128:, the relationship between labor, profits, and ecological consequences, in the Caribbean. Imperial powers forcefully displaced west African peoples to cultivate sugar using slave labor. By exploiting labor and the natural world, imperial conflicts arose in the Caribbean vying for political and economic control. For example, conflicts among the English, Spanish, French, Dutch, and various indigenous peoples manifested for territorial gain; regarding the region's political ecology, these European states exploited the environment's resources to such an extent that sugar production began to stagnate. Due to the loss of trees, needed for timber in the sugar refinement process, European imperial powers began competing and fighting over the Caribbean during the middle 17th century. This process would not have been possible without the invention of windmills to produce sugar more efficiently.
49:
34:
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447:, prohibiting the trade of slaves in the British Empire. This act extended to the Caribbean plantations under British control. Without the labor influx of slaves through the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, the system became harder to maintain. Years later, in 1838, more than half a million people in the Caribbean were emancipated from slavery as a result of the 1833 Emancipation Bill.
230:
had spread to the New World and had been improved to aid the sugar plantations in other ways, bringing their expert knowledge of technologies in cultivating rum from the sugar cane and working as merchants, supplying them with
African slaves to work the plantations, helping to make Barbados the sugar
131:
Following
European settlers’ entry into the Caribbean world, massive demographic changes occurred. Indigenous populations began dying at unprecedented rates due to the influx of old world diseases brought by colonists. Estimates of these population losses vary from 8.4 million to 112.5 million. This
234:
During the colonial period, the arrival of sugar culture deeply impacted the society and economy in the
Caribbean. It not only dramatically increased the ratio of slaves to free men, but it increased the average size of slave plantations. Early sugar plantations made extensive use of slaves because
104:
The
Portuguese introduced sugar plantations in the 1550s off the coast of their Brazilian settlement colony, located on the island Sao Vincente. As the Portuguese and Spanish maintained a strong colonial presence in the Caribbean, the Iberian Peninsula amassed tremendous wealth from the cultivation
435:
Sugarcane harvesting during the time of colonization in the
Caribbean was a labor-intensive process. Firstly, it was harvested by hand, and the sucrose inside needed to be harvested quickly to not be spoiled. To extract the juice, it must be chopped, ground, pressed, pounded, or soaked in liquid
455:
Slavery on
Plantations in the Caribbean involved a series of interconnected relationships and power dynamics between the enslaved and the more elite population on the island. Women were integral in the social dynamic of the plantations and in the labor itself. "There was a gendering of health,
427:
The
Europeans forced the indigenous peoples of various Caribbean islands to provide the physical labor necessary for the production of sugarcane. The indigenous populations of the Caribbean were decimated by illness after initial colonization and were left with few numbers. In order to continue
190:
was in operation and the Dutch
Calvinists were generally more tolerant of Jews, they were happy to side with them over the Catholic Portuguese and remained in the area operating their substantial sugar-orientated slave plantations, now under Dutch sovereignty. They even founded the first public
120:
were also grown. Sugar cane was best grown on relatively flat land near coastal waters, where the soil was naturally yellow and fertile; mountainous parts of the islands were less likely to be used for cane cultivation. The coastal placement of commercial ports gave imperial states a geographic
499:
and
Spanish colonization began to establish itself. By the late 16th century, demand and production for sugar, one of the central exports of the island, had increased. Much of the indigenous population suffered from disease and famine, and many pre-colonial smaller-scale farms were replaced by
514:
Although these nations have taken measures to mitigate the impacts of the sugar revolution, in some there are still traces of what the environmental historian of the
Caribbean and Latin America, Reinaldo Funes Monzote, describes as a "serious deterioration" of the natural environment, with
475:
The sugar cane industry had an adverse impact on the environment as this industry grew in Caribbean countries. These included the destruction of forests, water pollution, and loss of fertility and erosion of soils. These problems were seen on various different scales in the
456:
wealth and energy on sugar plantations. The majority of field slaves were women and the majority of women worked in the field.”. Women were heavily involved in the labor of the plantations and were also having children and going to work in the fields at the same time. The
345:
According to a 2021 study, "historical property rights institutions created high transaction costs for converting land to cane production", relative to the other Caribbean countries. As a result, Haiti lost its place as the leading sugar producer in the world.
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of this cash crop. Other imperial states observed the economic boom catalyzed by the plantation system and began colonizing the remaining American territories, hoping to capitalize on the lucrative cultivation and trade of natural resources.
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before it is heated. Once heated, the liquids evaporate until only the crystals remain. Each step is labor-intensive and requires technical knowledge and skill. These tasks were performed by enslaved individuals until emancipation.
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capital of the Caribbean and the rum capital of the world. By 1706, the laws against Jews owning sugar plantations in Barbados were dropped, by which time Jewish involvement in rum production was reduced to a nominal status.
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After slavery, sugar plantations used a variety of forms of labour including workers imported from colonial India and Southern China working as indentured servants on European owned plantations (
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remained the richest of all the European colonies in the Caribbean region. The colony's prosperity remained regionally unmatched until sugar cane production expanded in larger colonies, such as
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which may point towards greater levels of interpersonal abuse or even domestic violence for women". The brutality towards enslaved women is reflected in the archaeological evidence on the
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after they took over) and this territory included some sugar plantations worked by African slaves who had been brought to the territory earlier. Some of the slave plantation owners were
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had increased to about 60 slaves. Over the decades, the sugar plantations began expanding as the transatlantic trade continued to prosper. In 1832, the median-size plantation in
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from India, China, Portugal and other places were brought to the Caribbean to work in the sugar industry. These plantations produced 80 to 90 percent of the sugar consumed in
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who had interests in Barbados, visited Dutch Brazil in 1640 and purchased a triple-roller sugar mill and a set of copper cauldrons (used for turning sugar cane into
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in particular, the island was nearly deforested during the mid-1600s and much of the topsoil quality deteriorated as a result of a large influx of plantations.
1144:
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1002:"The 'Better Sort' and the 'Poorer Sort': Wealth Inequalities, Family Formation and the Economy of Energy on British Caribbean Sugar Plantations, 1750–1800"
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extreme diminishment of native populations cleared room for plantation construction and lessened the conflicts between Europeans and indigenous peoples.
1039:
Hooghiemstra, Henry; Olijhoek, Thomas; Hoogland, Menno; Prins, Maarten; van Geel, Bas; Donders, Timme; Gosling, William; Hofman, Corinne (2018-08-18).
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During the 17th century in the Lesser Antilles, many of the islands in the Lesser Antilles suffered ecological losses after the introduction of
3787:
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3547:
1583:
Watts, Sheldon J (April 2001). "Yellow Fever Immunities in West Africa and the Americas in the Age of Slavery and Beyond: A Reappraisal".
1553:. Manoa: Asian Interactions and Comparisons, a joint publication of the University of Hawaii Press and the Association for Asian Studies.
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larger-scale farms. These farms required more land and moist soil close to water sources, resulting in deforestation and water pollution.
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were imported and made to work on the plantations. For example, prior to 1650 more than three-quarters of the islands' population were of
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The impacts concerning irrigation and pollution of water runoff are seen as the most profound issues in sugar cane cultivation.
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and West Indies shared profits and needs. This organization was the first sugar-trading organization which had a large voice in
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had about 150 slaves, and nearly one of every four bondsmen lived on units that had at least 250 slaves. For about 100 years,
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1106:"Sugar Mills, Technology, and Environmental Change: A Case Study of Colonial Agro-Industrial Development in the Caribbean"
48:
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2389:
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663:
Draper, Mary (2017-11-01). "Timbering and Turtling: The Maritime Hinterlands of Early Modern British Caribbean Cities".
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1041:"Columbus' environmental impact in the New World: Land use change in the Yaque River valley, Dominican Republic"
3728:
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805:
1167:"Sugar and the Environment - Encouraging Better Management Practices in Sugar Production and Processing | WWF"
747:
419:). In the 20th century, large-scale sugar production using wage labour continued in many parts of the region.
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2163:
613:"The Sugar Trade in the West Indies and Brazil Between 1492 and 1700 the · University of Minnesota Libraries"
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became the most substantial sugar plantation colony in the Caribbean, outperforming the British islands.
309:(Haiti) became the world's main sugar producers. They increased production in Saint Domingue by using an
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would cause a shift which would have knock-on effects for the further growth of the sugar trade in the
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1510:
Samuel, VT (February 2011). "Fructose induced lipogenesis: from sugar to fat to insulin resistance".
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was formed in the 1740s, when the British merchants joined with the West Indian sugar planters. The
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in cultivation; it was most efficiently grown on large plantations with many workers. People from
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38:
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1960:
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and Jamaica. As part of the mass sugar industry, sugar cane processing gave rise to related
63:
were a major part of the economy of the islands in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Most
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2015:
1930:
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owners. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, the sugar cane industry came to dominate
226:, i.e. sugar cane juice used in rum production). This technology, although originating in
8:
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was beginning to challenge the interest of the Catholic powers in the region such as the
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Sugar was the most important crop throughout the Caribbean, although other crops such as
1641:
Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion
1415:
1402:
Marshall, RO; Kooi, ER (April 1957). "Enzymatic conversion of D-glucose to D-fructose".
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production for the crop, Europeans introduced African slaves to the island through the
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After the end of slavery in Saint Domingue at the turn of the 19th century, with the
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Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400
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337:. In addition, they improved their mills and used varieties of cane and grasses.
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1975:
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1145:"El Caribe comparte los impactos causados por industrias azucarera y ganadera"
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2005:
1991:
1965:
1940:
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1823:
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732:“The Demographic Collapse of Native Peoples of the Americas, 1492-1650.”
538:
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405:
373:
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975:
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Although the sugar trade in the Americas was initially dominated by the
71:
fields and mills for refining the crop. The main source of labor, until
2633:
2618:
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2110:
2105:
1955:
1900:
1833:
1828:
1813:
1788:
944:"New Perspectives on Slavery and Emancipation in the British Caribbean"
928:
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440:
361:
310:
219:
165:
88:
2188:
640:
Molly A. Warsh. “A Political Ecology in the Early Spanish Caribbean.”
19:
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1997:
1935:
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736:, by Linda A Newson, vol. 81, The British Academy, 1993, pp. 247–288.
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68:
64:
1253:
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
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2010:
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in the 18th century; and Cuba and Puerto Rico in the 19th century.
377:
280:
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252:
223:
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42:
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2080:
2030:
1970:
1945:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1728:
1038:
369:
365:
302:
256:
211:
53:
27:
432:. The time at which this happened varies from island to island.
408:'s economy, both under the colonial rule of Spain and under the
3305:
2655:
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2060:
1733:
581:
Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slave-ownership
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227:
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advantage to ship the crop throughout the transatlantic world.
113:
109:
460:
showed the evidence of this brutality towards enslaved women,
186:
who had been forced to convert to the Catholic Church. As the
2100:
2035:
1925:
1850:
1689:
826:"Small Farms, Large Transaction Costs: Haiti's Missing Sugar"
648:, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.71.4.0517.
508:
485:
401:
334:
326:
897:"Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History"
791:"Half-Truths and History: The Debate over Jews and Slavery"
389:
354:
135:
117:
2168:
1446:
Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History
422:
272:
153:
99:
1574:. Illinois: Southern Illinois University. Archived from
1142:
1110:
IA. The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology
748:"The role of sugar cane in Brazil's history and economy"
806:"How Jewish Immigrants Spurred the Barbadian Rum Trade"
2797:
1338:"High dietary fructose intake: Sweet or bitter life?"
593:
392:, as well as many other islands that had been run by
251:
descent. In 1680, the median size of a plantation in
1468:
The Sugar Barons: Family, Corruption, Empire and War
895:
Roxborough, Ian; Mintz, Sidney W. (September 1986).
867:"The Greater Caribbean: From Plantations to Tourism"
745:
1276:
The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean
576:
London Society of West India Planters and Merchants
210:, taking control of a number of islands, including
1443:
1384:The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture
1228:
3849:
1319:A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World
894:
788:
507:for sugar plantations. On the Caribbean island
198:Further north in the Caribbean, the Protestant
1143:Gerardo E. Alvarado LeĂłn (September 2, 2018).
3189:
2783:
1674:
864:
191:synagogue in the Americas there in 1636; the
3117:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
1401:
1292:
728:
726:
658:
656:
654:
16:Mainly in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries
2495:Slavery in the British and French Caribbean
1688:
1235:. London and New York: Duckworth Overlook.
773:
550:Slavery in the British and French Caribbean
3196:
3182:
2790:
2776:
1681:
1667:
1624:. Oakville, CT: David Brown Book Company.
1380:
1198:Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam
746:Plinio Mario Nastari (10 September 2019).
545:Sugar production in the Danish West Indies
317:engineers built. The engineers also built
52:Sugar plantation in the British colony of
3609:Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act
1363:
1353:
1316:
1256:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
1103:
1080:
841:
723:
651:
3573:Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
1270:
803:
136:Move from South America to the Caribbean
47:
32:
18:
1485:
1335:
999:
823:
599:
470:
3850:
3203:
1619:
1567:
1509:
1464:
1226:
941:
662:
423:Slavery on Caribbean sugar plantations
100:Sugar cane development in the Americas
3649:Eastern Caribbean Securities Exchange
3177:
2771:
1662:
1582:
1438:
1136:
995:
993:
819:
817:
815:
789:Washington Post (10 September 2019).
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
759:
757:
644:, vol. 71, no. 4, 2014, pp. 517–548.
360:In the 19th century, sugar dominated
87:, later supplanted by European-grown
3749:Central American and Caribbean Games
1638:
1249:
1194:
3255:Baltic-German Caribbean (1654-1689)
1546:
152:and particularly the production of
13:
3858:Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
990:
812:
776:"The Secret Jewish History Of Rum"
754:
734:Proceedings of the British Academy
94:
79:. After the abolition of slavery,
61:Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
14:
3889:
3868:Economic history of the Caribbean
2798:Sugar plantations in the Americas
2604:Australian Aboriginal sweet foods
1700:List of sugars and sugar products
1302:. Durham: Duke University Press.
774:Forward.com (10 September 2019).
557:- Valley of the Sugar Mills, Cuba
495:arrived on the northern coast of
484:in the 17th century; Jamaica and
450:
2993:
2960:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
2752:
2751:
2742:
2741:
1492:World History: A New Perspective
865:Funes Monzote, Reinaldo (2013).
3558:Association of Caribbean States
3417:Latin America and the Caribbean
1495:. London: Chatto & Windus.
1387:. Princeton: University Press.
1187:
1159:
1097:
1032:
935:
888:
858:
830:The Journal of Economic History
797:
711:Music Unites Jamaica Foundation
340:
1000:Roberts, Justin (2014-07-03).
804:VinePair (10 September 2019).
782:
739:
699:
642:The William and Mary Quarterly
634:
605:
1:
3270:Swedish Caribbean (1784–1878)
3245:British Caribbean (1586–1834)
3229:Spanish Caribbean (1492–1898)
586:
515:socio-economic consequences.
160:). In 1630, the Dutch seized
3863:Agriculture in the Caribbean
3619:Central banks and currencies
3265:German Caribbean (1685-1693)
3260:Danish Caribbean (1672–1917)
3250:French Caribbean (1625–1817)
1571:Sugar Cane: Past and Present
1424:10.1126/science.125.3249.648
1317:Bernstein, William (2009) .
1231:Sugar: A Bittersweet History
1018:10.1080/0144039X.2014.944032
530:, a mill used for sugar cane
218:. One of these men, Colonel
7:
3240:Dutch Caribbean (1554–1863)
1250:Adas, Michael, ed. (2001).
1227:Abbott, Elizabeth (2009) .
566:Coffee production in Brazil
521:
10:
3894:
3614:Caribbean Development Bank
3291:Caribbean Court of Justice
2490:Reciprocity Treaty of 1875
2470:Demerara rebellion of 1823
2450:1811 German Coast uprising
2056:Non-centrifugal cane sugar
1321:. London: Atlantic Books.
1147:(in Spanish). El Nuevo DĂa
458:Newton Slave Burial Ground
430:Trans-Atlantic slave trade
193:Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue
3816:
3778:
3769:
3694:
3685:
3666:in the Danish West Indies
3594:
3585:
3543:
3534:
3435:
3355:
3351:
3342:
3278:
3221:
3212:
3135:
3102:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
3002:
2991:
2803:
2737:
2706:
2596:
2528:
2440:
2410:
2278:
2215:
2206:
2146:
1984:
1849:
1842:
1781:
1706:
1697:
1585:Journal of Social History
1524:10.1016/j.tem.2010.10.003
1381:Kieschnick, John (2003).
1104:Meniketti, Marco (2006).
960:10.1017/S0018246X11000264
942:PETLEY, CHRISTER (2011).
843:10.1017/S0022050721000139
480:in the 16th century; the
3122:Turks and Caicos Islands
1916:High-fructose corn syrup
1620:Wilson, C Anne (2011) .
1465:Parker, Matthew (2011).
1336:Collino, M (June 2011).
1195:Sato, Tsugitaka (2014).
1065:10.1177/0959683618788732
75:of chattel slavery, was
26:sugar plantation house,
3412:Caribbean South America
2465:Colonial molasses trade
1921:High-maltose corn syrup
1639:Wood, Peter H (1996) .
1512:Trends Endocrinol Metab
1006:Slavery & Abolition
824:Palsson, Craig (2021).
534:Colonial molasses trade
235:sugar was considered a
182:, i.e. "New Christian"
172:(the Dutch called this
124:Sugar created a unique
3553:Afro-Caribbean leftism
3427:Western Caribbean zone
3037:British Virgin Islands
2725:Pure, White and Deadly
2505:Sugar Duties Acts 1846
2411:By region (historical)
1568:Sharpe, Peter (1998).
1471:. London: Hutchinson.
1278:. London: Allen Lane.
948:The Historical Journal
665:Early American Studies
188:Portuguese Inquisition
57:
45:
30:
3513:Dependent territories
3330:Territorial evolution
2950:Saint Kitts and Nevis
2515:Taiwan Sugar Railways
2455:Amelioration Act 1798
1622:The Book of Marmalade
1597:10.1353/jsh.2001.0071
1440:Mintz, Sidney Wilfred
1294:Benitez-Rojo, Antonio
1201:. BRILL. p. 30.
874:Rachel Carlson Center
677:10.1353/eam.2017.0028
555:Valle de los Ingenios
466:Newton Burial Ground.
51:
37:Warrens Great House,
36:
22:
3518:World Heritage Sites
2194:Unrefined sweeteners
2016:Crystalline fructose
1931:Inverted sugar syrup
1643:. New York: Norton.
1547:Sen, Tansen (2003).
1355:10.4239/wjd.v2.i6.77
1299:The Repeating Island
493:Christopher Columbus
471:Environmental impact
146:Dutch–Portuguese War
3761:Television stations
3563:Caribbean Community
3127:U.S. Virgin Islands
2970:Trinidad and Tobago
2815:Antigua and Barbuda
2279:By region (current)
2179:Sugar confectionery
1450:. London: Penguin.
1416:1957Sci...125..648M
1057:2018Holoc..28.1818H
571:West India Interest
288:West India Interest
81:indentured laborers
3478:Metropolitan areas
3422:Southern Caribbean
3397:Caribbean Lowlands
3318:Influx of diseases
2880:Dominican Republic
2683:Sweetened beverage
2510:Sugar Intervention
2418:Danish West Indies
2400:U.S. Sugar Program
2159:Cotton candy floss
2066:Plantation Reserve
1961:Steen's cane syrup
884:– via JSTOR.
561:Amazon rubber boom
478:Dominican Republic
351:Haitian Revolution
241:economies of scale
200:Kingdom of England
67:were covered with
58:
46:
31:
3873:Sugar plantations
3845:
3844:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3681:
3680:
3581:
3580:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3338:
3337:
3296:Indigenous people
3171:
3170:
2765:
2764:
2614:Blood sugar level
2480:Leith Sugar House
2436:
2435:
2395:Sugar Association
2202:
2201:
2164:Maple sugar foods
1869:Barley malt syrup
1692:as food commodity
1650:978-0-393-31482-3
1631:978-1-903018-77-4
1478:978-0-09-192583-3
1457:978-0-14-009233-2
1285:978-0-7139-9934-1
1263:978-1-56639-832-9
1242:978-0-7156-3878-1
1051:(11): 1818–1835.
208:Kingdom of France
168:in what is today
142:Portuguese Empire
126:political ecology
77:enslaved Africans
65:Caribbean islands
3885:
3825:
3776:
3775:
3709:Caribbean people
3692:
3691:
3592:
3591:
3541:
3540:
3508:Sovereign states
3488:Populated places
3388:Windward Islands
3383:Leeward Antilles
3368:Greater Antilles
3353:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3219:
3218:
3198:
3191:
3184:
3175:
3174:
3092:Saint Barthélemy
3052:Falkland Islands
2997:
2792:
2785:
2778:
2769:
2768:
2755:
2754:
2745:
2744:
2678:Sugar substitute
2520:Triangular trade
2213:
2212:
1874:Brown rice syrup
1847:
1846:
1683:
1676:
1669:
1660:
1659:
1654:
1635:
1616:
1579:
1564:
1543:
1506:
1482:
1461:
1449:
1435:
1398:
1377:
1367:
1357:
1342:World J Diabetes
1332:
1313:
1289:
1267:
1246:
1234:
1223:
1221:
1220:
1211:. Archived from
1181:
1180:
1178:
1177:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1084:
1036:
1030:
1029:
997:
988:
987:
939:
933:
932:
892:
886:
885:
871:
862:
856:
855:
845:
821:
810:
809:
801:
795:
794:
786:
780:
779:
771:
752:
751:
743:
737:
730:
721:
720:
718:
717:
707:"Samuel Felsted"
703:
697:
696:
660:
649:
638:
632:
631:
629:
628:
619:. Archived from
609:
603:
597:
158:sugar cane juice
3893:
3892:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3828:
3821:
3804:
3765:
3677:
3644:Stock exchanges
3577:
3522:
3431:
3402:Caribbean Plate
3378:Leeward Islands
3373:Lesser Antilles
3334:
3274:
3208:
3202:
3172:
3167:
3145:Central America
3131:
3006:
2998:
2989:
2806:
2799:
2796:
2766:
2761:
2733:
2702:
2661:Sugar addiction
2592:
2583:Sugar sculpture
2524:
2432:
2406:
2383:Tate & Lyle
2374:United Kingdom
2291:Bundaberg Sugar
2274:
2270:Sugar marketing
2198:
2184:Sugarcane juice
2142:
1980:
1838:
1777:
1702:
1693:
1687:
1657:
1651:
1632:
1561:
1503:
1479:
1458:
1410:(3249): 648–9.
1395:
1329:
1310:
1286:
1272:Abulafia, David
1264:
1243:
1218:
1216:
1209:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1175:
1173:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1150:
1148:
1141:
1137:
1102:
1098:
1037:
1033:
998:
991:
940:
936:
913:10.2307/2803144
893:
889:
869:
863:
859:
822:
813:
802:
798:
787:
783:
772:
755:
744:
740:
731:
724:
715:
713:
705:
704:
700:
661:
652:
639:
635:
626:
624:
617:www.lib.umn.edu
611:
610:
606:
598:
594:
589:
524:
482:Lesser Antilles
473:
453:
445:Slave Trade Act
425:
382:Leeward Islands
343:
239:that exhibited
138:
102:
97:
95:The sugar trade
17:
12:
11:
5:
3891:
3881:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3839:
3834:
3827:
3826:
3818:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3741:
3739:Radio stations
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3695:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3544:
3538:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3455:
3453:Extreme points
3450:
3445:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3370:
3359:
3357:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3315:
3310:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3293:
3288:
3286:Afro-Caribbean
3282:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3231:
3225:
3223:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3207: articles
3201:
3200:
3193:
3186:
3178:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3136:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3107:Sint Eustatius
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3042:Cayman Islands
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3013:
3011:
3000:
2999:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2811:
2809:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2794:
2787:
2780:
2772:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2749:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2716:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2671:Residual sugar
2666:Sugars in wine
2663:
2658:
2653:
2651:Health effects
2648:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2626:
2624:Flavored syrup
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2590:
2588:Treacle mining
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2358:Tongaat Hulett
2355:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2250:Sugarcane mill
2247:
2242:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2041:Molasses sugar
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1859:List of syrups
1855:
1853:
1844:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1773:Reducing sugar
1770:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1714:Monosaccharide
1710:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1671:
1663:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1636:
1630:
1617:
1591:(4): 955–967.
1580:
1578:on 2008-05-18.
1565:
1559:
1544:
1507:
1501:
1487:Ponting, Clive
1483:
1477:
1462:
1456:
1436:
1399:
1393:
1378:
1333:
1327:
1314:
1308:
1290:
1284:
1268:
1262:
1247:
1241:
1224:
1207:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1158:
1135:
1096:
1031:
1012:(3): 458–473.
989:
954:(3): 855–880.
934:
887:
857:
836:(2): 513–548.
811:
796:
781:
753:
738:
722:
698:
671:(4): 769–800.
650:
633:
604:
602:, p. 510.
591:
590:
588:
585:
584:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
552:
547:
542:
536:
531:
523:
520:
472:
469:
452:
451:Enslaved women
449:
424:
421:
386:Saint Domingue
342:
339:
323:diversion dams
307:Saint Domingue
301:In the 1740s,
265:Saint-Domingue
204:Spanish Empire
184:Sephardic Jews
137:
134:
101:
98:
96:
93:
85:Western Europe
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3890:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3789:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3768:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3650:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3533:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3407:Caribbean Sea
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3206:
3199:
3194:
3192:
3187:
3185:
3180:
3179:
3176:
3164:
3163:
3162:South America
3159:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3140:North America
3138:
3137:
3134:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:French Guiana
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2975:United States
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2802:
2793:
2788:
2786:
2781:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2758:
2750:
2748:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2714:Robert Lustig
2712:
2711:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
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2390:United States
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2378:British Sugar
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2177:
2175:
2174:Sugar alcohol
2172:
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2167:
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1909:
1907:
1906:Glucose syrup
1904:
1902:
1899:
1895:
1892:
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1885:
1884:Maesil-cheong
1882:
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1560:0-8248-2593-4
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1502:0-7011-6834-X
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1394:0-691-09676-7
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1330:
1328:9781843548034
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1320:
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1309:0-8223-1865-2
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1255:
1254:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1225:
1215:on 2018-03-05
1214:
1210:
1208:9789004277526
1204:
1200:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1172:
1171:wwf.panda.org
1168:
1162:
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678:
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670:
666:
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623:on 2016-08-21
622:
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410:United States
407:
403:
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371:
367:
363:
358:
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196:
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159:
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143:
133:
129:
127:
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119:
115:
111:
106:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
73:the abolition
70:
66:
62:
55:
50:
44:
40:
35:
29:
25:
21:
3788:Pre-Arawakan
3771:Demographics
3655:
3236:(1500s–1830)
3160:
3149:
3112:Sint Maarten
3097:Saint Martin
3004:Dependencies
2723:
2573:Sugar people
2561:Sugar packet
2485:Molasses Act
2460:Blackbirding
2353:Illovo Sugar
2348:South Africa
2312:
2301:Wilmar Sugar
2096:Butterscotch
2091:Barley sugar
1996:
1911:Golden syrup
1889:Mogwa-cheong
1741:Disaccharide
1640:
1621:
1588:
1584:
1576:the original
1570:
1549:
1518:(2): 60–65.
1515:
1511:
1491:
1467:
1445:
1407:
1403:
1383:
1348:(6): 77–81.
1345:
1341:
1318:
1298:
1275:
1252:
1230:
1217:. Retrieved
1213:the original
1197:
1188:Bibliography
1174:. Retrieved
1170:
1161:
1151:September 4,
1149:. Retrieved
1138:
1116:(1): 53–80.
1113:
1109:
1099:
1048:
1045:The Holocene
1044:
1034:
1009:
1005:
951:
947:
937:
904:
900:
890:
876:(7): 17–24.
873:
860:
833:
829:
799:
784:
741:
733:
714:. Retrieved
710:
701:
668:
664:
645:
641:
636:
625:. Retrieved
621:the original
616:
607:
600:Ponting 2000
595:
517:
513:
502:
490:
474:
461:
454:
438:
434:
426:
414:
359:
348:
344:
341:19th century
313:system that
300:
285:
233:
197:
179:CristĂŁo-Novo
177:
139:
130:
123:
107:
103:
60:
59:
3878:West Indies
3448:Earthquakes
3082:Puerto Rico
3009:territories
2955:Saint Lucia
2890:El Salvador
2719:John Yudkin
2629:Fruit syrup
2546:Sugar shack
2536:Added sugar
2475:Holing cane
2333:Philippines
2233:Casa-grande
2147:Other forms
2123:Sugar glass
2086:Sugar candy
2026:Gula melaka
2006:Candi sugar
1985:Solid forms
1976:YacĂłn syrup
1966:Table syrup
1941:Maple syrup
1894:Yuja-cheong
1864:Agave syrup
1799:Agave syrup
1768:Added sugar
539:Casa-grande
505:monoculture
443:passed the
406:Puerto Rico
374:Saint Croix
269:commodities
174:New Holland
156:(made from
39:St. Michael
3852:Categories
3795:Population
3724:Literature
3313:Hurricanes
3077:Montserrat
3072:Martinique
3067:Guadeloupe
2865:Costa Rica
2757:Production
2634:Date honey
2619:Cane knife
2556:Sugar nips
2245:Sugar bush
2228:Plantation
2216:Production
2111:Rock candy
2076:Preserving
1956:Pine honey
1901:Corn syrup
1789:Sugar beet
1219:2018-01-18
1176:2020-04-22
907:(3): 575.
716:2021-07-12
627:2018-05-27
587:References
497:Hispaniola
441:Parliament
362:Martinique
319:reservoirs
311:irrigation
296:Parliament
220:James Drax
166:Pernambuco
89:sugar beet
69:sugar cane
3800:Religions
3783:Languages
3714:Carnivals
3629:Companies
3568:CARIFORUM
3548:Democracy
3483:Mountains
3473:Cetaceans
3443:Bioregion
3344:Geography
3205:Caribbean
3150:Caribbean
3062:Greenland
2985:Venezuela
2930:Nicaragua
2900:Guatemala
2820:Argentina
2805:Sovereign
2693:Sweetness
2688:Sweetener
2578:Sugar tit
2566:Sucrology
2541:Crop Over
2500:Sugar Act
2343:Sri Lanka
2328:Mauritius
2313:Caribbean
2286:Australia
2128:Sugarloaf
2046:Muscovado
1998:Peen tong
1936:Kuromitsu
1794:Sugarcane
1761:Trehalose
1724:Galactose
1707:Chemistry
1442:(1986) .
1296:(1996) .
1122:0160-1040
1073:0959-6836
1026:0144-039X
984:144842859
968:0018-246X
921:0025-1496
852:0022-0507
693:148805361
685:1559-0895
541:in Brazil
491:In 1492,
439:In 1807,
331:aqueducts
237:cash crop
150:Caribbean
24:Rose Hall
3832:Category
3756:Stadiums
3604:Airports
3599:Airlines
3536:Politics
3436:By topic
3363:Antilles
3279:By topic
3222:Timeline
3017:Anguilla
2965:Suriname
2940:Paraguay
2915:Honduras
2875:Dominica
2860:Colombia
2830:Barbados
2747:Category
2707:Research
2551:Sugaring
2365:Tanzania
2240:Refinery
2208:Industry
2133:Wasanbon
2071:Powdered
2011:Chancaca
1951:Molasses
1843:Products
1819:Honeydew
1719:Fructose
1613:31836946
1605:17595747
1540:33205288
1532:21067942
1489:(2000).
1432:13421660
1374:21860690
1274:(2011).
1130:40968719
1091:30473597
976:23017274
882:26241124
528:Trapiche
522:See also
378:Barbados
281:falernum
277:molasses
271:such as
261:Barbados
253:Barbados
249:European
224:molasses
216:Barbados
206:and the
43:Barbados
3823:Outline
3719:Cuisine
3687:Culture
3673:Tourism
3661:in Cuba
3634:Fishing
3587:Economy
3468:Mammals
3462:by area
3458:Islands
3356:Regions
3323:Malaria
3214:History
3047:Curaçao
3032:Bonaire
3027:Bermuda
2980:Uruguay
2920:Jamaica
2895:Grenada
2885:Ecuador
2840:Bolivia
2825:Bahamas
2698:Vinasse
2609:Bagasse
2597:Related
2529:Culture
2442:History
2255:Engenho
2223:Boilery
2189:Tuzemák
2154:Caramel
2081:Sucanat
2031:Jaggery
2021:Gelling
1971:Treacle
1946:Mizuame
1809:Coconut
1782:Sources
1756:Sucrose
1751:Maltose
1746:Lactose
1729:Glucose
1412:Bibcode
1404:Science
1365:3158875
1082:6204650
1053:Bibcode
929:2803144
402:Spanish
398:British
370:Jamaica
366:Grenada
303:Jamaica
292:British
257:Jamaica
212:Jamaica
54:Antigua
28:Jamaica
3837:Portal
3734:Poetry
3639:Hotels
3624:Citrus
3503:Ultras
3493:Rivers
3306:Arawak
3234:Piracy
2935:Panama
2925:Mexico
2905:Guyana
2850:Canada
2845:Brazil
2835:Belize
2807:states
2728:(1972)
2656:Nectar
2644:Jallab
2428:Hawaii
2370:Uganda
2338:Rwanda
2116:Toffee
2061:Panela
1879:Cheong
1851:Syrups
1734:Xylose
1647:
1628:
1611:
1603:
1557:
1538:
1530:
1499:
1475:
1454:
1430:
1391:
1372:
1362:
1325:
1306:
1282:
1260:
1239:
1205:
1128:
1120:
1089:
1079:
1071:
1024:
982:
974:
966:
927:
919:
880:
850:
691:
683:
417:coolie
394:French
380:, the
335:canals
333:, and
327:levees
315:French
279:, and
245:Africa
228:Sicily
170:Brazil
162:Recife
144:, the
116:, and
114:indigo
110:coffee
56:, 1823
3744:Sport
3729:Music
3656:Sugar
3498:Trees
3301:TaĂno
3022:Aruba
2910:Haiti
2855:Chile
2639:Grape
2323:India
2318:Kenya
2265:Zafra
2260:Batey
2138:White
2101:Candy
2036:Misri
1992:Brown
1926:Honey
1824:Maple
1804:Birch
1690:Sugar
1609:S2CID
1536:S2CID
1126:JSTOR
980:S2CID
972:JSTOR
925:JSTOR
878:JSTOR
870:(PDF)
689:S2CID
646:JSTOR
509:Nevis
486:Haiti
400:, or
164:near
3704:Beer
3087:Saba
3007:and
2945:Peru
2870:Cuba
2423:Fiji
2308:Cuba
2106:Hard
1834:Malt
1829:Palm
1814:Date
1645:ISBN
1626:ISBN
1601:PMID
1555:ISBN
1528:PMID
1497:ISBN
1473:ISBN
1452:ISBN
1428:PMID
1389:ISBN
1370:PMID
1323:ISBN
1304:ISBN
1280:ISBN
1258:ISBN
1237:ISBN
1203:ISBN
1153:2018
1118:ISSN
1087:PMID
1069:ISSN
1022:ISSN
964:ISSN
917:ISSN
848:ISSN
681:ISSN
390:Cuba
355:Cuba
305:and
286:The
214:and
118:rice
3699:Art
2296:CSR
2169:Rum
2051:Nib
1593:doi
1520:doi
1420:doi
1408:125
1360:PMC
1350:doi
1077:PMC
1061:doi
1014:doi
956:doi
909:doi
901:Man
838:doi
673:doi
273:rum
154:rum
3854::
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