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temperature control) with a 3mm active tip, utilizing an electrical bipolar coagulator. The lesion size was previously determined by testing the electrode in egg albumin. Coagulation size was the result of the electrical coagulator power regulation and the application time of the radiofrequency. The first surgery performed with this system was a
Trigeminal Nucleotractothomy. Jorge Schvarcz performed more than 700 functional surgeries until 1994 when, due to health problems he stopped exercising his profession. But the equipment developed kept improving on a neurosurgery history.
606:(DBS). During DBS, an electrode is placed into the thalamus, the pallidum of the subthalmamic nucleus, parts of brain that are involved in motor control, and are affected by Parkinson's disease. The electrode is connected to a small battery operated stimulator that is placed under the collarbone, where a wire runs beneath the skin to connect it to the electrode in the brain. The stimulator produces electrical impulses that affect the nerve cells around the electrode and should help alleviate tremors or symptoms that are associated with the affected area.
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of patient immobilization challenges and the associated patient motion, extra-cranial lesions move with respect to the patient's position due to respiration, bladder and rectum filling. Like stereotactic radiosurgery, the intent of stereotactic body radiotherapy is to eradicate a defined extra-cranial target. However, target motion requires larger treatment margins around the target to compensate for the positioning uncertainty. This in turn implies more normal tissue exposed to high doses, which could result in negative treatment
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cannula through which the animal can be injected after recovery from the surgery. These protocols take longer than site-specific central injections in anesthetized mice because they require the construction of cannulae, wire plugs, and injection needles, but induce less stress in the animals because they allow for a recovery period for the healing of trauma induced to the brain before injection. Surgery can also be used for microdialysis protocols to implant and tether the dialysis probe and guide cannula.
40:
736:(PET). The N-localizer comprises a diagonal rod that spans two vertical rods to form an N-shape that allows tomographic images to be mapped to physical space. This device became almost universally adopted by the 1980s and is included in the Brown-Roberts-Wells (BRW), Kelly-Goerss, Leksell, Cosman-Roberts-Wells (CRW), Micromar-ETM03B, FiMe-BlueFrame, Macom, and Adeor-Zeppelin stereotactic frames and in the Gamma Knife
564:, disorder of muscle tone, intractable pain, convulsive disorders and psychological phenomena. Treatment for these phenomena was believed to be located in the superficial parts of the CNS and PNS. Most of the interventions made for treatment consisted of cortical extirpation. To alleviate extra pyramidal disorders, pioneer Russell Meyers dissected or transected the head of the
587:. Additionally, other scientists like Schurman, Walker, and Guiot made significant contributions to functional neurosurgery. In 1953, Cooper discovered by chance that ligation of the anterior chorioidal artery resulted in improvement of Parkinson's disease. Similarly, when Grood was performing an operation in a patient with Parkinson's, he accidentally lesioned the
652:. There is no evidence it was ever used in a human surgery. The first stereotactic device designed for the human brain appears to have been an adaptation of the Horseley–Clarke frame built at Aubrey T. Mussen's behest by a London workshop in 1918, but it received little attention and does not appear to have been used on people. It was a frame made of brass.
613:, a needle electrode is placed into the thalamus, and the patient must cooperate with tasks assigned to find the affected area- after this area of the thalamus is located, a small high frequency current is applied to the electrode and this destroys a small part of the thalamus. Approximately 90% of patients experience instantaneous tremor relief.
525:: repair, reassortment, repopulation, and reoxygenation. Today, both treatment techniques are complementary as tumors that may be resistant to fractionated radiotherapy may respond well to radiosurgery and tumors that are too large or too close to critical organs for safe radiosurgery may be suitable candidates for fractionated radiotherapy.
533:. As a consequence, stereotactic body radiotherapy is mostly delivered in a limited number of fractions, thereby blending the concept of stereotactic radiosurgery with the therapeutic benefits of fractionated radiotherapy. To monitor and correct target motion for accurate and precise patient positioning prior and during treatment, advanced
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In 1970, in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, Aparatos
Especiales company, produced the first Stereotactic System in Latin America. Antonio Martos Calvo, together with Jorge Candia and Jorge Olivetti through the request of neurosurgeon Jorge Schvarc (1942-2019), developed an equipment based on the
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probes. Site specific central microinjections are used when rodents do not need to be awake and behaving or when the substance to be injected has a long duration of action. For protocols in which rodents’ behaviors must be assessed soon after injection, stereotactic surgery can be used to implant a
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A second, more recent evolution extrapolates the original concept of stereotactic radiosurgery to extra-cranial targets, most notably in the lung, liver, pancreas, and prostate. This treatment approach, entitled stereotactic body radiotherapy or SBRT, is challenged by various types of motion. On top
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and although both treatment modalities are reported to have identical outcomes for certain indications, the intent of both approaches is fundamentally different. The aim of stereotactic radiosurgery is to destroy target tissue while preserving adjacent normal tissue, where fractionated radiotherapy
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Burr hole mounted system: This provides a limited range of possible intracranial target points with a fixed entry point. They provided two angular degrees of freedom and a depth adjustment. The surgeon could place the burr hole over nonessential brain tissue and utilize the instrument to direct the
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Modern stereotactic planning systems are computer based. The stereotactic atlas is a series of cross sections of anatomical structure (for example, a human brain), depicted in reference to a two-coordinate frame. Thus, each brain structure can be easily assigned a range of three coordinate numbers,
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A double radiopaque ruler attached to the side of the frame made it possible to obtain the antero-posterior and latero-lateral X-ray images without the need of moving the radiopaque ruler. The thermal coagulation lesion was performed using tungsten monopole electrodes of 1,5mm of diameter (without
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to inactivate or eradicate defined targets in the head or spine without the need to make an incision. This concept requires steep dose gradients to reduce injury to adjacent normal tissue while maintaining treatment efficacy in the target. As a consequence of this definition, the overall treatment
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Arc-quadrant systems: Probes are directed perpendicular to the tangent of an arc (which rotates about the vertical axis) and a quadrant (which rotates about the horizontal axis). The probe, directed to a depth equal to the radius of the sphere defined by the arc-quadrant, will always arrive at the
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Simple orthogonal system: The probe is directed perpendicular to a square base unit fixed to the skull. These provide three degrees of freedom by means of a carriage that moved orthogonally along the base plate or along a bar attached parallel to the base plate of the instrument. Attached to the
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Arc-phantom systems: An aiming bow attaches to the head ring, which is fixed to the patient's skull, and can be transferred to a similar ring that contains a simulated target. In this system, the phantom target is moved on the simulator to 3D coordinates. After adjusting the probe holder on the
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system, also with three coordinates: angle, depth and antero-posterior (or axial) location. The mechanical device has head-holding clamps and bars which puts the head in a fixed position in reference to the coordinate system (the so-called zero or origin). In small laboratory animals, these are
666:
In 1947 and 1949, two neurosurgeons working at Temple
University in Philadelphia, Ernest A. Spiegel (who had fled Austria when the Nazis took over) and Henry T. Wycis, published their work on a device similar to the Horsley–Clarke apparatus in using a cartesian system; it was attached to the
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aiming bow so that the probe touches the desired target on the phantom, the transferable aiming bow is moved from the phantom base ring to the base ring on the patient. The probe is then lowered to the determined depth in order to reach the target point deep in the patient's brain.
446:, all errors, from image acquisition over treatment planning to mechanical aspects of the delivery of treatment and intra-fraction motion concerns, must be systematically optimized. To assure quality of patient care the procedure involves a multidisciplinary team consisting of a
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Stereotactic surgery is sometimes used to aid in several different types of animal research studies. Specifically, it is used to target specific sites of the brain and directly introduce pharmacological agents to the brain which otherwise may not be able to cross the
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Sturm V, Pastyr O, Schlegel W, Scharfenberg H, Zabel HJ, Netzeband G, Schabbert S, Berberich W (1983). "Stereotactic computer tomography with a modified
Riechert-Mundinger device as the basis for integrated stereotactic neuroradiological investigations".
798:
620:, an almost identical procedure to thalamotomy, a small part of the pallidum is destroyed and 80% of patients see improvement in rigidity and hypokinesia and a tremor relief or improvement comes weeks after the procedure.
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This was the beginning of the developing of technology to produce stereotactic devices in Latin
America. This was the beginning of the first stereotactic manufacturer of Latin America – The Brazilian Micromar.
632:, a physician and neurosurgeon, and Robert H. Clarke, a physiologist and was built by Swift & Son; the two scientists stopped collaborating after the 1908 publication. The Horsley–Clarke apparatus used a
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principle of
Hitchcock Stereotactic System. The patient was seated in an adapted chair with two telescopic arms attached at it base, which fixed the stereotactic frame preventing the patient’s movement.
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Heilbrun MP, Sunderland PM, McDonald PR, Wells TH Jr, Cosman E, Ganz E (1987). "Brown-Roberts-Wells stereotactic frame modifications to accomplish magnetic resonance imaging guidance in three planes".
1993:
Solberg, Timothy D.; Siddon, Robert L.; Kavanagh, Brian (2012). "Chapter 1: Historical
Development of Stereotactic Ablative Radiotherapy". In Lo, Simon S.; Teh, B.S.; Lu, J.J.; Schefter, T.E. (eds.).
337:(confluence of sutures of frontal and parietal bones), as such landmarks. In humans, the reference points, as described above, are intracerebral structures which are clearly discernible in a
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Combs, Stephanie (2010). "Differences in clinical results after LINAC-based single-dose radiosurgery versus fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy for patients with vestibular schwannomas".
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instead of cartesian, and two years later he published work where he used his device to target a beam of radiation into a brain. Leksell's radiosurgery system is also used by the
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Tsao, May N. (2012). "International
Practice Survey on the Management of Brain Metastases: Third International Consensus Workshop on Palliative Radiotherapy and Symptom Control".
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Heilbrun MP, Roberts TS, Apuzzo ML, Wells TH, Sabshin JK (1983). "Preliminary experience with Brown-Roberts-Wells (BRW) computerized tomography stereotaxic guidance system".
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Garsa, Adam; Jang, Julie K.; Baxi, Sangita; Chen, Christine; Akinniranye, Olamigoke; Hall, Owen; Larkin, Jody; Motala, Aneesa; Newberry, Sydne; Hempel, Susanne (2021-06-09).
2483:
Arle, J (2009). "Development of a
Classic: The Todd-Wells Apparatus, the BRW, and the CRW Stereotactic Frames". In Lozano, AM; Gildenberg, PL; Tasker, RR (eds.).
671:. They also created the first atlas of the human brain, and used intracranial reference points, generated by using medical images acquired with contrast agents.
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In theory, any organ system inside the body can be subjected to stereotactic surgery. However, difficulties in setting up a reliable frame of reference (such as
521:. Historically, the field of fractionated radiotherapy evolved from the original concept of stereotactic radiosurgery following discovery of the principles of
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system. An alternative to the N-localizer is the Sturm-Pastyr localizer that is included in the
Riechert-Mundinger and Zamorano-Dujovny stereotactic frames.
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1024:
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Tasker RR, Hawrylyshyn P, Rowe IH, Organ LW (1977). "Computerized Graphic Display of Results of Subcortical Stimulation During Stereotactic Surgery".
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landmarks, which bear a constant spatial relation to soft tissues) mean that its applications have been, traditionally and until recently, limited to
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In 1939-1941 Putnam and Oliver tried to improve Parkinsonism and hyperkinesias by trying a series of modifications of the lateral and antero-lateral
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Other localization methods also exist that do not make use of tomographic images produced by CT, MRI, or PET, but instead conventional radiographs.
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Maciunas RJ, Kessler RM, Maurer C, Mandava V, Watt G, Smith G (1992). "Positron emission tomography imaging-directed stereotactic neurosurgery".
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203:, and a 2021 systematic review found this combination led to the greatest improvement of survival for those with single brain metastasis.
1168:. Woodbury, NY: Published for the American Association of Physicists in Medicine by the American Institute of Physics. 1995. pp. 6–8.
724:, that enables guidance of stereotactic surgery using tomographic images that are obtained via medical imaging technologies such as
591:. This caused the patient's tremors to stop. From then on, thalamic lesions became the target point with more satisfactory results.
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The surgery is used to treat various brain cancers, benign, and functional disorders of the brain. This is sometimes combined with
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Couldwell WT, Apuzzo ML (1990). "Initial experience related to the Cosman-Roberts-Wells stereotactic instrument. Technical note".
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patient's head with a plaster cast instead of screws. Their device was the first to be used for brain surgery; they used it for
454:, and radiation therapist. Dedicated, commercially available stereotactic radiosurgery programs are provided by the irrespective
382:, etc.) inside the brain, at the calculated coordinates for the desired structure, through a small trephined hole in the skull.
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Stereotactic radiosurgery provides an efficient, safe, and minimal invasive treatment alternative for patients diagnosed with
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2010:
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Park, Kyung-Jae (2012). "Outcomes of Gamma Knife surgery for trigeminal neuralgia secondary to vertebrobasilar ectasia".
836:. In rodents, the main applications of stereotactic surgery are to introduce fluids directly to the brain or to implant
215:
180:
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Spiegel, EA; Wycis, HT; Marks, M; Lee, AJ (10 October 1947). "Stereotaxic Apparatus for Operations on the Human Brain".
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are commercially available and included in the radiosurgery programs offered by the CyberKnife and Novalis communities.
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The first surgery performed with Latin-American system was a Trigeminal Nucleotractothomy, performed by Jorge Schvartz.
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landmarks which are known to bear a constant spatial relation to soft tissue. For example, brain atlases often use the
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which will be used for positioning the stereotactic device. In most atlases, the three dimensions are: latero-lateral (
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Krauss, JK (2009). "The Riechert/Mundinger Stereotactic Apparatus". In Lozano, AM; Gildenberg, PL; Tasker, RR (eds.).
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relies on a different sensitivity of the target and the surrounding normal tissue to the total accumulated radiation
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Tse, VCK; Kalani, MYS; Adler, JR (2015). "Techniques of Stereotactic Localization". In Chin, LS; Regine, WF (eds.).
709:, proton beam therapy and neutron capture therapy. Lars Leksell went on to commercialize his inventions by founding
1655:
Kavanagh, Brian D. (2006). "Extracranial radiosurgery (stereotactic body radiation therapy) for oligometastases".
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Galloway, RL Jr. (2015). "Introduction and Historical Perspectives on Image-Guided Surgery". In Golby, AJ (ed.).
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Smith, Zachary A. (2003). "Dedicated linear accelerator radiosurgery for the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia".
534:
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885:
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633:
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Goerss S, Kelly PJ, Kall B, Alker GJ Jr (1982). "A computed tomography stereotactic adaptation system".
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Lindquist, Christer (2007). "The Leksell Gamma Knife Perfexion and comparisons with its predecessors".
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Barnett, Gene H. (2007). "Stereotactic radiosurgery-an organized neurosurgery-sanctioned definition".
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More recent clinical applications can be seen in surgeries used to treat Parkinson's disease, such as
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345:. In newborn human babies, the "soft spot" where the coronal and sagittal sutures meet (known as the
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Irrespective of the similarities between the concepts of stereotactic radiosurgery and fractionated
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3052:, First Edition, Publisher: Alaúde Editorial LTDA, Editor: Arthur Cukiert, pp. 67–79, (2014),
1883:"Industrial perspective on deep brain stimulation: history, current state, and future developments"
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Paddick, Ian (2006). "A simple dose gradient measurement tool to complement the conformity index".
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by inserting an electrode into the trigeminal nerve and ablating it. He published this in 1933.
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The stereotactic method has continued to evolve, and at present employs an elaborate mixture of
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Niranjan, Ajay (2000). "Radiosurgery: where we were, are, and may be in the third millennium".
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2366:"CT-guided stereotactic neurosurgery: experience in 24 cases with a new stereotactic system"
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De Salles, Antonio (2008). "Radiosurgery from the brain to the spine: 20 years experience".
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on a stereotactic device, publishing their first work in 1949 and eventually developing the
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1347:"Novalis Radiosurgery frameless image-guided noninvasive radiosurgery: initial experience"
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directions (or alternatively, in the polar coordinate holder), fitted with high precision
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system to locate small targets inside the body and to perform on them some action such as
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Tasker RR, Organ LW, Hawrylyshyn P (1976). "Sensory organization of the human thalamus".
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Leksell, L (13 December 1951). "The stereotaxic method and radiosurgery of the brain".
2016:
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or better. To use this paradigm optimally and treat patients with the highest possible
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in humans, for both brain and spine procedures, as well as for animal experimentation.
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are done routinely to locate, sample (biopsy), and remove tissue. Plain X-ray images (
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The work of Spiegel and Wycis sparked enormous interest and research. In Paris,
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at spinal medullary level and further proximally, even at mesencephalic levels.
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carriage was a second track that extended across the head frame perpendicularly.
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The stereotactic method was first published in 1908 by two British scientists,
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Carlson, Neil R."Physiology of Behavior".Pearson Education, Inc., 2013. p.134.
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Currently, a number of manufacturers produce stereotactic devices fitted for
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Stereotactic Methods and their Applications in Disorders of the Motor System
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Brown RA (1979). "A stereotactic head frame for use with CT body scanners".
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Stereotactic Methods and their Applications in Disorders of the Motor System
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2724:"Coordinate systems for navigating stereotactic space: how not to get lost"
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Tree, Alison (2013). "Stereotactic body radiotherapy for oligometastases".
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485:. Stereotactic radiosurgery is a well-described management option for most
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Bernier, Jacques (2004). "Radiation oncology: a century of achievements".
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Functional neurosurgery comprises treatment of several disorders such as
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2036:"The Structure and Functions of the Cerebellum Examined by a New Method"
915:"Stereotactic radiosurgery of the brain: a review of common indications"
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2143:"Die Punktionstechnik und die Elektrokoagulation des Ganglion Gasseri"
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1517:. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplementum. Vol. 101. pp. 163–168.
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probe to the target point from the fixed entry point at the burr hole.
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Andrews, David (2006). "A review of 3 current radiosurgery systems".
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Imaging, Stereotactic Space and Targeting in Functional Neurosurgery
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3173:. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplementum. Vol. 24. pp. 85–98.
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Geiger, B.M.; Frank, L.E.; Caldera-Siu, A.D.; Pothos, E.N. (2008).
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Verellen, Dirk (2007). "Innovations in image-guided radiotherapy".
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254:, multimodality image matching tools, coordinates calculator, etc.
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Stereotactic surgery works on the basis of three main components:
1939:
Rahman, Maryam; Murad, Gregory J. A.; Mocco, J (September 2009).
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accuracy should match the treatment planning margins of 1–2
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Philip L. Gildenberg, "Stereotactic Surgery: Present and Past",
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Amongst the malignant brain disorders are: brain metastasis and
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Brain biopsy using a needle mounted on a stereotactic instrument
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Picard, Claude; Olivier, Andre; Bertrand, Gilles (1983-10-01).
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131:
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Adler, John (2013). "The future of robotics in radiosurgery".
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Another accepted form of "stereotactic" is "stereotaxic". The
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International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
1941:"Early history of the stereotactic apparatus in neurosurgery"
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International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
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International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics
127:
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allow the neurosurgeon to position the point of a probe (an
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The stereotactic apparatus uses a set of three coordinates (
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1805:"Evolution of Basal Ganglia Surgery for Movement Disorders"
645:
314:
119:
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in the brain and spine, including but not limited to both
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Patrick J. Kelly, "Introduction and Historical Aspects",
655:
The first stereotactic device used in humans was used by
318:
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Langen, K.M. (2001). "Organ motion and its management".
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Stereotactic radiosurgery utilizes externally generated
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636:(three-orthogonal axis) system. That device is in the
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Advances in Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery 2
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1992:
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Frame for Stereotactic Thalamotomy on display at the
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Zapata, A.; Chefer, V.I.; Shippenberg, T.S. (2009).
2819:
Textbook of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
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Principles and Practice of Stereotactic Radiosurgery
2485:
Textbook of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
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2636:
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
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Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry
1880:
260:
A stereotactic localization and placement procedure
91:intervention that makes use of a three-dimensional
2860:"Stereotaxic Localization of Intracranial Targets"
2722:Sedrak M, Alaminos-Bouza AL, Srivastava S (2020).
1435:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry
678:collaborated with Marcel David, Henri Hacaen, and
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1938:
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770:Jorge Candia, Antonio Martos and Jorge Olivetti
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1988:
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1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1027:. Cyber Museum of Neurosurgery. Archived from
1025:"A Short History of Stereotactic Neurosurgery"
913:Gilbo P, Zhang I, Knisely J (September 2017).
908:
906:
904:
902:
3077:, Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company (1991)
2821:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 487–493.
2487:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 456–460.
2364:Thomas DG, Anderson RE, du Boulay GH (1984).
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
2951:"High Precision Stereotaxic Surgery in Mice"
2632:"Stereotaxis and nuclear magnetic resonance"
644:and is in the Department of Neurosurgery at
429:A doctor performing Gamma Knife Radiosurgery
420:
2906:"Survivable Stereotaxic Surgery in Rodents"
2857:
1973:
1863:. University of Virginia School of Medicine
899:
761:
349:) becomes the bregma when this gap closes.
2948:
1925:
1881:Sarem-Aslani, Ali; Mullett, Keith (2011).
1802:
705:device, and by other neurosurgeons, using
250:A stereotactic planning system, including
38:
3238:
3203:
3017:
2925:
2749:
2739:
2655:
2630:Leksell L, Leksell D, Schwebel J (1985).
2389:
2140:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2103:
1956:
1908:
1898:
1843:
1820:
1512:
1454:
1362:
1266:
1260:
1047:
1045:
930:
3066:(Editor: M. Peter Heilbrun). Baltimore:
2450:Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
2330:
2120:. Boston, MA: Springer US. p. 420.
2117:Functional and Stereotactic Neurosurgery
2034:Horseley, Victor; Clarke, R. H. (1908).
1809:Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery
1759:
1654:
1572:
1570:
1477:
781:
765:
544:
424:
3125:(3rd ed.). London: Hodder Arnold.
3086:A Short History of Stereotactic Surgery
2957:. Appendix 4:Appendix 4A: Appendix 4A.
2241:
2067:"The first human stereotaxic apparatus"
1611:
1428:
1393:
1094:
1051:
956:"Radiation Therapy for Brain Metasases"
304:) in an orthogonal frame of reference (
19:Not to be confused with the concept of
3258:
3100:William Regine; Lawrence Chin (2008).
2991:
2858:Siddon, Robert; Barth, Norman (1987).
2816:
2522:
2520:
2113:
2100:
1689:
1042:
540:
392:
3120:
2295:
1887:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
1576:
1567:
1309:
1231:
407:center or focal point of that sphere.
3208:. Springfield, IL: Royal Van Gorcum.
2482:
2268:
2214:
1848:. Springfield, IL: Royal Van Gorcum.
1724:
1344:
1188:
1129:
720:proposed a device, now known as the
462:, and Novalis Radiosurgery devices.
2949:Athos, J.; Storm, D.R. (May 2001).
2517:
1997:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 9–35.
1995:Stereotactic body radiation therapy
1858:
216:cerebral arteriovenous malformation
13:
3103:Principles of Stereotactic Surgery
3038:
2531:. New York: Springer. p. 28.
2341:10.1016/B978-0-12-800870-6.00001-7
1364:10.1227/01.NEU.0000325932.34154.82
1281:10.1227/01.neu.0000316276.20586.dd
640:; a copy was brought to the US by
257:A stereotactic device or apparatus
210:. The benign brain disorders are:
14:
3297:
3219:Current Protocols in Neuroscience
2998:Current Protocols in Neuroscience
2955:Current Protocols in Neuroscience
2910:Journal of Visualized Experiments
1815:(4). Karger Publishers: 131–135.
2609:10.1227/00006123-198203000-00014
2335:. Academic Press. pp. 2–4.
2310:10.1097/00004424-197907000-00006
1492:10.1097/00006123-200003000-00002
1022:
814:
805:
796:
325:ridges, the median point of the
3096:, Cyber Museum of Neurosurgery.
2985:
2942:
2897:
2851:
2810:
2766:
2715:
2672:
2623:
2588:
2553:
2476:
2441:
2406:
2357:
2324:
2289:
2262:
2235:
2208:
2165:
2134:
2058:
2027:
1874:
1852:
1837:
1796:
1753:
1718:
1683:
1669:10.1016/j.semradonc.2005.12.003
1648:
1605:
1506:
1471:
1422:
1387:
1338:
1303:
1225:
758:and stereotactic localization.
187:, "arrangement", "order", from
2272:The History of the Gamma Knife
2218:The History of the Gamma Knife
1657:Seminars in Radiation Oncology
1182:
1158:
1123:
1088:
1016:
1007:
947:
1:
1739:10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70510-7
1704:10.1016/s0360-3016(01)01453-5
892:
697:published a device that used
3281:Radiation therapy procedures
3231:10.1002/0471142301.ns0702s47
3179:10.1007/978-3-7091-8482-0_14
3010:10.1002/0471142301.ns0702s47
2963:10.1002/0471142301.nsa04as14
2876:10.1016/0360-3016(87)90201-x
2244:Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica
2194:10.1126/science.106.2754.349
1591:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.01.064
1523:10.1007/978-3-211-78205-7_28
1408:10.1016/j.surneu.2006.08.002
1324:10.1227/NEU.0b013e318271ff20
734:positron emission tomography
415:
241:
226:. Functional disorders are:
163:, a prefix derived from the
130:, biopsy and surgery of the
7:
3123:Basic clinical radiobiology
2275:. Elsevier. pp. 96ff.
1515:Reconstructive Neurosurgery
1431:"Stereotactic radiosurgery"
848:
826:
602:(lesioning procedures), or
503:arteriovenous malformations
10:
3302:
3215:"Microdialysis in Rodents"
2994:"Microdialysis in Rodents"
2693:10.3171/jns.1990.72.1.0145
2574:10.3171/jns.1983.59.2.0217
2114:Kandel, Edward I. (1989).
2086:10.3171/jns.1983.59.4.0673
1246:10.3171/jns.2003.99.3.0511
1144:10.1016/j.clon.2012.03.008
1109:10.3171/sup.2006.105.7.194
756:magnetic resonance imaging
730:magnetic resonance imaging
623:
144:magnetic resonance imaging
18:
3271:Computer-assisted surgery
3121:Steel, G. Gordon (2002).
3064:Stereotactic Neurosurgery
3044:Armando Alaminos Bouza, "
2827:10.1007/978-3-540-69960-6
2537:10.1007/978-1-4614-8363-2
2493:10.1007/978-3-540-69960-6
2333:Image-Guided Neurosurgery
1958:10.3171/2009.7.focus09118
1166:Stereotactic radiosurgery
919:Chinese Clinical Oncology
726:X-ray computed tomography
568:in 1939, and part of the
535:image-guided technologies
421:Stereotactic radiosurgery
67:
57:
49:
37:
32:
3204:van Manen, Jaap (1967).
2992:Zapata, Agustin (2009).
2269:Ganz, Jeremy C. (2014).
2215:Ganz, Jeremy C. (2014).
1900:10.3389/fnint.2011.00046
1844:van Manen, Jaap (1967).
1066:10.3171/jns.2007.106.1.1
876:Interventional radiology
762:History in Latin America
690:was doing similar work.
659:, for a method to treat
319:external auditory meatus
308:), or, alternatively, a
201:whole brain radiotherapy
3142:Applied Neurophysiology
3050:Functional Neurosurgery
2681:Journal of Neurosurgery
2562:Journal of Neurosurgery
2415:Applied Neurophysiology
2298:Investigative Radiology
2074:Journal of Neurosurgery
1803:Gildenberg, PL (2006).
1345:Wurm, Reinhard (2008).
1234:Journal of Neurosurgery
1203:10.3171/2011.8.JNS11920
1191:Journal of Neurosurgery
1097:Journal of Neurosurgery
1054:Journal of Neurosurgery
932:10.21037/cco.2017.06.07
310:cylindrical coordinates
194:
1861:"Stereotactic Surgery"
1762:Nature Reviews. Cancer
1614:Nature Reviews. Cancer
1429:Leksell, Lars (1983).
995:Cite journal requires
964:10.23970/ahrqepccer242
787:
771:
680:Julian de Ajuriaguerra
638:Science Museum, London
604:Deep Brain Stimulation
553:
475:functional indications
444:accuracy and precision
430:
2141:Kirschner, M (1933).
2052:10.1093/brain/31.1.45
1447:10.1136/jnnp.46.9.797
785:
769:
684:Talairach coordinates
548:
428:
306:cartesian coordinates
277:) and rostro-caudal (
220:vestibular schwannoma
183:, derived from Greek
3106:. Berlin: Springer.
3068:Williams and Wilkins
2776:Acta Neurochirurgica
2648:10.1136/jnnp.48.1.14
2003:10.1007/174_2012_540
871:Novalis radiosurgery
748:image-guided surgery
688:Hirotaro Narabayashi
661:trigeminal neuralgia
507:trigeminal neuralgia
448:radiation oncologist
228:trigeminal neuralgia
81:Stereotactic surgery
33:Stereotactic surgery
2741:10.7759/cureus.8578
2382:10.1136/jnnp.47.1.9
2186:1947Sci...106..349S
1945:Neurosurgical Focus
834:blood–brain barrier
752:computed tomography
707:linear accelerators
578:spinothalamic tract
558:Parkinson's disease
541:Parkinson's disease
393:Types frame systems
232:Parkinson's disease
140:computed tomography
3091:2017-05-13 at the
2788:10.1007/BF01406197
1396:Surgical Neurology
788:
772:
554:
499:pituitary adenomas
435:ionizing radiation
431:
352:Guide bars in the
271:), dorso-ventral (
85:minimally invasive
3286:Surgical oncology
3188:978-3-211-81422-2
3154:10.1159/000102487
3113:978-0-387-71069-3
3075:Tumor Stereotaxis
3058:978-85-7881-248-5
3004:(7.2): 1–7.2.29.
2836:978-3-540-69959-0
2546:978-1-4614-8362-5
2502:978-3-540-69959-0
2462:10.1159/000098986
2427:10.1159/000100700
2350:978-0-12-800870-6
2012:978-3-642-25605-9
1822:10.1159/000094844
1532:978-3-211-78204-0
1275:: ONS130–ONS141.
1175:978-1-56396-497-8
1132:Clinical Oncology
699:polar coordinates
452:medical physicist
224:pituitary adenoma
191:, "to arrange").
78:
77:
16:Medical procedure
3293:
3252:
3242:
3225:: 7.2.1–7.2.29.
3209:
3200:
3165:
3136:
3117:
3032:
3031:
3021:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2929:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2753:
2743:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2676:
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2669:
2659:
2627:
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2586:
2585:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2524:
2515:
2514:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2456:(1–4): 134–140.
2445:
2439:
2438:
2421:(1–6): 143–152.
2410:
2404:
2403:
2393:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2328:
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2287:
2286:
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2206:
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2180:(2754): 349–50.
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2132:
2131:
2111:
2098:
2097:
2071:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2031:
2025:
2024:
1990:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1936:
1923:
1922:
1912:
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951:
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934:
925:(Suppl 2): S14.
910:
818:
809:
800:
718:Russell A. Brown
657:Martin Kirschner
509:, among others.
483:secondary tumors
369:
363:
357:
303:
297:
291:
282:
276:
270:
171:, "solid"), and
111:, implantation,
71:edit on Wikidata
42:
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3295:
3294:
3292:
3291:
3290:
3256:
3255:
3189:
3148:(3–4): 139–53.
3133:
3114:
3093:Wayback Machine
3041:
3039:Further reading
3036:
3035:
2990:
2986:
2947:
2943:
2902:
2898:
2888:
2886:
2856:
2852:
2837:
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2767:
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2112:
2101:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2032:
2028:
2013:
1991:
1974:
1937:
1926:
1879:
1875:
1866:
1864:
1859:Doherty, Paul.
1857:
1853:
1842:
1838:
1801:
1797:
1774:10.1038/nrc2288
1768:(12): 949–960.
1758:
1754:
1727:Lancet Oncology
1723:
1719:
1688:
1684:
1653:
1649:
1626:10.1038/nrc1451
1610:
1606:
1575:
1568:
1556:
1555:
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1507:
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900:
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810:
801:
764:
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574:globus pallidus
566:caudate nucleus
551:Glenside Museum
543:
423:
418:
395:
365:
359:
353:
321:, the inferior
299:
293:
287:
278:
272:
266:
244:
197:
150:the procedure.
146:can be used to
74:
45:
28:
25:virtual reality
17:
12:
11:
5:
3299:
3289:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3254:
3253:
3210:
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3187:
3166:
3137:
3132:978-0340807835
3131:
3118:
3112:
3097:
3078:
3071:
3060:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3033:
2984:
2941:
2896:
2850:
2835:
2809:
2782:(1–2): 11–17.
2765:
2714:
2671:
2622:
2603:(3): 375–379.
2587:
2568:(2): 217–222.
2552:
2545:
2516:
2501:
2475:
2440:
2405:
2356:
2349:
2323:
2304:(4): 300–304.
2288:
2281:
2261:
2234:
2227:
2207:
2164:
2147:Arch Klin Chir
2133:
2126:
2099:
2080:(4): 673–676.
2057:
2026:
2011:
1972:
1924:
1873:
1851:
1836:
1795:
1752:
1733:(1): e28–e37.
1717:
1698:(1): 265–278.
1682:
1647:
1620:(9): 737–747.
1604:
1585:(1): 193–200.
1566:
1557:|journal=
1531:
1505:
1486:(3): 531–543.
1470:
1441:(9): 797–803.
1421:
1402:(6): 559–564.
1386:
1357:(5): A11–A18.
1337:
1302:
1259:
1240:(3): 511–516.
1224:
1181:
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1157:
1138:(6): e81–e92.
1122:
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1023:Levy, Robert.
1015:
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997:|journal=
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763:
760:
676:Jean Talairach
630:Victor Horsley
625:
622:
542:
539:
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419:
417:
414:
413:
412:
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404:
400:
394:
391:
372:vernier scales
331:incisive teeth
262:
261:
258:
255:
243:
240:
196:
193:
167:word στερεός (
138:mammography),
126:. Besides the
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1029:the original
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856:Radiosurgery
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695:Lars Leksell
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562:hyperkinesia
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531:side effects
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523:radiobiology
514:radiotherapy
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208:glioblastoma
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168:
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136:radiographic
117:
115:(SRS), etc.
113:radiosurgery
80:
79:
63:Neurosurgery
3081:Robert Levy
2918:10.3791/880
2376:(1): 9–16.
2153:: 581–620.
1103:: 194–201.
886:Stereotaxis
866:Gamma knife
722:N-localizer
703:Gamma Knife
618:Pallidotomy
611:Thalamotomy
600:Thalamotomy
596:Pallidotomy
585:cordotomies
495:schwannomas
491:meningiomas
456:Gamma Knife
109:stimulation
50:Other names
3260:Categories
1951:(3): E12.
1867:2011-04-24
1318:: A8–A11.
1060:(1): 1–5.
1035:2004-11-20
893:References
861:CyberKnife
750:that uses
732:(MRI), or
487:metastases
460:CyberKnife
347:fontanelle
339:radiograph
212:meningioma
155:word roots
93:coordinate
53:Stereotaxy
21:stereotaxy
2979:205152137
2889:April 20,
2159:0365-3706
1559:ignored (
1549:cite book
980:236256085
716:In 1979,
713:in 1972.
693:In 1949,
634:Cartesian
467:malignant
416:Treatment
376:electrode
343:tomograph
333:. or the
242:Procedure
177:Neo-Latin
59:Specialty
3249:19340813
3089:Archived
3028:19340813
2971:18428449
2936:19078946
2845:58803140
2804:38864553
2760:32670714
2511:58803140
2256:14914373
2202:17777432
1967:19722814
1919:21991248
1831:16899976
1790:28510064
1782:18034185
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1712:11316572
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1211:21962163
1152:22794327
1117:18503356
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838:cannulae
827:Research
589:thalamus
313:usually
236:epilepsy
97:ablation
89:surgical
87:form of
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2174:Science
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2021:3727522
1910:3180671
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1297:7344470
1082:1007105
624:History
570:putamen
479:primary
380:cannula
327:maxilla
323:orbital
189:tassein
169:stereos
160:stereo-
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101:biopsy
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2507:S2CID
2070:(PDF)
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2017:S2CID
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1638:S2CID
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1293:S2CID
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1078:S2CID
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252:atlas
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