Stephen, King of England

737:, in which the eldest son would inherit a title, was becoming increasingly popular. It was also traditional for the king of France to crown his successor whilst he himself was still alive, making the intended line of succession relatively clear, but this was not the case in England. In other parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided up, with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands—usually considered to be the most valuable—and younger sons being given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or estates. There was no precedent of a woman ruler. The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo-Norman successions over the previous sixty years – William the Conqueror had gained England by force; two of his sons, Robert Curthose and William Rufus, had fought a war amongst themselves for the throne, with Rufus, who was younger, emerging victorious; and Henry had likewise acquired control of Normandy only by force. There had been no peaceful, uncontested successions. 2247:'s influential biography paints a picture of a weak king: a capable military leader in the field, full of activity and pleasant, but "beneath the surface ... mistrustful and sly", with a poor strategic judgement that ultimately undermined his reign. Stephen's lack of sound policy judgement and his mishandling of international affairs, leading to the loss of Normandy and his consequent inability to win the civil war in England, is also highlighted by another of his biographers, David Crouch. Historian and biographer Edmund King, whilst painting a slightly more positive picture than Davis, also concludes that Stephen, while a stoic, pious and genial leader, was also rarely, if ever, his own man, usually relying upon stronger characters such as his wife Matilda and brother Henry. Historian Keith Stringer provides a more positive portrayal of Stephen, arguing that his ultimate failure as king was the result of external pressures on the Norman state, rather than the result of personal failings. 1579:, had rejected his father's regional alliance, improving relations with Anjou and taking a more bellicose line with Theobald, which would result in war the following year. Geoffrey's success in Normandy and Stephen's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty of many Anglo-Norman barons, who feared losing their lands in England to Robert and the Empress, and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey. Many started to leave Stephen's faction. His friend and advisor Waleran was one of those who decided to defect in mid-1141, crossing into Normandy to secure his ancestral possessions by allying himself with the Angevins, and bringing Worcestershire into the Empress's camp. Waleran's twin brother, Robert of Leicester, effectively withdrew from fighting in the conflict at the same time. Other supporters of the Empress were restored in their former strongholds, such as Bishop Nigel of Ely, or received new earldoms in the west of England. The royal control over the 1615:. Robert of Gloucester and the Empress besieged Henry in the city of Winchester in July. Queen Matilda and William of Ypres then encircled the Angevin forces with their own army, reinforced with fresh troops from London. In the subsequent battle the Empress's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner. Further negotiations attempted to deliver a general peace agreement but the Queen was unwilling to offer any compromise to the Empress, and Robert refused to accept any offer to encourage him to change sides to Stephen. Instead, in November the two sides simply exchanged Robert and the King, with Stephen releasing Robert on 1 November 1141. Stephen began re-establishing his authority. Henry held another church council, which this time reaffirmed Stephen's legitimacy to rule, and a fresh coronation of Stephen and Matilda occurred at Christmas 1141. 1930:, during his brief tenure as pope between 1143 and 1144, had banned any change to this practice. Since the only person who could crown Eustace was Archbishop Theobald, who refused to do so without agreement from the current pope, Eugene III, the matter reached an impasse. At the end of 1148, Stephen and Theobald came to a temporary compromise that allowed Theobald to return to England. Theobald was appointed a papal legate in 1151, adding to his authority. Stephen then made a fresh attempt to have Eustace crowned at Easter 1152, gathering his nobles to swear fealty to Eustace, and then insisting that Theobald and his bishops anoint him king. When Theobald refused yet again, Stephen and Eustace imprisoned both him and the bishops and refused to release them unless they agreed to crown Eustace. Theobald escaped again into temporary exile in 851:, one of the richest bishoprics, allowing him to retain Glastonbury as well. The combined revenues of the two positions made Henry of Winchester the second-richest man in England after the King. Henry of Winchester was keen to reverse what he perceived as encroachment by the Norman kings on the rights of the church. English kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power and autonomy over the church within their territories. From the 1040s onwards, however, successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the church being "governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre" and established "its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction, separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler", in the words of historian Richard Huscroft. 792:

strained towards the end of the King's life. Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England, and proposed to Henry in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a much more powerful position after Henry's death. Henry angrily declined to do so, probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat earlier than intended. A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels. In the middle of this confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near

1500:, held by Stephen, and under the guise of a social visit, Ranulf seized the fortification in a surprise attack. Stephen marched north to Lincoln and agreed to a truce with Ranulf, probably to keep him from joining the Empress's faction, under which Ranulf would be allowed to keep the castle. Stephen returned to London but received news that Ranulf, his brother and their family were relaxing in Lincoln Castle with a minimal guard force, a ripe target for a surprise attack of his own. Abandoning the deal he had just made, Stephen gathered his army again and sped north, but not quite fast enough—Ranulf escaped Lincoln and declared his support for the Empress. Stephen was forced to place the castle under siege. 874:

Robert of Gloucester. Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late King was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England. Stephen's brother Theobald was further south still, in Blois. Stephen, however, was in Boulogne, and when news reached him of Henry's death he left for England, accompanied by his military household. Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived. Nonetheless, Stephen probably reached his own estate on the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England.

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The reasoning behind Stephen's decision to release his rival remains unclear. Contemporary chroniclers suggested that Henry argued that it would be in Stephen's own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert, and Stephen may have seen Robert, not the Empress, as his main opponent at this point in the conflict. He also faced a military dilemma at Arundel—the castle was considered almost impregnable, and he may have been worried that he was tying down his army in the south whilst Robert roamed freely in the west. Another theory is that Stephen released Matilda out of a sense of

1542:, who delivered a rousing declaration. After an initial success in which William's forces destroyed the Angevins' Welsh infantry, the battle went badly for Stephen. Robert and Ranulf's cavalry encircled Stephen's centre, and the King found himself surrounded by the enemy army. Many of his supporters, including Waleran de Beaumont and William of Ypres, fled from the field at this point but Stephen fought on, defending himself first with his sword and then, when that broke, with a borrowed battle axe. Finally, he was overwhelmed by Robert's men and taken away from the field in custody. 1096:

underlying problems, nonetheless. The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry, Stephen had abandoned Wales, the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy, and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed. Stephen was also rapidly running out of money: Henry's considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen's more lavish court and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in England and Normandy.

2129: 960:, with the lesser barons beneath them usually having more localised holdings. The extent to which lands and positions should be passed down through hereditary right or by the gift of the King was still uncertain, and tensions concerning this issue had grown during the reign of Henry I. Certainly lands in Normandy, passed by hereditary right, were usually considered more important to major barons than those in England, where their possession was less certain. Henry had increased the authority and capabilities of the central royal administration, often bringing in " 1287:. Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry I and these had been largely symbolic in nature. Stephen created many more, filling them with men he considered to be loyal, capable military commanders, and in the more vulnerable parts of the country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers. He appears to have had several objectives in mind, including both ensuring the loyalty of his key supporters by granting them these honours, and improving his defences in key parts of the kingdom. Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor, 8899: 1187: 1886: 1943: 1509: 1128:, rebelled against the King, starting the descent into civil war in England. An illegitimate son of Henry I and the half-brother of the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy. He was known for his qualities as a statesman, his military experience, and leadership ability. Robert had tried to convince Theobald to take the throne in 1135; he did not attend Stephen's first court in 1136 and it took several summonses to convince him to attend court at 1466: 1067:, appointed by Stephen as the lieutenant of Normandy, and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy. Stephen himself only returned to the duchy in 1137, where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal regional alliance, probably brokered by Henry, to counter the growing Angevin power in the region. As part of this deal, Louis recognised Stephen's son Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace giving fealty to the French King. Stephen was less successful, however, in regaining the 890:, instructed the royal treasury to be handed over to Stephen. On 15 December, Henry delivered an agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and liberties to the church, in exchange for the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Papal Legate supporting his succession to the throne. There was the slight problem of the religious oath that Stephen had taken to support the Empress Matilda, but Henry convincingly argued that the late king had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath. 1563:

abandon their oaths of fealty to the King? Stephen agreed that, given the situation, he was prepared to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him, and the clergy gathered again in Winchester after Easter to declare the Empress "Lady of England and Normandy" as a precursor to her coronation. When Matilda advanced to London in an effort to stage her coronation in June, though, she faced an uprising by the local citizens in support of Stephen that forced her to flee to Oxford, uncrowned.

1837:, mounted a small mercenary invasion of England in 1147 but the expedition failed, not least because Henry lacked the funds to pay his men. Surprisingly, Stephen himself ended up paying their costs, allowing Henry to return home safely; his reasons for doing so are unclear. One potential explanation is his general courtesy to a member of his extended family; another is that he was starting to consider how to end the war peacefully, and saw this as a way of building a relationship with Henry. 1269: 10053: 1016:

clothes and gifts. Stephen gave out grants of land and favours to those present and endowed numerous church foundations with land and privileges. His accession to the throne still needed to be ratified by the Pope, however, and Henry of Blois appears to have been responsible for ensuring that testimonials of support were sent both from Stephen's brother Theobald and from the French king Louis VI, to whom Stephen represented a useful balance to Angevin power in the north of France.

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secure. Although Stephen's son William was unprepared to challenge Henry for the throne in 1153, the situation could well have shifted in subsequent years — there were widespread rumours during 1154 that William planned to assassinate Henry, for example. Historian Graham White describes the treaty of Winchester as a "precarious peace", in line with the judgement of most modern historians that the situation in late 1153 was still uncertain and unpredictable.

1485:. Stephen responded quickly, taking an army into the fens and using boats lashed together to form a causeway that allowed him to make a surprise attack on the isle. Nigel escaped to Gloucester, but his men and castle were captured, and order was temporarily restored in the east. Robert of Gloucester's men retook some of the territory that Stephen had taken in his 1139 campaign. In an effort to negotiate a truce, Henry of Blois held a peace conference at 537:, from which William the Conqueror had conquered England in 1066. William's children were still fighting over the collective Anglo-Norman inheritance. The rulers across this region spoke a similar language, albeit with regional dialects; followed the same religion; and were closely interrelated. They were also highly competitive and frequently in conflict with one another for valuable territory and the castles that controlled those territories. 10098: 2013:

fell ill and died the next month. Eustace's death removed an obvious claimant to the throne and was politically convenient for those seeking a permanent peace in England. It is possible, however, that Stephen had already begun to consider passing over Eustace's claim; historian Edmund King observes that Eustace's claim to the throne was not mentioned in the discussions at Wallingford, for example, and this may have added to his anger.

698: 10029: 1339:. These bishops were powerful landowners as well as ecclesiastical rulers, and they had begun to build new castles and increase the size of their military forces, leading Stephen to suspect that they were about to defect to the Empress Matilda. Bishop Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran, who disliked their control of the royal administration. In June 1139, Stephen held his court in Oxford, where a fight between 1394: 1587: 10081: 1753:. As with Geoffrey, the moment Ranulf was released he immediately rebelled, but the situation was a stalemate: Stephen had few forces in the north with which to prosecute a fresh campaign, whilst Ranulf lacked the castles to support an attack on Stephen. By this point, however, Stephen's practice of inviting barons to court and arresting them had brought him into some disrepute and increasing distrust. 563:, was probably born four years after him. The brothers formed a close-knit family group, and Adela encouraged Stephen to take up the role of a feudal knight or baron, whilst steering Henry towards a career in the church, possibly so that their personal career interests would not overlap. Unusually, Stephen was raised in his mother's household rather than being sent to a close relative; he was taught 580: 10041: 2045:, would do homage to Henry and renounce his claim to the throne, in exchange for promises of the security of his lands; key royal castles would be held on Henry's behalf by guarantors, whilst Stephen would have access to Henry's castles; and the numerous foreign mercenaries would be demobilised and sent home. Stephen and Henry sealed the treaty with a 1549:, traditionally used for holding high-status prisoners. He was initially left confined in relatively good conditions, but his security was later tightened and he was kept in chains. The Empress now began to take the necessary steps to have herself crowned queen in his place, which would require the agreement of the church and her coronation at 514:. She was famous among her contemporaries for her piety and strong personality. Indeed, Adela was a major reason for Stephen-Henry's return to the Levant. She had a strong formative influence on Stephen during his growing years; she would live to see her son take her father's throne of England, but would die within a year after that. 4946:" was firmly established as a principle in Anglo-Norman warfare by the time of Stephen; it was not considered appropriate or normal to execute elite prisoners and, as historian John Gillingham observes, neither Stephen nor the Empress Matilda did so except where the opponent had already breached the norms of military conduct. 1647:, albeit secure in the knowledge that Matilda was now surrounded. Just before Christmas, the Empress left the castle unobserved, crossed the icy river on foot and made her escape to Wallingford. The garrison surrendered shortly afterwards, but Stephen had lost an opportunity to capture his principal opponent. 4899:

R. Davis and W. L. Warren argue that the typical earldom involved the delegation of considerable royal powers; Keith Stringer and Judith Green capture the current consensus that the degree of delegated powers followed the degree of threat and that perhaps less powers in total were delegated than once

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was past its prime by the time of Stephen but is remembered for its striking account of conditions during "the Anarchy". Most of the chronicles carry some bias for or against Stephen, Robert of Gloucester or other key figures in the conflict. Those writing for the church after the events of Stephen's

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Stephen's relationship with the church deteriorated badly towards the end of his reign. The reforming movement within the church, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, had continued to grow, while new voices such as the Cistercians had gained additional prestige within

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entitled them to build or hold castles. Aubrey threatened that Stephen would complain to the pope that he was being harassed by the English church, and the council let the matter rest following an unsuccessful appeal to Rome. The incident successfully removed any military threat from the bishops, but

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Stephen's brother Henry was alarmed by this, both as a matter of principle, since Stephen had previously agreed in 1135 to respect the freedoms of the church, and more pragmatically because he himself had recently built six castles and had no desire to be treated in the same way. As the papal legate,

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Keith Stringer argues that Stephen "was surely right" to seize the castles, and that the act was a "calculated display of royal masterfulness"; Jim Bradbury and Frank Barlow praise the military soundness of the tactic. David Carpenter and R. Davis, however, observe that Stephen had ended up breaking

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After Stephen's death, Henry II succeeded to the throne of England. Henry vigorously re-established royal authority in the aftermath of the civil war, dismantling castles and increasing revenues, although several of these trends had begun under Stephen. The destruction of castles under Henry was not

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survived an Angevin attempt to capture it. Meanwhile, Stephen's brother Henry of Blois and Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury were for once unified in an effort to broker a permanent peace between the two sides, putting pressure on Stephen to accept a deal. The armies of Stephen and Henry FitzEmpress

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recognised him as Duke of Normandy shortly after. By this point in the war, Stephen was depending increasingly on his immediate royal household, such as William of Ypres and others, and lacked the support of the major barons who might have been able to provide him with significant additional forces;

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in Dorset, and Faramus of Boulogne ran the royal household. The Queen appears to have generated genuine sympathy and support from Stephen's more loyal followers. Henry's alliance with the Empress proved short-lived, as they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy; the bishop

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While Stephen and his army besieged Lincoln Castle at the start of 1141, Robert and Ranulf advanced on the King's position with a somewhat larger force. When the news reached Stephen, he held a council to decide whether to give battle or to withdraw and gather additional soldiers: Stephen decided to

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Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother Henry; the full details of the truce are not known, but the results were that Stephen first released Matilda from the siege and then allowed her and her household of knights to be escorted to the south-west, where they were reunited with Robert.

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to undermine walls, tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults. Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were considered highly risky endeavours and were usually avoided by prudent commanders. The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the

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and to reform any abuses of the royal legal system. He portrayed himself as the natural successor to Henry's policies, and reconfirmed the existing seven earldoms in the kingdom on their existing holders. The Easter court was a lavish event, and a large amount of money was spent on the event itself,

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The events in Normandy are less well recorded than elsewhere, and the exact sequence of events less certain. Historian Robert Helmerichs, for example, describes some of the inconsistencies in these accounts. Some historians, including David Crouch and Helmerichs, argue that Theobald and Stephen had

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The character of the conflict in England gradually began to shift; as historian Frank Barlow suggests, by the late 1140s "the civil war was over", barring the occasional outbreak of fighting. In 1147 Robert of Gloucester died peacefully, and the next year the Empress Matilda left south-west England

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Rumours about his father's cowardice during the First Crusade, however, continued to circulate, and a desire to avoid the same reputation may have influenced some of Stephen's rasher military actions. His wife, Matilda, played a major role in running their vast English estates, which contributed to

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Stephen was a well established figure in Anglo-Norman society by 1135. He was extremely wealthy, well-mannered and liked by his peers; he was also considered a man capable of firm action. Chroniclers recorded that despite his wealth and power he was a modest and easy-going leader, happy to sit with

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The impact of these arrests on the efficacy of the subsequent royal administration and the loyalty of the wider English church has been much discussed. Kenji Yoshitake represents the current academic consensus when he notes that the impact of the arrests "was not serious", placing the beginning of

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In the aftermath of Wallingford, Stephen and Henry spoke together privately about a potential end to the war; Stephen's son Eustace, however, was furious about the peaceful outcome at Wallingford. He left his father and returned home to Cambridge to gather more funds for a fresh campaign, where he

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Stephen was furious over what he saw as potentially precedent-setting papal interference in his royal authority and initially refused to allow Murdac into England. When Theobald, the Archbishop of Canterbury, went to consult with the Pope on the matter against Stephen's wishes, the King refused to

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complained that as many as 1,115 such castles had been built during the conflict, although this was probably an exaggeration as elsewhere he suggested an alternative figure of 126. The previously centralised royal coinage system was fragmented, with Stephen, the Empress and local lords all minting

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After 1143 the war ground on, but progressing slightly better for Stephen. Miles of Gloucester, one of the most talented Angevin commanders, had died whilst hunting over the previous Christmas, relieving some of the pressure in the west. Geoffrey de Mandeville's rebellion continued until September

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before Easter in his capacity as papal legate to consider the clergy's view. He had made a private deal with the Empress Matilda that he would deliver the support of the church, if she agreed to give him control over church business in England. Henry handed over the royal treasury, rather depleted

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Having released the Empress, Stephen focused on pacifying the south-west of England. Although there had been few new defections to the Empress, his enemies now controlled a compact block of territory stretching out from Gloucester and Bristol south-west into Devon and Cornwall, west into the Welsh

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Returning south, Stephen held his first royal court at Easter 1136. A wide range of nobles gathered at Westminster for the event, including many of the Anglo-Norman barons and most of the higher officials of the church. Stephen issued a new royal charter, confirming the promises he had made to the

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in Normandy to England, including the heir to the throne, William Adelin, and many other senior nobles. Stephen had intended to sail on the same ship but changed his mind at the last moment and got off to await another vessel, either out of concern for overcrowding on board the ship, or because he

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Stephen's wife, Matilda, played a critical part in keeping the King's cause alive during his captivity. Queen Matilda gathered Stephen's remaining lieutenants around her and the royal family in the south-east, advancing into London when the population rejected the Empress. Stephen's long-standing

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many of Stephen's supporters who refused to switch sides. Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was unwilling to declare Matilda queen so rapidly, however, and a delegation of clergy and nobles, headed by Theobald, travelled to see Stephen in Bristol and consult about their moral dilemma: should they

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Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank". The King took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland. Stephen's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another

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itself proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area. The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support that year, but he remained in Normandy throughout, trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself.

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When news began to spread of Henry I's death, many of the potential claimants to the throne were not well placed to respond. Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, rather awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as

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Henry responded by forming a network of alliances with the western counties of France against Louis, resulting in a regional conflict that would last throughout Stephen's early life. Adela and Theobald allied themselves with Henry, and Stephen's mother decided to place him in Henry's court. Henry

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Certainly, many problems remained to be resolved, including re-establishing royal authority over the provinces and resolving the complex issue of which barons should control the contested lands and estates after the long civil war. Stephen burst into activity in early 1154, travelling around the

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in a final attempt to take this major Angevin stronghold. The fall of Wallingford appeared imminent and Henry marched south in an attempt to relieve the siege, arriving with a small army and placing Stephen's besieging forces under siege themselves. Upon news of this, Stephen gathered up a large

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Nonetheless, the pressure on Stephen to get Eustace confirmed as his legitimate heir continued to grow. The King gave Eustace the County of Boulogne in 1147, but it remained unclear whether Eustace would inherit England. Stephen's preferred option was to have Eustace crowned while he himself was

1902:, the head of the Cistercian order, who preferred William of Rievaulx as the new archbishop, and Stephen and his brother Henry, who preferred various Blois family relatives. The row between Henry and Bernard grew increasingly personal, and Henry used his authority as legate to appoint his nephew 1618:

At the beginning of 1142 Stephen fell ill, and by Easter rumours had begun to circulate that he had died. Possibly this illness was the result of his imprisonment the previous year, but he finally recovered and travelled north to raise new forces and to successfully convince Ranulf of Chester to

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and across the south-west of England, although Robert himself remained in Normandy. In France, Geoffrey of Anjou took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David I of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the

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on 21 December. Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was to occur the next day. Theobald then agreed to the Normans' proposal that he be made king, only to find that his former support immediately ebbed away: the barons were not prepared to

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to discuss declaring Theobald king, probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England. The Normans argued that Theobald, as the more senior grandson of William the Conqueror, had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the duchy, and was certainly preferable to Matilda.

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ruler, he was a traditional enemy of the Normans. At the same time, tensions continued to grow as a result of Henry's domestic policies, in particular the high level of revenue he was raising to pay for his various wars. Conflict was curtailed, however, by the power of the King's personality and

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and Roger's men broke out, an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen. Stephen responded by demanding that Roger and the other bishops surrender all of their castles in England. This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops, with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in

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In the years following his succession, Stephen's relationship with the church became gradually more complex. The royal charter of 1136 had promised to review the ownership of all the lands that had been taken by the crown from the church since 1087, but these estates were now typically owned by

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province along the Normandy and Anjou border, which Geoffrey had taken at the end of 1135. Stephen formed an army to retake it, but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army. The

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The security of Normandy was also a concern. Geoffrey of Anjou invaded in early 1136 and, after a temporary truce, invaded later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory. Events in England meant that Stephen was unable to travel to Normandy himself, so

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Stephen's decision to recognise Henry as his heir was, at the time, not necessarily a final solution to the civil war. Despite the issuing of new currency and administrative reforms, Stephen might potentially have lived for many more years, whilst Henry's position on the continent was far from

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had collapsed in large parts of the country. Some parts of the country, though, were barely touched by the conflict—for example, Stephen's lands in the south-east and the Angevin heartlands around Gloucester and Bristol were largely unaffected, and David I ruled his territories in the north of

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in Oxfordshire. In the north, Stephen came to a fresh agreement with Ranulf of Chester, but then in 1146 repeated the ruse he had played on Geoffrey in 1143, first inviting Ranulf to court, before arresting him and threatening to execute him unless he handed over a number of castles, including

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between himself and Prince Henry. In the west, Robert of Gloucester and his followers continued to raid the surrounding royalist territories, and Wallingford Castle remained a secure Angevin stronghold, too close to London for comfort. Meanwhile, Geoffrey of Anjou finished securing his hold on

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remained upset over Stephen's gift of the north of England to Prince Henry. Ranulf devised a plan for dealing with the problem by ambushing Henry whilst the prince was travelling back from Stephen's court to Scotland after Christmas. Stephen responded to rumours of this plan by escorting Henry

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Stephen's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat, his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly over relatively long distances. In response to the revolts and invasions, he rapidly undertook several military

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Stephen's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways. He stabilised the northern border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was at peace with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his barons. There were significant

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first in 1127, and then again in 1128 and 1131, to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor and recognise her descendants as the rightful rulers after her. Stephen was amongst those who took this oath in 1127. Nonetheless, relations between Henry, Matilda, and Geoffrey became increasingly

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who lived in, or close to, the middle of the 12th century, forming a relatively rich account of the period. All of the main chronicler accounts carry significant regional biases in how they portray the disparate events. Several of the key chronicles were written in the south-west of England,

1762: 938: 1051:. Stephen responded by sending Richard's brother Baldwin and the Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Wales to pacify the region. Neither mission was particularly successful, and by the end of 1137, the King appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion. Historian 1691:, rose up in rebellion against him in East Anglia. The King had disliked the Earl for several years, and provoked the conflict by summoning Geoffrey to court, where the King arrested him. He threatened to execute Geoffrey unless the Earl handed over his various castles, including the 877:

The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the king, and they proclaimed Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return. Henry of Blois delivered the support of the church to Stephen: Stephen was able to advance to

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on his left. Robert and Ranulf's forces had superiority in cavalry and Stephen dismounted many of his own knights to form a solid infantry block; he joined them himself, fighting on foot in the battle. Stephen was not a gifted public speaker, and delegated the pre-battle speech to

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was announced, and many Angevin supporters, including Waleran of Beaumont, joined it, leaving the region for several years. Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with each other to secure their lands and war gains. Geoffrey and Matilda's son, the future King

855: 1260:, considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots. Nonetheless, Stephen could now focus his attention on the anticipated invasion of England by Robert and Matilda's forces. 646:

Henry became a powerful patron of Stephen, and probably chose to support him because Stephen was part of his extended family and a regional ally, yet not sufficiently wealthy or powerful in his own right to represent a threat to either the King or his son and heir,

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en route. Meanwhile, Miles of Gloucester marched east, attacking Stephen's rearguard forces at Wallingford and threatening an advance on London. Stephen was forced to give up his western campaign, returning east to stabilise the situation and protect his capital.

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refused, and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy. In 1153, the Empress's son Henry invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at

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Historian Keith Stringer argues that Theobald was also probably thinking about an eventual peace treaty in England involving Henry FitzEmpress and that he may have seen the coronation of Eustace only as a guarantee of further civil war after Stephen's death.

1844:, held by the Scots, in return for being given the rights to the whole of the Honour of Lancaster; Ranulf would give homage to both David and Henry FitzEmpress, with Henry having seniority. Following this peace agreement, Henry and Ranulf agreed to attack 1165:

levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign, or, increasingly, mercenaries, who were expensive but more flexible and often more skilled. These armies, however, were ill-suited to besieging castles, whether the older

1148:

military campaigns, in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory and ultimately win a slow, strategic victory. The armies of the period centred on bodies of mounted, armoured

405:, Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule, including arresting a powerful family of bishops. When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, and it took hold in the south-west of England. Captured at the 4762:

more colourfully describes how she "waged an incessant campaign of bullying and moral blackmail, her nagging extending to their bedroom, where, before intercourse, she would urge her disgraced husband to consider his reputation and return to the Holy

964:" to fulfil key positions rather than using the established nobility. In the process he had been able to maximise revenues and contain expenditures, resulting in a healthy surplus and a famously large treasury, but also increasing political tensions. 1412:

in August in an initial attempt to capture a port to receive the Empress Matilda's invading army, but Stephen's forces forced him to retreat into the south-west. The following month, however, Henry I's widow, Adeliza, invited the Empress to land at

784:; the King sent Stephen on a mission to prevent this, and in the aftermath of his successful election, William attacked Stephen's lands in neighbouring Boulogne in retaliation. Eventually, a truce was declared, and William died the following year. 1898:

the monastic orders, eclipsing older orders such as the Cluniacs. Stephen's dispute with the church had its origins in 1140 when Archbishop Thurstan of York died. An argument then broke out between a group of reformers based in York and backed by

449:, Stephen's second son. Stephen died the following year. Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which his personality, external events, or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war. 1992:

where the powerful Robert de Beaumont, Earl of Leicester, announced his support for the Angevin cause. Despite only modest military successes, Henry and his allies now controlled the south-west, the Midlands and much of the north of England.

1663:

The war between the two sides in England reached a stalemate in the mid-1140s, while Geoffrey of Anjou consolidated his hold on power in Normandy. 1143 started precariously for Stephen when he was besieged by Robert of Gloucester at

1360:

as his spokesman to the council, who argued that Roger of Salisbury had been arrested not as a bishop, but rather in his role as a baron who had been preparing to change his support to the Empress Matilda. The King was supported by

1356:

he summoned the King to appear before an ecclesiastical council to answer for the arrests and seizure of property. Henry asserted the church's right to investigate and judge all charges against members of the clergy. Stephen sent

2283:

and its environs. Peters paints Stephen as a tolerant man and a reasonable ruler, despite his execution of the Shrewsbury defenders after the taking of the city in 1138. In contrast, he is depicted unsympathetically in both

893:

Furthermore, the late king had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the kingdom, and in light of the chaos that might now ensue, Stephen would be justified in ignoring it. Henry was also able to persuade

1323:, and the rest of the kingdom. With their new lands, the power of the Beamounts grew to the point where David Crouch suggests that it became "dangerous to be anything other than a friend of Waleran" at Stephen's court. 4851:, for example, argues that Henry I created a balanced, well-functioning political system beneath him, balancing the different tensions in England and Normandy, an analysis broadly shared by Frank Barlow. By contrast, 2112:, also survived her father; she had been placed in a convent by Stephen, but after his death, she left and married. Stephen's middle son, Baldwin, and second daughter, Matilda, had died before 1147 and were buried at 441:, but neither side's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle. Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the 2192:

for example, paint the King as a tyrant due to his argument with the Archbishop of Canterbury; by contrast, clerics in Durham regarded Stephen as a saviour, due to his contribution to the defeat of the Scots at the

1326:

Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule. The royal administration under Henry I had been headed by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, who was supported by his nephews, Bishops

1566:

Once news of Stephen's capture reached him, Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and, in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont, who was still fighting in England, Geoffrey took all the duchy south of the river

4859:'s analysis of Normandy during these years notes both the distinctive aspects of Normandy politics, the pressure on the cross-Channel relationship and the persisting ties between the English and Norman elites. 1703:, all important fortifications because they were in, or close to, London. Geoffrey gave in, but once free he headed north-east into the Fens to the Isle of Ely, from where he began a military campaign against 748:, but it became increasingly clear that he would not have another legitimate son, and he instead looked to Matilda as his intended heir. Matilda claimed the title of Holy Roman Empress through her marriage to 4880:

Medieval financial figures are notoriously hard to convert into modern currency; for comparison, 2,000 marks equated to around £1,333 in a period in which a major castle rebuilding project might cost around

1639:, but Stephen led a sudden attack across the river, leading the charge and swimming part of the way. Once on the other side, the King and his men stormed into the town, trapping the Empress in the castle. 816:

his men and servants, casually laughing and eating with them. He was very pious, both in terms of his observance of religious rituals and his personal generosity to the church. Stephen also had a personal

1840:

The young Henry FitzEmpress returned to England again in 1149, this time planning to form a northern alliance with Ranulf of Chester. The Angevin plan involved Ranulf agreeing to give up his claim to

517:

In the 12th century, France was a loose collection of counties and smaller polities under the minimal control of the king of France. The king's power was linked to his control of the rich province of

1984:

was besieged by Henry's forces, and the King responded by marching west with an army to relieve it. He unsuccessfully attempted to force Henry's smaller army to fight a decisive battle along the

1656: 1848:, probably with help from the Scots. Stephen marched rapidly north to York and the planned attack disintegrated, leaving Henry to return to Normandy, where he was declared duke by his father. 999:. An agreement was made under which David would return most of the territory he had taken, with the exception of Carlisle. In return, Stephen confirmed the English possessions of David's son 898:, the late king's royal steward, to swear that King Henry had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed, nominating Stephen instead. Stephen's coronation was held a week later at 918:

support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen, who subsequently financially compensated Theobald, who in return remained in Blois and supported his brother's succession.

2005:

at Wallingford in July. By this point in the war, the barons on both sides seem to have been eager to avoid an open battle. As a result, instead of a battle ensuing, members of the church

1851:

Although still young, Henry was increasingly gaining a reputation as an energetic and capable leader. His prestige and power increased further when he unexpectedly married the attractive

1489:, to which Stephen sent his wife. The conference collapsed over the insistence by Henry and the clergy that they should set the terms of any peace deal, which Stephen found unacceptable. 4955:

David Crouch argues that in fact it was the royalist weakness in infantry that caused their failure at Lincoln, proposing the city militia was not as capable as Robert's Welsh infantry.

1980:

Henry FitzEmpress returned to England again at the start of 1153 with a small army, supported in the north and east of England by Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod. Stephen's castle at

1211:, under Robert's control. A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the 639:

were opposing his rule. Stephen was probably with Henry during the military campaign of 1112, when he was knighted by the King. He was present at court during the King's visit to the

2104:

as dramatic as once thought, and although he restored royal revenues, the economy of England remained broadly unchanged under both rulers. Stephen's son William was confirmed as the

2070:

where he held a major court in an attempt to impress upon the northern barons that royal authority was being reasserted. After a busy summer in 1154, however, Stephen travelled to

686:. Stephen and his older brother Theobald were comprehensively beaten in the subsequent campaign, which culminated in the Battle of Alençon, and the territories were not recovered. 9042: 2887: 1207:

campaigns, focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy. His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of

1084:

died. Stephen responded by seizing his personal wealth, which caused some discontent amongst the senior clergy. Henry wanted to succeed to the post, but Stephen instead supported

378:, took the throne, arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I's daughter, the Empress Matilda. 4758:

Adela was one of the major reasons for Stephen-Henry deciding to return to the Levant in 1101; Edmund King notes that she gave her husband "very active encouragement" to return;

1429:, a capable military leader who took the opportunity to renounce his fealty to the King. Stephen promptly moved south, besieging Arundel and trapping Matilda inside the castle. 805: 1922:

allow him back into England either and seized his estates. Stephen also cut his links to the Cistercian order and turned instead to the Cluniacs, of which Henry was a member.

1055:

suggests that Stephen effectively "bowed out of Wales" around this time to concentrate on his other problems. Meanwhile, he had put down two revolts in the south-west led by

1315:, which – especially when combined with the possessions of Stephen's new ally, Prince Henry, in Cumberland and Northumbria – created a wide block of territory to act as a 1080:

nobles. Henry of Blois's claims, in his role as Abbot of Glastonbury, to extensive lands in Devon resulted in considerable local unrest. In 1136, Archbishop of Canterbury

1680:, Stephen's steward, made a fierce rear guard effort, allowing Stephen to escape from the battlefield. Stephen valued William's loyalty sufficiently to agree to exchange 1575:. No help was forthcoming from Stephen's brother Theobald this time either, who appears to have been preoccupied with his own problems with France—the new French king, 1862:, as his successor, although chroniclers recorded that Eustace was infamous for levying heavy taxes and extorting money from those on his lands. Stephen's second son, 4920:

his promises to the Church, was forced to appear before a church court, and damaged his relationship with Henry of Blois, which would have grave implications in 1141.

2120:, Ralph and Americ, by his mistress Damette; Gervase became abbot in 1138, but after his father's death he was removed by Henry in 1157 and died shortly afterwards. 1812:

England effectively. Stephen's overall income from his estates, however, declined seriously during the conflict, particularly after 1141, and royal control over the

2205:

were issued during Stephen's reign, often giving details of current events or daily routine, and these have become widely used as sources by modern historians.

1256:; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son Henry, in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border. The powerful 429: 1676:. Once again, the Angevin cavalry proved too strong, and for a moment it appeared that Stephen might be captured for a second time. On this occasion, however, 780:

and vast estates in the north-west and south-east of England. In 1127, William Clito, a potential claimant to the English throne, seemed likely to become the

1295:. The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received the majority of these new earldoms. From 1138 onwards, Stephen gave them the earldoms of 1473:

At the start of 1140, Nigel, Bishop of Ely, whose castles Stephen had confiscated the previous year, rebelled against Stephen as well. Nigel hoped to seize

9035: 2880: 2232:

to coin the term "the Anarchy" to describe the period, a label that, whilst sometimes critiqued, continues to be used today. The late-Victorian scholar

1988:. In the face of the increasingly wintry weather, Stephen agreed to a temporary truce and returned to London, leaving Henry to travel north through the 4824:

Opinions vary over the degree to which Stephen's acquisition of power resembled a coup. Frank Barlow, for example, describes it as a straightforward

1072:

Norman forces then deserted Stephen, forcing the King to give up his campaign. He agreed to another truce with Geoffrey, promising to pay him 2,000

1437:; he was certainly known for having a generous, courteous personality and women were not normally expected to be targeted in Anglo-Norman warfare. 1059:

and Robert of Bampton; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy, where he became an increasingly vocal critic of the King.

1020:

confirmed Stephen as king by letter later that year, and Stephen's advisers circulated copies widely around England to demonstrate his legitimacy.

654:

With Henry's support, Stephen rapidly began to accumulate lands and possessions. Following the battle of Tinchebray in 1106, Henry confiscated the

1715:, Stephen lacked the resources to track Geoffrey down in the Fens and made do with building a screen of castles between Ely and London, including 9028: 2873: 2256: 1469:

Political map of the Angevin and Welsh revolt in 1140; red indicates those areas under Stephen's control; blue – Angevin; grey – indigenous Welsh

1132:

later that year. In 1138, Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda, triggering a major regional rebellion in

670:. In 1113, Stephen was granted both the title and the honour, although without the lands previously held by William in England. The gift of the 651:. As a third surviving son, even of an influential regional family, Stephen still needed the support of a powerful patron to progress in life. 2243:

he is "arguably the most written-about medieval king of England". Modern historians vary in their assessments of Stephen as a king. Historian

4999:

Edmund King believes the attack never got close to York; R. Davis believes that it did and was deterred by the presence of Stephen's forces.

4871:

appears to have agreed to this at least partially because of the pressure of the combined Anglo-Norman–French regional alliance against him.

4772:

Stephen's brother William was described by chroniclers as being "deficient in intelligence ... second rate"; he also took a strange oath in

2228:, beginning an enduring interest in Stephen and his reign. Stubbs' analysis, focusing on the disorder of the period, influenced his student 60: 366:

in 1120; William's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge. When Henry died in 1135, Stephen quickly crossed the

1858:

In the final years of the war, Stephen began to focus on the issue of his family and the succession. He wanted to confirm his eldest son,

1855:, the recently divorced wife of Louis VII, in 1152. The marriage made Henry the future ruler of a huge swathe of territory across France. 10203: 1449:, only to find it too well defended. He then left behind some forces to blockade the castle and continued west into Wiltshire to attack 956:

over the coming years. Both the kingdom and duchy were dominated by a small number of major barons who owned lands on both sides of the

4855:

draws more attention to the pressures on the Anglo-Norman system during Henry's reign and the strains that built up during the period.

1288: 1064: 402: 2236:

also introduced the possibility that Stephen's reign marked a turning point in English legal history—the so-called "tenurial crisis".

1223:. Despite this victory, however, David still occupied most of the north. Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of 10173: 10163: 1722:

For a period, the situation continued to worsen. Ranulf of Chester revolted once again in the summer of 1144, splitting up Stephen's

1292: 1619:

change sides once again. Stephen then spent the summer attacking some of the new Angevin castles built the previous year, including

927: 744:, but as a woman she was at a substantial political disadvantage. Shortly after the death of his son, the King took a second wife, 1816:

of new coins remained limited outside of the south-east and East Anglia. With Stephen often based in the south-east, increasingly

10143: 1684:

for his safe release—this was one of the few instances where Stephen was prepared to give up a castle to ransom one of his men.

787:

Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and Normandy, demanding that his court take

10198: 10138: 9812: 2029:

met again at Winchester, where the two leaders would ratify the terms of a permanent peace in November. Stephen announced the

10183: 10178: 8616: 8524: 8502: 8483: 8447: 8424: 8380: 8353: 8334: 8315: 8296: 8275: 8256: 8199: 8147: 8112: 8065: 8046: 8020: 8001: 7957: 7922: 7862: 7795: 7773: 7740: 7694: 7665: 7647: 4291: 2295: 1867: 1786:

recorded how "there was nothing but disturbance and wickedness and robbery". Certainly in many parts of the country, such as

1688: 1492: 1417:

instead, and on 30 September the Empress and Robert of Gloucester arrived in England with 140 knights. The Empress stayed at

2279:, set between 1137 and 1145. Peters' depiction of Stephen's reign is an essentially local narrative, focused on the town of 2078:; some historians believe that the King was already ill and preparing to settle his family affairs. Stephen fell ill with a 9930: 8978: 4325: 3722: 2314: 1599:

commander William of Ypres remained with the Queen in London; William Martel, the royal steward, commanded operations from

1496:

himself north, but this gesture proved the final straw for Ranulf. Ranulf had previously claimed that he had the rights to

753: 394: 1776:

England had suffered extensively from the war by 1147, leading later Victorian historians to call the period of conflict "

10208: 10069: 1740:

1144, when he died during an attack on Burwell. The war in the west progressed better in 1145, with the King recapturing

832:

the couple being the second-richest lay household in the country after the King and Queen. The landless Flemish nobleman

340:. His father died while Stephen was still young, and he was brought up by his mother. Placed into the court of his uncle 10153: 4847:

The nature of Henry's administration and the links between England and Normandy have been hotly debated by historians.

4704: 1454: 1178:

designs, giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers. As a result, slow sieges to starve defenders out, or

10123: 8894: 8845: 8546: 8218: 8180: 7979: 7903: 7721: 10188: 10087: 9991: 4341: 3943: 1183:

12th century, and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in the success of campaigns.

643:

in 1113. Stephen probably first visited England in either 1113 or 1115, almost certainly as part of Henry's court.

2108:

by Henry, and prospered under the new regime, with the occasional point of tension with Henry. Stephen's daughter

2041:

to him; Stephen promised to listen to Henry's advice, but retained all his royal powers; Stephen's remaining son,

10193: 2927: 1708: 895: 765: 592: 549: 179: 540:

Stephen had at least four brothers and one sister, along with two probable half-sisters. His eldest brother was

10158: 2767: 398: 2269:

Stephen and his reign have been occasionally used in historical fiction. Stephen and his supporters appear in

839:

Stephen's younger brother, Henry of Blois, had also risen to power under Henry I. Henry of Blois had become a

729:

With William Adelin dead, the inheritance to the English throne was thrown into doubt. Rules of succession in

10104: 9866: 4316: 3228: 2364: 2346: 2320: 2117: 2109: 1859: 1852: 1534: 1374:

it may have damaged Stephen's relationship with the senior clergy, and in particular with his brother Henry.

1028: 992: 425: 390: 356:

that made the couple one of the wealthiest in England. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I's son,

329: 233: 223: 218: 8864:

Weiler, Bjorn (2001). "Kingship, usurpation and propaganda in twelfth century Europe: the case of Stephen".

4806:. Some theories centre on overcrowding, while others blame excessive drinking by the ship's master and crew. 1934:, pursued to the coast by Stephen's knights, marking a low point in Stephen's relationship with the church. 9861: 9702: 9665: 2333: 2113: 2042: 1863: 1545:

Robert took Stephen back to Gloucester, where the King met with the Empress Matilda, and was then moved to

1517: 446: 228: 9427: 7783: 4968:

simply fled, wisely retreated or in fact actively betrayed him to the enemy has been extensively debated.

4852: 4642: 3950: 1624: 371: 9416: 1877:

as a resting place for his family. Both Stephen's wife, Matilda, and his brother Theobald died in 1152.

756:, whose lands bordered the Duchy of Normandy. Geoffrey was unpopular with the Anglo-Norman elite: as an 711:

In 1120, the English political landscape changed dramatically. Three hundred passengers embarked on the

10019: 9871: 9805: 9712: 9390: 9358: 7608: 4659: 3002: 2075: 1340: 1257: 1125: 961: 949: 883: 8890: 2201:, for example, described Stephen as "a fine knight, but in other respects almost a fool". A number of 1533:

on 2 February 1141. The King commanded the centre of his army, with Alan of Brittany on his right and

9707: 9502: 9447: 9055: 4746: 3991: 2233: 2016:

Fighting continued after Wallingford but in a rather half-hearted fashion. Stephen lost the towns of

659: 475: 325: 4890:

King David was a maternal uncle to both the Empress Matilda and Matilda of Boulogne, Stephen's wife.

1441:

Marches and east as far as Oxford and Wallingford, threatening London. Stephen started by attacking

10213: 9508: 9497: 9059: 9051: 7850: 7735:. The Impact of 'Foreign' Troops in the Civil Wars of Stephen's Reign. Liverpool University Press. 4990:

Stephen did not participate in the Second Crusade himself due to internal conflicts in his kingdom.

4977:

As described below, the name "the Anarchy" for this conflict originates with the Victorian scholar

4965: 4713: 4259: 2774: 2290: 1583:

of coins broke down, leading to coins being struck by local barons and bishops across the country.

1530: 1513: 1052: 953: 406: 314: 2895:

Norman English and early Plantagenet monarchs and their relationship with rulers of Western Europe

1707:, with the intention of progressing south towards London. With all of his other problems and with 10148: 9477: 9472: 9457: 9432: 4332: 3324: 3315: 3237: 3009: 2945: 2936: 1273: 1253: 726:. The ship foundered en route, and all but one of the passengers died, including William Adelin. 683: 588: 545: 541: 479: 259: 20: 9139: 4815:

Modern historians, such as Edmund King, doubt that Hugh Bigod was being truthful in his account.

10168: 9656: 9541: 9487: 9462: 9437: 9422: 9294: 9129: 4031: 2589: 2275: 2194: 2021: 1926:

still alive, as was the custom in France, but this was not the normal practice in England, and

1910:

died in 1143, Bernard was able to get the appointment rejected by Rome. Bernard then convinced

1644: 1212: 499: 381:

The early years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a series of attacks on his

9599: 5018:

Jim Bradbury provides an accessible summary of the argument as to the extent of "the Anarchy".

1116:

in Herefordshire, an example of the style of fortification slowly beginning to replace wooden

10128: 9952: 9876: 9855: 9798: 9646: 9556: 9536: 9467: 9405: 9395: 9385: 9264: 9259: 9232: 9193: 9188: 4357: 3306: 3260: 2978: 2556: 2407: 2240: 2183: 2154: 2134: 2006: 1782: 1550: 1004: 983:

was a disputed territory at this time, with the Scottish kings laying a traditional claim to

640: 507: 337: 9351: 9103: 521:, just to the east of Stephen's home county of Blois. To the west lay the three counties of 10133: 9958: 9946: 9941: 9920: 9624: 9571: 9561: 9551: 9524: 9442: 9365: 9299: 9254: 9244: 9238: 9227: 9221: 9171: 4679: 4623: 4348: 4300: 4284: 4268: 3968: 2954: 2030: 1899: 1890: 1770: 1328: 848: 844: 616: 544:, who under normal circumstances would have ruled Blois and Chartres. William was probably 442: 375: 2128: 1348:; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute 636: 382: 8: 9985: 9935: 9651: 9604: 9546: 9482: 9279: 9269: 9249: 9215: 9020: 9004: 8959: 8512: 4848: 4759: 4695: 4275: 4000: 3975: 3959: 3333: 3299: 2855: 2414: 2239:

Stephen remains a popular subject for historical study: David Crouch suggests that after

2174: 1985: 1834: 1732: 1723: 1426: 1366: 976: 968: 867: 671: 553: 511: 386: 345: 310: 105: 10057: 10008: 9887: 9688: 9326: 9274: 9198: 8942: 8898: 8812: 8808: 8783: 8754: 8746: 8721: 8717: 8692: 8688: 8573: 8569: 8436: 8058:

Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt

4773: 4670: 3283: 3246: 2961: 2563: 1997: 1620: 1612: 1442: 1422: 1405: 1220: 1186: 1081: 1056: 745: 682:

in southern Normandy by Henry, but the local Normans rebelled, seeking assistance from

675: 620: 600: 438: 418: 341: 154: 95: 2197:. Later chronicles written during the reign of Henry II were generally more negative: 1808: 635:

fought his next military campaign in Normandy, from 1111 onwards, where rebels led by

9979: 9849: 9833: 9825: 9321: 9134: 8995: 8841: 8758: 8655: 8612: 8542: 8520: 8498: 8479: 8462: 8443: 8420: 8403: 8376: 8349: 8330: 8311: 8292: 8271: 8252: 8214: 8195: 8176: 8143: 8108: 8100: 8061: 8042: 8016: 7997: 7975: 7953: 7918: 7899: 7858: 7805: 7791: 7769: 7736: 7717: 7690: 7661: 7643: 4978: 4868: 4856: 3760: 3276: 2582: 2229: 2189: 2170: 2034: 2025: 2024:

to Henry while the King was diverted fighting Hugh Bigod in the east of England, but

1981: 1803: 1802:", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords — the chronicler 1799: 1766: 1450: 1357: 1300: 1296: 1195: 1145: 1048: 1024: 1000: 899: 863: 781: 773: 757: 655: 608: 584: 534: 503: 410: 333: 289: 269: 202: 138: 9182: 4785:

Contemporary chroniclers varied in their explanation for Stephen's absence from the

1885: 793: 445:, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over 421:, but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage. 10045: 9821: 9639: 9629: 9519: 9492: 9344: 9176: 9096: 9089: 8968: 8833: 8804: 8775: 8738: 8713: 8684: 8651: 8642:

Yoshitake, Kenji (1988). "The Arrest of the Bishops in 1139 and its Consequences".

8565: 4040: 3745: 3684: 1907: 1741: 1681: 1673: 1539: 1521: 1312: 1304: 1284: 1167: 1117: 1044: 1017: 980: 967:

Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation.

833: 628: 568: 522: 414: 298: 6188:

Stringer, p. 20; Bradbury, p. 61; Davis, p. 35; Barlow, p. 173; Carpenter, p. 170.

5672:

Helmerichs, p. 137; Carpenter, pp. 159–160; Chibnall, pp. 94, 115; Barlow, p. 162.

2224:

focused on these constitutional aspects of Stephen's reign in his 1874 volume the

2220:

course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period.

2001:

force and marched from Oxford, and the two sides confronted each other across the

1914:

to overturn Henry's decision altogether in 1147, deposing William, and appointing

1631:. In September, he spotted an opportunity to seize the Empress Matilda herself in 518: 401:

rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his close advisor,

9969: 9882: 9634: 9379: 9209: 9161: 9151: 9145: 8949: 8476:

Power and Border Lordship in Medieval France: The County of the Perche, 1000–1226

8438:

The Reign of Stephen: Kingship, Warfare and Government in Twelfth-Century England

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Writing Medieval Biography, 750–1250: Essays in Honour of Professor Frank Barlow

1942: 1643:, however, was a powerful fortress and, rather than storming it, Stephen had to 1465: 828:

to form abbeys on his estates, winning him additional allies within the church.

556:. Stephen's other older brother, Odo, died young, probably in his early teens. 494:, Stephen-Henry had acquired a reputation for cowardice, and he returned to the 10033: 10004: 9903: 9893: 9732: 9619: 9576: 9530: 9315: 8913: 8672: 7967: 7532: 7505: 7495: 7477: 7467: 6838: 4910:

the disintegration of the royal government at the subsequent battle of Lincoln.

4776:

to kill the local bishop. His precise difficulties or condition remain unclear.

4745:

Opinions vary considerably among historians as to the date of Stephen's birth.

3738: 2788: 2753: 2244: 2221: 2149: 2105: 1829: 1746: 1716: 1677: 1559: 1546: 1497: 1486: 1418: 1362: 1345: 1280: 1240: 1179: 859: 730: 648: 599:

Stephen's early life was heavily influenced by his relationship with his uncle

560: 357: 249: 8837: 8779: 2306:

Stephen of Blois married Matilda of Boulogne in 1125. They had five children:

1828:

for Normandy, both of which contributed to reducing the tempo of the war. The

1655: 820:

confessor appointed to him by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who implemented a

10117: 8417:

Travels and Mobilities in the Middle Ages: From the Atlantic to the Black Sea

8289:

Begging Pardon and Favor: Ritual and Political Order in Early Medieval France

8030: 3699: 2746: 2213: 2046: 1791: 1696: 1669: 1665: 1640: 1591: 1349: 1336: 1268: 1228: 1040: 809: 734: 663: 624: 604: 491: 43: 8407: 7872: 1023:

Troubles continued across Stephen's kingdom. After the Welsh victory at the

10052: 9757: 9514: 8884: 8466: 8228: 8122: 7989: 7704: 4802:

There has been extensive speculation as to the cause of the sinking of the

2270: 2217: 2083: 2002: 1927: 1915: 1736:

after the events of 1141, Stephen made little use of his network of earls.

1425:

and Bristol, hoping to raise support for the rebellion and to link up with

1332: 1089: 1012: 817: 667: 9109: 8766:—— (2000). "Stephen of Blois, count of Mortain and Boulogne". 7855:

The Beaumont Twins: The Roots and Branches of Power in the Twelfth Century

7687:

The Accession of Henry II in England: Royal Government Restored, 1149–1159

9762: 9747: 9332: 8988: 8534: 4838:

probably already made a private deal to seize the throne when Henry died.

4828:; King is less certain that this is an appropriate description of events. 2285: 1817: 1795: 1777: 1478: 1474: 1383: 1316: 1174:. Existing siege engines were significantly less powerful than the later 1032: 988: 906: 840: 825: 769: 603:. Henry seized power in England following the death of his elder brother 462: 344:, Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands. He married 302: 293: 8816: 8725: 8696: 8577: 2261: 1104: 9737: 9727: 9717: 9304: 9166: 9012: 8750: 8247:

Bates, David; Crick, Julia C.; Hamilton, Sarah, eds. (25 August 2023).

2360:

King Stephen's illegitimate children by his mistress Damette included:

2280: 2198: 1821: 1636: 1554: 1458: 1236: 984: 879: 713: 703: 409:

in 1141, he was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of

362: 80: 8787: 8704:

King, Edmund (1974). "King Stephen and the Anglo-Norman Aristocracy".

7640:

The Reign of Richard Lionheart, Ruler of the Angevin empire, 1189–1199

2142:

Much of the modern history of Stephen's reign is based on accounts of

1144:

Anglo-Norman warfare during the reign of Stephen was characterised by

679: 9752: 9722: 9309: 9284: 8795:

Le Patourel, John (1973). "What did not happen in Stephen's reign?".

2265:

Stephen, as imagined by a non-contemporary unknown artist, about 1620

2143: 1798:, the fighting and raiding had caused serious devastation. Numerous " 1787: 1704: 1605: 1600: 1576: 1370: 1199: 1175: 1138: 1036: 723: 19:"Stephen of Blois" redirects here. For his father, the Crusader, see 9790: 9410: 8742: 7257:

King (2010), pp. 280–283; Bradbury pp. 189–190; Barlow, pp. 187–188.

1611:

The King's eventual release resulted from the Angevin defeat at the

498:

again in 1101 to rebuild his reputation; there he was killed at the

9742: 9683: 9289: 9114: 8105:

Anglo-Norman Studies XIV: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1991

8013:

Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain, 850–1520

4943: 2209: 1989: 1931: 1841: 1520:; Stephen (wearing a crown, fourth from the right) is listening to 1508: 1482: 1434: 1248:

Dover finally surrendered to the Queen's forces later in the year.

1232: 1216: 1158: 1154: 1068: 972: 942: 777: 718: 697: 583:

A 14th century depiction of Stephen's family tree, with his mother

530: 487: 353: 7994:

France in the Middle Ages 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc

2138:, written around 1150, which details the events of Stephen's reign 1761: 1393: 1039:

and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during 1137.

9660: 9566: 8539:

Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy, Revised Edition

8041:] (in German). Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. 4930: 4929:

Edmund King disagrees that the Empress received an invitation to

4790: 2202: 1946:

A political map of England, Wales and southern Scotland in 1153;

1871: 1712: 1700: 1414: 1320: 1244: 937: 914: 821: 752:, but her husband died in 1125, and she was remarried in 1128 to 424:

Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son

244: 1586: 913:

Theobald met with the Norman barons and Robert of Gloucester at

9452: 9400: 9124: 9119: 8373:

The Detective as Historian: History and Art in Historical Crime

8348:. Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. 2923:: Bold borders indicate legitimate children of English monarchs 2017: 1996:

Over the summer, Stephen intensified the long-running siege of

1632: 1162: 1150: 1129: 495: 37: 8733:—— (1984). "The Anarchy of King Stephen's Reign". 7788:

Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284

1672:. Stephen attempted to break out and escape, resulting in the 995:. Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at 843:

monk and followed Stephen to England, where the King made him

10063: 9843: 9372: 7203:

Bradbury, p. 183; King (2010), p. 277; Crouch (2002), p. 276.

2071: 1728: 1572: 1568: 1208: 1191: 854: 804: 764:

Meanwhile, the King arranged for Stephen to marry in 1125 to

579: 564: 548:, and Adela instead had the counties pass to her second son, 471: 150: 134: 7503:. Retrieved 12 May 2011; Kadish, p. 40; Round (1888), cited 2037:

as his adopted son and successor, in return for Henry doing

847:, the richest abbey in England. The King then appointed him 490:

who died when Stephen was at most ten years old. During the

9156: 8132:'Ad tutandos partriae fines': The Defense of Normandy, 1135 2067: 2063: 1845: 1687:

In late 1143, Stephen faced a new threat in the east, when

1352:. The remaining castles were then surrendered to the King. 1171: 1133: 1124:

Stephen was attacked on several fronts during 1138. First,

1109: 788: 349: 9050: 8138:

Abels, Richard Philip; Bachrach, Bernard S., eds. (2001).

7199: 7197: 2066:

for the south-west of England once again and travelled to

1047:

successfully captured considerable territories, including

948:

Stephen's new Anglo-Norman kingdom had been shaped by the

808:

A 13th century depiction of the coronation of Stephen, by

733:

at the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, male

8824:

Marritt, Stephen (2002). "King Stephen and the Bishops".

5912:

Barlow, p. 168; Crouch (1998), p. 264; Carpenter, p. 168.

417:, one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the 8371:

Browne, Ray Broadus; Kreiser, Lawrence A., eds. (2000).

1092:, possibly as consolation for not receiving Canterbury. 8419:. Vol. 21. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers. 8375:. Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Press. 7288: 7286: 7284: 7194: 6559: 6557: 1880: 1727:

southern Normandy and in January 1144 he advanced into

1635:. Oxford was a secure town, protected by walls and the 1388: 1088:, who was eventually appointed. The papacy named Henry 1076:

a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders.

1011:

church, promising to reverse Henry I's policies on the

971:

invaded the north on the news of Henry's death, taking

280:(1092 or 1096 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as 6515:

Carpenter, p. 173; Davis, p. 68; Crouch (2008), p. 47.

1756: 1503: 10017: 8675:(1964). "What happened in Stephen's reign 1135–54?". 1893:, with whom Stephen argued over ecclesiastical policy 1731:, the capital of the duchy, concluding his campaign. 674:

also followed after it was confiscated by Henry from

428:

would inherit his throne. The King tried to convince

8609:

War and Society in Medieval and Early Modern Britain

8556:

White, Graeme (1990). "The End of Stephen's Reign".

7733:

War and society in medieval and early modern Britain

7281: 7274: 7272: 6554: 5680: 5678: 5496: 5494: 1099: 623:, who took the opportunity to declare Robert's son, 2181:that provides a regional account of the reign. The 1594:, where Stephen almost captured the Empress Matilda 1202:

in Northumberland after his peace deal with Stephen

776:, who owned both the important continental port of 567:and riding, and was educated in recent history and 288:from 22 December 1135 to his death in 1154. He was 8435: 8415:Schmieder, Felicitas; O'Doherty, Marianne (2015). 8080:1066 and the Introduction of Chivalry into England 7731:Bennett, Matthew (2000). Dunn, Diana E. S. (ed.). 7462: 7460: 6637: 6635: 6034: 6032: 6030: 2313:Matilda (died before 1141), married in infancy to 2132:The first page of the Peterborough element of the 1137:Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into 466:Northern France around the time of Stephen's birth 432:to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim; 8308:Westminster Abbey and its people, c. 1050–c. 1216 7269: 6983: 6981: 6433: 6431: 5970: 5968: 5966: 5964: 5920: 5918: 5675: 5555: 5553: 5551: 5491: 5268: 5266: 2177:, who lived in the east of England, produced the 2173:wrote a later history of the rest of the period. 1937: 1659:Geoffrey of Anjou's invasion of Normandy, 1142–43 824:for him, and Stephen encouraged the new order of 10115: 8029: 7843: 7616:, published 22 July 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2011. 7327: 7325: 7212:King (2010), pp. 278–279; Crouch (2002), p. 276. 7187: 7185: 7157: 7155: 7153: 7134: 7132: 7130: 6814: 6812: 6732: 6730: 6693: 6691: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6649: 6647: 6475: 6473: 6454: 6452: 6421: 6419: 6391: 6389: 5822:Crouch (2008), pp. 46–47; Crouch (2002), p. 252. 4964:The degree to which Stephen's supporters at the 4933:, arguing instead that she arrived unexpectedly. 2116:. Stephen probably had three illegitimate sons, 1558:except for Stephen's crown, to the Empress, and 1252:agreement between Stephen and David, called the 8887:at the official website of the British monarchy 7716:(5th ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. 7457: 7339: 7337: 6632: 6614: 6326: 6324: 6228: 6226: 6224: 6027: 5984: 5982: 5980: 5627:Helmerichs, pp. 136–137; Crouch (2002), p. 245. 5398: 5396: 5203: 5201: 2918: 2912: 2905: 2899: 2257:Cultural depictions of Stephen, King of England 1969: Ranulf of Chester and Robert of Leicester 1866:, was married to the extremely wealthy heiress 740:Henry had only one other legitimate child, the 8601:Earls and Earldoms during King Stephen's Reign 8085: 8055: 7475:. Retrieved 12 May 2011; Stubbs (1874), cited 7448: 7079: 7077: 6978: 6930:Schmieder & O'Doherty (2015), pp. 121–138. 6917: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6865: 6863: 6861: 6766: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6607: 6605: 6603: 6601: 6599: 6580: 6578: 6428: 6166: 6164: 6162: 5961: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5930: 5915: 5777:Carpenter, pp. 164–165; Crouch (1998), p. 258. 5692: 5690: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5548: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5263: 5170: 5168: 5158: 5156: 5114:Barlow, p. 111; Koziol, p. 17; Thompson, p. 3. 2009:, to the annoyance of both Stephen and Henry. 1824:, was used as the centre of royal government. 1477:and established his base of operations in the 1404:The Angevin invasion finally arrived in 1139. 301:from 1135 until 1144. His reign was marked by 9806: 9036: 8056:Garnett, George; Hudsdon, John, eds. (1994). 7948:Dalton, Paul; White, Graeme J., eds. (2008). 7766:Stephen and Matilda: the Civil War of 1139–53 7638:Turner, Ralph V.; Heiser, Richard R. (2000). 7584: 7582: 7387: 7385: 7322: 7182: 7150: 7127: 7102: 7100: 7098: 6809: 6727: 6688: 6656: 6644: 6470: 6449: 6416: 6386: 5809: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5750:Crouch (1986), p. 29; King (2010), pp. 54–55. 5284: 5282: 5280: 5278: 5256: 5254: 5252: 5037: 5035: 5033: 2881: 1027:in January 1136 and the successful ambush of 991:by virtue of his marriage to the daughter of 486:, an important French nobleman and an active 305:, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the 8735:Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 8192:Historians, Economists, and Economic History 7609:Blood on Their Hands, and Sex on Their Minds 7334: 7301:White (1990), p. 12, cited Bradbury, p. 211. 7040: 7038: 6788:Crouch (2002), p. 269; White (1998), p. 133. 6379: 6377: 6367: 6365: 6363: 6321: 6314: 6312: 6310: 6221: 6196: 6194: 6134: 6132: 6050: 6048: 6046: 6044: 5977: 5393: 5198: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5068: 2062:kingdom extensively. He began issuing royal 1906:to the post in 1141 only to find that, when 1283:invasion by creating a number of additional 932: 858:Contemporary depiction of Stephen's brother 689: 619:. Henry then found himself in conflict with 574: 9603:Monarchs of England and Scotland after the 8794: 8633: 8346:Ken Follett: The Transformation of a Writer 8033:; Monnet, Pierre; Oexle, Oto, eds. (2002). 7947: 7939: 7815: 7239:King (2010), pp. 279–280; Bradbury, p. 187. 7074: 6908: 6858: 6757: 6596: 6575: 6159: 5927: 5687: 5562: 5450: 5390:King (2010), p. 38; Crouch (2008a), p. 162. 5297:Huscroft, pp. 65, 69–71; Carpenter, p. 124. 5191: 5189: 5165: 5153: 2169:, covering Stephen's reign until 1141, and 1263: 905:Meanwhile, the Norman nobility gathered at 9813: 9799: 9780:Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. 9043: 9029: 8897: 7579: 7382: 7095: 6099:Barlow, pp. 171–172; Crouch (1986), p. 29. 5903:Barlow, pp. 165, 167; Stringer, pp. 17–18. 5798: 5275: 5249: 5215: 5213: 5030: 2888: 2874: 2250: 921: 393:rebels, and the Empress Matilda's husband 36: 8611:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. 8607:Dunn, Diana E. S., ed. (25 August 2023). 7533:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 7506:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 7496:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 7478:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 7468:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 7035: 6839:Review of King Stephen, (review no. 1038) 6374: 6360: 6307: 6191: 6129: 6041: 5323: 5321: 5141:King (2010), p. 9; Crouch (2002), p. 241. 5065: 5058: 5056: 1445:, held by the Empress's childhood friend 1369:, who challenged the bishops to show how 941:14th century depiction of Stephen with a 478:, in either 1092 or 1096. His father was 452: 8517:God's War: a New History of the Crusades 8461:. Vol. I. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 8140:The Normans and Their Adversaries at War 7714:The Feudal Kingdom of England, 1042–1216 7624: 7622: 7032:Bradbury, p. 206; Crouch (2002), p. 275. 6905:Green, pp. 110–111, cited White, p. 132. 5186: 2260: 2127: 1941: 1884: 1760: 1668:, an assembly point for royal forces in 1654: 1650: 1585: 1507: 1464: 1392: 1377: 1267: 1185: 1103: 936: 928:Government in Norman and Angevin England 853: 836:had joined Stephen's household in 1133. 803: 696: 578: 461: 313:, succeeded Stephen as the first of the 8823: 6896:White (1998), p. 43; Blackburn, p. 199. 6572:Bennett, p. 106; Crouch (2002), p. 261. 6497:King (2010), p. 158; Carpenter, p. 171. 5372:King (2010), pp. 30–31; Barlow, p. 161. 5210: 2910:: Red borders indicate English monarchs 2090:with his wife Matilda and son Eustace. 2033:in Winchester Cathedral: he recognised 701:An early 14th century depiction of the 413:. He was freed only after his wife and 194: 1125; died 1152) 10116: 8863: 8291:. New York: Cornell University Press. 7370:Mason, pp. 37, 58; King (2010), p. 98. 5318: 5053: 1512:Near contemporary illustration of the 1421:, whilst Robert marched north-west to 607:. In 1106 he invaded and captured the 397:. In 1138, the Empress's half-brother 9820: 9794: 9024: 8673:Davis, R. H. C. (Ralph Henry Carless) 8671: 8459:The Constitutional History of England 7968:Davis, R. H. C. (Ralph Henry Carless) 7915:The Normans: The History of a Dynasty 7642:. Harlow: Longman. pp. 256–257. 7619: 5876:Crouch (2008), p. 50; Barlow, p. 168. 5714:King (2010), pp. 57–60; Davis, p. 22. 4712: 4703: 4701: 4694: 4692: 4678: 4676: 4669: 4658: 4656: 4654: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4508: 4468: 4456: 4412: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4356: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4338: 4331: 4324: 4322: 4315: 4313: 4299: 4297: 4290: 4288: 4283: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4265: 4258: 4170: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4058: 4046: 4039: 4037: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3999: 3997: 3990: 3988: 3974: 3967: 3958: 3956: 3949: 3947: 3942: 3892: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3864: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3786: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3744: 3737: 3735: 3730: 3721: 3719: 3705: 3703: 3698: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3647: 3641: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3601: 3599: 3593: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3459: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3332: 3330: 3323: 3321: 3314: 3312: 3305: 3303: 3298: 3282: 3280: 3275: 3273: 3259: 3257: 3252: 3250: 3245: 3236: 3227: 3139: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3029: 3008: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2960: 2953: 2944: 2942: 2935: 2861: 2859: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2792: 2787: 2785: 2780: 2778: 2773: 2771: 2766: 2764: 2759: 2757: 2752: 2750: 2745: 2743: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2619: 2617: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2562: 2560: 2555: 2553: 2548: 2546: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2440: 2438: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2413: 2406: 2404: 2402: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2377: 1868:Isabel de Warenne, Countess of Surrey 1689:Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex 1553:. Bishop Henry summoned a council at 148:25 October 1154 (aged 57–58 or 61–62) 10070: 8765: 8732: 8703: 8592: 8392:Danegeld and the Finance of Domesday 8327:English Castles: A Guide by Counties 8270:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 8213:. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. 8208: 8164: 7896:The Reign of King Stephen, 1135–1154 7887: 7829: 7757: 7655: 6948:King (2010), p. 243; Barlow, p. 180. 2315:Waleran de Beaumont, Count of Meulan 2212:" tradition that emerged during the 1881:Argument with the church (1145–1152) 1608:and transferred his support to her. 1389:Initial phase of the war (1139–1140) 1035:rose in rebellion, starting in east 799: 754:Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou 611:, controlled by his eldest brother, 533:, and to the north of Blois was the 395:Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou 8402:. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. 8211:The Anarchy of King Stephen's Reign 7838:From Feudalism to Bastard Feudalism 6987:Davis, p. 107; King (2010), p. 255. 6015:Stringer, pp. 15–16; Davis, p. 127. 5609:King (2010), p. 47; Barlow, p. 163. 5591:Barlow, p. 165; King (2010), p. 46. 5509:Barlow, p. 163; King (2010), p. 43. 5087:King (2010), p. 7; Tyerman, p. 171. 1757:Final phases of the war (1147–1152) 1504:Second phase of the war (1141–1142) 768:, the daughter and only heiress of 383:possessions in England and Normandy 348:, inheriting additional estates in 13: 10204:Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime 8809:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1973.tb02129.x 8718:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1974.tb02213.x 8689:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1964.tb01092.x 8664: 8570:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1990.tb01507.x 7660:. London: Anthem Press. Figure 1. 6488:King (2010), p. 175; Davis, p. 57. 5618:Barlow, p. 163; Carpenter, p. 168. 5447:Bennett, pp. 102, 106; Amt, p. 86. 5345:Carpenter, p. 161; Stringer, p. 8. 2356:– 1182), ruled Boulogne 1159–1182. 2343:– 1159), ruled Boulogne 1153–1159; 2330:– 1153), ruled Boulogne 1146–1153; 1170:designs or the newer, stone-built 678:. Stephen was also given lands in 571:by his tutor, William the Norman. 370:and, with the help of his brother 14: 10225: 8895:National Portrait Gallery, London 8878: 8495:Ken Follett: A Critical Companion 8015:. London: Yale University Press. 7974:(1st ed.). London: Longman. 7952:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7689:. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. 7343:White (1998), p. 137; Amt, p. 44. 6878:Coulson, p. 69; Bradbury, p. 191. 2310:Baldwin (died in or before 1135); 2226:Constitutional History of England 2161:, or "New History". In Normandy, 2123: 1319:between the troubled south-west, 1100:Defending the kingdom (1138–1139) 954:Norman expansion into south Wales 615:, defeating Robert's army at the 16:King of England from 1135 to 1154 10174:English people of French descent 10164:Christians of the Second Crusade 10096: 10079: 10051: 10039: 10027: 8628:Royal Income and Regional Trends 8493:Turner, Richard Charles (1996). 7950:King Stephen's reign (1135–1154) 7934:King Stephen and northern France 7844:Fryde, Monnet & Oexle (2002) 7631: 7600: 7591: 7570: 7561: 7552: 7543: 7525: 7516: 7488: 7439: 7430: 7421: 7412: 7403: 7394: 7373: 7364: 7355: 7346: 7313: 7304: 7295: 7260: 7251: 7242: 7233: 7224: 7215: 7206: 7173: 7164: 7141: 7118: 7109: 7086: 7065: 7056: 7047: 7026: 7017: 7008: 6999: 6990: 6969: 6960: 6951: 6942: 6933: 6924: 6899: 6890: 6881: 6872: 6849: 6830: 6821: 6800: 6791: 6782: 6773: 6748: 6739: 6718: 6709: 6700: 6679: 6670: 6623: 6587: 6566: 6545: 6536: 6527: 6518: 6509: 6500: 6491: 6482: 6461: 6440: 6407: 6398: 6351: 6342: 6333: 6298: 6289: 6280: 6271: 6262: 6253: 6244: 6235: 6212: 6203: 6182: 6173: 6150: 6141: 6120: 6111: 6102: 6093: 6084: 6075: 6066: 6057: 6018: 6009: 6000: 5991: 5952: 5943: 5906: 5237:Davis, p. 6; King (2010), p. 15. 5207:Davis, p. 7; King (2010), p. 13. 5012: 5002: 4993: 4984: 4971: 4958: 4949: 4936: 4923: 4913: 4903: 4893: 4884: 4793:gives his illness as the reason. 1820:, rather than the older site of 1481:, then surrounded by protective 1227:, first striking north into the 587:at the top, and, left to right, 9080:Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 8159:1153: The Treaty of Westminster 7917:. London: Hambledon Continuum. 7677: 7606:Turner, p. 122; Ramet, p. 108; 7278:Bradbury, p. 211; Holt, p. 306. 5897: 5888: 5879: 5870: 5861: 5852: 5843: 5834: 5825: 5816: 5789: 5780: 5771: 5762: 5753: 5744: 5735: 5726: 5717: 5708: 5699: 5666: 5657: 5648: 5639: 5630: 5621: 5612: 5603: 5594: 5585: 5576: 5539: 5530: 5521: 5512: 5503: 5482: 5473: 5464: 5441: 5432: 5423: 5414: 5405: 5384: 5375: 5366: 5363:Bradbury, p. 9; Barlow, p. 161. 5357: 5348: 5339: 5330: 5309: 5300: 5291: 5240: 5231: 5222: 5177: 5144: 5135: 5132:King (2010), p. 5; Davis, p. 5. 5126: 5123:Davis, p. 4; King (2010), p. 8. 5117: 5108: 5041:Davis, p. 1; King (2010), p. 5. 4874: 4862: 4841: 4831: 4818: 4809: 4796: 4779: 4766: 4686: 4364: 4307: 3982: 3713: 3290: 3267: 2985: 2928:Family tree of English monarchs 1709:Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk 1524:orating a battle speech (left). 1335:, and his son, Lord Chancellor 1120:castle design by the late 1130s 191: 180:Matilda I, Countess of Boulogne 10144:12th-century dukes of Normandy 9077:Monarchs of England until 1603 8060:. Cambridge University Press. 7857:. Cambridge University Press. 6268:Bradbury, p. 82; Davis, p. 47. 6156:Yoshitake, pp. 97–98, 108–109. 5858:Davis, p. 27; Bennett, p. 102. 5099: 5090: 5081: 5044: 4752: 4739: 2273:' historical detective series 2082:and died on 25 October at the 1938:Treaties and peace (1153–1154) 1408:crossed over from Normandy to 1397:Contemporary depiction of the 1: 10199:Deaths from digestive disease 10139:12th-century English monarchs 8857:Stephen: The Reign of Anarchy 8497:. Westport: Greenwood Press. 8478:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 8365:Ellis Peters: Brother Cadfael 8329:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 8310:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 8251:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 8142:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 8035:Die Gegenwart des Feudalismus 7882:The March and the Welsh Kings 7768:. Stroud, UK: History Press. 7658:King John: An Underrated King 6259:Gillingham (1994), pp. 49–50. 6179:Davis, p. 34; Barlow, p. 173. 5096:Duby, p. 192; Barlow, p. 111. 5024: 2365:Gervase, Abbot of Westminster 2350: 2347:Marie I, Countess of Boulogne 2337: 2324: 2321:Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne 2118:Gervase, Abbot of Westminster 2110:Marie I, Countess of Boulogne 1870:. In 1148, Stephen built the 1853:Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine 1029:Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare 993:Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria 330:Stephen-Henry, Count of Blois 234:Gervase, Abbot of Westminster 224:Marie I, Countess of Boulogne 219:Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne 10184:12th-century French nobility 10179:11th-century French nobility 8737:. 5th series (34): 133–153. 8656:10.1016/0304-4181(88)90022-X 8266:——, ed. (2010). 8236:——, ed. (2006). 8175:. Harlow, England: Pearson. 8086:Garnett & Hudsdon (1994) 5786:Crouch (1998), pp. 260, 262. 2334:William I, Count of Boulogne 2153:, or "Acts of Stephen", and 2114:Holy Trinity Priory, Aldgate 2098: 1889:A 13th century depiction of 1645:settle down for a long siege 1198:, minted in his own name at 457: 229:William I, Count of Boulogne 7: 9687:British monarchs after the 8644:Journal of Medieval History 8474:Thompson, Kathleen (2002). 8434:Stringer, Keith J. (1993). 8130:Helmerichs, Robert (2001). 5768:Crouch (2002), pp. 248–249. 5411:Crouch (2002), pp. 279–281. 1951: Under Henry's control 1807:their own coins. The royal 1215:in August by the forces of 1161:. These forces were either 979:and other key strongholds. 559:Stephen's younger brother, 484:Count of Blois and Chartres 372:Henry, Bishop of Winchester 10: 10230: 10209:Burials at Faversham Abbey 8363:Rielly, Edward J. (2000). 8209:King, Edmund, ed. (1994). 8171:Huscroft, Richard (2005). 8011:Dyer, Christopher (2009). 7824:The Castles of the Anarchy 7361:King (2010), pp. xvi, 313. 3003:Saint Margaret of Scotland 2925: 2254: 2076:Thierry, Count of Flanders 1765:14th century depiction of 1381: 1258:Ranulf II, Earl of Chester 1239:, before heading south to 1126:Robert, Earl of Gloucester 987:, and David also claiming 950:Norman conquest of England 925: 884:Roger, Bishop of Salisbury 208: 18: 10154:Jure uxoris officeholders 10001: 9968: 9919: 9902: 9832: 9775: 9698: 9682: 9678: 9615: 9598: 9594: 9071: 9067: 9009: 8993: 8985: 8975: 8966: 8956: 8947: 8939: 8934: 8909:Stephen, King of England 8907: 8891:Portraits of King Stephen 8838:10.1017/9780585490809.009 8768:English Historical Review 8634:Dalton & White (2008) 8325:Pettifer, Adrian (1995). 8287:Koziol, Geoffrey (1992). 8173:Ruling England, 1042–1217 8039:The Presence of Feudalism 7940:Dalton & White (2008) 7822:Coulson, Charles (1994). 7816:Dalton & White (2008) 7567:King (2010), pp. 338–339. 7124:King (2010), pp. 263–264. 7023:King (2010), pp. 238–239. 7014:King (2010), pp. 237–238. 6250:Gillingham (1994), p. 31. 5759:Crouch (2008), pp. 46–47. 4749:proposes 1096, King 1092. 4725: 4723: 4710: 4631: 4600: 4592: 4590: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4562: 4554: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4530: 4528: 4526: 4524: 4522: 4514: 4512: 4506: 4502: 4496: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4466: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4418: 4410: 4406: 4384: 4372: 4370: 4345: 4329: 4272: 4252: 4250: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4182: 4180: 4178: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4094: 4082: 4080: 4072: 4070: 4062: 4060: 4050: 3972: 3965: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3890: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3878: 3846: 3842: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3800: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3782: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3742: 3728: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3657: 3655: 3645: 3643: 3627: 3625: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3597: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3585: 3573: 3571: 3555: 3553: 3537: 3535: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3501: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3457: 3453: 3451: 3431: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3389: 3387: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3367: 3341: 3296: 3243: 3234: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3179: 3177: 3175: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3147: 3137: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3103: 3091: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3049: 3045: 3033: 3031: 3021: 3006: 2958: 2951: 2820: 2818: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2683: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2653: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2623: 2621: 2586: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2484: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2411: 2234:Frederic William Maitland 2216:traced a progressive and 2093: 1975: David I of Scotland 1514:Battle of Lincoln in 1141 1279:Stephen prepared for the 952:in 1066, followed by the 933:Initial years (1136–1137) 575:Relationship with Henry I 297:from 1125 until 1147 and 265: 255: 243: 201: 173: 160: 144: 126: 122: 111: 101: 91: 79: 68: 54: 35: 30: 10124:Stephen, King of England 10066:Stephen, King of England 8587:Continuity in Government 8541:. London: Random House. 8457:Stubbs, William (1874). 7750:Blackburn, Mark (1994). 7656:Seel, Graham E. (2012). 7540:. Retrieved 12 May 2011. 7513:. Retrieved 12 May 2011. 7485:. Retrieved 12 May 2011. 7454:Dyer, p. 4; Coss, p. 81. 6846:. Retrieved 12 May 2011. 6090:White (2000), pp. 76–77. 4733: 2775:Theobald II of Champagne 2301: 2291:The Pillars of the Earth 2052: 1529:fight, resulting in the 1453:, taking the castles of 1264:Road to civil war (1139) 360:, in the sinking of the 320:Stephen was born in the 315:Angevin kings of England 10189:English Roman Catholics 8780:10.1093/ehr/115.461.271 8626:—— (2008). 8599:—— (2000). 8585:—— (1994). 8094:Financing Stephen's War 7932:—— (2008). 7913:—— (2002). 7894:—— (2000). 7880:—— (1994). 6629:Bradbury, pp. 134, 136. 5949:King (2010), pp. 61–62. 5600:King (2010), pp. 46–47. 5536:King (2010), pp. 45–46. 5381:King (2010), pp. 38–39. 5354:King (2010), pp. 32–34. 2251:Popular representations 1918:as archbishop instead. 922:Early reign (1136–1139) 684:Fulk IV, Count of Anjou 546:intellectually disabled 260:Stephen, Count of Blois 21:Stephen, Count of Blois 10194:French Roman Catholics 8855:Watkins, Carl (2019). 8390:Round, John H (1888). 8344:Ramet, Carlos (1999). 7764:Bradbury, Jim (2009). 7712:Barlow, Frank (1999). 7445:Chibnall (2008), p. 1. 7352:Crouch (2002), p. 281. 7292:Crouch (2002), p. 277. 7147:Bradbury, pp. 178–179. 6715:Bradbury, pp. 140–141. 6676:Bradbury, pp. 137–138. 6563:Crouch (2002), p. 261. 6437:Bradbury, pp. 108–109. 6404:Crouch (2002), p. 260. 6038:Crouch (2002), p. 256. 5741:Crouch (2002), p. 250. 5559:Crouch (2002), p. 247. 5488:Crouch (2002), p. 246. 2590:Stephen-Henry of Blois 2276:The Cadfael Chronicles 2266: 2195:battle of the Standard 2167:Ecclesiastical History 2139: 1977: 1963: Indigenous Welsh 1894: 1773: 1660: 1595: 1571:and east of the river 1525: 1470: 1401: 1291:, the twin brother of 1276: 1213:battle of the Standard 1203: 1121: 945: 870: 812: 708: 596: 506:, was the daughter of 467: 453:Early life (1097–1135) 87:& 25 December 1141 10159:People of The Anarchy 8442:. London: Routledge. 8194:. London: Routledge. 8190:Kadish, Alon (1989). 7996:. Oxford: Blackwell. 7576:Stringer, pp. 86, 90. 7558:Crouch (2008), p. 58. 6620:Crouch (2002), p. 187 6524:Crouch (2008), p. 52. 6117:Crouch (1986), p. 43. 5831:Crouch (2008), p. 47. 2979:William the Conqueror 2557:William II of England 2408:William the Conqueror 2264: 2188:later reign, such as 2184:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 2155:William of Malmesbury 2135:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 2131: 1945: 1888: 1783:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1764: 1658: 1651:Stalemate (1143–1146) 1590:St George's Tower at 1589: 1511: 1468: 1396: 1378:Civil war (1139–1154) 1271: 1189: 1107: 1005:Earldom of Huntingdon 940: 926:Further information: 902:on 22 December 1135. 857: 807: 700: 641:Abbey of Saint-Evroul 582: 508:William the Conqueror 465: 338:William the Conqueror 328:as the fourth son of 9942:Henry the Young King 9921:House of Plantagenet 9657:William III & II 9222:Henry the Young King 9172:Edward the Confessor 9140:Æthelred the Unready 8866:Anglo-Norman Studies 8826:Anglo-Norman Studies 8513:Tyerman, Christopher 8306:Mason, Emma (1996). 8157:Holt, J. C. (1994). 7836:Coss, Peter (2002). 7752:Coinage and Currency 7685:Amt, Emilie (1993). 7400:Davis, pp. 147, 150. 7379:King (2006), p. 195. 7331:King (2010), p. 300. 7266:King (2010), p. 281. 7248:King (2010), p. 280. 7221:King (2010), p. 278. 7138:King (2010), p. 264. 7083:Davis, pp. 101, 104. 7005:King (2010), p. 237. 6975:King (2010), p. 255. 6966:King (2010), p. 254. 6957:King (2010), p. 253. 6836:Round (1888), cited 6506:King (2010), p. 163. 6479:King (2010), p. 156. 6467:King (2010), p. 155. 6458:King (2010), p. 154. 6295:Bradbury, pp. 82–83. 6209:King (2010), p. 116. 6006:Stringer, pp. 24–25. 5894:King (2010), p. 317. 5795:Bradbury, pp. 27–32. 5732:White (2000), p. 78. 5500:Barlow, pp. 163–164. 5402:King (2010), p. 301. 4285:Henry the Young King 4269:Isabella of Hainault 3969:Eleanor of Aquitaine 3723:Geoffrey Plantagenet 2955:Bertrade of Montfort 2768:Robert of Gloucester 2288:'s historical novel 2031:Treaty of Winchester 1900:Bernard of Clairvaux 1891:Bernard of Clairvaux 1780:". The contemporary 1771:Eleanor of Aquitaine 1711:, in open revolt in 1329:Alexander of Lincoln 849:Bishop of Winchester 845:Abbot of Glastonbury 617:battle of Tinchebray 502:. Stephen's mother, 470:Stephen was born in 443:Treaty of Winchester 399:Robert of Gloucester 376:Abbot of Glastonbury 9605:Union of the Crowns 8885:Stephen and Matilda 8519:. London: Penguin. 8398:Dove, P. E. (ed.). 7898:. Harlow: Longman. 7790:. London: Penguin. 7418:Davis, pp. 146–152. 7310:Davis, pp. 122–123. 6939:Davis, pp. 111–112. 5705:King (2010), p. 57. 5696:King (2010), p. 53. 5582:King (2010), p. 47. 5573:King (2010), p. 52. 5545:King (2010), p. 46. 5527:King (2010), p. 45. 5518:King (2010), p. 43. 5461:King (2010), p. 29. 5438:King (2010), p. 24. 5228:King (2010), p. 15. 5183:King (2010), p. 11. 5174:King (2010), p. 13. 4849:C. Warren Hollister 4760:Christopher Tyerman 4696:Richard of Cornwall 4001:William FitzEmpress 3300:Matilda of Scotland 2856:Henry II of England 2415:Matilda of Flanders 2208:Historians in the " 2175:Henry of Huntingdon 1835:Henry II of England 1724:Honour of Lancaster 1427:Miles of Gloucester 1367:Archbishop of Rouen 1293:Robert of Leicester 1289:Waleran de Beaumont 1065:Waleran de Beaumont 969:David I of Scotland 722:was suffering from 672:Honour of Lancaster 512:Matilda of Flanders 403:Waleran de Beaumont 387:David I of Scotland 346:Matilda of Boulogne 72:22 December 1135 – 9689:Acts of Union 1707 9652:James II & VII 9345:Kenneth I MacAlpin 9130:Edgar the Peaceful 8101:Chibnall, Marjorie 8096:. pp. 91–114. 7806:Chibnall, Marjorie 7614:The New York Times 7538:Reviews in History 7511:Reviews in History 7501:Reviews in History 7483:Reviews in History 7473:Reviews in History 7053:Davis, pp. 99–100. 6996:Carpenter, p. 188. 6887:Carpenter, p. 197. 6844:Reviews in History 6551:Blackburn, p. 199. 6063:Carpenter, p. 170. 5974:Carpenter, p. 166. 5924:Carpenter, p. 169. 5723:Carpenter, p. 167. 5684:Carpenter, p. 165. 5663:Carpenter, p. 155. 5654:Carpenter, p. 159. 5645:Barlow, pp. 91–92. 5336:Carpenter, p. 160. 5306:Bradbury, pp. 6–7. 5105:Carpenter, p. 137. 5078:King (2010), p. 5. 4774:Chartres Cathedral 4699:King of the Romans 4671:Blanche of Castile 4646:Holy Roman Emperor 3247:Eremburga of Maine 3232:Queen of Jerusalem 2782:Stephen of England 2564:Henry I of England 2378:Genealogical chart 2267: 2140: 2086:, being buried at 2049:in the cathedral. 1998:Wallingford Castle 1978: 1895: 1774: 1661: 1613:Rout of Winchester 1596: 1526: 1471: 1443:Wallingford Castle 1406:Baldwin de Redvers 1402: 1277: 1221:Archbishop of York 1204: 1122: 1082:William de Corbeil 1057:Baldwin de Redvers 946: 871: 822:penitential regime 813: 746:Adeliza of Louvain 709: 676:Roger the Poitevin 621:Louis VI of France 597: 554:Count of Champagne 468: 419:Rout of Winchester 342:Henry I of England 155:Kingdom of England 10015: 10014: 9973:(French appanage) 9834:House of Normandy 9788: 9787: 9771: 9770: 9674: 9673: 9590: 9589: 9585: 9584: 9135:Edward the Martyr 9019: 9018: 9010:Succeeded by 8996:Count of Boulogne 8976:Succeeded by 8957:Succeeded by 8618:978-0-8532-3885-0 8526:978-0-1402-6980-2 8504:978-0-3132-9415-0 8485:978-0-8619-3254-2 8449:978-0-4150-1415-1 8426:978-2-5035-5449-5 8382:978-0-8797-2815-1 8355:978-0-8797-2798-7 8336:978-0-8511-5782-5 8317:978-0-8511-5396-4 8298:978-0-8014-2369-7 8277:978-0-3001-1223-8 8258:978-1-8438-3262-1 8201:978-0-4156-1388-0 8149:978-0-8511-5847-1 8114:978-0-8511-5316-2 8092:Green, Judith A. 8067:978-0-5214-3076-0 8048:978-3-5253-5391-2 8022:978-0-3001-0191-1 8003:978-0-6311-8945-9 7959:978-1-8438-3361-1 7924:978-1-8528-5595-6 7864:978-0-5210-9013-1 7797:978-0-1401-4824-4 7775:978-0-7509-3793-1 7742:978-0-8532-3885-0 7696:978-0-8511-5348-3 7667:978-0-8572-8518-8 7649:978-0-5822-5659-0 7522:Bradbury, p. 219. 7230:Bradbury, p. 184. 7191:Bradbury, p. 183. 7179:Bradbury, p. 182. 7170:Bradbury, p. 181. 7161:Bradbury, p. 180. 6818:Bradbury, p. 146. 6806:Bradbury, p. 147. 6797:Bradbury, p. 158. 6754:Bradbury, p. 145. 6745:Bradbury, p. 144. 6736:Bradbury, p. 143. 6724:Bradbury, p. 141. 6706:Bradbury, p. 140. 6697:Bradbury, p. 139. 6667:Bradbury, p. 137. 6653:Bradbury, p. 136. 6593:Bradbury, p. 121. 6542:Davis, pp. 67–68. 6425:Bradbury, p. 108. 6413:Bradbury, p. 104. 6395:Bradbury, p. 105. 6357:Davis, pp. 50–51. 6147:Yoshitake, p. 98. 5885:Pettifer, p. 257. 5479:Huscroft, p. 190. 4966:Battle of Lincoln 4869:Geoffrey of Anjou 4857:Marjorie Chibnall 4729: 4728: 4708:Queen of Scotland 4295:Duchess of Saxony 3954:Count of Flanders 3277:Adela of Normandy 3241:King of Jerusalem 2940:King of Jerusalem 2867: 2866: 2583:Adela of Normandy 2298:adapted from it. 2230:John Horace Round 2190:John of Salisbury 2179:Historia Anglorum 2171:Robert of Torigni 2035:Henry FitzEmpress 2026:Nottingham Castle 1804:Robert of Torigny 1790:, Berkshire, the 1767:Henry FitzEmpress 1604:met the Queen at 1535:William of Aumale 1531:Battle of Lincoln 1518:Historia Anglorum 1493:Ranulf of Chester 1451:Trowbridge Castle 1358:Aubrey de Vere II 1196:Henry of Scotland 1180:mining operations 1049:Carmarthen Castle 1025:battle of Llwchwr 900:Westminster Abbey 800:Succession (1135) 782:Count of Flanders 774:Count of Boulogne 656:County of Mortain 637:Robert of Bellême 609:Duchy of Normandy 535:Duchy of Normandy 407:battle of Lincoln 290:Count of Boulogne 275: 274: 270:Adela of Normandy 139:Kingdom of France 48:Historia Anglorum 10221: 10109: 10101: 10100: 10099: 10092: 10084: 10083: 10082: 10072: 10056: 10055: 10044: 10043: 10042: 10032: 10031: 10030: 10023: 9815: 9808: 9801: 9792: 9791: 9680: 9679: 9640:Richard Cromwell 9630:The Protectorate 9620:James I & VI 9596: 9595: 9177:Harold Godwinson 9097:Edward the Elder 9090:Alfred the Great 9074: 9073: 9069: 9068: 9045: 9038: 9031: 9022: 9021: 8986:Preceded by 8969:Duke of Normandy 8940:Preceded by 8930: 8923: 8905: 8904: 8901: 8873: 8860: 8851: 8820: 8791: 8774:(461): 271–296. 8762: 8729: 8712:(196): 180–194. 8700: 8659: 8631: 8622: 8604: 8590: 8581: 8552: 8530: 8508: 8489: 8470: 8453: 8441: 8430: 8411: 8400:Domesday Studies 8395: 8386: 8368: 8359: 8340: 8321: 8302: 8281: 8262: 8244: 8232: 8205: 8186: 8162: 8153: 8135: 8126: 8097: 8083: 8076:Gillingham, John 8071: 8052: 8026: 8007: 7985: 7963: 7937: 7928: 7909: 7885: 7876: 7841: 7827: 7813: 7801: 7784:Carpenter, David 7779: 7755: 7746: 7727: 7708: 7672: 7671: 7653: 7635: 7629: 7628:Weir, pp. 50–54. 7626: 7617: 7604: 7598: 7595: 7589: 7586: 7577: 7574: 7568: 7565: 7559: 7556: 7550: 7547: 7541: 7536:, David Crouch, 7529: 7523: 7520: 7514: 7509:, David Crouch, 7499:, David Crouch, 7492: 7486: 7481:, David Crouch, 7471:, David Crouch, 7464: 7455: 7452: 7446: 7443: 7437: 7434: 7428: 7425: 7419: 7416: 7410: 7407: 7401: 7398: 7392: 7389: 7380: 7377: 7371: 7368: 7362: 7359: 7353: 7350: 7344: 7341: 7332: 7329: 7320: 7317: 7311: 7308: 7302: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7279: 7276: 7267: 7264: 7258: 7255: 7249: 7246: 7240: 7237: 7231: 7228: 7222: 7219: 7213: 7210: 7204: 7201: 7192: 7189: 7180: 7177: 7171: 7168: 7162: 7159: 7148: 7145: 7139: 7136: 7125: 7122: 7116: 7115:Stringer, p. 68. 7113: 7107: 7104: 7093: 7090: 7084: 7081: 7072: 7069: 7063: 7060: 7054: 7051: 7045: 7042: 7033: 7030: 7024: 7021: 7015: 7012: 7006: 7003: 6997: 6994: 6988: 6985: 6976: 6973: 6967: 6964: 6958: 6955: 6949: 6946: 6940: 6937: 6931: 6928: 6922: 6919: 6906: 6903: 6897: 6894: 6888: 6885: 6879: 6876: 6870: 6867: 6856: 6855:Huscroft, p. 76. 6853: 6847: 6842:, David Crouch, 6834: 6828: 6825: 6819: 6816: 6807: 6804: 6798: 6795: 6789: 6786: 6780: 6777: 6771: 6768: 6755: 6752: 6746: 6743: 6737: 6734: 6725: 6722: 6716: 6713: 6707: 6704: 6698: 6695: 6686: 6683: 6677: 6674: 6668: 6665: 6654: 6651: 6642: 6639: 6630: 6627: 6621: 6618: 6612: 6609: 6594: 6591: 6585: 6582: 6573: 6570: 6564: 6561: 6552: 6549: 6543: 6540: 6534: 6531: 6525: 6522: 6516: 6513: 6507: 6504: 6498: 6495: 6489: 6486: 6480: 6477: 6468: 6465: 6459: 6456: 6447: 6446:Bennett, p. 105. 6444: 6438: 6435: 6426: 6423: 6414: 6411: 6405: 6402: 6396: 6393: 6384: 6381: 6372: 6369: 6358: 6355: 6349: 6348:Bradbury, p. 91. 6346: 6340: 6339:Bradbury, p. 90. 6337: 6331: 6330:Bradbury, p. 88. 6328: 6319: 6316: 6305: 6302: 6296: 6293: 6287: 6286:Bradbury, p. 83. 6284: 6278: 6277:Bradbury, p. 81. 6275: 6269: 6266: 6260: 6257: 6251: 6248: 6242: 6241:Bradbury, p. 79. 6239: 6233: 6232:Bradbury, p. 78. 6230: 6219: 6216: 6210: 6207: 6201: 6198: 6189: 6186: 6180: 6177: 6171: 6168: 6157: 6154: 6148: 6145: 6139: 6136: 6127: 6124: 6118: 6115: 6109: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6091: 6088: 6082: 6081:Bradbury, p. 70. 6079: 6073: 6072:Bradbury, p. 52. 6070: 6064: 6061: 6055: 6052: 6039: 6036: 6025: 6024:Bradbury, p. 67. 6022: 6016: 6013: 6007: 6004: 5998: 5997:Bradbury, p. 74. 5995: 5989: 5988:Bradbury, p. 71. 5986: 5975: 5972: 5959: 5958:Stringer, p. 18. 5956: 5950: 5947: 5941: 5938: 5925: 5922: 5913: 5910: 5904: 5901: 5895: 5892: 5886: 5883: 5877: 5874: 5868: 5865: 5859: 5856: 5850: 5847: 5841: 5838: 5832: 5829: 5823: 5820: 5814: 5811: 5796: 5793: 5787: 5784: 5778: 5775: 5769: 5766: 5760: 5757: 5751: 5748: 5742: 5739: 5733: 5730: 5724: 5721: 5715: 5712: 5706: 5703: 5697: 5694: 5685: 5682: 5673: 5670: 5664: 5661: 5655: 5652: 5646: 5643: 5637: 5634: 5628: 5625: 5619: 5616: 5610: 5607: 5601: 5598: 5592: 5589: 5583: 5580: 5574: 5571: 5560: 5557: 5546: 5543: 5537: 5534: 5528: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5510: 5507: 5501: 5498: 5489: 5486: 5480: 5477: 5471: 5470:Stringer, p. 66. 5468: 5462: 5459: 5448: 5445: 5439: 5436: 5430: 5427: 5421: 5418: 5412: 5409: 5403: 5400: 5391: 5388: 5382: 5379: 5373: 5370: 5364: 5361: 5355: 5352: 5346: 5343: 5337: 5334: 5328: 5325: 5316: 5313: 5307: 5304: 5298: 5295: 5289: 5286: 5273: 5270: 5261: 5258: 5247: 5244: 5238: 5235: 5229: 5226: 5220: 5217: 5208: 5205: 5196: 5193: 5184: 5181: 5175: 5172: 5163: 5162:Huscroft, p. 70. 5160: 5151: 5150:Huscroft, p. 69. 5148: 5142: 5139: 5133: 5130: 5124: 5121: 5115: 5112: 5106: 5103: 5097: 5094: 5088: 5085: 5079: 5076: 5063: 5060: 5051: 5048: 5042: 5039: 5019: 5016: 5010: 5006: 5000: 4997: 4991: 4988: 4982: 4975: 4969: 4962: 4956: 4953: 4947: 4940: 4934: 4927: 4921: 4917: 4911: 4907: 4901: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4860: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4829: 4822: 4816: 4813: 4807: 4800: 4794: 4783: 4777: 4770: 4764: 4756: 4750: 4743: 4717:King of Scotland 4690: 4689: 1216–1272 4688: 4663:Duke of Brittany 4368: 4367: 1199–1216 4366: 4320:Duke of Brittany 4311: 4310: 1189–1199 4309: 4044:King of Scotland 4041:William the Lion 4035:King of Scotland 3986: 3985: 1154–1189 3984: 3951:Philip of Alsace 3746:Matilda of Anjou 3717: 3716: 1135–1154 3715: 3685:Sibylla of Anjou 3337:King of Scotland 3328:King of Scotland 3319:King of Scotland 3310:King of Scotland 3294: 3293: 1100–1135 3292: 3271: 3270: 1087–1100 3269: 3013:King of Scotland 2989: 2988: 1066–1087 2987: 2933: 2932: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2903: 2902: 2890: 2883: 2876: 2382: 2381: 2355: 2352: 2342: 2339: 2329: 2326: 2159:Historia Novella 2007:brokered a truce 1974: 1968: 1962: 1956: 1950: 1908:Pope Innocent II 1742:Faringdon Castle 1682:Sherborne Castle 1674:battle of Wilton 1540:Baldwin of Clare 1522:Baldwin of Clare 1341:Alan of Brittany 1254:treaty of Durham 1168:motte-and-bailey 1118:motte and bailey 1045:Gruffydd ap Rhys 1018:Pope Innocent II 1003:, including the 981:Northern England 834:William of Ypres 658:from his cousin 629:Duke of Normandy 569:Biblical stories 500:battle of Ramlah 415:William of Ypres 299:Duke of Normandy 282:Stephen of Blois 212: 195: 193: 130:Stephen of Blois 85:22 December 1135 75: 40: 28: 27: 10229: 10228: 10224: 10223: 10222: 10220: 10219: 10218: 10214:Norman warriors 10114: 10113: 10112: 10108:from Wikisource 10102: 10097: 10095: 10085: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10071:sister projects 10068:at Knowledge's 10062: 10050: 10040: 10038: 10028: 10026: 10018: 10016: 10011: 10009:king of England 9997: 9972: 9970:House of Valois 9964: 9923: 9915: 9906: 9898: 9836: 9828: 9819: 9789: 9784: 9767: 9694: 9670: 9635:Oliver Cromwell 9611: 9586: 9581: 9428:Constantine III 9337: 9162:Harold Harefoot 9152:Edmund Ironside 9063: 9058: and 9049: 9015: 9001: 8999: 8991: 8981: 8972: 8962: 8953: 8950:King of England 8945: 8929:25 October 1154 8924: 8918: 8917: 8910: 8881: 8876: 8854: 8848: 8743:10.2307/3679129 8667: 8665:Further reading 8662: 8641: 8625: 8619: 8606: 8598: 8584: 8555: 8549: 8533: 8527: 8511: 8505: 8492: 8486: 8473: 8456: 8450: 8433: 8427: 8414: 8397: 8389: 8383: 8370: 8362: 8356: 8343: 8337: 8324: 8318: 8305: 8299: 8286: 8278: 8265: 8259: 8246: 8235: 8221: 8202: 8189: 8183: 8170: 8156: 8150: 8137: 8129: 8115: 8099: 8091: 8074: 8068: 8049: 8023: 8010: 8004: 7988: 7982: 7966: 7960: 7931: 7925: 7912: 7906: 7893: 7879: 7865: 7849: 7835: 7821: 7804: 7798: 7782: 7776: 7763: 7749: 7743: 7730: 7724: 7711: 7697: 7684: 7680: 7675: 7668: 7650: 7637: 7636: 7632: 7627: 7620: 7605: 7601: 7596: 7592: 7587: 7580: 7575: 7571: 7566: 7562: 7557: 7553: 7548: 7544: 7530: 7526: 7521: 7517: 7493: 7489: 7465: 7458: 7453: 7449: 7444: 7440: 7436:Stringer, p. 3. 7435: 7431: 7427:Barlow, p. 188. 7426: 7422: 7417: 7413: 7408: 7404: 7399: 7395: 7390: 7383: 7378: 7374: 7369: 7365: 7360: 7356: 7351: 7347: 7342: 7335: 7330: 7323: 7318: 7314: 7309: 7305: 7300: 7296: 7291: 7282: 7277: 7270: 7265: 7261: 7256: 7252: 7247: 7243: 7238: 7234: 7229: 7225: 7220: 7216: 7211: 7207: 7202: 7195: 7190: 7183: 7178: 7174: 7169: 7165: 7160: 7151: 7146: 7142: 7137: 7128: 7123: 7119: 7114: 7110: 7105: 7096: 7091: 7087: 7082: 7075: 7070: 7066: 7061: 7057: 7052: 7048: 7043: 7036: 7031: 7027: 7022: 7018: 7013: 7009: 7004: 7000: 6995: 6991: 6986: 6979: 6974: 6970: 6965: 6961: 6956: 6952: 6947: 6943: 6938: 6934: 6929: 6925: 6921:Barlow, p. 180. 6920: 6909: 6904: 6900: 6895: 6891: 6886: 6882: 6877: 6873: 6869:Barlow, p. 181. 6868: 6859: 6854: 6850: 6835: 6831: 6826: 6822: 6817: 6810: 6805: 6801: 6796: 6792: 6787: 6783: 6778: 6774: 6770:Barlow, p. 179. 6769: 6758: 6753: 6749: 6744: 6740: 6735: 6728: 6723: 6719: 6714: 6710: 6705: 6701: 6696: 6689: 6684: 6680: 6675: 6671: 6666: 6657: 6652: 6645: 6641:Barlow, p. 178. 6640: 6633: 6628: 6624: 6619: 6615: 6611:Barlow, p. 177. 6610: 6597: 6592: 6588: 6584:Barlow, p. 176. 6583: 6576: 6571: 6567: 6562: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6537: 6532: 6528: 6523: 6519: 6514: 6510: 6505: 6501: 6496: 6492: 6487: 6483: 6478: 6471: 6466: 6462: 6457: 6450: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6429: 6424: 6417: 6412: 6408: 6403: 6399: 6394: 6387: 6382: 6375: 6370: 6361: 6356: 6352: 6347: 6343: 6338: 6334: 6329: 6322: 6317: 6308: 6303: 6299: 6294: 6290: 6285: 6281: 6276: 6272: 6267: 6263: 6258: 6254: 6249: 6245: 6240: 6236: 6231: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6208: 6204: 6199: 6192: 6187: 6183: 6178: 6174: 6170:Barlow, p. 173. 6169: 6160: 6155: 6151: 6146: 6142: 6137: 6130: 6125: 6121: 6116: 6112: 6108:Barlow, p. 172. 6107: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6089: 6085: 6080: 6076: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6058: 6053: 6042: 6037: 6028: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6010: 6005: 6001: 5996: 5992: 5987: 5978: 5973: 5962: 5957: 5953: 5948: 5944: 5940:Barlow, p. 169. 5939: 5928: 5923: 5916: 5911: 5907: 5902: 5898: 5893: 5889: 5884: 5880: 5875: 5871: 5866: 5862: 5857: 5853: 5848: 5844: 5840:Barlow, p. 168; 5839: 5835: 5830: 5826: 5821: 5817: 5813:Barlow, p. 168. 5812: 5799: 5794: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5776: 5772: 5767: 5763: 5758: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5731: 5727: 5722: 5718: 5713: 5709: 5704: 5700: 5695: 5688: 5683: 5676: 5671: 5667: 5662: 5658: 5653: 5649: 5644: 5640: 5635: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5617: 5613: 5608: 5604: 5599: 5595: 5590: 5586: 5581: 5577: 5572: 5563: 5558: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5499: 5492: 5487: 5483: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5460: 5451: 5446: 5442: 5437: 5433: 5429:Barlow, p. 167. 5428: 5424: 5420:Barlow, p. 164. 5419: 5415: 5410: 5406: 5401: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5376: 5371: 5367: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5327:Barlow, p. 161. 5326: 5319: 5315:Barlow, p. 160. 5314: 5310: 5305: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5288:Barlow, p. 162. 5287: 5276: 5272:Bradbury, p. 3. 5271: 5264: 5260:Bradbury, p. 2. 5259: 5250: 5246:Bradbury, p. 1. 5245: 5241: 5236: 5232: 5227: 5223: 5218: 5211: 5206: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5166: 5161: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5136: 5131: 5127: 5122: 5118: 5113: 5109: 5104: 5100: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5082: 5077: 5066: 5061: 5054: 5049: 5045: 5040: 5031: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5013: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4976: 4972: 4963: 4959: 4954: 4950: 4941: 4937: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4914: 4908: 4904: 4898: 4894: 4889: 4885: 4879: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4853:David Carpenter 4846: 4842: 4836: 4832: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4801: 4797: 4784: 4780: 4771: 4767: 4757: 4753: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4730: 4716: 4707: 4698: 4685: 4684: 4683:King of England 4682: 4674:Queen of France 4673: 4662: 4645: 4626: 4363: 4362: 4361:King of England 4360: 4351: 4336:King of Castile 4335: 4319: 4306: 4305: 4304:King of England 4303: 4294: 4278: 4262: 4043: 4034: 3995:Count of Nantes 3994: 3981: 3980: 3979:King of England 3978: 3962: 3953: 3763: 3732:Empress Matilda 3725: 3712: 3711: 3710:King of England 3709: 3336: 3327: 3318: 3309: 3289: 3288: 3287:King of England 3286: 3266: 3265: 3264:King of England 3263: 3254:Robert Curthose 3240: 3231: 3012: 2984: 2983: 2982:King of England 2981: 2964: 2948: 2939: 2931: 2930: 2924: 2919: 2913: 2911: 2906: 2900: 2896: 2894: 2761:Empress Matilda 2550:Robert Curthose 2380: 2353: 2340: 2327: 2304: 2259: 2253: 2163:Orderic Vitalis 2126: 2101: 2096: 2088:Faversham Abbey 2080:stomach disease 2055: 1976: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1940: 1912:Pope Eugene III 1904:William of York 1883: 1875:Faversham Abbey 1759: 1693:Tower of London 1653: 1506: 1447:Brien FitzCount 1399:Empress Matilda 1391: 1386: 1380: 1266: 1225:Gloucestershire 1153:, supported by 1102: 1086:Theobald of Bec 958:English Channel 935: 930: 924: 888:Lord Chancellor 802: 750:Emperor Henry V 742:Empress Matilda 717:to travel from 707:sinking in 1120 695: 613:Robert Curthose 577: 460: 455: 434:Pope Eugene III 368:English Channel 322:County of Blois 307:Empress Matilda 286:King of England 239: 206: 205: 197: 189: 185: 182: 169: 168:, Kent, England 166:Faversham Abbey 149: 133: 131: 86: 74:25 October 1154 73: 64: 56:King of England 50: 42:Miniature from 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10227: 10217: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10176: 10171: 10166: 10161: 10156: 10151: 10149:House of Blois 10146: 10141: 10136: 10131: 10126: 10111: 10110: 10093: 10064: 10061: 10060: 10048: 10036: 10013: 10012: 10005:count of Rouen 10002: 9999: 9998: 9996: 9995: 9989: 9983: 9976: 9974: 9966: 9965: 9963: 9962: 9956: 9950: 9944: 9939: 9933: 9927: 9925: 9917: 9916: 9910: 9908: 9904:House of Blois 9900: 9899: 9897: 9896: 9891: 9885: 9880: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9853: 9847: 9840: 9838: 9830: 9829: 9818: 9817: 9810: 9803: 9795: 9786: 9785: 9783: 9782: 9776: 9773: 9772: 9769: 9768: 9766: 9765: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9740: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9710: 9705: 9699: 9696: 9695: 9693: 9692: 9676: 9675: 9672: 9671: 9669: 9668: 9663: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9643: 9642: 9637: 9627: 9622: 9616: 9613: 9612: 9610: 9609: 9592: 9591: 9588: 9587: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9549: 9544: 9539: 9534: 9531:Edward Balliol 9527: 9522: 9517: 9512: 9505: 9500: 9495: 9490: 9485: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9391:Constantine II 9388: 9383: 9376: 9369: 9362: 9355: 9348: 9340: 9338: 9336: 9335: 9330: 9319: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9235: 9230: 9225: 9218: 9213: 9206: 9201: 9196: 9191: 9186: 9183:Edgar Ætheling 9179: 9174: 9169: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9100: 9093: 9085: 9082: 9081: 9078: 9072: 9065: 9064: 9048: 9047: 9040: 9033: 9025: 9017: 9016: 9011: 9008: 8992: 8987: 8983: 8982: 8977: 8974: 8964: 8963: 8958: 8955: 8946: 8941: 8937: 8936: 8935:Regnal titles 8932: 8931: 8914:House of Blois 8911: 8908: 8903: 8902: 8888: 8880: 8879:External links 8877: 8875: 8874: 8861: 8852: 8846: 8821: 8792: 8763: 8730: 8701: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8660: 8639: 8638: 8637: 8623: 8617: 8596: 8553: 8547: 8531: 8525: 8509: 8503: 8490: 8484: 8471: 8454: 8448: 8431: 8425: 8412: 8387: 8381: 8360: 8354: 8341: 8335: 8322: 8316: 8303: 8297: 8284: 8283: 8282: 8276: 8263: 8257: 8240:Gesta Stephani 8219: 8206: 8200: 8187: 8181: 8168: 8154: 8148: 8127: 8113: 8103:, ed. (1992). 8089: 8072: 8066: 8053: 8047: 8031:Fryde, Natalie 8027: 8021: 8008: 8002: 7986: 7980: 7964: 7958: 7945: 7944: 7943: 7929: 7923: 7910: 7904: 7891: 7863: 7847: 7833: 7819: 7802: 7796: 7780: 7774: 7761: 7747: 7741: 7728: 7722: 7709: 7695: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7673: 7666: 7648: 7630: 7618: 7599: 7597:Rielly, p. 68. 7590: 7588:Rielly, p. 62. 7578: 7569: 7560: 7551: 7549:Davis, p. 127. 7542: 7524: 7515: 7487: 7456: 7447: 7438: 7429: 7420: 7411: 7409:Davis, p. 151. 7402: 7393: 7391:Davis, p. 146. 7381: 7372: 7363: 7354: 7345: 7333: 7321: 7312: 7303: 7294: 7280: 7268: 7259: 7250: 7241: 7232: 7223: 7214: 7205: 7193: 7181: 7172: 7163: 7149: 7140: 7126: 7117: 7108: 7106:Davis, p. 105. 7094: 7092:Davis, p. 103. 7085: 7073: 7071:Davis, p. 101. 7064: 7062:Davis, p. 100. 7055: 7046: 7034: 7025: 7016: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6977: 6968: 6959: 6950: 6941: 6932: 6923: 6907: 6898: 6889: 6880: 6871: 6857: 6848: 6829: 6820: 6808: 6799: 6790: 6781: 6772: 6756: 6747: 6738: 6726: 6717: 6708: 6699: 6687: 6678: 6669: 6655: 6643: 6631: 6622: 6613: 6595: 6586: 6574: 6565: 6553: 6544: 6535: 6526: 6517: 6508: 6499: 6490: 6481: 6469: 6460: 6448: 6439: 6427: 6415: 6406: 6397: 6385: 6373: 6359: 6350: 6341: 6332: 6320: 6306: 6297: 6288: 6279: 6270: 6261: 6252: 6243: 6234: 6220: 6211: 6202: 6190: 6181: 6172: 6158: 6149: 6140: 6128: 6119: 6110: 6101: 6092: 6083: 6074: 6065: 6056: 6040: 6026: 6017: 6008: 5999: 5990: 5976: 5960: 5951: 5942: 5926: 5914: 5905: 5896: 5887: 5878: 5869: 5860: 5851: 5842: 5833: 5824: 5815: 5797: 5788: 5779: 5770: 5761: 5752: 5743: 5734: 5725: 5716: 5707: 5698: 5686: 5674: 5665: 5656: 5647: 5638: 5636:Barlow, p. 86. 5629: 5620: 5611: 5602: 5593: 5584: 5575: 5561: 5547: 5538: 5529: 5520: 5511: 5502: 5490: 5481: 5472: 5463: 5449: 5440: 5431: 5422: 5413: 5404: 5392: 5383: 5374: 5365: 5356: 5347: 5338: 5329: 5317: 5308: 5299: 5290: 5274: 5262: 5248: 5239: 5230: 5221: 5209: 5197: 5185: 5176: 5164: 5152: 5143: 5134: 5125: 5116: 5107: 5098: 5089: 5080: 5064: 5052: 5043: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5011: 5001: 4992: 4983: 4970: 4957: 4948: 4935: 4922: 4912: 4902: 4892: 4883: 4873: 4861: 4840: 4830: 4817: 4808: 4795: 4778: 4765: 4751: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4711: 4709: 4702: 4700: 4693: 4691: 4677: 4675: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4657: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4627:King of France 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4369: 4355: 4353: 4352:King of Sicily 4346: 4344: 4339: 4337: 4330: 4328: 4323: 4321: 4314: 4312: 4298: 4296: 4289: 4287: 4282: 4280: 4279:King of France 4273: 4271: 4266: 4264: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4038: 4036: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4013: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4003: 3998: 3996: 3989: 3987: 3973: 3971: 3966: 3964: 3963:King of France 3957: 3955: 3948: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3765: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3743: 3741: 3739:William Adelin 3736: 3734: 3729: 3727: 3726:Count of Anjou 3720: 3718: 3704: 3702: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3338: 3331: 3329: 3322: 3320: 3313: 3311: 3304: 3302: 3297: 3295: 3281: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3258: 3256: 3251: 3249: 3244: 3242: 3235: 3233: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3018: 3015: 3014: 3007: 3005: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2965:King of France 2959: 2957: 2952: 2950: 2949:Count of Anjou 2943: 2941: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2892: 2885: 2878: 2870: 2869: 2868: 2865: 2863: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2789:Henry of Blois 2786: 2784: 2779: 2777: 2772: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2758: 2756: 2754:William Adelin 2751: 2749: 2744: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2587: 2585: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2561: 2559: 2554: 2552: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2379: 2376: 2375: 2374: 2371: 2368: 2358: 2357: 2344: 2331: 2318: 2311: 2303: 2300: 2296:TV mini-series 2255:Main article: 2252: 2249: 2245:R. H. C. Davis 2222:William Stubbs 2150:Gesta Stephani 2147:including the 2125: 2124:Historiography 2122: 2106:Earl of Surrey 2100: 2097: 2095: 2092: 2054: 2051: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1939: 1936: 1882: 1879: 1830:Second Crusade 1769:and his wife, 1758: 1755: 1717:Burwell Castle 1697:Saffron Walden 1678:William Martel 1652: 1649: 1560:excommunicated 1547:Bristol Castle 1505: 1502: 1498:Lincoln Castle 1419:Arundel Castle 1390: 1387: 1382:Main article: 1379: 1376: 1363:Hugh of Amiens 1346:Devizes Castle 1265: 1262: 1243:. The town of 1101: 1098: 934: 931: 923: 920: 864:bishop's staff 860:Henry of Blois 801: 798: 794:Lyons-la-Forêt 731:western Europe 694: 693:and succession 688: 649:William Adelin 576: 573: 459: 456: 454: 451: 358:William Adelin 336:, daughter of 273: 272: 267: 263: 262: 257: 253: 252: 247: 241: 240: 238: 237: 231: 226: 221: 215: 213: 199: 198: 187: 183: 178: 177: 175: 171: 170: 164: 162: 158: 157: 146: 142: 141: 128: 124: 123: 120: 119: 113: 109: 108: 103: 99: 98: 93: 89: 88: 83: 77: 76: 70: 66: 65: 58: 52: 51: 41: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10226: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10170: 10169:Anglo-Normans 10167: 10165: 10162: 10160: 10157: 10155: 10152: 10150: 10147: 10145: 10142: 10140: 10137: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10125: 10122: 10121: 10119: 10107: 10106: 10094: 10090: 10089: 10077: 10076: 10073: 10067: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10047: 10037: 10035: 10025: 10024: 10021: 10010: 10006: 10000: 9993: 9990: 9987: 9984: 9981: 9978: 9977: 9975: 9971: 9967: 9960: 9957: 9954: 9951: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9940: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9928: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9913: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9895: 9894:William (III) 9892: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9848: 9845: 9842: 9841: 9839: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9816: 9811: 9809: 9804: 9802: 9797: 9796: 9793: 9781: 9778: 9777: 9774: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9685: 9684: 9681: 9677: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9632: 9631: 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9617: 9614: 9608: 9606: 9601: 9600: 9597: 9593: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9543: 9540: 9538: 9535: 9533: 9532: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9510: 9506: 9504: 9503:Alexander III 9501: 9499: 9496: 9494: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9418: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9381: 9377: 9375: 9374: 9370: 9368: 9367: 9363: 9361: 9360: 9359:Constantine I 9356: 9354: 9353: 9349: 9347: 9346: 9342: 9341: 9339: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9328: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9317: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9240: 9236: 9234: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9223: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9211: 9207: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9197: 9195: 9192: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9184: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9147: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9105: 9101: 9099: 9098: 9094: 9092: 9091: 9087: 9086: 9084: 9083: 9079: 9076: 9075: 9070: 9066: 9061: 9057: 9053: 9046: 9041: 9039: 9034: 9032: 9027: 9026: 9023: 9014: 9007: 9006: 8998: 8997: 8990: 8984: 8980: 8971: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8952: 8951: 8944: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8921: 8916: 8915: 8906: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8889: 8886: 8883: 8882: 8871: 8867: 8862: 8858: 8853: 8849: 8847:9780585490809 8843: 8839: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8810: 8806: 8803:(192): 1–17. 8802: 8798: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8764: 8760: 8756: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8736: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8702: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8683:(165): 1–12. 8682: 8678: 8674: 8670: 8669: 8657: 8653: 8650:(2): 97–114. 8649: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8629: 8624: 8620: 8614: 8610: 8602: 8597: 8594: 8588: 8583: 8582: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8564:(243): 3–22. 8563: 8559: 8554: 8550: 8548:0-7126-7448-9 8544: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8506: 8500: 8496: 8491: 8487: 8481: 8477: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8455: 8451: 8445: 8440: 8439: 8432: 8428: 8422: 8418: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8393: 8388: 8384: 8378: 8374: 8366: 8361: 8357: 8351: 8347: 8342: 8338: 8332: 8328: 8323: 8319: 8313: 8309: 8304: 8300: 8294: 8290: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8269: 8264: 8260: 8254: 8250: 8242: 8239: 8234: 8233: 8230: 8226: 8222: 8220:0-1982-0364-0 8216: 8212: 8207: 8203: 8197: 8193: 8188: 8184: 8182:0-5828-4882-2 8178: 8174: 8169: 8166: 8160: 8155: 8151: 8145: 8141: 8133: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8095: 8090: 8087: 8081: 8077: 8073: 8069: 8063: 8059: 8054: 8050: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8018: 8014: 8009: 8005: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7990:Duby, Georges 7987: 7983: 7981:0-5824-8727-7 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7961: 7955: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7935: 7930: 7926: 7920: 7916: 7911: 7907: 7905:0-5822-2658-9 7901: 7897: 7892: 7889: 7883: 7878: 7877: 7874: 7870: 7866: 7860: 7856: 7852: 7851:Crouch, David 7848: 7845: 7839: 7834: 7831: 7825: 7820: 7817: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7771: 7767: 7762: 7759: 7753: 7748: 7744: 7738: 7734: 7729: 7725: 7723:0-5823-8117-7 7719: 7715: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7692: 7688: 7683: 7682: 7669: 7663: 7659: 7651: 7645: 7641: 7634: 7625: 7623: 7615: 7612:, Mike Hale, 7611: 7610: 7603: 7594: 7585: 7583: 7573: 7564: 7555: 7546: 7539: 7535: 7534: 7528: 7519: 7512: 7508: 7507: 7502: 7498: 7497: 7491: 7484: 7480: 7479: 7474: 7470: 7469: 7463: 7461: 7451: 7442: 7433: 7424: 7415: 7406: 7397: 7388: 7386: 7376: 7367: 7358: 7349: 7340: 7338: 7328: 7326: 7316: 7307: 7298: 7289: 7287: 7285: 7275: 7273: 7263: 7254: 7245: 7236: 7227: 7218: 7209: 7200: 7198: 7188: 7186: 7176: 7167: 7158: 7156: 7154: 7144: 7135: 7133: 7131: 7121: 7112: 7103: 7101: 7099: 7089: 7080: 7078: 7068: 7059: 7050: 7044:Davis, p. 98. 7041: 7039: 7029: 7020: 7011: 7002: 6993: 6984: 6982: 6972: 6963: 6954: 6945: 6936: 6927: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6912: 6902: 6893: 6884: 6875: 6866: 6864: 6862: 6852: 6845: 6841: 6840: 6833: 6827:Davis, p. 97. 6824: 6815: 6813: 6803: 6794: 6785: 6776: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6751: 6742: 6733: 6731: 6721: 6712: 6703: 6694: 6692: 6685:Davis, p. 78. 6682: 6673: 6664: 6662: 6660: 6650: 6648: 6638: 6636: 6626: 6617: 6608: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6590: 6581: 6579: 6569: 6560: 6558: 6548: 6539: 6533:Davis, p. 67. 6530: 6521: 6512: 6503: 6494: 6485: 6476: 6474: 6464: 6455: 6453: 6443: 6434: 6432: 6422: 6420: 6410: 6401: 6392: 6390: 6383:Davis, p. 52. 6380: 6378: 6371:Davis, p. 51. 6368: 6366: 6364: 6354: 6345: 6336: 6327: 6325: 6318:Davis, p. 43. 6315: 6313: 6311: 6304:Davis, p. 42. 6301: 6292: 6283: 6274: 6265: 6256: 6247: 6238: 6229: 6227: 6225: 6218:Davis, p. 40. 6215: 6206: 6200:Davis, p. 39. 6197: 6195: 6185: 6176: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6153: 6144: 6138:Davis, p. 32. 6135: 6133: 6126:Davis, p. 31. 6123: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6078: 6069: 6060: 6054:Davis, p. 50. 6051: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6035: 6033: 6031: 6021: 6012: 6003: 5994: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5971: 5969: 5967: 5965: 5955: 5946: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5931: 5921: 5919: 5909: 5900: 5891: 5882: 5873: 5867:Davis, p. 28. 5864: 5855: 5849:Davis, p. 27. 5846: 5837: 5828: 5819: 5810: 5808: 5806: 5804: 5802: 5792: 5783: 5774: 5765: 5756: 5747: 5738: 5729: 5720: 5711: 5702: 5693: 5691: 5681: 5679: 5669: 5660: 5651: 5642: 5633: 5624: 5615: 5606: 5597: 5588: 5579: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5542: 5533: 5524: 5515: 5506: 5497: 5495: 5485: 5476: 5467: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5444: 5435: 5426: 5417: 5408: 5399: 5397: 5387: 5378: 5369: 5360: 5351: 5342: 5333: 5324: 5322: 5312: 5303: 5294: 5285: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5269: 5267: 5257: 5255: 5253: 5243: 5234: 5225: 5216: 5214: 5204: 5202: 5195:Davis, p. 10. 5192: 5190: 5180: 5171: 5169: 5159: 5157: 5147: 5138: 5129: 5120: 5111: 5102: 5093: 5084: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5059: 5057: 5047: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5029: 5015: 5005: 4996: 4987: 4980: 4974: 4967: 4961: 4952: 4945: 4939: 4932: 4926: 4916: 4906: 4896: 4887: 4877: 4870: 4865: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4844: 4834: 4827: 4821: 4812: 4805: 4799: 4792: 4788: 4782: 4775: 4769: 4761: 4755: 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3589: 3583: 3581: 3542: 3539: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3517: 3515: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3497: 3483: 3481: 3465: 3463: 3462: 3455: 3449: 3447: 3429: 3417: 3415: 3401: 3399: 3385: 3383: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3363: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3335: 3326: 3317: 3308: 3301: 3285: 3278: 3262: 3255: 3248: 3239: 3230: 3226: 3223: 3215: 3213: 3205: 3203: 3195: 3193: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3173: 3171: 3163: 3161: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3145: 3143: 3142: 3135: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3099: 3089: 3081: 3079: 3063: 3061: 3047: 3043: 3041: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3017: 3016: 3011: 3004: 2980: 2963: 2956: 2947: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2891: 2886: 2884: 2879: 2877: 2872: 2871: 2864: 2857: 2835: 2833: 2797: 2795: 2790: 2783: 2776: 2769: 2762: 2755: 2748: 2747:William Clito 2742: 2739: 2731: 2729: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2709: 2707: 2699: 2697: 2696: 2681: 2673: 2671: 2663: 2661: 2651: 2643: 2641: 2633: 2631: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2610: 2591: 2584: 2565: 2558: 2551: 2545: 2542: 2522: 2520: 2512: 2510: 2502: 2500: 2499: 2482: 2470: 2468: 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1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1670:Herefordshire 1667: 1666:Wilton Castle 1657: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1641:Oxford Castle 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1616: 1614: 1609: 1607: 1602: 1593: 1592:Oxford Castle 1588: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1541: 1536: 1532: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1501: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1438: 1436: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1411: 1407: 1400: 1395: 1385: 1375: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1359: 1353: 1351: 1350:Roger le Poer 1347: 1342: 1338: 1337:Roger le Poer 1334: 1330: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1275: 1270: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1229:Welsh Marches 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1097: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1077: 1075: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1041:Owain Gwynedd 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1019: 1014: 1013:royal forests 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 951: 944: 939: 929: 919: 916: 911: 908: 903: 901: 897: 891: 889: 885: 881: 875: 869: 865: 861: 856: 852: 850: 846: 842: 837: 835: 829: 827: 823: 819: 811: 810:Matthew Paris 806: 797: 795: 790: 785: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 762: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 738: 736: 735:primogeniture 732: 727: 725: 720: 716: 715: 706: 705: 699: 692: 687: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 664:Honour of Eye 661: 657: 652: 650: 644: 642: 638: 632: 630: 626: 625:William Clito 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 605:William Rufus 602: 594: 590: 586: 581: 572: 570: 566: 562: 557: 555: 552:, later also 551: 547: 543: 538: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 519:Île-de-France 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492:First Crusade 489: 485: 481: 480:Stephen-Henry 477: 473: 464: 450: 448: 444: 440: 435: 431: 427: 422: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 379: 377: 373: 369: 365: 364: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 318: 316: 312: 309:, whose son, 308: 304: 300: 296: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 271: 268: 264: 261: 258: 254: 251: 248: 246: 242: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 216: 214: 211: 210: 204: 200: 181: 176: 172: 167: 163: 159: 156: 152: 147: 143: 140: 136: 129: 125: 121: 117: 114: 110: 107: 104: 100: 97: 94: 90: 84: 82: 78: 71: 67: 62: 57: 53: 49: 45: 44:Matthew Paris 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 10129:1090s births 10103: 10091:from Commons 10086: 10065: 9911: 9779: 9758:Elizabeth II 9686: 9602: 9529: 9507: 9498:Alexander II 9415: 9378: 9371: 9364: 9357: 9350: 9343: 9325: 9314: 9237: 9220: 9208: 9203: 9181: 9144: 9102: 9095: 9088: 9002: 8994: 8967: 8948: 8926: 8919: 8912: 8869: 8865: 8856: 8829: 8825: 8800: 8796: 8771: 8767: 8734: 8709: 8705: 8680: 8676: 8647: 8643: 8627: 8608: 8600: 8586: 8561: 8557: 8538: 8535:Weir, Alison 8516: 8494: 8475: 8458: 8437: 8416: 8399: 8391: 8372: 8364: 8345: 8326: 8307: 8288: 8268:King Stephen 8267: 8248: 8241: 8237: 8210: 8191: 8172: 8158: 8139: 8131: 8104: 8093: 8079: 8057: 8038: 8034: 8012: 7993: 7972:King Stephen 7971: 7949: 7933: 7914: 7895: 7881: 7854: 7837: 7823: 7810:Introduction 7809: 7787: 7765: 7751: 7732: 7713: 7686: 7678:Bibliography 7657: 7639: 7633: 7613: 7607: 7602: 7593: 7572: 7563: 7554: 7545: 7537: 7531: 7527: 7518: 7510: 7504: 7500: 7494: 7490: 7482: 7476: 7472: 7466: 7450: 7441: 7432: 7423: 7414: 7405: 7396: 7375: 7366: 7357: 7348: 7315: 7306: 7297: 7262: 7253: 7244: 7235: 7226: 7217: 7208: 7175: 7166: 7143: 7120: 7111: 7088: 7067: 7058: 7049: 7028: 7019: 7010: 7001: 6992: 6971: 6962: 6953: 6944: 6935: 6926: 6901: 6892: 6883: 6874: 6851: 6843: 6837: 6832: 6823: 6802: 6793: 6784: 6775: 6750: 6741: 6720: 6711: 6702: 6681: 6672: 6625: 6616: 6589: 6568: 6547: 6538: 6529: 6520: 6511: 6502: 6493: 6484: 6463: 6442: 6409: 6400: 6353: 6344: 6335: 6300: 6291: 6282: 6273: 6264: 6255: 6246: 6237: 6214: 6205: 6184: 6175: 6152: 6143: 6122: 6113: 6104: 6095: 6086: 6077: 6068: 6059: 6020: 6011: 6002: 5993: 5954: 5945: 5908: 5899: 5890: 5881: 5872: 5863: 5854: 5845: 5836: 5827: 5818: 5791: 5782: 5773: 5764: 5755: 5746: 5737: 5728: 5719: 5710: 5701: 5668: 5659: 5650: 5641: 5632: 5623: 5614: 5605: 5596: 5587: 5578: 5541: 5532: 5523: 5514: 5505: 5484: 5475: 5466: 5443: 5434: 5425: 5416: 5407: 5386: 5377: 5368: 5359: 5350: 5341: 5332: 5311: 5302: 5293: 5242: 5233: 5224: 5219:Davis, p. 8. 5179: 5146: 5137: 5128: 5119: 5110: 5101: 5092: 5083: 5062:Davis, p. 4. 5050:Davis, p. 1. 5046: 5014: 5004: 4995: 4986: 4973: 4960: 4951: 4938: 4925: 4915: 4905: 4895: 4886: 4876: 4864: 4843: 4833: 4825: 4820: 4811: 4803: 4798: 4786: 4781: 4768: 4754: 4741: 4714:Alexander II 4333:Alfonso VIII 3706: 2781: 2359: 2305: 2289: 2274: 2271:Ellis Peters 2268: 2238: 2225: 2218:universalist 2207: 2182: 2178: 2166: 2158: 2148: 2141: 2133: 2102: 2084:local priory 2060: 2056: 2015: 2011: 2003:River Thames 1995: 1979: 1928:Celestine II 1924: 1920: 1916:Henry Murdac 1896: 1857: 1850: 1839: 1826: 1781: 1775: 1738: 1721: 1686: 1662: 1617: 1610: 1597: 1565: 1544: 1527: 1491: 1472: 1455:South Cerney 1439: 1431: 1403: 1354: 1333:Nigel of Ely 1325: 1278: 1250: 1205: 1143: 1123: 1094: 1090:papal legate 1078: 1061: 1053:David Crouch 1022: 1009: 966: 947: 943:hunting bird 912: 904: 892: 876: 872: 838: 830: 814: 786: 763: 761:reputation. 739: 728: 712: 710: 702: 690: 668:Robert Malet 653: 645: 633: 598: 558: 539: 516: 469: 423: 380: 361: 319: 292: 281: 277: 276: 207: 132:1092 or 1096 47: 25: 10134:1154 deaths 10058:Middle Ages 10007:• ** Also 9994:(1465–1469) 9988:(1355–1364) 9982:(1332–1350) 9867:Richard III 9763:Charles III 9748:Edward VIII 9478:Alexander I 9458:Malcolm III 9433:Kenneth III 9333:Elizabeth I 9295:Richard III 8989:Eustace III 8832:: 129–145. 8593:King (1994) 8165:King (1994) 7888:King (1994) 7830:King (1994) 7758:King (1994) 7319:Amt, p. 19. 4826:coup d'état 4747:R. H. Davis 4317:Geoffrey II 3764:of Scotland 3325:Alexander I 3010:Malcolm III 2354: 1136 2341: 1135 2328: 1130 2286:Ken Follett 2144:chroniclers 1818:Westminster 1796:East Anglia 1778:the Anarchy 1621:Cirencester 1551:Westminster 1516:, from the 1479:Isle of Ely 1475:East Anglia 1423:Wallingford 1384:The Anarchy 1317:buffer zone 1159:crossbowmen 1146:attritional 1033:south Wales 989:Northumbria 907:Le Neubourg 862:, with his 826:Cistercians 818:Augustinian 770:Eustace III 595:and Stephen 439:Wallingford 324:in central 303:the Anarchy 294:jure uxoris 118:(1141–1148) 92:Predecessor 10118:Categories 9947:Richard IV 9877:William II 9862:Richard II 9738:Edward VII 9728:William IV 9718:George III 9647:Charles II 9542:Robert III 9488:Malcolm IV 9463:Donald III 9438:Malcolm II 9423:Kenneth II 9305:Henry VIII 9265:Richard II 9260:Edward III 9194:William II 9167:Harthacnut 9013:Eustace IV 8973:1135–1144 8954:1135–1154 8872:: 299–326. 8859:. Penguin. 6779:Amt, p. 7. 5025:References 4979:John Round 4804:White Ship 4787:White Ship 4624:Louis VIII 4349:William II 4032:Malcolm IV 3944:Margaret I 3261:William II 2937:Baldwin II 2926:See also: 2281:Shrewsbury 2199:Walter Map 2165:wrote his 1986:river Avon 1982:Malmesbury 1822:Winchester 1809:forest law 1800:adulterine 1637:river Isis 1555:Winchester 1459:Malmesbury 1274:Great Seal 1272:Stephen's 1237:Shrewsbury 1194:of Prince 1108:The stone 1031:in April, 985:Cumberland 896:Hugh Bigod 880:Winchester 714:White Ship 704:White Ship 691:White Ship 430:the church 363:White Ship 81:Coronation 10046:Biography 9959:Henry III 9924:1144–1259 9907:1135–1144 9883:Robert II 9856:Richard I 9850:William I 9753:George VI 9723:George IV 9713:George II 9625:Charles I 9607:from 1603 9557:James III 9537:Robert II 9493:William I 9468:Duncan II 9396:Malcolm I 9386:Donald II 9310:Edward VI 9300:Henry VII 9285:Edward IV 9255:Edward II 9245:Henry III 9228:Richard I 9189:William I 9110:Æthelstan 9005:Matilda I 9000:1125–1147 8759:159540627 7873:21497976M 4680:Henry III 4301:Richard I 4276:Philip II 4260:Baldwin I 3960:Louis VII 3307:Duncan II 3229:Melisende 2241:King John 2099:Aftermath 1788:Wiltshire 1733:Louis VII 1705:Cambridge 1606:Guildford 1601:Sherborne 1577:Louis VII 1371:canon law 1301:Leicester 1297:Worcester 1231:, taking 1200:Corbridge 1190:A silver 1176:trebuchet 1139:Yorkshire 1037:Glamorgan 977:Newcastle 724:diarrhoea 458:Childhood 112:Contender 102:Successor 9936:Henry II 9931:Geoffrey 9872:Robert I 9837:911–1135 9826:Normandy 9743:George V 9733:Victoria 9708:George I 9577:James VI 9562:James IV 9552:James II 9525:David II 9520:Robert I 9509:Margaret 9443:Duncan I 9352:Donald I 9290:Edward V 9280:Henry VI 9270:Henry IV 9250:Edward I 9216:Henry II 9115:Edmund I 9104:Ælfweard 9062:monarchs 9056:Scottish 8979:Geoffrey 8960:Henry II 8817:24408228 8726:24408935 8697:24404525 8578:24420362 8537:(1995). 8515:(2007). 8408:25186487 8229:1081872M 8123:8277478M 8078:(1994). 7992:(1993). 7970:(1977). 7853:(1986). 7808:(2008). 7786:(2004). 7705:1418127M 4944:Chivalry 4900:thought. 4660:Arthur I 3992:Geoffrey 3976:Henry II 2962:Philip I 2373:Amalric. 2294:and the 2210:Whiggish 2203:charters 2074:to meet 2022:Stamford 1990:Midlands 1932:Flanders 1842:Carlisle 1751:Coventry 1435:chivalry 1313:Pembroke 1305:Hereford 1285:earldoms 1233:Hereford 1217:Thurstan 1155:infantry 1114:Goodrich 1069:Argentan 973:Carlisle 882:, where 778:Boulogne 719:Barfleur 662:and the 593:Theobald 550:Theobald 531:Touraine 488:crusader 411:Normandy 354:Boulogne 311:Henry II 153:, Kent, 106:Henry II 10034:England 10020:Portals 9992:Charles 9986:Charles 9912:Stephen 9888:Henry I 9661:Mary II 9567:James V 9547:James I 9483:David I 9448:Macbeth 9380:Eochaid 9275:Henry V 9210:Matilda 9204:Stephen 9199:Henry I 9060:British 9054:, 9052:English 8943:Henry I 8893:at the 8797:History 8751:3679129 8706:History 8677:History 8558:History 8467:2653225 4931:Arundel 4881:£1,115. 4791:Orderic 4643:Otto IV 4326:Eleanor 4292:Matilda 3707:Stephen 3334:David I 3284:Henry I 2946:Fulk IV 2920: 2914: 2907: 2901: 2043:William 1872:Cluniac 1864:William 1860:Eustace 1814:minting 1747:Lincoln 1713:Norfolk 1701:Pleshey 1629:Wareham 1625:Bampton 1581:minting 1483:fenland 1415:Arundel 1410:Wareham 1321:Chester 1309:Warwick 1281:Angevin 1245:Bristol 1151:knights 962:new men 915:Lisieux 841:Cluniac 766:Matilda 758:Angevin 680:Alençon 660:William 601:Henry I 589:William 542:William 447:William 426:Eustace 278:Stephen 209:more... 196: 188: 184: 116:Matilda 96:Henry I 61:more... 31:Stephen 9572:Mary I 9453:Lulach 9417:Amlaíb 9411:Cuilén 9401:Indulf 9327:Philip 9322:Mary I 9125:Eadwig 9120:Eadred 8925: 8922:1092/6 8844: 8815: 8788:579081 8786: 8757: 8749: 8724: 8695: 8615: 8576: 8545: 8523: 8501: 8482: 8465: 8446: 8423: 8406: 8379: 8352: 8333: 8314: 8295: 8274: 8255: 8227: 8217: 8198: 8179: 8146: 8121: 8111: 8064: 8045: 8019: 8000: 7978: 7956: 7921: 7902: 7871: 7861: 7794: 7772: 7739: 7720: 7703: 7693: 7664: 7646: 4763:Land". 3238:Fulk V 2917: 2904: 2370:Ralph; 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