BFH paper
318:In 1920,
298:In 1920,
213:supernova
175:BFH paper
62:CNO cycle
5978:Exchange
5915:-process
5907:-process
5879:Triple-α
5702:Category
5597:Remnants
5493:Extremes
5453:Parallax
5426:Apparent
5416:Asterism
5394:Sunlight
5344:Globular
5329:Multiple
5254:Variable
5244:Rotation
5204:Dynamics
5095:Starspot
4769:Magnetar
4712:Remnants
4528:Subgiant
4501:Subdwarf
4353:post-AGB
4108:55932331
3968:(1968).
3927:17835673
3882:17835673
3758:16061677
3585:Weinheim
3564:Springer
3514:10626836
3415:Springer
3388:33239797
3285:phys.org
3156:15159121
3080:(1992),
2776:18096793
2688:17835673
2609:Archived
2583:17747682
2532:17747682
2163:diproton
2148:10 â 10
1059:, where
771:10
746:neutrino
687:chemical
679:helium-4
507:fusion:
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407:Burbidge
364:Atkinson
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5307:Contact
5144:Proplyd
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4880:Hawking
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4786:Burster
4742:Neutron
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4646:He-weak
4291:T Tauri
4088:Bibcode
4030:Bibcode
3946:Bibcode
3905:Bibcode
3860:Bibcode
3791:Bibcode
3730:Bibcode
3494:Bibcode
3360:Bibcode
3217:Bibcode
3136:Bibcode
2995:Bibcode
2993:: 637.
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2913:Bibcode
2872:Bibcode
2831:Bibcode
2755:Science
2666:Bibcode
2561:Bibcode
2512:Bibcode
2456:Bibcode
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2368:: 121.
2328:Bibcode
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249:= 28â56
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4575:Yellow
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4158:
4129:
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3829:p. 211
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2209:, has
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4059:(PDF)
4016:(PDF)
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3646:(PDF)
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3350:arXiv
3152:S2CID
3126:arXiv
2802:(PDF)
2780:S2CID
2634:Wiley
2612:(PDF)
2601:(PDF)
2403:(PDF)
2268:Notes
2177:give
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419:Hoyle
157:, by
111:stars
5339:Open
5234:Mass
5058:Core
5008:Nova
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4851:Dark
4661:Lead
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4636:CEMP
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