188:
can include reducing daily food consumption and selling livestock to compensate for the decreased productivity. These responses often threaten the future of household farms in the following seasons as many farmers will sell draft animals used for labor and will also consume seeds saved for planting. Measuring the full extent of future climate change impacts is difficult to determine as smallholder farms are complex systems with many different interactions. Different locations have different adaptation strategies available to them such as crop and livestock substitutions. Rates of production for cereal crops, such as wheat, oats, and maize have been declining largely due to heat's effects on crop fertility. This has forced many farmers to switch to more
318:. Poor countries are limited in fiscal and institutional resources that would allow them to contain rises in domestic prices as well as to manage social assistance programs, which is often because they are using policy tools that are intended for middle- and high-income countries. Low-income countries tend to have populations in which 80% of poor are in rural areas and more than 90% of rural households have access to land, yet a majority of these rural poor have insufficient access to food. Subsistence agriculture can be used in low-income countries as a part of policy responses to a food crisis in the short and medium term, and provide a safety net for the poor in these countries.
40:
20:
163:
increase in industrialization and decrease in rural agriculture has led to rural unemployment and increased poverty for those in lower caste groups. Those that are able to live and work in urbanized areas are able to increase their income while those that remain in rural areas take large decreases, which is why there was no large decline in poverty. This effectively widens the income gap between lower and higher castes and makes it harder for those in rural areas to move up in caste ranking. This era has marked a time of increased
322:
at reducing poverty in those that have an income of $ 1 per day than those that have an income of $ 2 per day in Africa. People who make less income are more likely to be poorly educated and have fewer opportunities; therefore, they work more labor-intensive jobs, such as agriculture. People who make $ 2 have more opportunities to work in less labor-intensive jobs in non-agricultural fields.
294:
enough for their local consumption, while remaining produce is used for exchange against other goods. It results in much more food being produced per acre compared to other subsistence patterns. In the most intensive situation, farmers may even create terraces along steep hillsides to cultivate rice paddies. Such fields are found in densely populated parts of Asia,
321:
Agriculture is more successful over non-agricultural jobs in combating poverty in countries that have a larger population of people without education or that are unskilled. However, there are levels of poverty to be aware of to target agriculture towards the right audience. Agriculture is better
221:
is restored. After a decade or more, the farmer may return to the first piece of land. This form of agriculture is sustainable at low population densities, but higher population loads require more frequent clearing which prevents soil fertility from recovering, opens up more of the forest canopy, and
212:
In this type of farming, a patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling (chopping down) and burning, and crops are grown. After two–three years the fertility of the soil begins to decline, the land is abandoned and the farmer moves to clear a fresh piece of land elsewhere in the forest
250:
While shifting agriculture's slash-and-burn technique may describe the method for opening new land, commonly the farmers in question have in existence at the same time smaller fields, sometimes merely gardens, near the homestead there they practice intensive "non-shifting" techniques. These farmers
187:
will be more intense in these regions as extreme temperatures are linked to lower crop yields. Farmers have been forced to respond to increased temperatures through things such as increased land and labor inputs which threaten long-term productivity. Coping measures in response to variable climates
162:
Areas where subsistence farming is largely practiced today, such as India and other regions in Asia, have seen a recent decline in the practice. This is due to processes such as urbanization, the transformation of land into rural areas, and integration of capitalist forms of farming. In India, the
293:
In intensive subsistence agriculture, the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. Climate with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils, permits growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot. Farmers use their small land holdings to produce
284:
of the
Himalayas. They carry their belongings, such as tents, etc., on the backs of donkeys, horses, and camels. In mountainous regions, like Tibet and the Andes, yak and llama are reared. Reindeer are the livestock in arctic and sub-arctic areas. Sheep, goats, and camels are common animals, and
192:
crops to maintain levels of productivity. Substitution of crops for heat tolerant alternatives limits the overall diversity of crops grown on smallholder farms. As many farmers farm to meet daily food needs, this can negatively impact nutrition and diet among many families practicing subsistence
115:), unimproved varieties of crops and animals, little or no surplus yield for sale, use of crude/traditional tools (e.g. hoes, machetes, and cutlasses), mainly the production of crops, small scattered plots of land, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), and (generally) low yields.
159:) of land. Around 98% of China's farmers work on small farms, and China accounts for around half of the total world farms. In India, 80% of the total farmers are smallholder farmers; Ethiopia and Asia have almost 90% being small; while Mexico and Brazil recorded 50% and 20% being small.
95:
are typically not necessary for survival and may include sugar, iron roofing-sheets, bicycles, used clothing, and so forth. Many have important trade contacts and trade items that they can produce because of their special skills or special access to resources valued in the marketplace.
263:
In some areas of tropical Africa, at least, such smaller fields may be ones in which crops are grown on raised beds. Thus farmers practicing "slash and burn" agriculture are often much more sophisticated agriculturalists than the term "slash and burn" subsistence farmers suggests.
66:
to meet the needs of themselves and their families. Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements. Planting decisions occur principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, and only secondarily toward
146:
Subsistence farming continues today in large parts of rural Africa, and parts of Asia and Latin
America. In 2015, about 2 billion people (slightly more than 25% of the world's population) in 500 million households living in rural areas of developing nations survive as
255:" techniques to clear additional land and (by the burning) provide fertilizer (ash). Such gardens near the homestead often regularly receive household refuse. The manure of any household chickens or goats are initially thrown into
259:
piles just to get them out of the way. However, such farmers often recognize the value of such compost and apply it regularly to their smaller fields. They also may irrigate part of such fields if they are near a source of water.
90:
to some degree. Although their amount of trade as measured in cash is less than that of consumers in countries with modern complex markets, they use these markets mainly to obtain goods, not to generate income for food; these
415:
Bisht, I. S.; Pandravada, S. R.; Rana, J. C.; Malik, S. K.; Singh, Archna; Singh, P. B.; Ahmed, Firoz; Bansal, K. C. (2014-09-14). "Subsistence
Farming, Agrobiodiversity, and Sustainable Agriculture: A Case Study".
625:
Steffen Abele and Klaus
Frohberg (Eds.). "Subsistence Agriculture in Central and Eastern Europe: How to Break the Vicious Circle?" Studies on the Agricultural and Food Sector in Central and Eastern Europe. IAMO,
1480:
276:, sheep, goats, camels and/or yaks for milk, skin, meat and wool. This way of life is common in parts of central and western Asia, India, east and southwest Africa and northern Eurasia. Examples are the nomadic
134:
and tenant farmers out of the
American South and Midwest during the 1930s and 1940s. In Central and Eastern Europe, semi-subsistence agriculture reappeared within the
685:
About two-thirds of the developing world's 3 billion rural people live in about 475 million small farm households, working on land plots smaller than 2 hectares.
130:
Subsistence agriculture largely disappeared in Europe by the beginning of the twentieth century. It began to decrease in North
America with the movement of
1090:
De
Neergaard, Andreas; Magid, Jakob; Mertz, Ole (2008). "Soil Erosion from Shifting Cultivation and Other Smallholder Land Use in Sarawak, Malaysia".
272:
In this type of farming people migrate along with their animals from one place to another in search of fodder for their animals. Generally they rear
79:, defines "subsistence peasants" as "people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the
1442:
1040:
302:. Intensive subsistence farming is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southwest, and southeast Asia.
990:
295:
762:"Reducing subsistence farmers' vulnerability to climate change: evaluating the potential contributions of agroforestry in western Kenya"
739:
878:"Plant tolerance to high temperature in a changing environment: scientific fundamentals and production of heat stress-tolerant crops"
604:
1013:"Impact of climate change on farms in smallholder farming systems: Yield impacts, economic implications and distributional effects"
1515:
2004:
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after 1990 but declined in significance (or disappeared) in most countries by the accession to the EU in 2004 or 2007.
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2018:
1921:
1906:
670:
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2025:
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2223:
702:"Rural Transformation in India: Deagrarianization and the Transition from a Farming to Non-farming Economy"
123:
Subsistence agriculture was the dominant mode of production in the world until recently, when market-based
2233:
1598:
1508:
2177:
1952:
1486:
Marvin P Miracle (May 1968). "Subsistence
Agriculture: Analytical Problems and Alternative Concepts",
1790:
1774:
332:
519:
Miracle, Marvin P. (1968). "Subsistence
Agriculture: Analytical Problems and Alternative Concepts".
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as the process continues. While the land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and
39:
1481:
Farmer Power: The continuing confrontation between subsistence farmers and development bureaucrats
86:
Despite the self-sufficiency in subsistence farming, most subsistence farmers also participate in
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1256:"Intensive Interventions in Reading for Students with Reading Disabilities: Meaningful Impacts"
357:
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2011:
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1214:
Miggelbrink, Judith; Habeck, Joachim Otto; Mazzullo, Nuccio; Koch, Peter (15 November 2016).
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The persistence of subsistence agriculture : life beneath the level of the marketplace
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Habtemariam, Lemlem
Teklegiorgis; Abate Kassa, Getachew; Gandorfer, Markus (March 2017).
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298:. They may also intensify by using manure, artificial irrigation and animal waste as
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180:
1428:
1413:"The (evolving) role of agriculture in poverty reduction—An empirical perspective"
1365:"Agriculture, structural transformation and poverty reduction: Eight new insights"
103:. Subsistence agriculture generally features: small capital/finance requirements,
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1967:
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1111:
1036:
559:"Climate Change and Agriculture: Subsistence Farmers' Response to Extreme Heat"
252:
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32:
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1962:
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1911:
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1320:(2011-06-01). "Subsistence farming as a safety net for food-price shocks".
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2100:
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819:"The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture"
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encourages scrub at the expense of large trees, eventually resulting in
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1972:
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Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry
540:
299:
124:
112:
108:
24:
1161:
Hymer, Stephen (Spring 2018). "Economic Forms in Pre-Colonial Ghana".
937:"Adaptation of crop production to climate change by crop substitution"
669:. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 9.
624:
557:
AragĂłn, Fernando M.; Oteiza, Francisco; Rud, Juan Pablo (2021-02-01).
2070:
1754:
1719:
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1219:
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Eyshi Rezaei, E.; Gaiser, T.; Siebert, S.; Ewert, F. (October 2015).
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strategy, specifically as a safety net for food-price shocks and for
76:
72:
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532:
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575:
277:
152:
1411:
Christiaensen, Luc; Demery, Lionel; Kuhl, Jesper (November 2011).
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44:
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Nomadic and indigenous spaces : productions and cognitions
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Nomadic and indigenous spaces : productions and cognitions
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273:
55:
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1982:
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1213:
514:
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92:
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59:
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1410:
1089:
941:
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change
760:
Thorlakson, Tannis; Neufeldt, Henry (December 2012).
1467:
The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815–1846
1127:
1362:
759:
1315:
647:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1980.
552:
550:
2215:
288:
1363:Christiaensen, Luc; Martin, Will (2018-09-01).
823:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
657:
655:
653:
556:
196:
170:
547:
183:. Effects on crop production brought about by
1509:
1260:Learning Disabilities Research & Practice
175:Most subsistence agriculture is practiced in
1253:
661:
650:
99:Subsistence farming today is most common in
1488:American Journal of Agricultural Economics,
1254:Vaughn, Sharon; Wanzek, Jeanne (May 2014).
664:"The economic lives of smallholder farmers"
1516:
1502:
875:
563:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
521:American Journal of Agricultural Economics
1436:
1380:
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1182:
968:
911:
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834:
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310:Subsistence agriculture can be used as a
141:
1092:Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment
699:
465:
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418:Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems
38:
18:
518:
201:
2216:
1311:
1309:
1307:
816:
469:
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285:cattle and horses are also important.
2005:Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral
1497:
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1404:
1402:
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1249:
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1123:
1121:
1062:"Community Forestry: Forestry Note 8"
876:Bita, Craita E.; Gerats, Tom (2013).
460:
107:, limited use of agrochemicals (e.g.
1469:. New York: Oxford University Press.
695:
693:
637:
410:
408:
245:
1304:
1154:
13:
1459:
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1244:
1207:
1118:
1083:
1054:
267:
43:Subsistence farmers selling their
14:
2255:
1523:
690:
618:
405:
230:. Shifting cultivation is called
1417:Journal of Development Economics
700:Majumdar, Koustab (2020-04-09).
1445:from the original on 2022-10-18
1072:from the original on 2020-06-01
1043:from the original on 2022-06-16
1004:
993:from the original on 2023-07-30
928:
869:
810:
766:Agriculture & Food Security
742:from the original on 2023-07-30
707:Journal of Developing Societies
676:from the original on 2016-05-04
607:from the original on 2022-07-30
498:from the original on 2023-04-05
151:" farmers, working less than 2
1382:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.027
817:Morton, John F. (2007-12-11).
753:
1:
2026:The Moon and the Sledgehammer
1429:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.10.006
1128:Miggelbrink, Judith. (2016).
662:Rapsomanikis, George (2015).
399:
289:Intensive subsistence farming
167:and the "vanishing village".
1334:10.1080/09614524.2011.561292
1163:Economic History Association
438:10.1080/21683565.2014.901273
197:Types of subsistence farming
171:Adaptation to global warming
7:
1452:– via Science Direct.
325:
16:Farming to meet basic needs
10:
2260:
1476:. Oxford University Press.
1472:Sir Albert Howard (1943).
1112:10.1016/j.agee.2007.12.013
1037:10.1016/j.agsy.2016.12.006
882:Frontiers in Plant Science
296:such as in the Philippines
205:
118:
2063:
1996:
1945:
1839:
1783:
1775:Twelve Tribes communities
1682:
1531:
1474:An Agricultural Testament
1175:10.1017/S0022050700078578
970:10.1007/s11027-013-9528-1
961:10.1007/s11027-013-9528-1
333:Back-to-the-land movement
1465:Charles Sellers (1991).
720:10.1177/0169796x20912631
1765:Testimony of simplicity
1683:Religious and spiritual
1644:Subsistence agriculture
1639:Slow movement (culture)
1322:Development in Practice
895:10.3389/fpls.2013.00273
836:10.1073/pnas.0701855104
71:prices. Tony Waters, a
52:Subsistence agriculture
31:field on the slopes of
2239:Agricultural economics
2096:Appropriate technology
1654:Sustainable sanitation
1599:Low-impact development
787:10.1186/2048-7010-1-15
358:Industrial agriculture
343:Commercial agriculture
142:Contemporary practices
48:
36:
27:farmer working on his
2012:Escape from Affluenza
1589:Intentional community
1479:Tony Waters (2010). "
470:Waters, Tony (2008).
383:Allotment (gardening)
348:Extensive agriculture
242:in North East India.
42:
22:
2229:Tropical agriculture
2136:Front Porch Republic
2126:Ecological footprint
1946:Modern-day adherents
1017:Agricultural Systems
585:10.1257/pol.20190316
208:Shifting cultivation
202:Shifting agriculture
177:developing countries
101:developing countries
2224:Agriculture by type
2203:Work–life interface
2086:Anarcho-primitivism
1927:Henry David Thoreau
1811:Open Source Ecology
1318:Sadoulet, Elisabeth
1104:2008AgEE..125..182D
1029:2017AgSys.152...58H
953:2015MASGC..20.1155E
829:(50): 19680–19685.
778:2012AgFS....1...15T
476:. Lexington Books.
430:2014AgSFS..38..890B
373:Subsistence fishing
368:Subsistence economy
312:poverty alleviation
306:Poverty alleviation
127:became widespread.
2234:Agricultural labor
2161:Intentional living
2047:Small Is Beautiful
1922:George Skene Keith
1770:Tolstoyan movement
1669:War tax resistance
1649:Sustainable living
1316:de Janvry, Alain;
1272:10.1111/ldrp.12031
631:2011-07-19 at the
136:transition economy
49:
37:
2211:
2210:
2171:Rainbow Gathering
2040:The Power of Half
2033:Mother Earth News
1852:Ernest Callenbach
1784:Secular movements
1490:pp. 292–310.
1369:World Development
1229:978-1-138-26721-3
1139:978-1-315-59843-7
483:978-0-7391-5876-0
378:Urban agriculture
363:Opium replacement
251:pair this with "
246:Sedentary farming
238:in Indonesia and
181:tropical climates
2251:
2111:Critique of work
2091:Anti-consumerism
1958:Robin Greenfield
1917:E. F. Schumacher
1857:G. K. Chesterton
1791:Back-to-the-land
1629:Self-sufficiency
1569:Forest gardening
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1328:(4–5): 472–480.
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947:(7): 1155–1174.
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2141:Green anarchism
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1840:Notable writers
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1831:Transition town
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1735:New Monasticism
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1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1882:Harlan Hubbard
1879:
1877:Tom Hodgkinson
1874:
1869:
1867:Mahatma Gandhi
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1836:
1834:
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1828:
1823:
1818:
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1762:
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1722:
1717:
1715:Jesus movement
1712:
1707:
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1686:
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1594:Local currency
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1506:
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1423:(2): 239–254.
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1228:
1206:
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1138:
1117:
1082:
1053:
1003:
927:
868:
809:
752:
714:(2): 182–205.
689:
649:
636:
617:
546:
527:(2): 292–310.
508:
482:
459:
424:(8): 890–912.
403:
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269:
266:
253:slash and burn
247:
244:
215:soil fertility
206:Main article:
203:
200:
198:
195:
185:climate change
172:
169:
143:
140:
120:
117:
105:mixed cropping
33:Mount Cameroon
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2245:
2244:Simple living
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2222:
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2204:
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2169:
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2146:The good life
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2020:
2019:The Good Life
2016:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1984:
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1978:Peace Pilgrim
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1963:Ted Kaczynski
1961:
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1912:Dugald Semple
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1902:Peace Pilgrim
1900:
1898:
1897:Scott Nearing
1895:
1893:
1892:Helen Nearing
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1883:
1880:
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1872:Richard Gregg
1870:
1868:
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1847:Wendell Berry
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1801:Environmental
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1664:Vegetarianism
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1525:Simple living
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1141:
1135:
1132:. Routledge.
1131:
1124:
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1101:
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1071:
1067:
1063:
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713:
709:
708:
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694:
686:
672:
665:
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643:Goran Hyden.
640:
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317:
316:food security
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286:
283:
279:
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261:
258:
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243:
241:
237:
233:
229:
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224:deforestation
220:
216:
209:
194:
193:agriculture.
191:
190:heat tolerant
186:
182:
178:
168:
166:
160:
158:
154:
150:
139:
137:
133:
132:sharecroppers
128:
126:
116:
114:
110:
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102:
97:
94:
89:
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
65:
64:smallholdings
61:
57:
53:
46:
41:
34:
30:
26:
21:
2156:Hedonophobia
2116:Deep ecology
2052:
2045:
2038:
2031:
2024:
2017:
2010:
1887:Satish Kumar
1745:Plain people
1710:Distributism
1643:
1624:Sattvic diet
1614:Permaculture
1609:Off-the-grid
1584:Gift economy
1554:Downshifting
1544:Cord-cutting
1487:
1466:
1447:. Retrieved
1420:
1416:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1325:
1321:
1266:(2): 46–53.
1263:
1259:
1215:
1209:
1184:10419/160011
1169:(1): 33–50.
1166:
1162:
1156:
1129:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1074:. Retrieved
1065:
1056:
1045:. Retrieved
1020:
1016:
1006:
995:. Retrieved
944:
940:
930:
885:
881:
871:
826:
822:
812:
769:
765:
755:
744:. Retrieved
711:
705:
684:
678:. Retrieved
644:
639:
620:
609:. Retrieved
566:
562:
524:
520:
500:. Retrieved
472:
421:
417:
393:Smallholding
388:Permaculture
320:
309:
292:
271:
262:
249:
239:
235:
231:
228:soil erosion
211:
174:
161:
145:
129:
122:
98:
85:
54:occurs when
51:
50:
2188:Nonviolence
2106:Consumerism
2101:Bohemianism
2076:Agrarianism
1932:Leo Tolstoy
1862:Duane Elgin
1821:Small house
1740:Plain dress
1730:Monasticism
1725:Mindfulness
1634:Slow living
1438:10419/54152
1375:: 413–416.
1098:(42): 182.
1066:www.fao.org
569:(1): 1–35.
353:Hoe-farming
179:located in
149:smallholder
81:marketplace
2218:Categories
2131:Food miles
2081:Amateurism
1973:Jim Merkel
1953:Mark Boyle
1907:Nick Rosen
1826:Tiny house
1760:Temperance
1705:Detachment
1700:Asceticism
1695:Aparigraha
1574:Freeganism
1559:Dry toilet
1449:2022-12-17
1238:1010537015
1076:2020-05-30
1047:2022-04-10
997:2022-04-10
746:2022-02-14
680:2018-01-11
611:2022-04-10
576:1902.09204
502:2023-03-19
400:References
300:fertilizer
234:in India,
125:capitalism
113:fertilizer
109:pesticides
2178:Itinerant
2071:Affluenza
1755:Rastafari
1720:Mendicant
1604:No frills
1579:Frugality
1549:DIY ethic
1532:Practices
1391:0305-750X
1342:0961-4524
1280:0938-8982
1220:Routledge
1201:154689928
1148:953047010
1023:: 58–66.
987:154474937
979:1381-2386
904:1664-462X
845:0027-8424
796:2048-7010
772:(1): 15.
736:216333815
728:0169-796X
593:1945-7731
492:839303290
454:154197444
446:2168-3565
338:Cash crop
77:sociology
73:professor
2193:Peak oil
2121:Degrowth
1937:Valluvar
1796:Car-free
1659:Veganism
1443:Archived
1350:13891983
1298:24910504
1070:Archived
1041:Archived
991:Archived
922:23914193
863:18077400
804:16321096
740:Archived
671:Archived
629:Archived
605:Archived
601:85529687
496:Archived
326:See also
278:Bhotiyas
240:jhumming
153:hectares
2166:commune
2064:Related
1750:Quakers
1564:Fasting
1289:4043370
1193:2116722
1100:Bibcode
1025:Bibcode
949:Bibcode
913:3728475
888:: 273.
854:2148357
774:Bibcode
541:1237543
426:Bibcode
282:Gujjars
257:compost
219:biomass
119:History
56:farmers
45:produce
25:Bakweri
2054:Walden
1988:Thomas
1806:Hippie
1619:Regift
1539:Barter
1389:
1348:
1340:
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1286:
1278:
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1199:
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910:
902:
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843:
802:
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734:
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591:
539:
490:
480:
452:
444:
274:cattle
236:ladang
69:market
47:, 2017
35:, 2005
1997:Media
1983:Suelo
1690:Amish
1674:WWOOF
1346:S2CID
1197:S2CID
1189:JSTOR
983:S2CID
800:S2CID
732:S2CID
674:(PDF)
667:(PDF)
626:2003.
597:S2CID
571:arXiv
537:JSTOR
450:S2CID
232:dredd
157:acres
93:goods
88:trade
60:crops
58:grow
1816:Slow
1387:ISSN
1338:ISSN
1294:PMID
1276:ISSN
1234:OCLC
1224:ISBN
1144:OCLC
1134:ISBN
975:ISSN
918:PMID
900:ISSN
859:PMID
841:ISSN
792:ISSN
724:ISSN
589:ISSN
488:OCLC
478:ISBN
442:ISSN
280:and
226:and
217:and
111:and
29:taro
1433:hdl
1425:doi
1377:doi
1373:109
1330:doi
1284:PMC
1268:doi
1179:hdl
1171:doi
1108:doi
1033:doi
1021:152
965:hdl
957:doi
908:PMC
890:doi
849:PMC
831:doi
827:104
782:doi
716:doi
581:doi
529:doi
434:doi
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