1539:
3525:
1549:
5161:
2619:
for a homogeneous distribution of metal oxide or electrically conducting polymers (ECPs), producing good pseudocapacitance and good double-layer capacitance. These electrodes achieve higher capacitances than either pure carbon or pure metal oxide or polymer-based electrodes. This is attributed to the accessibility of the nanotubes' tangled mat structure, which allows a uniform coating of pseudocapacitive materials and three-dimensional charge distribution. The process to anchor pseudocapactive materials usually uses a hydrothermal process. However, a recent researcher, Li et al., from the
University of Delaware found a facile and scalable approach to precipitate MnO2 on a SWNT film to make an organic-electrolyte based supercapacitor.
440:
5127:
4911:
dips momentarily, and to store energy in the reverse conditions. They are useful in this scenario, because micro grids are increasingly producing power in DC, and capacitors can be utilized in both DC and AC applications. Supercapacitors work best in conjunction with chemical batteries. They provide an immediate voltage buffer to compensate for quick changing power loads due to their high charge and discharge rate through an active control system. Once the voltage is buffered, it is put through an inverter to supply AC power to the grid. Supercapacitors cannot provide frequency correction in this form directly in the AC grid.
1900:(CAC) is the most used electrode material for supercapacitors and may be cheaper than other carbon derivatives. It is produced from activated carbon powder pressed into the desired shape, forming a block with a wide distribution of pore sizes. An electrode with a surface area of about 1000 m/g results in a typical double-layer capacitance of about 10 μF/cm and a specific capacitance of 100 F/g. As of 2010 virtually all commercial supercapacitors use powdered activated carbon made from coconut shells. Coconut shells produce activated carbon with more micropores than does charcoal made from wood.
31:
5358:
4814:, air conditioning systems, and advanced power conversion systems cause current fluctuations and harmonics. These current differences create unwanted voltage fluctuations and therefore power oscillations on the grid. Power oscillations not only reduce the efficiency of the grid, but can cause voltage drops in the common coupling bus, and considerable frequency fluctuations throughout the entire system. To overcome this problem, supercapacitors can be implemented as an interface between the load and the grid to act as a buffer between the grid and the high pulse power drawn from the charging station.
1078:
5562:
4640:
manufacturer. Roughly, they divide supercapacitors into two groups. The first group offers greater ESR values of about 20 milliohms and relatively small capacitance of 0.1 to 470 F. These are "double-layer capacitors" for memory back-up or similar applications. The second group offers 100 to 10,000 F with a significantly lower ESR value under 1 milliohm. These components are suitable for power applications. A correlation of some supercapacitor series of different manufacturers to the various construction features is provided in
Pandolfo and Hollenkamp.
5082:
5466:
3884:
1094:
1748:
3909:
3589:
280:
3517:
2996:
2980:
39:
943:) of the redox electrode reagent. They enter the negative electrode and flow through the external circuit to the positive electrode where a second double-layer with an equal number of anions has formed. The electrons reaching the positive electrode are not transferred to the anions forming the double-layer, instead they remain in the strongly ionized and "electron hungry" transition-metal ions of the electrode's surface. As such, the storage capacity of faradaic pseudocapacitance is limited by the finite quantity of
1571:. This construction is subsequently rolled or folded into a cylindrical or rectangular shape and can be stacked in an aluminum can or an adaptable rectangular housing. The cell is then impregnated with a liquid or viscous electrolyte of organic or aqueous type. The electrolyte, an ionic conductor, enters the pores of the electrodes and serves as the conductive connection between the electrodes across the separator. Finally, the housing is hermetically sealed to ensure stable behavior over the specified lifetime.
4424:," "life expectancy," or "load life," can reach 10 to 15 years or more, at room temperature. Such long periods cannot be tested by manufacturers. Hence, they specify the expected capacitor lifetime at the maximum temperature and voltage conditions. The results are specified in datasheets using the notation "tested time (hours)/max. temperature (°C)," such as "5000 h/65 °C". With this value, and expressions derived from historical data, lifetimes can be estimated for lower temperature conditions.
4604:
1527:
2988:
3126:
867:
5609:
1086:
689:
455:), and an electrolyte ionically connecting both electrodes. When the electrodes are polarized by an applied voltage, ions in the electrolyte form electric double layers of opposite polarity to the electrode's polarity. For example, positively polarized electrodes will have a layer of negative ions at the electrode/electrolyte interface along with a charge-balancing layer of positive ions adsorbing onto the negative layer. The opposite is true for the negatively polarized electrode.
2136:. They have a hollow structure with walls formed by one-atom-thick sheets of graphite. These sheets are rolled at specific and discrete ("chiral") angles, and the combination of chiral angle and radius controls properties such as electrical conductivity, electrolyte wettability and ion access. Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) or multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). The latter have one or more outer tubes successively enveloping a SWNT, much like the Russian
4644:
electrochemical charge transfer kinetics of batteries, they can charge and discharge at a much higher rate, with lifetimes of more than 1 million cycles. The EDLC energy density is determined by operating voltage and the specific capacitance (farad/gram or farad/cm) of the electrode/electrolyte system. The specific capacitance is related to the
Specific Surface Area (SSA) accessible by the electrolyte, its interfacial double-layer capacitance, and the electrode material density.
761:
311:. In 1957 H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes". He believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity."
5398:
4398:
3146:. These result in delayed current flow, reducing the total electrode surface area that can be covered with ions if polarity changes – capacitance decreases with increasing AC frequency. Thus, the total capacitance is achieved only after longer measuring times. Out of the reason of the very strong frequency dependence of the capacitance, this electrical parameter has to be measured with a special constant current charge and discharge measurement, defined in
5255:
852:
charge in conventional capacitors is transferred via electrons, capacitance in double-layer capacitors is related to the limited moving speed of ions in the electrolyte and the resistive porous structure of the electrodes. Since no chemical changes take place within the electrode or electrolyte, charging and discharging electric double-layers in principle is unlimited. Real supercapacitors lifetimes are only limited by electrolyte evaporation effects.
4823:
4587:
12787:
1580:
5379:, Germany. It was MAN's so-called "Ultracapbus", and was tested in real operation in 2001/2002. The test vehicle was equipped with a diesel-electric drive in combination with supercapacitors. The system was supplied with 8 Ultracap modules of 80 V, each containing 36 components. The system worked with 640 V and could be charged/discharged at 400 A. Its energy content was 0.4 kWh with a weight of 400 kg.
4578:. Leakage depends on capacitance, voltage, temperature, and the chemical stability of the electrode/electrolyte combination. At room temperature, leakage is so low that it is specified as time to self-discharge in hours, days, or weeks. As an example, a 5.5 V/F Panasonic "Goldcapacitor" specifies a voltage drop at 20 °C from 5.5 V to 3 V in 600 hours (25 days or 3.6 weeks) for a double cell capacitor.
1159:), the potential of the capacitor decreases symmetrically over both double-layers, whereby a voltage drop across the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the electrolyte is achieved. For asymmetrical supercapacitors like hybrid capacitors the voltage drop between the electrodes could be asymmetrical. The maximum potential across the capacitor (the maximal voltage) is limited by the electrolyte decomposition voltage.
928:
954:, and its magnitude may exceed the value of double-layer capacitance for the same surface area by factor of 100, depending on the nature and the structure of the electrode, because all the pseudocapacitance reactions take place only with de-solvated ions, which are much smaller than solvated ion with their solvating shell. The amount of pseudocapacitance has a linear function within narrow limits determined by the
5204:
5478:
1519:
4657:
4627:
changes depending on whether a component is considered as a generator or as a consumer of current. In electrochemistry, cathode and anode are related to reduction and oxidation reactions, respectively. However, in supercapacitors based on electric double-layer capacitance, there is no oxidation nor reduction reactions on any of the two electrodes. Therefore, the concepts of cathode and anode do not apply.
1922:
2926:) are more expensive than aqueous electrolytes, but they have a higher dissociation voltage of typically 1.35 V per electrode (2.7 V capacitor voltage), and a higher temperature range. The lower electrical conductivity of organic solvents (10 to 60 mS/cm) leads to a lower specific power, but since the specific energy increases with the square of the voltage, a higher specific energy.
2626:. In this case the relatively small lithium atoms intercalate between the layers of carbon. The anode is made of lithium-doped carbon, which enables lower negative potential with a cathode made of activated carbon. This results in a larger voltage of 3.8-4 V that prevents electrolyte oxidation. As of 2007 they had achieved capacitance of 550 F/g. and reach a specific energy up to 14 Wh/kg (
2097:
5108:. The capacitors capture the braking energy of a full stop and deliver the peak current for starting the diesel engine and acceleration of the train and ensures the stabilization of line voltage. Depending on the driving mode up to 30% energy saving is possible by recovery of braking energy. Low maintenance and environmentally friendly materials encouraged the choice of supercapacitors.
2046:
2109:
1986:
5573:(HEV) are well investigated. A 20 to 60% fuel reduction has been claimed by recovering brake energy in EVs or HEVs. The ability of supercapacitors to charge much faster than batteries, their stable electrical properties, broader temperature range and longer lifetime are suitable, but weight, volume and especially cost mitigate those advantages.
350:
transfer between electrodes and ions. His "supercapacitor" stored electrical charge partially in the
Helmholtz double-layer and partially as result of faradaic reactions with "pseudocapacitance" charge transfer of electrons and protons between electrode and electrolyte. The working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are redox reactions,
3900:). Device properties can also be seen to be dependent on device temperature. As the temperature of the device changes either through operation of varying ambient temperature, the internal properties such as capacitance and resistance will vary as well. Device capacitance is seen to increase as the operating temperature increases.
1151:(supercapacitors) consists of two electrodes separated by an ion-permeable membrane (separator) and electrically connected via an electrolyte. Energy storage occurs within the double-layers of both electrodes as a mixture of a double-layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance. When both electrodes have approximately the same
4406:
Current load and cycle frequency generate internal heat, so that the evaporation-determining temperature is the sum of ambient and internal heat. This temperature is measurable as core temperature in the center of a capacitor body. The higher the core temperature, the faster the evaporation, and the shorter the lifetime.
2154:
behavior of flexible SWCNTs-supercapacitors in different 1 molar aqueous electrolytes with different anions and cations. The experimental results also showed for flexible supercapacitor that it is suggested to put enough pressure between the two electrodes to improve the aqueous electrolyte CNT supercapacitor.
423:'s FDK in 2007. They combine an electrostatic carbon electrode with a pre-doped lithium-ion electrochemical electrode. This combination increases the capacitance value. Additionally, the pre-doping process lowers the anode potential and results in a high cell output voltage, further increasing specific energy.
5002:
reducing cycling and extending battery life. Further military applications that require high specific power are phased array radar antennae, laser power supplies, military radio communications, avionics displays and instrumentation, backup power for airbag deployment and GPS-guided missiles and projectiles.
7813:
3875:
applications for supercapacitors of more than 1000 F can provide a maximum peak current of about 1000 A. Such high currents generate high thermal stress and high electromagnetic forces that can damage the electrode-collector connection requiring robust design and construction of the capacitors.
700:. The electrolyte is a mixture of positive and negative ions dissolved in a solvent such as water. At each of the two electrode surfaces originates an area in which the liquid electrolyte contacts the conductive metallic surface of the electrode. This interface forms a common boundary among two different
4648:
The specific capacitance is related to the specific surface area (SSA) accessible by the electrolyte, its interfacial double-layer capacitance, and the electrode material density. Graphene-based platelets with mesoporous spacer material is a promising structure for increasing the SSA of the electrolyte.
5639:
mountain. The gondolas sometimes run 24 hours per day, using electricity for lights, door opening and communication. The only available time for recharging batteries at the stations is during the brief intervals of guest loading and unloading, which is too short to recharge batteries. Supercapacitors
5242:
tram with an experimental energy recovery system called "STEEM". The system is fitted with 48 roof-mounted supercapacitors to store braking energy, which provides tramways with a high level of energy autonomy by enabling them to run without overhead power lines on parts of its route, recharging while
5001:
Supercapacitors' low internal resistance supports applications that require short-term high currents. Among the earliest uses were motor startup (cold engine starts, particularly with diesels) for large engines in tanks and submarines. Supercapacitors buffer the battery, handling short current peaks,
4417:, 20% loss of capacitance or double the internal resistance. The narrower definition is important for such applications, since heat increases linearly with increasing internal resistance, and the maximum temperature should not be exceeded. Temperatures higher than specified can destroy the capacitor.
4405:
Since supercapacitors do not rely on chemical changes in the electrodes (except for those with polymer electrodes), lifetimes depend mostly on the rate of evaporation of the liquid electrolyte. This evaporation is generally a function of temperature, current load, current cycle frequency and voltage.
2654:
Asymmetric supercapacitors (ASC) have shown a great potential candidate for high-performance supercapacitor due to their wide operating potential which can remarkably enhance the capacitive behavior. An advantage of this type of supercapacitors is their higher voltage and correspondingly their higher
2420:
electrodes. These transition metal electrodes offer excellent reversibility, with several hundred-thousand cycles. However, ruthenium is expensive and the 2.4 V voltage window for this capacitor limits their applications to military and space applications. Das et al. reported highest capacitance
2157:
CNTs can store about the same charge as activated carbon per unit surface area, but nanotubes' surface is arranged in a regular pattern, providing greater wettability. SWNTs have a high theoretical specific surface area of 1315 m/g, while that for MWNTs is lower and is determined by the diameter
2067:
Graphene has a theoretical specific surface area of 2630 m/g which can theoretically lead to a capacitance of 550 F/g. In addition, an advantage of graphene over activated carbon is its higher electrical conductivity. As of 2012, a new development used graphene sheets directly as electrodes
1040:
Supercapacitors can also be made with different materials and principles at the electrodes. If both of those materials use a fast, supercapacitor-type reaction (capacitance or pseudocapacitance), the result is called an asymmetric capacitor. The two electrodes have different electric potentials; when
5226:
without overhead wires, thus preserving the city's architectural heritage. The SC equipment cost an additional €270,000 per vehicle, which was expected to be recovered over the first 15 years of operation. The supercapacitors are charged at stop-over stations when the vehicle is at a scheduled stop.
5194:
to store mechanical braking energy with a roof-mounted supercapacitor unit. It contains several units each made of 192 capacitors with 2700 F / 2.7 V interconnected in three parallel lines. This circuit results in a 518 V system with an energy content of 1.5 kWh. For acceleration
4639:
The following table shows differences among capacitors of various manufacturers in capacitance range, cell voltage, internal resistance (ESR, DC or AC value) and volumetric and gravimetric specific energy. In the table, ESR refers to the component with the largest capacitance value of the respective
4381:
Just like specific energy, specific power is measured either gravimetrically in kilowatts per kilogram (kW/kg, specific power) or volumetrically in kilowatts per litre (kW/L, power density). Supercapacitor specific power is typically 10 to 100 times greater than for batteries and can reach values up
3771:
This time constant determines the charge/discharge time. A 100 F capacitor with an internal resistance of 30 mΩ for example, has a time constant of 0.03 • 100 = 3 s. After 3 seconds charging with a current limited only by internal resistance, the capacitor has 63.2% of full charge (or
2944:
Separators have to physically separate the two electrodes to prevent a short circuit by direct contact. It can be very thin (a few hundredths of a millimeter) and must be very porous to the conducting ions to minimize ESR. Furthermore, separators must be chemically inert to protect the electrolyte's
2662:
nanosheets and use it as positive electrodes with activated carbon (AC) as negative electrodes to fabricate asymmetric supercapacitor (ASC). It exhibits high energy density of 89.6 Wh/kg at 796 W/kg and stability of 93% after 10,000 cycles, which can be a great potential to be an excellent
2618:
Composite electrodes for hybrid-type supercapacitors are constructed from carbon-based material with incorporated or deposited pseudocapacitive active materials like metal oxides and conducting polymers. As of 2013 most research for supercapacitors explores composite electrodes. CNTs give a backbone
2165:
MWNTs have mesopores that allow for easy access of ions at the electrode–electrolyte interface. As the pore size approaches the size of the ion solvation shell, the solvent molecules are partially stripped, resulting in larger ionic packing density and increased faradaic storage capability. However,
2153:
A SWNT-based supercapacitor with aqueous electrolyte was systematically studied at
University of Delaware in Prof. Bingqing Wei's group. Li et al., for the first time, discovered that the ion-size effect and the electrode-electrolyte wettability are the dominant factors affecting the electrochemical
1562:
Supercapacitors are constructed with two metal foils (current collectors), each coated with an electrode material such as activated carbon, which serve as the power connection between the electrode material and the external terminals of the capacitor. Specifically to the electrode material is a very
5532:
energy storage. The supercapacitor and flywheel components, whose rapid charge-discharge capabilities help in both braking and acceleration, made the Audi and Toyota hybrids the fastest cars in the race. In the 2012 Le Mans race the two competing TS030s, one of which was in the lead for part of the
5312:
In 2015, Alstom announced SRS, an energy storage system that charges supercapacitors on board a tram by means of ground-level conductor rails located at tram stops. This allows trams to operate without overhead lines for short distances. The system has been touted as an alternative to the company's
4910:
Micro grids are usually powered by clean and renewable energy. Most of this energy generation, however, is not constant throughout the day and does not usually match demand. Supercapacitors can be used for micro grid storage to instantaneously inject power when the demand is high and the production
4728:
Supercapacitors have advantages in applications where a large amount of power is needed for a relatively short time, where a very high number of charge/discharge cycles or a longer lifetime is required. Typical applications range from milliamp currents or milliwatts of power for up to a few minutes
4647:
Commercial EDLCs are based on two symmetric electrodes impregnated with electrolytes comprising tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate salts in organic solvents. Current EDLCs containing organic electrolytes operate at 2.7 V and reach energy densities around 5-8 Wh/kg and 7 to 10 Wh/L.
4409:
Evaporation generally results in decreasing capacitance and increasing internal resistance. According to IEC/EN 62391-2, capacitance reductions of over 30%, or internal resistance exceeding four times its data sheet specifications, are considered "wear-out failures," implying that the component has
3874:
The specified charge and discharge currents can be significantly exceeded by lowering the frequency or by single pulses. Heat generated by a single pulse may be spread over the time until the next pulse occurs to ensure a relatively small average heat increase. Such a "peak power current" for power
3870:
Supercapacitors (except those with polymer electrodes) can potentially support more than one million charge/discharge cycles without substantial capacity drops or internal resistance increases. Beneath the higher current load is this the second great advantage of supercapacitors over batteries. The
3866:
The specified cycle parameters under maximal conditions include charge and discharge current, pulse duration and frequency. They are specified for a defined temperature range and over the full voltage range for a defined lifetime. They can differ enormously depending on the combination of electrode
3137:
voltage (0.5 V) and a frequency of 100 Hz or 1 kHz depending on the capacitor type. The AC capacitance measurement offers fast results, important for industrial production lines. The capacitance value of a supercapacitor depends strongly on the measurement frequency, which is related
1637:
Because double-layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance both contribute inseparably to the total capacitance value of an electrochemical capacitor, a correct description of these capacitors only can be given under the generic term. The concepts of supercapattery and supercabattery have been recently
5434:. In 2006, two commercial bus routes began to use the capabuses; one of them is route 11 in Shanghai. It was estimated that the supercapacitor bus was cheaper than a lithium-ion battery bus, and one of its buses had one-tenth the energy cost of a diesel bus with lifetime fuel savings of $ 200,000.
4594:
It has been noticed that after the EDLC experiences a charge or discharge, the voltage will drift over time, relaxing toward its previous voltage level. The observed relaxation can occur over several hours and is likely due to long diffusion time constants of the porous electrodes within the EDLC.
2961:
Current collectors connect the electrodes to the capacitor's terminals. The collector is either sprayed onto the electrode or is a metal foil. They must be able to distribute peak currents of up to 100 A. If the housing is made out of a metal (typically aluminum) the collectors should be made
411:
from an electrochemical capacitor, yielding a hybrid electrochemical capacitor. Evans' capacitors, coined
Capattery, had an energy content about a factor of 5 higher than a comparable tantalum electrolytic capacitor of the same size. Their high costs limited them to specific military applications.
349:
electrochemical capacitors. In 1991 he described the difference between "supercapacitor" and "battery" behaviour in electrochemical energy storage. In 1999 he defined the term "supercapacitor" to make reference to the increase in observed capacitance by surface redox reactions with faradaic charge
4643:
In commercial double-layer capacitors, or, more specifically, EDLCs in which energy storage is predominantly achieved by double-layer capacitance, energy is stored by forming an electrical double layer of electrolyte ions on the surface of conductive electrodes. Since EDLCs are not limited by the
4561:
Lifetimes are also dependent on the operating voltage, because the development of gas in the liquid electrolyte depends on the voltage. The lower the voltage, the smaller the gas development, and the longer the lifetime. No general formula relates voltage to lifetime. The voltage dependent curves
3891:
Device parameters such as capacitance initial resistance and steady state resistance are not constant, but are variable and dependent on the device's operating voltage. Device capacitance will have a measurable increase as the operating voltage increases. For example: a 100F device can be seen to
2737:
The electrolyte must be chemically inert and not chemically attack the other materials in the capacitor to ensure long time stable behavior of the capacitor's electrical parameters. The electrolyte's viscosity must be low enough to wet the porous, sponge-like structure of the electrodes. An ideal
1509:
With regards to rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors feature higher peak currents, low cost per cycle, no danger of overcharging, good reversibility, non-corrosive electrolyte and low material toxicity. Batteries offer lower purchase cost and stable voltage under discharge, but require complex
4626:
In some literature, the terms "anode" and "cathode" are used in place of negative electrode and positive electrode. Using anode and cathode to describe the electrodes in supercapacitors (and also rechargeable batteries, including lithium-ion batteries) can lead to confusion, because the polarity
3297:
The standardized measuring method is too time consuming for manufacturers to use during production for each individual component. For industrial-produced capacitors, the capacitance value is instead measured with a faster, low-frequency AC voltage, and a correlation factor is used to compute the
3141:
This extraordinarily strong frequency dependence can be explained by the different distances the ions have to move in the electrode's pores. The area at the beginning of the pores can be easily accessed by the ions; this short distance is accompanied by low electrical resistance. The greater the
2087:
The two-dimensional structure of graphene improves charging and discharging. Charge carriers in vertically oriented sheets can quickly migrate into or out of the deeper structures of the electrode, thus increasing currents. Such capacitors may be suitable for 100/120 Hz filter applications,
1858:(2-50 nm), but only micropores (<2 nm) contribute to pseudocapacitance. As pore size approaches the solvation shell size, solvent molecules are excluded and only unsolvated ions fill the pores (even for large ions), increasing ionic packing density and storage capability by faradaic
748:
on the surface of the electrode and separate the oppositely polarized ions from each other, and can be idealised as a molecular dielectric. In the process, there is no transfer of charge between electrode and electrolyte, so the forces that cause the adhesion are not chemical bonds, but physical
719:
Applying a voltage to an electrochemical capacitor causes both electrodes in the capacitor to generate electrical double-layers. These double-layers consist of two layers of charges: one electronic layer is in the surface lattice structure of the electrode, and the other, with opposite polarity,
643:
Electrochemical capacitors use the double-layer effect to store electric energy; however, this double-layer has no conventional solid dielectric to separate the charges. There are two storage principles in the electric double-layer of the electrodes that contribute to the total capacitance of an
2695:
nanocomposite used as electrode can provide a specific energy and specific power of 32.2 Wh/kg and 747 W/kg. The device exhibited the capacitance retention of 85.05 % over 5000 cycles of operation. As far as known no commercial offered supercapacitors with such kind of asymmetric
1729:
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLC) are electrochemical capacitors in which energy storage predominantly is achieved by double-layer capacitance. In the past, all electrochemical capacitors were called "double-layer capacitors". Contemporary usage sees double-layer capacitors, together with
1162:
Both electrostatic and electrochemical energy storage in supercapacitors are linear with respect to the stored charge, just as in conventional capacitors. The voltage between the capacitor terminals is linear with respect to the amount of stored energy. Such linear voltage gradient differs from
961:
The ability of electrodes to accomplish pseudocapacitance effects by redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption strongly depends on the chemical affinity of electrode materials to the ions adsorbed on the electrode surface as well as on the structure and dimension of the electrode pores.
851:
The amount of charge stored per unit voltage in an electrochemical capacitor is primarily a function of the electrode size. The electrostatic storage of energy in the double-layers is linear with respect to the stored charge, and correspond to the concentration of the adsorbed ions. Also, while
2036:
adsorption treatment. CDC electrodes with tailored pore design offer as much as 75% greater specific energy than conventional activated carbons. As of 2015, a CDC supercapacitor offered a specific energy of 10.1 Wh/kg, 3,500 F capacitance and over one million charge-discharge cycles.
847:
The main drawback of carbon electrodes of double-layer SCs is small values of quantum capacitance which act in series with capacitance of ionic space charge. Therefore, further increase of density of capacitance in SCs can be connected with increasing of quantum capacitance of carbon electrode
756:
The amount of charge in the electrode is matched by the magnitude of counter-charges in outer
Helmholtz plane (OHP). This double-layer phenomena stores electrical charges as in a conventional capacitor. The double-layer charge forms a static electric field in the molecular layer of the solvent
3784:
Because supercapacitors operate without forming chemical bonds, current loads, including charge, discharge and peak currents are not limited by reaction constraints. Current load and cycle stability can be much higher than for rechargeable batteries. Current loads are limited only by internal
399:, David A. Evans developed an "Electrolytic-Hybrid Electrochemical Capacitor". These capacitors combine features of electrolytic and electrochemical capacitors. They combine the high dielectric strength of an anode from an electrolytic capacitor with the high capacitance of a pseudocapacitive
5576:
Supercapacitors' lower specific energy makes them unsuitable for use as a stand-alone energy source for long distance driving. The fuel economy improvement between a capacitor and a battery solution is about 20% and is available only for shorter trips. For long distance driving the advantage
5066:
started using supercapacitors (circa 2014) as part of its stop-start fuel-saving system, which permits faster initial acceleration. Mazda's i-ELOOP system stores energy in a supercapacitor during deceleration and uses it to power on-board electrical systems while the engine is stopped by the
3153:
Measurement starts with charging the capacitor. The voltage has to be applied and after the constant current/constant voltage power supply has achieved the rated voltage, the capacitor must be charged for 30 minutes. Next, the capacitor has to be discharged with a constant discharge current
1725:
Double-layer capacitance and pseudocapacitance both contribute inseparably to the total capacitance value of a supercapacitor. However, the ratio of the two can vary greatly, depending on the design of the electrodes and the composition of the electrolyte. Pseudocapacitance can increase the
380:(ESR) increasing charge/discharge currents. The first supercapacitor with low internal resistance was developed in 1982 for military applications through the Pinnacle Research Institute (PRI), and were marketed under the brand name "PRI Ultracapacitor". In 1992, Maxwell Laboratories (later
5285:
of China presented a prototype two-car light metro train equipped with a roof-mounted supercapacitor unit. The train can travel up 2 km without wires, recharging in 30 seconds at stations via a ground mounted pickup. The supplier claimed the trains could be used in 100 small and
4012:
This formula describes the amount of energy stored and is often used to describe new research successes. However, only part of the stored energy is available to applications, because the voltage drop and the time constant over the internal resistance mean that some of the stored charge is
3600:
With the electrical model of cascaded, series-connected RC (resistor/capacitor) elements in the electrode pores, the internal resistance increases with the increasing penetration depth of the charge carriers into the pores. The internal DC resistance is time dependent and increases during
1124:
that permeates the dielectric between the electrodes. The total energy increases with the amount of stored charge, which in turn correlates linearly with the potential (voltage) between the plates. The maximum potential difference between the plates (the maximal voltage) is limited by the
6311:
Research into electrode materials requires measurement of individual components, such as an electrode or half-cell. By using a counterelectrode that does not affect the measurements, the characteristics of only the electrode of interest can be revealed. Specific energy and power for real
5290:, China. The supercapacitors are recharged in 30 seconds by a device positioned between the rails. That powers the tram for up to 4 kilometres (2.5 mi). As of 2017, Zhuzhou's supercapacitor vehicles are also used on the new Nanjing streetcar system, and are undergoing trials in
2733:
The electrolyte determines the capacitor's characteristics: its operating voltage, temperature range, ESR and capacitance. With the same activated carbon electrode an aqueous electrolyte achieves capacitance values of 160 F/g, while an organic electrolyte achieves only 100 F/g.
2464:
electrode delivered specific capacitance of 502.78 F/g and areal capacitance of 1.11 F/cm) leading to a specific energy of 39.28 Wh/kg and specific power of 128.01 kW/kg over 8,000 cycles with constant performance. The device was a three-dimensional (3D) sub-5 nm hydrous
843:
Assuming that the minimum distance between the electrode and the charge accumulating region cannot be less than the typical distance between negative and positive charges in atoms of ~0.05 nm a general capacitance upper limit of ~18 μF/cm has been predicted for non-faradaic capacitors.
5147:
uses fuel cells and batteries as primary energy storage and supercapacitors to buffer power peaks by storing braking energy. They provide the fork lift with peak power over 30 kW. The triple-hybrid system offers over 50% energy savings compared with Diesel or fuel-cell systems.
4573:
Storing electrical energy in the double-layer separates the charge carriers within the pores by distances in the range of molecules. Irregularities can occur over this short distance, leading to a small exchange of charge carriers and gradual discharge. This self-discharge is called
4615:
and catastrophic failure does not normally occur. However reverse-charging a supercapacitor lowers its capacity, so it is recommended practice to maintain the polarity resulting from the formation of the electrodes during production. Asymmetric supercapacitors are inherently polar.
3775:
Standard capacitors with constant internal resistance fully charge during about 5 τ. Since internal resistance increases with charge/discharge, actual times cannot be calculated with this formula. Thus, charge/discharge time depends on specific individual construction details.
2730:. In supercapacitors electrolytes are the electrically conductive connection between the two electrodes. Additionally, in supercapacitors the electrolyte provides the molecules for the separating monolayer in the Helmholtz double-layer and delivers the ions for pseudocapacitance.
4434:
The lifetime specification from datasheets can be used to estimate the expected lifetime for a given design. The "10-degrees-rule" used for electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte is used in those estimations, and can be used for supercapacitors. This rule employs the
1913:. Advantages of ACF electrodes include low electrical resistance along the fibre axis and good contact to the collector. As for activated carbon, ACF electrodes exhibit predominantly double-layer capacitance with a small amount of pseudocapacitance due to their micropores.
5676:). Research focuses on improving specific energy, reducing internal resistance, expanding temperature range, increasing lifetimes and reducing costs. Projects include tailored-pore-size electrodes, pseudocapacitive coating or doping materials and improved electrolytes.
3596:
Charging/discharging a supercapacitor is connected to the movement of charge carriers (ions) in the electrolyte across the separator to the electrodes and into their porous structure. Losses occur during this movement that can be measured as the internal DC resistance.
673:
Both capacitances are only separable by measurement techniques. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage in an electrochemical capacitor is primarily a function of the electrode size, although the amount of capacitance of each storage principle can vary extremely.
4227:
specifies the power of a theoretical rectangular single maximum current peak of a given voltage. In real circuits the current peak is not rectangular and the voltage is smaller, caused by the voltage drop, so IEC 62391–2 established a more realistic effective power
4635:
The range of electrodes and electrolytes available yields a variety of components suitable for diverse applications. The development of low-ohmic electrolyte systems, in combination with electrodes with high pseudocapacitance, enable many more technical solutions.
1563:
large surface area. In this example the activated carbon is electrochemically etched, so that the surface area of the material is about 100,000 times greater than the smooth surface. The electrodes are kept apart by an ion-permeable membrane (separator) used as an
1055:
A number of newer supercapacitors are "hybrid": only one electrode uses a fast reaction (capacitance or pseudocapacitance), the other using a more "battery-like" (slower but higher-capacity) material. For example, an EDLC anode can be combined with an activated
1908:
Activated carbon fibres (ACF) are produced from activated carbon and have a typical diameter of 10 μm. They can have micropores with a very narrow pore-size distribution that can be readily controlled. The surface area of ACF woven into a textile is about
3301:
This frequency dependence affects capacitor operation. Rapid charge and discharge cycles mean that neither the rated capacitance value nor specific energy are available. In this case the rated capacitance value is recalculated for each application condition.
6980:
11796:
Wang, Chengxiang; Osada, Minoru; Ebina, Yasuo; Li, Bao-Wen; Akatsuka, Kosho; Fukuda, Katsutoshi; Sugimoto, Wataru; Ma, Renzhi; Sasaki, Takayoshi (19 February 2014). "All-Nanosheet
Ultrathin Capacitors Assembled Layer-by-Layer via Solution-Based Processes".
4875:(UPS) may be powered by supercapacitors, which can replace much larger banks of electrolytic capacitors. This combination reduces the cost per cycle, saves on replacement and maintenance costs, enables the battery to be downsized and extends battery life.
6777:
3575:
Higher application voltages require connecting cells in series. Since each component has a slight difference in capacitance value and ESR, it is necessary to actively or passively balance them to stabilize the applied voltage. Passive balancing employs
1738:
The properties of supercapacitors come from the interaction of their internal materials. Especially, the combination of electrode material and type of electrolyte determine the functionality and thermal and electrical characteristics of the capacitors.
2642:. Together with a carbon EDLC electrode in an asymmetric construction offers this configuration higher specific energy than typical supercapacitors with higher specific power, longer cycle life and faster charging and recharging times than batteries.
4388:
relate energy to power and are a valuable tool for characterizing and visualizing energy storage components. With such a diagram, the position of specific power and specific energy of different storage technologies is easily to compare, see diagram.
2650:
Recently some asymmetric hybrid supercapacitors were developed in which the positive electrode were based on a real pseudocapacitive metal oxide electrode (not a composite electrode), and the negative electrode on an EDLC activated carbon electrode.
2667:) were used as positive electrodes and AC as negative electrodes. It has high specific energy of 49.4 Wh/kg and good cycling stability (81.06% after cycling 8000 times). Besides, many kinds of nanocomposite are being studied as electrodes, like NiCo
832:. As a result, double-layer capacitors have much higher capacitance values than conventional capacitors, arising from the extremely large surface area of activated carbon electrodes and the extremely thin double-layer distance on the order of a few
326:
Early electrochemical capacitors used two aluminum foils covered with activated carbon (the electrodes) that were soaked in an electrolyte and separated by a thin porous insulator. This design gave a capacitor with a capacitance on the order of one
6738:
3571:
Operating supercapacitors below the rated voltage improves the long-time behavior of the electrical parameters. Capacitance values and internal resistance during cycling are more stable and lifetime and charge/discharge cycles may be extended.
1558:
Supercapacitors are made in different styles, such as flat with a single pair of electrodes, wound in a cylindrical case, or stacked in a rectangular case. Because they cover a broad range of capacitance values, the size of the cases can vary.
1068:
profiles of a hybrid capacitor have a shape between that of a battery and an SC, more similar to that of an SC. Hybrid capacitors have much higher energy density, but have inferior cycle life and current capacity owing to the slower electrode.
769:
The double-layer serves approximately as the dielectric layer in a conventional capacitor, albeit with the thickness of a single molecule. Thus, the standard formula for conventional plate capacitors can be used to calculate their capacitance:
2166:
the considerable volume change during repeated intercalation and depletion decreases their mechanical stability. To this end, research to increase surface area, mechanical strength, electrical conductivity and chemical stability is ongoing.
6658:
4117:
4007:
764:
Structure and function of an ideal double-layer capacitor. Applying a voltage to the capacitor at both electrodes a
Helmholtz double-layer will be formed separating the ions in the electrolyte in a mirror charge distribution of opposite
322:
designs. The nature of electrochemical energy storage was not described in this patent. Even in 1970, the electrochemical capacitor patented by Donald L. Boos was registered as an electrolytic capacitor with activated carbon electrodes.
3272:
2071:
In one embodiment, a graphene-based supercapacitor uses curved graphene sheets that do not stack face-to-face, forming mesopores that are accessible to and wettable by ionic electrolytes at voltages up to 4 V. A specific energy of
5026:) helps with both. This requires components that can quickly store and release energy over long times with a high cycle rate. Supercapacitors fulfill these requirements and are therefore used in various applications in transportation.
4619:
Pseudocapacitor and hybrid supercapacitors which have electrochemical charge properties may not be operated with reverse polarity, precluding their use in AC operation. However, this limitation does not apply to EDLC supercapacitors
5199:
supply, thus better integrating the LRV into the urban environment. Compared to conventional LRVs or Metro vehicles that return energy into the grid, onboard energy storage saves up to 30% and reduces peak grid demand by up to 50%.
3495:
1849:
Carbon-based electrodes exhibit predominantly static double-layer capacitance, even though a small amount of pseudocapacitance may also be present depending on the pore size distribution. Pore sizes in carbons typically range from
11952:
Choudhary, Nitin; Li, Chao; Chung, Hee-Suk; Moore, Julian; Thomas, Jayan; Jung, Yeonwoong (27 December 2016). "High-Performance One-Body Core/Shell
Nanowire Supercapacitor Enabled by Conformal Growth of Capacitive 2D WS2 Layers".
5308:
powered with supercapacitors that are recharged in 30 seconds by a device positioned between the rails, storing power to run the tram for up to 4 km — more than enough to reach the next stop, where the cycle can be repeated.
4963:
and a supercapacitor. Its cell construction contains a standard lead-acid battery positive electrode, standard sulphuric acid electrolyte and a specially prepared negative carbon-based electrode that store electrical energy with
458:
Additionally, depending on electrode material and surface shape, some ions may permeate the double layer becoming specifically adsorbed ions and contribute with pseudocapacitance to the total capacitance of the supercapacitor.
3536:
is the maximum DC voltage or peak pulse voltage that may be applied continuously and remain within the specified temperature range. Capacitors should never be subjected to voltages continuously in excess of the rated voltage.
1782:
The amount of double-layer as well as pseudocapacitance stored per unit voltage in a supercapacitor is predominantly a function of the electrode surface area. Therefore, supercapacitor electrodes are typically made of porous,
7303:
Yu, G.L.; Jalil, R.; Belle, B.; Mayorov, A.S.; Blake, P.; Schedin, F.; Morozov, S.V.; Ponomarenko, L.A.; Chiappini, F.; Wiedmann, S.; Zeitler, U.; Katsnelson, M.I.; Geim, A.K.; Novoselov, K.S.; Elias, D.C. (February 2013).
10325:
Lehtimäki, Suvi; Li, Miao; Salomaa, Jarno; Pörhönen, Juho; Kalanti, Antti; Tuukkanen, Sampo; Heljo, Petri; Halonen, Kari; Lupo, Donald (2014). "Performance of printable supercapacitors in an RF energy harvesting circuit".
271:. In electrochemical supercapacitors, the charge storage mechanisms either combine the double-layer and battery mechanisms, or are based on mechanisms, which are intermediate between true double layer and true battery.
3867:
porosity, pore size and electrolyte. Generally a lower current load increases capacitor life and increases the number of cycles. This can be achieved either by a lower voltage range or slower charging and discharging.
3112:
4369:
4300:
3673:
4968:. The presence of the supercapacitor electrode alters the chemistry of the battery and affords it significant protection from sulfation in high rate partial state of charge use, which is the typical failure mode of
4410:
reached end-of-life. The capacitors are operable, but with reduced capabilities. Whether the aberration of the parameters have any influence on the proper functionality depends on the application of the capacitors.
3381:
578:
Supercapacitors may have either symmetric or asymmetric electrodes. Symmetry implies that both electrodes have the same capacitance value, yielding a total capacitance of half the value of each single electrode (if
573:
2610:. An advantage of the hybrid-type supercapacitors compared with symmetrical EDLC's is their higher specific capacitance value as well as their higher rated voltage and correspondingly their higher specific energy.
1957:(μm) and with uniform pore size. Aerogel electrodes also provide mechanical and vibration stability for supercapacitors used in high-vibration environments. Researchers have created a carbon aerogel electrode with
9763:
Bonaccorso, F., Colombo, L., Yu, G., Stoller, M., Tozzini, V., Ferrari, A., . . . Pellegrini, V. (2015). Graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems for energy conversion and storage. Science,
5142:
move and stack containers within a terminal. Lifting the boxes requires large amounts of energy. Some of the energy could be recaptured while lowering the load, resulting in improved efficiency. A triple hybrid
110:
Supercapacitors are used in applications requiring many rapid charge/discharge cycles, rather than long-term compact energy storage: in automobiles, buses, trains, cranes and elevators, where they are used for
1889:— a common approximation is that 1 gram (0.035 oz) (a pencil-eraser-sized amount) has a surface area of roughly 1,000 to 3,000 square metres (11,000 to 32,000 sq ft) — about the size of 4 to 12
10676:
10646:
4664:
Supercapacitors vary sufficiently that they are rarely interchangeable, especially those with higher specific energy. Applications range from low to high peak currents, requiring standardized test protocols.
5429:
that runs without powerlines (catenary free operation) using large onboard supercapacitors that partially recharge whenever the bus is at a stop (under so-called electric umbrellas), and fully charge in the
10029:
3862:
at maximum ambient temperature (which has only minor influence on expected lifetime). For that reason the specified charge and discharge currents for frequent cycling are determined by internal resistance.
3138:
to the porous electrode structure and the limited electrolyte's ion mobility. Even at a low frequency of 10 Hz, the measured capacitance value drops from 100 to 20 percent of the DC capacitance value.
5301:(Lyon public transportation administration) started experiments of a "way side regeneration" system built by Adetel Group which has developed its own energy saver named "NeoGreen" for LRV, LRT and metros.
3567:
with doped electrodes may reach a rated voltage of 3.8 to 4 V, but have a low voltage limit of about 2.2 V. Supercapacitors with ionic electrolytes can exceed an operating voltage of 3.5 V.
5413:
an electric bus fleet called TOHYCO-Rider was tested. The supercapacitors could be recharged via an inductive contactless high-speed power charger after every transportation cycle, within 3 to 4 minutes.
443:
Typical construction of a supercapacitor: (1) power source, (2) collector, (3) polarized electrode, (4) Helmholtz double layer, (5) electrolyte having positive and negative ions,
10560:
4520:
4204:. Supercapacitors can therefore store 10 to 100 times more energy than electrolytic capacitors, but only one tenth as much as batteries. For reference, petrol fuel has a specific energy of 44.4 MJ/kg or
11032:
4972:
used this way. The resulting cell performs with characteristics beyond either a lead-acid cell or a supercapacitor, with charge and discharge rates, cycle life, efficiency and performance all enhanced.
3693:(ESR) normally specified for capacitors. It is measured at 1 kHz. ESR is much smaller than DC resistance. ESR is not relevant for calculating supercapacitor inrush currents or other peak currents.
3592:
The internal DC resistance can be calculated out of the voltage drop obtained from the intersection of the auxiliary line extended from the straight part and the time base at the time of discharge start
168:), much smaller than in a conventional capacitor. The electric charge in EDLCs is stored in a two-dimensional interphase (surface) of an electronic conductor (e.g. carbon particle) and ionic conductor (
4413:
Such large changes of electrical parameters specified in IEC/EN 62391-2 are usually unacceptable for high current load applications. Components that support high current loads use much smaller limits,
10831:
7197:
5382:
The supercapacitors recaptured braking energy and delivered starting energy. Fuel consumption was reduced by 10 to 15% compared to conventional diesel vehicles. Other advantages included reduction of
5592:
and an electric generator for driving the traction motors. A supercapacitor with relatively low capacitance recovers brake energy to power the electric motor when accelerating from a stop. Toyota's
4793:
with supercapacitors for energy storage has about half the run time of a comparable battery model, but can be fully charged in 90 seconds. It retains 85% of its charge after three months left idle.
3850:
1000:
Although conventional battery-type electrode materials also use chemical reactions to store charge, they show very different electrical profiles, as the rate of discharge is limited by the speed of
5580:
As of 2013 all automotive manufacturers of EV or HEVs have developed prototypes that uses supercapacitors instead of batteries to store braking energy in order to improve driveline efficiency. The
3613:. It is obtained from the intersection of the auxiliary line extended from the straight part and the time base at the time of discharge start (see picture right). Resistance can be calculated by:
5175:
in historical city areas, so preserving the city's architectural heritage. This approach may allow many new light rail city lines to replace overhead wires that are too expensive to fully route.
4611:
Since the positive and negative electrodes (or simply positrode and negatrode, respectively) of symmetric supercapacitors consist of the same material, theoretically supercapacitors have no true
2024:) processes. Carbide-derived carbons can exhibit high surface area and tunable pore diameters (from micropores to mesopores) to maximize ion confinement, increasing pseudocapacitance by faradaic
426:
Research departments active in many companies and universities are working to improve characteristics such as specific energy, specific power, and cycle stability and to reduce production costs.
11138:
6331:, (76.4% or US$ 36.3 billion of which was rechargeable batteries) to US$ 95 billion. The market for supercapacitors is still a small niche market that is not keeping pace with its larger rival.
5800:
Single-layers of curved graphene sheets that do not restack face-to-face, forming mesopores that are accessible to and wettable by environmentally friendly ionic electrolytes at a voltage up to
11157:
7965:
Chien, Hsing-Chi; Cheng, Wei-Yun; Wang, Yong-Hui; Lu, Shih-Yuan (5 December 2012). "Ultrahigh Specific Capacitances for Supercapacitors Achieved by Nickel Cobaltite/Carbon Aerogel Composites".
5584:
is the only production car that uses supercapacitors to recover braking energy. Branded as i-eloop, the regenerative braking is claimed to reduce fuel consumption by about 10%. Russian Yo-cars
4565:
Life expectancy for power applications may be also limited by current load or number of cycles. This limitation has to be specified by the relevant manufacturer and is strongly type dependent.
3007:". This is the value for which the capacitor has been designed. The value for an actual component must be within the limits given by the specified tolerance. Typical values are in the range of
10572:
10176:
Ghazanfari, A.; Hamzeh, M.; Mokhtari, H.; Karimi, H. (December 2012). "Active Power Management of Multihybrid Fuel Cell/Supercapacitor Power Conversion System in a Medium Voltage Microgrid".
2416:
Charge/discharge takes place over a window of about 1.2 V per electrode. This pseudocapacitance of about 720 F/g is roughly 100 times higher than for double-layer capacitance using
1767:-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. Each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, has a surface area of several square centimeters.
807:
10702:
10616:
4431:
test called an "endurance test," with maximum temperature and voltage over a specified time. For a "zero defect" product policy, no wear out or total failure may occur during this test.
1141:) accounts for a small decrease of potential for "wet" electrolytic capacitors, while electrolytic capacitors with solid conductive polymer electrolyte this voltage drop is negligible.
3766:
10362:
11594:
Chien, Hsing-Chi; Cheng, Wei-Yun; Wang, Yong-Hui; Lu, Shih-Yuan (2012). "Ultrahigh Specific Capacitances for Supercapacitors Achieved by Nickel Cobaltite/Carbon Aerogel Composites".
9182:
Asaithambi, S.; Sakthivel, P.; Karuppaiah, M.; Yuvakkumar, R.; Balamurugan, K.; Ahamad, Tansir; Khan, M. A. Majeed; Ramalingam, G.; Mohammed, Mustafa K. A.; Ravi, G. (1 April 2021).
2158:
of the tubes and degree of nesting, compared with a surface area of about 3000 m/g of activated carbons. Nevertheless, CNTs have higher capacitance than activated carbon electrodes,
5504:
regulations be issued that includes a hybrid drive of up to 200 kW input and output power using "superbatteries" made with batteries and supercapacitors connected in parallel (
1595:; and the distribution of the two types of capacitance depends on the material and structure of the electrodes. There are three types of supercapacitors based on storage principle:
870:
Simplified view of a double-layer with specifically adsorbed ions which have submitted their charge to the electrode to explain the faradaic charge-transfer of the pseudocapacitance
9856:
9234:"Asymmetric supercapacitor of functionalised electrospun carbon fibers/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/manganese oxide//activated carbon with superior electrochemical performance"
7476:
Chodankar, Nilesh R.; Pham, Hong Duc; Nanjundan, Ashok Kumar; Fernando, Joseph F. S.; Jayaramulu, Kolleboyina; Golberg, Dmitri; Han, Young-Kyu; Dubal, Deepak P. (September 2020).
1882:
10534:
10732:
3563:
Standard supercapacitors with aqueous electrolyte normally are specified with a rated voltage of 2.1 to 2.3 V and capacitors with organic solvents with 2.5 to 2.7 V.
1163:
rechargeable electrochemical batteries, in which the voltage between the terminals remains independent of the amount of stored energy, providing a relatively constant voltage.
6337:
Supercapacitor costs in 2006 were US$ 0.01 per farad or US$ 2.85 per kilojoule, moving in 2008 below US$ 0.01 per farad, and were expected to drop further in the medium term.
3142:
distance the ions have to cover, the higher the resistance. This phenomenon can be described with a series circuit of cascaded RC (resistor/capacitor) elements with serial RC
11471:
Kou, Yan; Xu, Yanhong; Guo, Zhaoqi; Jiang, Donglin (2011). "Supercapacitive Energy Storage and Electric Power Supply Using an Aza-Fused π-Conjugated Microporous Framework".
4696:
Instantaneous power, for applications that requires relatively high current units or peak currents ranging up to several hundreds of amperes even with a short operating time
874:
Applying a voltage at the electrochemical capacitor terminals moves electrolyte ions to the opposite polarized electrode and forms a double-layer in which a single layer of
692:
Simplified view of a double-layer of negative ions in the electrode and solvated positive ions in the liquid electrolyte, separated by a layer of polarized solvent molecules
10548:
878:
molecules acts as separator. Pseudocapacitance can originate when specifically adsorbed ions out of the electrolyte pervade the double-layer. This pseudocapacitance stores
376:
At the end of the 1980s, improved electrode materials increased capacitance values. At the same time, the development of electrolytes with better conductivity lowered the
7811:, Nesbitt, C.C. & Sun, X., "Consolidated amorphous carbon materials, their manufacture and use", issued 2004-09-07, assigned to Reticle, Inc.
753:, electrostatic forces. The adsorbed molecules are polarized, but, due to the lack of transfer of charge between electrolyte and electrode, suffered no chemical changes.
7935:
3560:. The solvent molecules then cannot separate the electrical charges from each other. Higher voltages than rated voltage cause hydrogen gas formation or a short circuit.
1544:
1. terminals, 2. safety vent, 3. sealing disc, 4. aluminum can, 5. positive pole, 6. separator, 7. carbon electrode, 8. collector, 9. carbon electrode, 10. negative pole
10856:
7657:
Malmberg, Siret; Arulepp, Mati; Savest, Natalja; Tarasova, Elvira; Vassiljeva, Viktoria; Krasnou, Illia; Käärik, Maike; Mikli, Valdek; Krumme, Andres (1 January 2020).
2191:
for pseudocapacitors, since they have the electrochemical signature of a capacitive electrode (linear dependence on current versus voltage curve) as well as exhibiting
2602:
with an electrode with a high amount of double-layer capacitance. In such systems the faradaic pseudocapacitance electrode with their higher capacitance provides high
10680:
2299:
Brian Evans Conway's research described electrodes of transition metal oxides that exhibited high amounts of pseudocapacitance. Oxides of transition metals including
10654:
9569:
4031:
3941:
3725:
2936:, enabling capacitor voltages above 3.5 V. Ionic electrolytes typically have an ionic conductivity of a few mS/cm, lower than aqueous or organic electrolytes.
11515:
11004:
10089:
10026:
3180:
1953:
aerogels and are more conductive than most activated carbons. They enable thin and mechanically stable electrodes with a thickness in the range of several hundred
9589:
8136:
Yoo, J. J.; Balakrishnan, K.; Huang, J.; Meunier, V.; Sumpter, B. G.; Srivastava, A.; Conway, M.; Reddy, A. L. M.; Yu, J.; Vajtai, R.; Ajayan, P.M. (March 2011).
7636:"Electrochemical Evaluation of Directly Electrospun Carbide-Derived Carbon-Based Electrodes in Different Nonaqueous Electrolytes for Energy Storage Applications"
3033:
11029:
10769:
10391:
3411:
331:, significantly higher than electrolytic capacitors of the same dimensions. This basic mechanical design remains the basis of most electrochemical capacitors.
10264:
Inthamoussou, F. A.; Pegueroles-Queralt, J.; Bianchi, F. D. (September 2013). "Control of a Supercapacitor Energy Storage System for Microgrid Applications".
9529:
7578:
3892:
vary 26% from its maximum capacitance over its entire operational voltage range. Similar dependence on operating voltage is seen in steady state resistance (R
11891:
Peng, Zhiwei; Lin, Jian; Ye, Ruquan; Samuel, Errol L. G.; Tour, James M. (28 January 2015). "Flexible and Stackable Laser-Induced Graphene Supercapacitors".
11414:
Kim, T.Y.; Jung, G.; Yoo, S.; Suh, K.S.; Ruoff, R.S. (July 2013). "Activated graphene-based carbons as supercapacitor electrodes with macro- and mesopores".
11098:
10952:
9898:
Mangaraj, Mrutyunjaya; Panda, Anup Kumar; Penthia, Trilochan (2016). "Supercapacitor supported DSTATCOM for harmonic reduction and power factor correction".
8778:"Novel Electrode Materials for Thin-Film Ultracapacitors: Comparison of Electrochemical Properties of Sol-Gel-Derived and Electrodeposited Manganese Dioxide"
7201:
12531:
6941:
4706:
Fixed electric double-layer capacitors for use in electronic equipment - Blank detail specification - Electric double-layer capacitors for power application
12146:
10072:
7441:
5600:
fit supercapacitors to some of its cars as part of its stop-start fuel-saving system, as this permits faster start-ups when the traffic lights turn green.
1506:
in the lower frequency range. Supercapacitors can store 10 to 100 times more energy than electrolytic capacitors, but they do not support AC applications.
384:) took over this development. Maxwell adopted the term Ultracapacitor from PRI and called them "Boost Caps" to underline their use for power applications.
10411:
Jaafar, Amine; Sareni, Bruno; Roboam, Xavier; Thiounn-Guermeur, Marina (2010). "Sizing of a hybrid locomotive based on accumulators and ultracapacitors".
4439:: a simple formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. For every 10 °C reduction in operating temperature, the estimated life doubles.
3858:
Heat generally defines capacitor lifetime due to electrolyte diffusion. The heat generation coming from current loads should be smaller than 5 to 10
361:
marketed its Goldcaps brand. This product became a successful energy source for memory backup applications. Competition started only years later. In 1987
1810:. Applications with high peak currents require larger pores and low internal losses, while applications requiring high specific energy need small pores.
11135:
6717:
2388:) alone or in combination generate strong faradaic electron–transferring reactions combined with low resistance. Ruthenium dioxide in combination with
1583:
Family tree of supercapacitor types. Double-layer capacitors and pseudocapacitors as well as hybrid capacitors are defined over their electrode designs
12101:
11263:
Yang, X.; Cheng, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, D. (August 2013). "Liquid-mediated dense integration of graphene materials for compact capacitive energy storage".
11154:
10799:
8579:
Signorelli, R.; D.C. Ku; J.G. Kassakian; J.E. Schindall (2009). "Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors Using Carbon Nanotube Electrode Structures".
1089:
Basic illustration of the functionality of a supercapacitor, the voltage distribution inside of the capacitor and its simplified equivalent DC circuit
912:
ion whereby only one electron per charge unit is participating. This faradaic charge transfer originates by a very fast sequence of reversible redox,
5278:
Hong Kong's South Island metro line is to be equipped with two 2 MW energy storage units that are expected to reduce energy consumption by 10%.
1498:
Electrolytic capacitors feature nearly unlimited charge/discharge cycles, high dielectric strength (up to 550 V) and good frequency response as
10580:
10118:
8749:
Toupin, Mathieu; Brousse, Thierry; Bélanger, Daniel (2004). "Charge Storage Mechanism of MnO2 Electrode Used in Aqueous Electrochemical Capacitor".
9725:
268:
145:
or derivatives with much higher electrostatic double-layer capacitance than electrochemical pseudocapacitance, achieving separation of charge in a
9064:
5864:
Three-dimensional pore structures in graphene-derived carbons in which mesopores are integrated into macroporous scaffolds with a surface area of
3855:
This heat must be released and distributed to the ambient environment to maintain operating temperatures below the specified maximum temperature.
2945:
stability and conductivity. Inexpensive components use open capacitor papers. More sophisticated designs use nonwoven porous polymeric films like
1779:), high corrosion resistance and high surface areas per unit volume and mass. Other requirements include environmental friendliness and low cost.
12558:
9746:
6885:
9885:
8402:
Chenguang, L.; Zhenning, Y.; Neff, D.; Zhamu, A.; Jang, B.Z. (November 2010). "Graphene-based supercapacitor with an ultrahigh energy density".
5368:, an American supercapacitor maker, claimed that more than 20,000 hybrid buses use the devices to increase acceleration, particularly in China.
3053:
202:
electrodes with a high amount of electrochemical pseudocapacitance additional to the double-layer capacitance. Pseudocapacitance is achieved by
11177:
10710:
10624:
5672:
As of 2013 commercially available lithium-ion supercapacitors offered the highest gravimetric specific energy to date, reaching 15 Wh/kg (
4307:
4238:
3619:
696:
Every electrochemical capacitor has two electrodes, mechanically separated by a separator, which are ionically connected to each other via the
12122:
Tatrari, G.; Ahmed, M.; Shah, F. U. (2024). "Synthesis, thermoelectric and energy storage performance of transition metal oxides composites".
9795:
6244:
Three-dimensional laser-scribed graphene (LSG) structure for conductivity, porosity and surface area. Electrodes are around 15 microns thick.
4558:
Calculated with this formula, capacitors specified with 5000 h at 65 °C, have an estimated lifetime of 20,000 h at 45 °C.
3319:
494:
10911:
8044:
7898:
1893:. The bulk form used in electrodes is low-density with many pores, giving high double-layer capacitance. Solid activated carbon, also termed
1004:. Grinding those materials down to nanoscale frees them of the diffusion limit and give them a more pseudocapacitative behavior, making them
10366:
4943:
circuit) can be stored to a printed supercapacitor. The harvested energy was then used to power an application-specific integrated circuit (
3580:
in parallel with the supercapacitors. Active balancing may include electronic voltage management above a threshold that varies the current.
387:
Since capacitors' energy content increases with the square of the voltage, researchers were looking for a way to increase the electrolyte's
10363:"super capacitor supplier list | YEC | This high-energy capacitor from a defibrillator can deliver a lethal 500 joules of energy"
9778:
8519:
Arepalli, S.; H. Fireman; C. Huffman; P. Moloney; P. Nikolaev; L. Yowell; C.D. Higgins; K. Kim; P.A. Kohl; S.P. Turano; W.J. Ready (2005).
7862:
Fischer, U.; Saliger, R.; Bock, V.; Petricevic, R.; Fricke, J. (October 1997). "Carbon aerogels as electrode material in supercapacitors".
5534:
1730:
pseudocapacitors, as part of a larger family of electrochemical capacitors called supercapacitors. They are also known as ultracapacitors.
127:
The electrochemical charge storage mechanisms in solid media can be roughly (there is an overlap in some systems) classified into 3 types:
12065:
8226:
Pushparaj, V.L.; Shaijumon, M.M.; Kumar, A.; Murugesan, S.; Ci, L.; Vajtai, R.; Linhardt, R.J.; Nalamasu, O.; Ajayan, P.M. (August 2007).
1175:. The following table compares the major parameters of the three main supercapacitor families with electrolytic capacitors and batteries.
11196:
11184:, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, 6th Advanced Automotive Battery Conference, Baltimore, Maryland, 17–19 May 2006
10524:
10147:
9860:
354:
and electrosorption (adsorption onto a surface). With his research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of electrochemical capacitors.
12077:
11996:
Raut, A.; Parker, C.; Glass, J. (2010). "A method to obtain a Ragone plot for evaluation of carbon nanotube supercapacitor electrodes".
11239:
6901:
3532:
Supercapacitors are low voltage components. Safe operation requires that the voltage remain within specified limits. The rated voltage U
2215:. Moreover, the charge storage mechanisms of transition-metal oxides are based predominantly on pseudocapacitance. Two mechanisms of MnO
11631:"Fast ionic diffusion-enabled nanoflake electrode by spontaneous electrochemical pre-intercalation for high-performance supercapacitor"
9144:
Naoi, Katsuhiko; Naoi, Wako; Aoyagi, Shintaro; Miyamoto, Jun-Ichi; Kamino, Takeo (2013). "New Generation "Nanohybrid Supercapacitor"".
8893:
Das, Rajib K.; Liu, Bo; Reynolds, John R.; Rinzler, Andrew G. (2009). "Engineered Macroporosity in Single-Wall Carbon Nanotube Films".
7698:
7384:
5328:
4215:
Although the specific energy of supercapacitors is defavorably compared with batteries, capacitors have the important advantage of the
4157:
of that capacitor is called its energy density (also called volumetric specific energy in some literature). Energy density is measured
2845:/cm. Aqueous electrolytes have a dissociation voltage of 1.15 V per electrode (2.3 V capacitor voltage) and a relatively low
1638:
proposed to better represent those hybrid devices that behave more like the supercapacitor and the rechargeable battery, respectively.
11770:
10933:
9974:
Farhadi, Mustafa; Mohammed, Osama (2015). "Performance enhancement of actively controlled hybrid DC microgrid and pulsed power load".
8624:
Li, X.; J. Rong; B. Wei (2010). "Electrochemical Behavior of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Supercapacitors under Compressive Stress".
8104:
7827:
Laine, J.; Yunes, S. (1992). "Effect of the preparation method on the pore size distribution of activated carbon from coconut shell".
10740:
8371:
4669:
3147:
12039:
11049:
10219:
Crispo, Rick; Brekken, Ted K. A. (2013). "A motor-generator and supercapacitor based system for microgrid frequency stabilization".
9300:
Huang, Yuanyuan; Shi, Tielin; Jiang, Shulan; Cheng, Siyi; Tao, Xiangxu; Zhong, Yan; Liao, Guanglan; Tang, Zirong (7 December 2016).
8993:
6427:
Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena
5243:
traveling on powered stop-over stations. During the tests, which took place between the Porte d'Italie and Porte de Choisy stops on
4857:, mitigating the effects of short power interruptions and high current peaks. Batteries kick in only during extended interruptions,
931:
A cyclic voltammogram (CV) shows the fundamental differences between static capacitance (rectangular) and pseudocapacitance (curved)
11866:
11458:"Microporous polymer material for supercapacitors with large capacitance, high energy and power densities and excellent cycle life"
9939:
Farhadi, Mustafa; Mohammed, Osama (2015). "Adaptive Energy Management in Redundant Hybrid DC Microgrid for Pulse Load Mitigation".
8048:
3700:
determines several supercapacitor properties. It limits the charge and discharge peak currents as well as charge/discharge times. R
1941:
derived from an organic gel in which the liquid component of the gel has been replaced with a gas. Aerogel electrodes are made via
1881:
was the first material chosen for EDLC electrodes. Even though its electrical conductivity is approximately 0.003% that of metals (
1630:: with asymmetric electrodes, one of which exhibits mostly electrostatic and the other mostly electrochemical capacitance, such as
5152:
transport containers to warehouses. They provide an economical, quiet and pollution-free alternative to Diesel terminal tractors.
4445:
10881:
8497:
6569:
Tehrani, Z.; Thomas, D.J.; Korochkina, T.; Phillips, C.O.; Lupo, D.; Lehtimäki, S.; O'Mahony, J.; Gethin, D.T. (2 January 2017).
5286:
medium-sized Chinese cities. Seven trams (street cars) powered by supercapacitors were scheduled to go into operation in 2014 in
2548:
304:
10832:"UITP 2015: Alstom launches SRS, a new ground-based static charging system, and extends its APS solution to road transportation"
8520:
5244:
2195:
behavior. Additionally, the charge storage originates from electron-transfer mechanisms rather than accumulation of ions in the
4673:
2663:
next-generation electrode candidate. Also, carbon nanofibers/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/manganese oxide (f-CNFs/PEDOT/MnO
11113:
10494:
7943:
3524:
2638:
Rechargeable battery electrodes influenced the development of electrodes for new hybrid-type supercapacitor electrodes as for
12361:
12311:
12254:
10468:
10430:
10240:
9915:
8008:
Presser, V.; Heon, M.; Gogotsi, Y. (March 2011). "Carbide-derived carbons – From porous networks to nanotubes and graphene".
7773:
7236:
6637:
3802:
1152:
5195:
when starting this "on-board-system" can provide the LRV with 600 kW and can drive the vehicle up to 1 km without
283:
The number of non-patent publications about supercapacitors by year has been increasing 10-fold every 7 years since ca. 1990
11682:"Porous 3D graphene-based bulk materials with exceptional high surface area and excellent conductivity for supercapacitors"
2150:
Carbon nanotubes can greatly improve capacitor performance, due to the highly wettable surface area and high conductivity.
1795:. Additionally, the ability of the electrode material to perform faradaic charge transfers enhances the total capacitance.
1538:
607:). For asymmetric capacitors, the total capacitance can be taken as that of the electrode with the smaller capacitance (if
318:(SOHIO) developed another version of the component as "electrical energy storage apparatus", while working on experimental
9564:
2147:
Nanotubes can grow vertically on the collector substrate, such as a silicon wafer. Typical lengths are 20 to 100 μm.
1548:
12551:
10602:
3601:
charge/discharge. In applications often only the switch-on and switch-off range is interesting. The internal resistance R
3520:
A 5.5 volt supercapacitor is constructed out of two single cells, each rated to at least 2.75 volts, in series connection
11214:
11008:
10786:
10093:
9232:
Mohd Abdah, Muhammad Amirul Aizat; Azman, Nur Hawa Nabilah; Kulandaivalu, Shalini; Sulaiman, Yusran (14 November 2019).
5524:
race a TS030 qualified with a fastest lap only 1.055 seconds slower (3:24.842 versus 3:23.787) than the fastest car, an
1610:
electrodes or derivatives with much higher electrostatic double-layer capacitance than electrochemical pseudocapacitance
12288:
9586:
8445:
Miller, J.R.; Outlaw, R.A.; Holloway, B.C. (September 2010). "Graphene double-layer capacitor with ac line-filtering".
7023:
6820:
5227:
In April 2011 German regional transport operator Rhein-Neckar, responsible for Heidelberg, ordered a further 11 units.
5160:
11315:
11227:
A. E. KRAMER, Billionaire Backs a Gas–Electric Hybrid Car to Be Built in Russia, The New York Times, 13 December 2010
5966:/CNT/NF electrode as the anode assembled with an activated carbon (AC) cathode achieving a cell voltage of 1.8 V
974:
inserted by doping in the conductive electrode material such as active carbon, as well as conducting polymers such as
12713:
11926:
9302:"Enhanced cycling stability of NiCo2S4@NiO core-shell nanowire arrays for all-solid-state asymmetric supercapacitors"
6998:
6334:
In 2016, IDTechEx forecast sales to grow from $ 240 million to $ 2 billion by 2026, an annual increase of about 24%.
5282:
11514:
Izadi-Najafabadi, A.; Yamada, T.; Futaba, D. N.; Yudasaka, M.; Takagi, H.; Hatori, H.; Iijima, S.; Hata, K. (2011).
9513:
1041:
combined with proper balancing, the result is improved energy density with no loss of lifespan or current capacity.
9526:
8663:; Wojtowicz, J. (1997). "The role and the utilization of pseudocapacitance for energy storage by supercapacitors".
7609:
6570:
5105:
2081:
1771:
Supercapacitor electrodes are generally thin coatings applied and electrically connected to a conductive, metallic
10956:
8137:
7044:
1973:. Standard aerogel electrodes exhibit predominantly double-layer capacitance. Aerogel electrodes that incorporate
962:
Materials exhibiting redox behavior for use as electrodes in pseudocapacitors are transition-metal oxides like RuO
776:
8286:
6950:
6394:
4718:
Railway applications. Rolling stock equipment. Capacitors for power electronics. Electric double-layer capacitors
4712:
Electric double-layer capacitors for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Test methods for electrical characteristics
4232:
for supercapacitors for power applications, which is half the maximum and given by the following formulas :
17:
10941:
Jahresbericht 2003 - Programm "Verkehr & Akkumulatoren", HTA Luzern, Fachhochschule Zentralschweiz (Germany)
10069:
8938:"Hydrous Ruthenium Oxide Nanoparticles Anchored to Graphene and Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Foam for Supercapacitors"
7449:
5208:
3294:
The measurement methods employed by individual manufacturers are mainly comparable to the standardized methods.
1961:
densities of about 400–1200 m/g and volumetric capacitance of 104 F/cm, yielding a specific energy of
82:
than electrolytic capacitors, can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerates many more
12698:
12544:
12177:
10164:
9184:"Preparation of Fe-SnO2@CeO2 nanocomposite electrode for asymmetric supercapacitor device performance analysis"
9120:"FDK To Begin Mass Production of High-Capacity Li-Ion Capacitors; Automotive and Renewable Energy Applications"
7528:"An Ultra-High-Energy Density Supercapacitor; Fabrication Based on Thiol-functionalized Graphene Oxide Scrolls"
6361:
5876:
5216:
5076:
4872:
3732:
890:
713:
241:
149:
97:
9105:
4660:
Classification of supercapacitors into classes regarding to IEC 62391-1, IEC 62576 and BS EN 61881-3 standards
338:, who finally marketed the results as "supercapacitors" in 1978, to provide backup power for computer memory.
12791:
12678:
11071:
8313:
7224:
6382:
5641:
4902:
exhibit fluctuating supply evoked by gusting or clouds that supercapacitors can buffer within milliseconds.
2284:
Not every material that exhibits faradaic behavior can be used as an electrode for pseudocapacitors, such as
2101:
1775:
collector. Electrodes must have good conductivity, high temperature stability, long-term chemical stability (
11555:"A High Energy Density Asymmetric Supercapacitor from Nano-architectured Ni(OH)2/Carbon Nanotube Electrodes"
11114:"Post TOYOTA Racing Impresses In Le Mans Qualifying • TOYOTA Racing - FIA World Endurance Championship Team"
8994:"Improved supercapacitors for better batteries, electric vehicles « the Kurzweil Library + collections"
6714:
5336:
5269:
began tests of an LRV equipped with a prototype roof-mounted supercapacitor unit to recover braking energy.
3277:
The value of the discharge current is determined by the application. The IEC standard defines four classes:
1885:), it is sufficient for supercapacitors. Activated carbon is an extremely porous form of carbon with a high
291:
engineers began experimenting with porous carbon electrodes in the design of capacitors, from the design of
12098:
10806:
9077:
Li, Xin; Wei, Bingqing (2012). "Facile synthesis and super capacitive behavior of SWNT/MnO2 hybrid films".
7124:; Béguin, Francois (May 2001). "Carbon materials for the electrochemical storage of energy in capacitors".
5533:
race, both retired for reasons unrelated to the supercapacitors. The TS030 won three of the 8 races in the
3690:
2196:
2112:
1803:
377:
253:
11228:
7478:"True Meaning of Pseudocapacitors and Their Performance Metrics: Asymmetric versus Hybrid Supercapacitors"
6373: – Battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle
5248:
3682:
for the measurement of internal resistance can be taken from the classification according to IEC 62391-1.
2983:
Schematic illustration of the capacitance behavior resulting out of the porous structure of the electrodes
1818:
The most commonly used electrode material for supercapacitors is carbon in various manifestations such as
10122:
8936:
Wang, W.; Guo, S.; Lee, I.; Ahmed, K.; Zhong, J.; Favors, Z.; Zaera, F.; Ozkan, M.; Ozkan, C. S. (2014).
4839:
2727:
2726:, making the electrolyte electrically conductive. The more ions the electrolyte contains, the better its
2409:
electrolyte provides specific capacitance of 720 F/g and a high specific energy of 26.7 Wh/kg (
370:
116:
10857:"Alstom's integrated tramway system starts commercial operation in Rio a few months before the Olympics"
10392:"First one up the drive: A new sort of storage device gives lithium-ion batteries a run for their money"
9720:
8858:
Zheng, J. P. (1995). "Hydrous Ruthenium Oxide as an Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitors".
8521:"Carbon-Nanotube-Based Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitor Technologies for Spaceflight Applications"
7409:; Jurewicz, K.; Delpeux, K.; Béguin, Francois (July 2001). "Nanotubular Materials For Supercapacitors".
6978:, David A. Evans, "Containers with anodes and cathodes with electrolytes", issued 1994-11-29
3548:. The breakdown voltage decomposes the separating solvent molecules in the Helmholtz double-layer, e.g.
2473:(CNT) hybrid foam (RGM) architecture. The graphene foam was conformally covered with hybrid networks of
1510:
electronic control and switching equipment, with consequent energy loss and spark hazard given a short.
12820:
4745:
2655:
specific energy (up to 10-20 Wh/kg (36-72 kJ/kg)).And they also have good cycling stability.
83:
10789:(Wuhan's first supercapacitor 100%-low-floor streetcar starts its first trial run), 中国新闻网, 31 May 2016
9743:
9183:
7808:
6975:
6882:
6772:
6733:
6653:
6627:
5187:
5126:
4923:
systems. In energy harvesting systems, the energy is collected from the ambient or renewable sources,
4122:
This formula also represents the energy asymmetric voltage components such as lithium ion capacitors.
115:, short-term energy storage, or burst-mode power delivery. Smaller units are used as power backup for
12600:
12392:
Palaniselvam, Thangavelu; Baek, Jong-Beom (2015). "Graphene based 2D-materials for supercapacitors".
12351:
12196:
Bockris, J. O'M.; Devanathan, M. A. V.; Muller, K. (1963). "On the Structure of Charged Interfaces".
10454:
9612:
Enhanced physics-based reduced-order model of non-Faradaic electrical double-layer capacitor dynamics
9431:
9008:
8183:
Palaniselvam, Thangavelu; Baek, Jong-Beom (2015). "Graphene based 2D-materials for supercapacitors".
7727:
Pandolfo, A.G.; Hollenkamp, A.F. (June 2006). "Carbon properties and their role in supercapacitors".
7087:
6673:
6222:
Room-temperature solution-based manufacturing processes. Total thickness less than 30 nm.
5556:
5318:
5314:
5259:
5191:
5139:
5090:
1707:
913:
351:
217:
42:
A diagram that shows a hierarchical classification of supercapacitors and capacitors of related types
11174:
10012:
7659:"Directly electrospun electrodes for electrical double-layer capacitors from carbide-derived carbon"
6775:, D. L. Boos, "Electrolytic capacitor having carbon paste electrodes", issued 1970-10-27
3878:
2598:
All commercial hybrid supercapacitors are asymmetric. They combine an electrode with high amount of
12749:
12744:
12615:
12234:
11363:
Y. Zhu; et al. (May 2011). "Carbon-based supercapacitors produced by activation of graphene".
11251:
9792:
9782:
EVS24 International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium, Stavanger/Norway 2009
7406:
7121:
6370:
6156:
Wrinkled single layer graphene sheets a few nanometers in size, with at least some covalent bonds.
5521:
5482:
4965:
4401:
The lifetime of supercapacitors depends mainly on the capacitor temperature and the voltage applied
2050:
1649:
1588:
951:
924:
with the atoms of the electrode (no chemical bonds arise) since only a charge-transfer take place.
721:
683:
648:
439:
10908:
7909:
5664:. The cabins are equipped with a modern infotainment system, which is powered by supercapacitors.
5394:
emissions, quiet and emissions-free engine starts, lower vibration and reduced maintenance costs.
12764:
12754:
12718:
12693:
12683:
12655:
11841:
9834:
9377:
8049:"High-rate electrochemical capacitors based on ordered mesoporous silicon carbide-derived carbon"
6376:
5570:
5550:
5525:
5442:
5266:
4847:
4811:
2712:
1756:
1718:
1097:
The voltage behavior of supercapacitors and batteries during charging/discharging differs clearly
917:
897:
452:
369:
that limited the discharge current. They were used for low current applications such as powering
362:
209:
10119:"Maxwell Technologies Ultracapacitors (ups power supply) Uninterruptible Power Supply Solutions"
6123:
interlayers. The nanoflake electrodes exhibit faster ionic diffusion with enhanced redox peaks.
5577:
decreases to 6%. Vehicles combining capacitors and batteries run only in experimental vehicles.
5357:
5275:
is delivering supercapacitor-enhanced light-rail transport systems that include mobile storage.
1081:
Charge storage principles of different capacitor types and their internal potential distribution
12723:
11341:
9636:(in vehicle propulsion, the efficiency of energy conversions should be considered resulting in
9119:
6761:
4928:
4147:
4112:{\displaystyle W_{\text{eff}}={\frac {1}{2}}\ C\cdot \ (V_{\text{max}}^{2}-V_{\text{min}}^{2})}
3924:
3920:
3545:
2933:
1993:
1823:
1564:
1130:
1077:
451:
capacitors (supercapacitors) consist of two electrodes separated by an ion-permeable membrane (
71:
12480:
Li, Qui (2015). "Flexible high-temperature dielectric materials from polymer nanocomposites".
12299:
11193:
10521:
10144:
5063:
4002:{\displaystyle W_{\text{max}}={\frac {1}{2}}\cdot C_{\text{total}}\cdot V_{\text{loaded}}^{2}}
2291:
since it is a battery type electrode (non-linear dependence on current versus voltage curve).
655:
storage of the electrical energy achieved by separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer.
12650:
12595:
12567:
9999:
6905:
6388:
4753:
4749:
4216:
4189:
3564:
3267:{\displaystyle C_{\text{total}}=I_{\text{discharge}}\cdot {\frac {t_{2}-t_{1}}{V_{1}-V_{2}}}}
2846:
2738:
electrolyte does not exist, forcing a compromise between performance and other requirements.
2639:
2623:
2607:
2551:, resulting in a low ESR and a relatively high capacitance. Such conducting polymers include
2013:
1996:(CDC), also known as tunable nanoporous carbon, is a family of carbon materials derived from
1886:
1807:
1788:
1669:
1665:
1631:
1531:
1381:
1045:
416:
308:
153:
146:
30:
12321:
Leitner, K. W.; Winter, M.; Besenhard, J. O. (2003). "Composite Supercapacitor Electrodes".
11516:"High-Power Supercapacitor Electrodes from Single-Walled Carbon Nanohorn/Nanotube Composite"
11457:
10047:
7392:
6806:
6736:, Rightmire, Robert A., "Electrical energy storage apparatus", issued 1966-11-29
3015:
larger than those of electrolytic capacitors. The capacitance value results from the energy
2144:
walls, separated by spacing (0.34 nm) that is close to graphene's interlayer distance.
1171:
Supercapacitors compete with electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries, especially
12489:
12442:
12401:
12205:
12161:
12005:
11739:"Recent advances in graphene-based planar micro-supercapacitors for on-chip energy storage"
11693:
11642:
11480:
11372:
11272:
10930:
10335:
10273:
9812:
9694:
9659:
9650:
Christen, T.; Ohler, C. (2002). "Optimizing energy storage components using Ragone plots".
9544:
9313:
9245:
9023:
8949:
8902:
8867:
8789:
8714:
Dillon, A.C. (2010). "Carbon Nanotubes for Photoconversion and Electrical Energy Storage".
8672:
8535:
8454:
8411:
8325:
8314:"Laser scribing of high-performance and flexible graphene-based electrochemical capacitors"
8239:
8192:
8149:
8111:
7836:
7736:
7593:
7414:
7327:
7169:
7133:
6854:
6585:
6527:
6434:
6275:
5365:
4854:
4835:
4790:
4168:
As of 2013 commercial energy density varies widely, but in general range from around 5 to
3710:
3129:
Illustration of the measurement conditions for measuring the capacitance of supercapacitors
1851:
1503:
1126:
381:
315:
296:
75:
9886:
Real-time operation and harmonic analysis of isolated and non-isolated hybrid DC microgrid
9514:
Properties and applications of supercapacitors, From the state-of-the-art to future trends
6843:"Transition from 'Supercapacitor' to 'Battery' Behavior in Electrochemical Energy Storage"
5926:
A tailored meso-macro pore structure held more electrolyte, ensuring facile ion transport
5561:
4834:
Supercapacitors provide backup or emergency shutdown power to low-power equipment such as
4668:
Test specifications and parameter requirements are specified in the generic specification
4623:
A bar in the insulating sleeve identifies the negative terminal in a polarized component.
2849:
range. They are used in supercapacitors with low specific energy and high specific power.
2219:
charge storage behavior were introduced. The first mechanism implies the intercalation of
2211:
since transition-metal oxides have a lower cost compared to noble metal oxides such as RuO
221:
8:
12815:
12703:
12688:
12640:
12610:
12043:
11629:
Mai, L; Li, H; Zhao, Y; Xu, L; Xu, X; Luo, Y; Zhang, Z; Ke, W; Niu, C; Zhang, Q. (2013).
6571:"Large-area printed supercapacitor technology for low-cost domestic green energy storage"
6324:
5657:
5589:
5538:
5509:
5465:
5372:
5081:
4899:
4895:
4768:
4761:
4612:
4197:
3883:
3490:{\displaystyle t={\frac {1}{2P}}\cdot C\cdot (U_{\text{charge}}^{2}-U_{\text{min}}^{2}).}
3134:
3012:
2873:
2861:
2810:
2782:
2745:
2586:
Conducting polymer electrodes generally suffer from limited cycling stability. However,
2433:
of 1715 F/g has been reported which closely approaches the predicted theoretical maximum
2203:
reactions that occur within the active electrode materials. More research was focused on
2064:, with atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern, also called "nanocomposite paper".
1938:
1855:
1726:
capacitance value by as much as a factor of ten over that of the double-layer by itself.
1499:
1172:
366:
12493:
12446:
12405:
12241:. Advanced Materials and Technologies. Vol. 20091238. CRC Press. pp. 329–375.
12209:
12165:
12009:
11771:"Ultra-thin capacitors could acclerate development of next-gen electronics | KurzweilAI"
11697:
11646:
11484:
11376:
11276:
10339:
10277:
10079:, Doctoral school of energy- and geo-technology, 15–20 January 2007. Kuressaare, Estonia
9698:
9663:
9378:"Novel Skutterudite CoP3–Based Asymmetric Supercapacitor with Super High Energy Density"
9376:
Jiang, Jing; Li, Zhipeng; He, Xinrui; Hu, Yalin; Li, Fu; Huang, Pei; Wang, Chao (2020).
9317:
9249:
9027:
8953:
8906:
8871:
8793:
8676:
8539:
8458:
8415:
8329:
8243:
8196:
8153:
8079:
7840:
7740:
7597:
7418:
7331:
7280:
7253:
7137:
6858:
6589:
6531:
6518:
Bueno, Paulo R. (28 February 2019). "Nanoscale origins of super-capacitance phenomena".
6438:
2622:
Another way to enhance CNT electrodes is by doping with a pseudocapacitive dopant as in
12513:
12468:
12417:
12413:
12338:
12269:
Electrochemical Supercapacitors: Scientific Fundamentals and Technological Applications
12264:
12221:
12021:
11822:
11714:
11681:
11665:
11630:
11611:
11576:
11439:
11396:
11296:
10978:
10436:
10307:
10246:
10201:
9987:
9956:
9921:
9900:
2016 IEEE Students' Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Science (SCEECS)
9495:
9413:
9355:
9342:
9301:
9274:
9233:
9211:
9047:
8970:
8937:
8696:
8606:
8551:
8478:
8349:
8262:
8227:
8208:
8204:
8025:
7990:
7879:
7554:
7527:
7508:
7380:
7350:
7317:
7305:
7254:"General Capacitance Upper Limit and Its Manifestation for Aqueous Graphene Interfaces"
6838:
6808:
Electrochemical Supercapacitors: Scientific Fundamentals and Technological Applications
6802:
6696:
6609:
6551:
6493:
5843:
Activated graphene-based carbons as supercapacitor electrodes with macro- and mesopores
5838:
Potassium hydroxide restructured the carbon to make a three dimensional porous network
5729:
Subnanometer scale electrolyte integration created a continuous ion transport network.
5023:
4607:
A negative bar on the insulating sleeve indicates the cathode terminal of the capacitor
4436:
3018:
2794:
2715:
2576:
2544:
2540:
1974:
1693:
1621:
1118:
1093:
955:
396:
342:
199:
185:
112:
10885:
9779:
The Cell versus the System: Standardization challenges for electricity storage devices
9671:
9109:
ESSCAP'08 −3rd European Symposium on Supercapacitors and Applications, Rome/Italy 2008
8684:
8287:"Researchers develop graphene supercapacitor holding promise for portable electronics"
7426:
7145:
6403: – Compound that results in formations which in microscopic view resemble flowers
6075:
Nickel cobaltite, a low cost and an environmentally friendly supercapacitive material
5644:, also known as the Thames cable car, is a 1-kilometre (0.62 mi) gondola line in
4683:
The standard defines four application classes, according to discharge current levels:
3871:
stability results from the dual electrostatic and electrochemical storage principles.
2567:. Such electrodes also employ electrochemical doping or dedoping of the polymers with
1747:
12505:
12460:
12421:
12357:
12307:
12284:
12250:
12025:
11978:
11970:
11908:
11867:"Flexible 3D graphene supercapacitors may power portables and wearables | KurzweilAI"
11814:
11719:
11535:
11496:
11431:
11388:
11300:
11288:
10426:
10404:
10299:
10236:
10193:
9911:
9487:
9479:
9417:
9405:
9397:
9347:
9329:
9279:
9261:
9215:
9203:
9161:
9051:
9039:
8975:
8918:
8840:
8731:
8641:
8555:
8470:
8427:
8341:
8267:
8212:
8165:
8071:
7982:
7848:
7769:
7680:
7559:
7512:
7500:
7355:
7285:
7232:
6816:
6633:
6601:
6555:
6543:
6471:
6452:
6080:
5517:
4960:
4920:
4862:
4729:
to several amps current or several hundred kilowatts power for much shorter periods.
4428:
3908:
3792:" and charge/discharge currents or peak currents "I" generate internal heat losses "P
3588:
3541:
2946:
2881:
2869:
2853:
2599:
2516:
2181:
2174:
1592:
1106:
921:
861:
658:
388:
279:
206:
12342:
12225:
11615:
11580:
11400:
10455:
Electrochemical Capacitors: Challenges and Opportunities for Real-World Applications
10440:
10250:
10165:
Capacitors for Power Grid Storage, (Multi-Hour Bulk Energy Storage using Capacitors)
9991:
9960:
9925:
9499:
9443:
9359:
8700:
8610:
8482:
8353:
8029:
7994:
7883:
6700:
6613:
6497:
3516:
2979:
744:
by water molecules, called inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). Solvent molecules adhere by
252:), and the effective thickness is determined on each of the two electrodes by their
12708:
12645:
12635:
12630:
12517:
12497:
12472:
12450:
12409:
12380:
12330:
12276:
12242:
12213:
12169:
12131:
12013:
11962:
11900:
11826:
11806:
11750:
11709:
11701:
11660:
11650:
11603:
11566:
11527:
11488:
11443:
11423:
11380:
11280:
10498:
10418:
10343:
10311:
10289:
10281:
10228:
10205:
10185:
9979:
9948:
9903:
9702:
9685:
Dunn-Rankin, D.; Leal, E. Martins; Walther, D.C. (2005). "Personal power systems".
9667:
9619:
9471:
9389:
9337:
9321:
9269:
9253:
9195:
9153:
9086:
9031:
8965:
8957:
8910:
8875:
8830:
8797:
8758:
8723:
8688:
8680:
8633:
8596:
8588:
8543:
8462:
8419:
8333:
8257:
8247:
8200:
8157:
8063:
8017:
7974:
7871:
7844:
7748:
7744:
7670:
7605:
7601:
7549:
7539:
7492:
7477:
7422:
7345:
7335:
7275:
7265:
7141:
6862:
6688:
6656:, Becker, H.I., "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor", issued 1957-07-23
6593:
6539:
6535:
6483:
6442:
5931:
5039:
4807:
2786:
2580:
2425:
based supercapacitor with electrodeposited ruthenium oxide onto porous single wall
2417:
2373:
2285:
2204:
2005:
1896:
1878:
1819:
1792:
1776:
1772:
1760:
1715:
1617:
1607:
1145:
936:
883:
662:
448:
300:
288:
257:
203:
176:
101:
10472:
6760:
J. G. Schindall, The Change of the Ultra-Capacitors, IEEE Spectrum, November 2007
5640:
offer a fast charge, higher number of cycles and longer life time than batteries.
5636:
5508:). About 20% tank-to-wheel efficiency could be reached using the KERS system. The
4886:
pitch systems, so that blade pitch can be adjusted even if the main supply fails.
3003:
Capacitance values for commercial capacitors are specified as "rated capacitance C
2995:
1587:
Electrical energy is stored in supercapacitors via two storage principles, static
12272:
12105:
11200:
11181:
11161:
11142:
11036:
10937:
10915:
10528:
10347:
10232:
10151:
10076:
10033:
9799:
9750:
9729:
9593:
9573:
9566:
Product Guide – Maxwell Technologies BOOSTCAP Ultracapacitors– Doc. No. 1014627.1
9533:
9462:
Salanne, Mathieu (30 May 2017). "Ionic Liquids for Supercapacitor Applications".
9090:
7763:
7675:
7658:
7048:
7027:
7002:
6889:
6812:
6721:
6597:
6355:
6029:(LTO) deposited on carbon nanofibres (CNF) anode and an activated carbon cathode
5597:
5596:
Hybrid-R concept car uses a supercapacitor to provide quick bursts of power. PSA
5588:
series was a concept and crossover hybrid vehicle working with a gasoline driven
5438:
5117:
5035:
5010:
A primary challenge of all transport is reducing energy consumption and reducing
4936:
4575:
4220:
4135:
3879:
Device capacitance and resistance dependence on operating voltage and temperature
2865:
2603:
2470:
2426:
2422:
2137:
2119:
2001:
1843:
1799:
1699:
1673:
1661:
1339:
1231:
986:
879:
346:
104:
79:
9907:
7225:"2. Electrode/Electrolyte Interfaces: Structure and Kinetics of Charge Transfer"
7061:
2230:(C) in the bulk of the material upon reduction followed by deintercalation upon
728:
ions in the electrolyte. The two layers are separated by a monolayer of solvent
38:
12670:
12625:
9706:
9257:
8592:
8505:(M.Sc. thesis). Nashville, Tennessee: Graduate School of Vanderbilt University.
5593:
5322:
5239:
5222:
In 2009 supercapacitors enabled LRVs to operate in the historical city area of
5172:
5144:
5121:
4932:
4772:
4603:
4173:
3040:
2842:
2841:), water offers relatively high conductivity values of about 100 to 1000 m
1684:. The separation of charge distance in a double-layer is on the order of a few
1653:
1526:
1219:
1121:
1110:
940:
701:
94:
12384:
12334:
12280:
12135:
10882:"The Ultracapbus - VAG Nürnberg - Öffentlicher Personennahverkehr in Nürnberg"
10422:
9475:
9199:
8559:
8547:
7875:
7088:"New Materials and New Configurations for Advanced Electrochemical Capacitors"
4690:
Energy storage, mainly used for driving motors require a short time operation,
4223:(or, in charging the device, absorbed from the generator). The maximum power P
4184:. For comparison, an aluminum electrolytic capacitor stores typically 0.01 to
3915:
showing specific power vs. specific energy of various capacitors and batteries
2987:
1012:
2020, figure 2 shows the representative voltage-capacity curves for bulk LiCoO
889:
on the surface of suitable electrodes in an electrochemical capacitor with an
757:
molecules in the IHP that corresponds to the strength of the applied voltage.
314:
General Electric did not immediately pursue this work. In 1966 researchers at
89:
Unlike ordinary capacitors, supercapacitors do not use the conventional solid
12809:
12660:
12246:
11974:
11203:. AFS Trinity Power Corporation. 13 January 2008. Retrieved on 31 March 2013.
11099:"Die Hybridtechnik im Toyota TS030: Mit Superkondensatoren zum LeMans-Erfolg"
10396:
10303:
10285:
10197:
10189:
9983:
9952:
9527:
Development of New Generation Supercapacitors for Transportation Applications
9483:
9401:
9333:
9265:
9207:
8844:
8578:
8376:
7986:
7699:"Could hemp nanosheets topple graphene for better supercapacitor electrodes?"
7684:
6692:
6605:
6547:
6456:
6312:
supercapacitors only have more or less roughly 1/3 of the electrode density.
6169:
6136:
6091:
6048:
5979:
5942:
5886:
5851:
5817:
5780:
5746:
5716:
5450:
5212:
5196:
5135:
5097:
4982:
4757:
4219:. Specific power describes the speed at which energy can be delivered to the
3705:
3143:
3125:
2963:
2877:
2753:
2564:
2556:
2461:
2133:
1934:
1798:
Generally the smaller the electrode's pores, the greater the capacitance and
1685:
1568:
979:
866:
833:
745:
652:
265:
161:
11966:
11384:
11284:
8466:
8337:
8252:
8043:
Korenblit, Y.; Rose, M.; Kockrick, E.; Borchardt, L.; Kvit, A.; Kaskel, S.;
7899:"Less is more with aerogels: A laboratory curiosity develops practical uses"
7635:
7340:
7020:
6881:
Panasonic, Electric Double Layer Capacitor, Technical guide,1. Introduction,
5608:
3174:) of the rated voltage is measured. The capacitance value is calculated as:
1085:
935:
The electrons involved in the faradaic processes are transferred to or from
688:
12620:
12509:
12464:
12217:
11982:
11912:
11818:
11723:
11607:
11571:
11554:
11539:
11500:
11492:
11435:
11392:
11319:
11292:
9754:
In: Technical Guide of Electric Double Layer Capacitors, Edition 7.4, 2011)
9618:(Thesis). University of Colorado Colorado Springs. Kraemer Family Library.
9491:
9409:
9393:
9351:
9283:
9165:
9043:
8979:
8922:
8735:
8645:
8474:
8431:
8345:
8271:
8169:
8075:
8021:
7978:
7563:
7504:
7496:
7359:
7289:
6346:
5867:
5431:
5422:
5348:
5171:
Supercapacitors make it possible not only to reduce energy, but to replace
5059:
4990:
4969:
4956:
4883:
4827:
4421:
4385:
3912:
2929:
2857:
2485:
2224:
2140:. SWNTs have diameters ranging between 1 and 3 nm. MWNTs have thicker
2021:
1950:
1890:
837:
818:
760:
365:"Dynacap"s entered the market. First generation EDLC's had relatively high
12017:
11136:
Batteries and Ultracapacitors for Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
7270:
6995:
6488:
5401:
Electric bus at EXPO 2010 in Shanghai (Capabus) recharging at the bus stop
5096:
Supercapacitors can be used to supplement batteries in starter systems in
3107:{\displaystyle W={\frac {1}{2}}\cdot C_{\text{DC}}\cdot V_{\text{DC}}^{2}}
12371:
Vol'fkovich, Y. M.; Serdyuk, T. M. (2002). "Electrochemical Capacitors".
11755:
11738:
8835:
8818:
8660:
6423:"Review Article: Flow battery systems with solid electroactive materials"
5661:
5632:
5624:
5613:
5501:
5410:
5397:
5149:
5101:
4364:{\displaystyle P_{\text{max}}={\frac {1}{4}}\cdot {\frac {V^{2}}{R_{i}}}}
4295:{\displaystyle P_{\text{eff}}={\frac {1}{8}}\cdot {\frac {V^{2}}{R_{i}}}}
3668:{\displaystyle R_{\text{i}}={\frac {\Delta V_{2}}{I_{\text{discharge}}}}}
2790:
2704:
2560:
2552:
2512:
2430:
2251:
2130:
1681:
1642:
1309:
975:
901:
697:
400:
334:
SOHIO did not commercialize their invention, licensing the technology to
261:
260:
the charge is stored in the bulk volume of solid phases, which have both
195:
169:
157:
107:, both of which contribute to the total energy storage of the capacitor.
63:
12536:
12501:
12108:, Ch. Ahern, Supercapacitors, 10 December 2009, Project Number NET0007IO
11927:"Battery breakthrough charges in seconds, lasts for a week | KurzweilAI"
9623:
8601:
7544:
6320:
As of 2016 worldwide sales of supercapacitors is about US$ 400 million.
5708:
Graphene sheets compressed by capillary compression of a volatile liquid
5585:
4935:
device. For example, it was demonstrated that energy collected from RF (
4427:
Datasheet lifetime specification is tested by the manufactures using an
4397:
3376:{\displaystyle t={\frac {C\cdot (U_{\text{charge}}-U_{\text{min}})}{I}}}
2088:
which are unreachable for supercapacitors using other carbon materials.
568:{\displaystyle C_{\text{total}}={\frac {C_{1}\cdot C_{2}}{C_{1}+C_{2}}}}
12759:
10294:
9181:
8817:
Brousse, Thierry; Bélanger, Daniel; Long, Jeffrey W. (1 January 2015).
7794:
7526:
Rani, J. R.; Thangavel, R.; Oh, S. I.; Lee, Y. S.; Jang, J. H. (2019).
7039:
6400:
5513:
5454:
5317:(APS) system, or can be used in conjunction with it, as in the case of
5254:
5235:
5223:
5183:
5062:
Hybrid-R concept car uses a supercapacitor to provide bursts of power.
5047:
4139:
2247:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1752:
1344:
1148:
1114:
909:
712:
electrolyte. In this interface occurs a very special phenomenon of the
237:
229:
90:
12173:
12040:"The Global Supercapacitor Market is Facing Unique Challenges in 2016"
11904:
11810:
11705:
11655:
11531:
11427:
9325:
9157:
8961:
8914:
8879:
8802:
8777:
8762:
8727:
8692:
8637:
8518:
8423:
8161:
8067:
7385:"Electrochemical Capacitors — Their Nature, Function and Applications"
7008:
Proceedings of the 14th Capacitor & Resistor Technology Symposium.
6867:
6842:
6447:
6422:
6161:
Graphene-based planar micro-supercapacitors for on-chip energy storage
5541:
used a supercapacitor to add 480 horsepower from two electric motors.
5038:
GmbH chose supercapacitors to power emergency actuators for doors and
4822:
4732:
Supercapacitors do not support alternating current (AC) applications.
4678:
Fixed electric double layer capacitors for use in electronic equipment
4562:
shown from the picture are an empirical result from one manufacturer.
3609:
at the time of discharge, starting with a constant discharge current I
2115:
image of carbon nanotube bundles with a surface of about 1500 m/g
1702: – Electrochemical storage of the electrical energy, achieved by
989:
stored in a pseudocapacitance is linearly proportional to the applied
467:
The two electrodes form a series circuit of two individual capacitors
11842:"New device combines the advantages of batteries and supercapacitors"
10263:
9888:, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol.50, no.4, pp.2900–2909, Jul./Aug. 2014.
9857:"Coleman FlashCell Cordless Screwdriver Recharges In Just 90 Seconds"
9035:
6037:
5496:
5376:
5352:
5298:
5287:
4940:
4866:
4850:(AMR) equipment or for event notification in industrial electronics.
4846:. They are the sole power source for low energy applications such as
4590:
A graph plotting voltage over time, after the application of a charge
4586:
3540:
The rated voltage includes a safety margin against the electrolyte's
2357:
2300:
2231:
2220:
2188:
1942:
1689:
1677:
1518:
1102:
1001:
905:
725:
404:
358:
319:
292:
233:
165:
142:
59:
12455:
12430:
11513:
7306:"Interaction phenomena in graphene seen through quantum capacitance"
4630:
2999:
Dependence of capacitance on frequency of a 50 F supercapacitor
2590:
electrodes provide up to 10,000 cycles, much better than batteries.
12237:(2009). "Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors and Pseudocapacitors".
10412:
9722:
Application Note - Energy Storage Modules Life Duration Estimation.
9231:
5529:
5470:
5418:
5179:
5165:
5043:
4879:
3577:
3553:
2826:
2500:
2466:
2126:
2061:
2057:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1645:
value of a supercapacitor is determined by two storage principles:
1579:
894:
729:
10919:
14. Aachener Kolloquium Fahrzeug- und Motorentechnik 2005 (German)
10410:
7322:
5569:
Supercapacitor/battery combinations in electric vehicles (EV) and
4919:
Supercapacitors are suitable temporary energy storage devices for
2080:) is obtained at room temperature equaling that of a conventional
1552:
Schematic construction of a supercapacitor with stacked electrodes
665:
storage of the electrical energy. The original type uses faradaic
12605:
12239:
Carbons for Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion Systems
11240:
Teuerste Seilbahn der Welt mit fraglicher verkehrlicher Bedeutung
10522:
Energy Storage System with UltraCaps on Board of Railway Vehicles
10221:
2013 1st IEEE Conference on Technologies for Sustainability (Sus
10143:
International Energy Agency, Photovoltaic Power Systems Program,
9447:
7252:
Butko, Alexey V.; Butko, Vladimir Y.; Kumzerov, Yurii A. (2023).
6996:
High Energy Density Electrolytic-Electrochemical Hybrid Capacitor
6328:
5628:
5617:
5581:
5426:
5332:
5272:
4843:
4779:
flashlights that can be charged in much shorter periods of time,
3785:
resistance, which may be substantially lower than for batteries.
3290:
Instantaneous power, discharge current in mA = 40 • C (F) • V (V)
2708:
2316:
2141:
1997:
1930:
1827:
1764:
1138:
990:
944:
927:
875:
741:
420:
408:
245:
67:
12232:
10070:
Development of supercapacitor based uninterruptible power supply
9813:"Ultracapacitor LED Flashlight Charges In 90 Seconds - Slashdot"
9640:
considering a typical 30% internal combustion engine efficiency)
8312:
El-Kady, M.F.; Strong, V.; Dubin, S.; Kaner, R.B. (March 2012).
8225:
5251:, the tramset used an average of approximately 16% less energy.
5203:
2658:
For example, researchers use a kind of novel skutterudite Ni–CoP
1181:
compared with electrolytic capacitors and lithium-ion batteries
1137:'s thin oxide layer. The somewhat resistive liquid electrolyte (
950:
A faradaic pseudocapacitance only occurs together with a static
307:
that is an extremely porous "spongy" form of carbon with a high
11155:
Supercapacitors for Automotive & Other Vehicle Applications
7908:. American Institute of Physics. pp. 26–30. Archived from
7405:
6568:
6034:
5653:
5645:
5477:
5406:
5231:
4741:
4656:
4420:
The real application lifetime of supercapacitors, also called "
4158:
3859:
3557:
2950:
2778:
2719:
2572:
2508:
2504:
2254:
2227:
2123:
1921:
1784:
1657:
709:
249:
139:
12304:
Electrochemical Technologies for Energy Storage and Conversion
10953:"Next Stop: Ultracapacitor Buses | MIT Technology Review"
10175:
8228:"Flexible energy storage devices based on nanocomposite paper"
8042:
7936:"Replacing energy storage with carbon aerogel supercapacitors"
7475:
3887:
Measured device capacitance across an EDLC's operating voltage
3689:
should not be confused with the internal AC resistance called
10163:
J. R. Miller, JME, Inc. and Case Western Reserve University,
8776:
Pang, Suh-Cem; Anderson, Marc A.; Chapman, Thomas W. (2000).
7656:
6149:
6104:
6068:
5955:
5831:
5793:
5520:
rules, uses a hybrid drivetrain with supercapacitors. In the
5446:
5305:
5291:
5086:
4986:
4162:
3932:
3919:
Supercapacitors occupy the gap between high power/low energy
3549:
3284:
Energy storage, discharge current in mA = 0,4 • C (F) • V (V)
3036:
3008:
2741:
2723:
2587:
2568:
2492:
2200:
2192:
2096:
1985:
1703:
1314:
1166:
1134:
994:
886:
737:
705:
666:
392:
328:
213:
182:
66:
value much higher than solid-state capacitors but with lower
7861:
5493:, a governing body for motor racing events, proposed in the
4515:{\displaystyle L_{x}=L_{0}\cdot 2^{\frac {T_{0}-T_{x}}{10}}}
4165:(Wh/L). Units of liters and dm can be used interchangeably.
3935:) that can be stored in a capacitor is given by the formula
1065:
12298:
Zhang, J.; Zhang, L.; Liu, H.; Sun, A.; Liu, R.-S. (2011).
8135:
6057:
5988:
5915:
5755:
5505:
4944:
4143:
3133:
Conventional capacitors are normally measured with a small
2749:
2496:
2332:
1391:
1386:
1258:
10324:
10154:, IEA PVPS Task 11, Report IEA-PVPS T11-02:2011, July 2011
8401:
6274:) nano-wires and two-dimensional enveloped by shells of a
2543:
as pseudocapacitive material. Although mechanically weak,
2045:
1554:
1. positive electrode, 2. negative electrode, 3. separator
817:
is greatest in capacitors made from materials with a high
11737:
Wu, Zhong-Shuai; Feng, Xinliang; Cheng, Hui-Ming (2013).
9432:
Nanostructured Carbons: Double-Layer Capacitance and More
6111:
Wet electrochemical process intercalated Na(+) ions into
5490:
4776:
2108:
1711:
1710:
on the surface of the electrode by specifically adsorbed
1522:
Flat style of a supercapacitor used for mobile components
335:
10931:
Kleinbus "TOHYCO-Rider" mit SAM-Superkapazitätenspeicher
9559:
9557:
9555:
8499:
Optimization of Carbon Nanotube Supercapacitor Electrode
6470:
Häggström, Fredrik; Delsing, Jerker (27 November 2018).
4180:. Commercial specific energies range from around 0.5 to
2531:). However, none of these oxides are in commercial use.
1989:
Pore size distributions for different carbide precursors
1624:
electrodes with a high electrochemical pseudocapacitance
1060:
cathode, the latter being a slow faradaic material. The
357:
The market expanded slowly. That changed around 1978 as
345:
conducted extensive fundamental and development work on
12195:
12066:
Supercapacitors the Myth, the Potential and the Reality
10647:"Genève tram trial assesses supercapacitor performance"
10573:"Rhein-Neckar Verkehr orders more supercapacitor trams"
9442:
Tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate - Compound Summary
8311:
6351:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
5649:
5022:
emissions. Recovery of braking energy (recuperation or
4894:
Supercapacitors can stabilize voltage fluctuations for
4786:
Some portable speakers are powered by supercapacitors.
4700:
Three further standards describe special applications:
4130:
The amount of energy that can be stored in a capacitor
4013:
inaccessible. The effective realized amount of energy W
3845:{\displaystyle P_{\text{loss}}=R_{\text{i}}\cdot I^{2}}
2932:
consists of liquid salts that can be stable in a wider
12370:
12353:
Carbon: Electrochemical and Physicochemical Properties
12320:
10909:
Effizienter Hybridantrieb mit Ultracaps für Stadtbusse
10145:
The role of energy storage for mini-grid stabilization
9835:"Helium Bluetooth speakers powered by supercapacitors"
9684:
9143:
4817:
2645:
2008:, that are transformed into pure carbon via physical,
677:
194:(ECSCs) fall in between EDLs and batteries. ECSCs use
11951:
10703:"Supercapacitor energy storage for South Island Line"
9552:
8892:
8748:
7168:
Halper, Marin S.; Ellenbogen, James C. (March 2006).
6943:
A survey of electrochemical supercapacitor technology
4693:
Power, higher power demand for a long time operation,
4448:
4310:
4241:
4125:
4034:
3944:
3805:
3735:
3713:
3622:
3414:
3322:
3183:
3056:
3021:
2953:, woven glass fibers or porous woven ceramic fibres.
2162:, 102 F/g for MWNTs and 180 F/g for SWNTs.
779:
497:
156:
between the surface of a conductive electrode and an
11215:"2014 Mazda6 i-Eloop to net 40 mpg hwy, 28 mpg city"
11194:
AFS TRINITY UNVEILS 150 MPG EXTREME HYBRID (XH™) SUV
10535:
Proceedings - 8th World Congress on Railway Research
9897:
9106:
Lithium Ion capacitor characterization and modelling
8658:
8444:
7807:
7701:. Kurzweil Accelerating Intelligence. 14 August 2014
7442:"How ultracapacitors work (and why they fall short)"
6875:
6833:
6831:
6732:
6366:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
6358: – Manufacturing styles of an electronic device
4796:
4554:= actual operating temperature of the capacitor cell
2962:
from the same material to avoid forming a corrosive
855:
160:. The separation of charge is of the order of a few
12144:
12078:"Supercapacitor Technologies and Markets 2016-2026"
11050:"Die große Analyse: KERS für Dummys - Formel 1 bei"
8816:
8775:
7302:
4017:
is reduced by the used voltage difference between V
3779:
3500:
wherein also the capacitor voltage decreases from U
2880:or alkyl ammonium salts such as tetraethylammonium
2606:while the non-faradaic EDLC electrode enables high
2593:
958:degree of surface coverage of the adsorbed anions.
12145:Abruña, H. D.; Kiya, Y.; Henderson, J. C. (2008).
11030:Formula One 2011: Power-Train Regulation Framework
10617:"Supercapacitors to be tested on Paris STEEM tram"
10045:
9605:
9603:
9601:
9299:
8105:"SkelCap High Energy Ultracapacitors - Data Sheet"
8007:
7726:
7525:
7251:
4764:, supercapacitors can stabilize the power supply.
4514:
4363:
4294:
4153:The amount of energy can be stored in a capacitor
4111:
4001:
3844:
3760:
3719:
3667:
3489:
3375:
3287:Power, discharge current in mA = 4 • C (F) • V (V)
3281:Memory backup, discharge current in mA = 1 • C (F)
3266:
3106:
3027:
2169:
2084:, but with 100–1000 times greater specific power.
1133:in which most of the potential decreases over the
1117:material. When charged, the energy is stored in a
1105:(also known as electrostatic capacitors), such as
801:
567:
244:capacitors, the mobile charges are solvated ions (
10414:2010 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference
6828:
6674:"Historical Introduction to Capacitor Technology"
5449:, for use as student transport. It is powered by
4631:Comparison of selected commercial supercapacitors
4581:
2199:. Pseudocapacitors were created through faradaic
1534:for PCB mounting used for industrial applications
236:, and the gap between electrodes is a layer of a
12807:
12391:
12297:
12121:
11795:
11593:
11552:
11005:"Launch of Europe's First Tribrid Green Minibus"
10027:Technologies and applications of Supercapacitors
9713:
8438:
8182:
7964:
7579:"Redox electrode materials for supercapatteries"
7167:
7120:
6939:
6469:
6385: – New technologies actively in development
5034:In 2005, aerospace systems and controls company
4939:) fields (using an RF antenna as an appropriate
4740:In applications with fluctuating loads, such as
3309:a supercapacitor can deliver a constant current
3117:This value is also called the "DC capacitance".
1542:Schematic construction of a wound supercapacitor
11995:
11890:
11262:
10603:"STEEM - promoting energy savings for tramways"
9973:
9938:
9772:
9770:
9598:
8935:
8623:
8372:"Graphene supercapacitor breaks storage record"
7062:"FDK, Corporate Information, FDK History 2000s"
6713:A brief history of supercapacitors AUTUMN 2007
6249:Laser-induced graphene/solid-state electrolyte
5375:with supercapacitors in Europe came in 2001 in
4378:, the internal DC resistance of the capacitor.
181:store charge in bulk solid phases by virtue of
10113:
10111:
7471:
7469:
7467:
7116:
7114:
7112:
7110:
7108:
6974:
6629:Linden's Handbook of Batteries, Fourth Edition
5734:Vertically aligned carbon nanotubes electrodes
2068:without collectors for portable applications.
12552:
12431:"Composite for energy storage takes the heat"
11553:Tang, Zhe; Chun-hua, Tang; Gong, Hao (2012).
11470:
11413:
10906:Stefan Kerschl, Eberhard Hipp, Gerald Lexen:
10466:
10218:
9859:. OhGizmo!. 11 September 2007. Archived from
9649:
9139:
9137:
9000:
8574:
8572:
7761:
7755:
7296:
7229:Fuel Cells: From Fundamentals to Applications
7081:
7079:
7051:Technical Paper, Evans Capacitor Company 2007
5900:Aza-fused π-conjugated microporous framework
5500:version 1.3 of 23 May 2007 that a new set of
2246:The second mechanism is based on the surface
12064:Dennis Zogbi, Paumanok Group, 4 March 2013,
11342:"New carbon material boosts supercapacitors"
11111:
9767:
8652:
7041:The Littlest Big Capacitor - an Evans Hybrid
6894:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6652:
6421:Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (July 2017).
5535:2012 FIA World Endurance Championship season
5130:Container yard with rubber tyre gantry crane
2991:Equivalent circuit with cascaded RC elements
2515:, but none has been investigated as much as
1977:can add a high amount of pseudocapacitance.
1024:), and a intercalation pseudocapacitor (T-Nb
802:{\displaystyle C=\varepsilon {\frac {A}{d}}}
419:. These hybrid capacitors were pioneered by
11736:
11628:
10733:"Supercapacitor light metro train unveiled"
10108:
9424:
9375:
8514:
8512:
8365:
8363:
8138:"Ultrathin planar graphene supercapacitors"
7789:
7787:
7785:
7722:
7720:
7718:
7716:
7464:
7258:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
7105:
6935:
6933:
6931:
6929:
6927:
6925:
6923:
6672:Ho, J.; Jow, R.; Boggs, S. (January 2010).
5544:
5283:CSR Zhuzhou Electric Locomotive corporation
4931:, and converted to electrical energy in an
1129:. The same static storage also applies for
1113:, consist of two electrodes separated by a
893:. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied with an
462:
78:. It typically stores 10 to 100 times more
12786:
12559:
12545:
12147:"Batteries and Electrochemical Capacitors"
12042:. MarketEYE. 10 March 2016. Archived from
11587:
11039:. 24 May 2007. Retrieved on 23 April 2013.
10928:V. Härri, S. Eigen, B. Zemp, D. Carriero:
9134:
9009:"Materials for electrochemical capacitors"
8569:
7826:
7439:
7433:
7375:
7373:
7371:
7369:
7222:
7076:
6797:
6795:
6793:
6791:
6789:
6787:
6771:
6671:
6632:. McGraw-Hill Education. 21 January 2024.
5962:Asymmetric supercapacitor using the Ni(OH)
5469:Former world champion Sebastian Vettel in
3605:can be calculated from the voltage drop ΔV
3397:If the application needs a constant power
2633:
1903:
1167:Comparison with other storage technologies
1061:
34:Schematic illustration of a supercapacitor
12566:
12454:
12349:
12306:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 317–382.
11754:
11713:
11664:
11654:
11570:
10677:"Energy Storage - Siemens Global Website"
10487:
10328:International Journal of Electrical Power
10293:
9341:
9273:
8969:
8834:
8801:
8600:
8261:
8251:
7674:
7553:
7543:
7349:
7339:
7321:
7279:
7269:
7163:
7161:
7159:
7157:
7155:
7085:
6866:
6745:
6715:Batteries & Energy Storage Technology
6487:
6446:
4878:Supercapacitors provide backup power for
4853:Supercapacitors buffer power to and from
3761:{\displaystyle \tau =R_{\text{i}}\cdot C}
3386:as the capacitor voltage decreases from U
2956:
2905:) or triethyl (metyl) tetrafluoroborate (
1980:
1179:Performance parameters of supercapacitors
1072:
12233:Béguin, Francois; Raymundo-Piñeiro, E.;
11839:
11464:
11250:ISR, Internationale Seilbahn Rundschau,
11175:Recent Analysis of UCAPs in Mild Hybrids
10950:
10469:"Fuel Cell Works Supplemental News Page"
9741:Panasonic Electronic Devices CO., LTD.:
9546:Nesscap Ultracapacitor - Technical Guide
9371:
9369:
9295:
9293:
9227:
9225:
8509:
8360:
7782:
7713:
7633:
7032:
6920:
6420:
5607:
5560:
5476:
5464:
5396:
5356:
5253:
5202:
5159:
5125:
5080:
4889:
4821:
4655:
4602:
4585:
4396:
3907:
3882:
3772:is discharged to 36.8% of full charge).
3587:
3523:
3515:
3124:
2994:
2986:
2978:
2969:
2575:. Electrodes made from, or coated with,
2107:
2095:
2044:
1984:
1920:
1746:
1578:
1547:
1537:
1525:
1517:
1156:
1092:
1084:
1076:
1035:
926:
865:
759:
687:
438:
278:
37:
29:
11096:
10764:
10762:
10760:
10758:
10036:, University of Mondragon, 22 June 2012
10019:
9461:
9177:
9175:
8495:
8397:
8395:
8278:
8110:. Skeleton Technologies. Archived from
7933:
7366:
6784:
6323:The market for batteries (estimated by
4801:
4735:
4547:= upper specified capacitor temperature
4161:(per unit of volume) in watt-hours per
3923:and low power/high energy rechargeable
2613:
1813:
27:High-capacity electrochemical capacitor
14:
12808:
12428:
12263:
11893:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
11362:
10955:. Technologyreview.com. Archived from
10495:"SINAUTEC, Automobile Technology, LLC"
10386:
10384:
10360:
10266:IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion
9880:
9878:
8860:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
8823:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
8819:"To Be or Not To Be Pseudocapacitive?"
8782:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
8713:
8284:
7896:
7576:
7152:
6837:
6801:
6349: – Type of transportation vehicle
6305:
6040:deposited on mesoporous carbon aerogel
5258:A supercapacitor-equipped tram on the
5207:Supercapacitors are used to power the
3583:
2534:
2104:image of single-walled carbon nanotube
1787:material with an extraordinarily high
824:, large electrode plate surface areas
12540:
9815:. Tech.slashdot.org. 10 December 2008
9609:
9457:
9455:
9366:
9290:
9222:
9076:
9006:
8857:
7634:Malmberg, Siret (23 September 2020).
6517:
5934:nanoflake on CNT composite electrode
5495:Power-Train Regulation Framework for
5361:MAN Ultracapbus in Nuremberg, Germany
5331:also offers supercapacitors on their
4869:fails, which lengthens battery life.
3704:and the capacitance C results in the
3166:, for the voltage to drop from 80% (V
3039:) of a loaded capacitor loaded via a
1295:100 k – 1 000 k
1292:100 k – 1 000 k
638:
132:Electrostatic double-layer capacitors
12300:"8. Electrochemical Supercapacitors"
11679:
11450:
10755:
10519:M. Fröhlich, M. Klohr, St. Pagiela:
9744:Gold capacitors Characteristics data
9172:
9122:. Green Car Congress. 4 January 2009
9067:, Taiyo Yuden, Shoe Electronics Ltd.
8392:
8369:
6665:
4914:
4172:. In comparison, petrol fuel has an
3511:
2122:(CNTs), also called buckytubes, are
1050:
11313:
11072:"Toyota TS030 LMP1 hybrid revealed"
11052:. Motorsport-total.com. 25 May 2013
10951:Hamilton, Tyler (19 October 2009).
10381:
10048:"SuperCapacitors as Energy Storage"
9875:
9112:
7890:
7190:
7170:"Supercapacitors: A Brief Overview"
7086:Naoi, K.; Simon, P. (Spring 2008).
6681:IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
4818:Low-power equipment power buffering
4806:Numerous non-linear loads, such as
2646:Asymmetric electrodes (pseudo/EDLC)
2091:
1873:
993:. The unit of pseudocapacitance is
920:processes. The adsorbed ion has no
836:(0.3–0.8 nm), of order of the
678:Electrical double-layer capacitance
70:limits. It bridges the gap between
24:
12479:
12115:
11252:Beste Unterhaltung über den Wolken
10979:"Green 'tribrid' minibus unveiled"
10457:, ECS, Vol. 17, No. 1, Spring 2008
9452:
9007:Simon, Y.Gogotsi (November 2008).
7440:Garthwaite, Josie (12 July 2011).
7379:
6949:(Technical report). Archived from
6902:"Electric double-layer capacitors"
6306:
5111:
4767:Supercapacitors deliver power for
4126:Specific energy and specific power
3903:
3639:
1802:. However, smaller pores increase
1567:to protect the electrodes against
828:and small distance between plates
708:electrode surface and an adjacent
179:with solid electroactive materials
25:
12832:
12714:Research in lithium-ion batteries
12532:Supercapacitors: A Brief Overview
12525:
12350:Kinoshita, K. (18 January 1988).
11840:Borghino, Dario (19 April 2015).
11318:. FastCap Systems. Archived from
7765:Electrochemical Oxygen Technology
6472:"IoT Energy Storage - A Forecast"
5457:, batteries and ultracapacitors.
4797:Power generation and distribution
4568:
2744:is a relatively good solvent for
1925:A block of silica aerogel in hand
1916:
982:covering the electrode material.
856:Electrochemical pseudocapacitance
12785:
12092:
12070:
12058:
12032:
11989:
11945:
11919:
11884:
11859:
11833:
11789:
11763:
11730:
11673:
11622:
11546:
11507:
11407:
11356:
11334:
11307:
11256:
11244:
11232:
11221:
11212:
11206:
11187:
11167:
11147:
11128:
11105:
11097:Schurig, Marcus (9 April 2012).
11090:
11064:
11042:
11023:
10997:
10971:
10944:
10922:
10900:
10874:
10849:
10824:
10792:
10780:
10739:. 23 August 2012. Archived from
10725:
10695:
10669:
10639:
10609:
10595:
10565:
10559:Bombardier, MITRAC Energy Saver
10553:
10547:Bombardier, MITRAC Energy Saver
10541:
10513:
10497:. Sinautecus.com. Archived from
10460:
10447:
10354:
10318:
10257:
10212:
10169:
10157:
10137:
10092:. Marathon Power. Archived from
10082:
10062:
10039:
9967:
9932:
9891:
9849:
9802:. New Electronics. 26 March 2006
7448:. GigaOM Network. Archived from
6993:David A. Evans (Evans Company):
6397: – Human-powered flashlight
6391: – Hybrid type of capacitor
6379: – Method of storing energy
6299:2D shells surrounding nanowires
5325:, Brazil, which opened in 2016.
4927:, mechanical movement, light or
4134:of that capacitor is called its
3780:Current load and cycle stability
2594:Electrodes for hybrid capacitors
2429:film electrode. A high specific
1822:(AC), carbon fibre-cloth (AFC),
704:of matter, such as an insoluble
10709:. 3 August 2012. Archived from
10653:. 7 August 2012. Archived from
10178:IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
9941:IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid
9827:
9805:
9785:
9757:
9735:
9732:Maxwell Technologies, Inc. 2007
9678:
9643:
9630:
9616:Digital collections of Colorado
9579:
9576:Maxwell Technologies, Inc. 2009
9538:
9519:
9506:
9436:
9097:
9070:
9058:
8986:
8929:
8886:
8851:
8810:
8769:
8742:
8707:
8617:
8489:
8305:
8219:
8176:
8129:
8097:
8036:
8001:
7958:
7934:LaClair, M. (1 February 2003).
7927:
7855:
7820:
7801:
7691:
7650:
7627:
7577:Yu, L. P.; Chen, G. Z. (2016).
7570:
7519:
7399:
7245:
7216:
7054:
7013:
6987:
6968:
6765:
6395:Mechanically powered flashlight
6364: – type of porous material
6276:transition-metal dichalcogenide
5809:KOH restructured graphite oxide
5667:
5460:
5297:In 2012, in Lyon (France), the
4970:valve regulated lead-acid cells
4898:by acting as dampers. Wind and
4723:
2699:
2294:
2170:Electrodes for pseudocapacitors
1714:, that results in a reversible
1532:lithium-ion type supercapacitor
1348:per kilogram (Wh/kg)
1326:100 – 12 000 F
1237:−40 – +125 °C
997:, same as that of capacitance.
669:reactions with charge-transfer.
434:
397:tantalum electrolytic capacitor
192:Electrochemical supercapacitors
12699:Lithium iron phosphate battery
12124:Coordination Chemistry Reviews
11680:Zang, L.; et al. (2014).
10579:. 5 April 2011. Archived from
9837:. Gizmag.com. 27 November 2013
7749:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.02.065
7606:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.04.095
6811:(in German), Berlin, Germany:
6726:
6707:
6646:
6620:
6562:
6540:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.01.010
6511:
6463:
6414:
6362:Conjugated microporous polymer
5877:Conjugated microporous polymer
5077:Railway electrification system
4905:
4873:Uninterruptible power supplies
4582:Post charge voltage relaxation
4374:with V = voltage applied and R
4138:. Specific energy is measured
4106:
4070:
3481:
3445:
3364:
3338:
3120:
2974:
2876:and solutions with quaternary
2718:that dissociate into positive
2696:electrodes are on the market.
2687:and so on. For example, Fe-SnO
2187:are typical materials used as
2051:atomic-scale honeycomb lattice
1329:300 – 3 300 F
1251:−20 – +60 °C
1246:−20 – +70 °C
1243:−20 – +70 °C
1240:−40 – +70 °C
1020:, a redox pseudocapacitor (RuO
80:energy per unit volume or mass
13:
1:
12679:Compressed-air energy storage
11998:Journal of Materials Research
11596:Advanced Functional Materials
11112:Fred Jaillet (15 June 2012).
11007:. 30 May 2008. Archived from
10679:. Siemens.com. Archived from
10623:. 8 July 2009. Archived from
10121:. Maxwell.com. Archived from
9672:10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00228-8
9146:Accounts of Chemical Research
8685:10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02474-3
8370:Dumé, B. (26 November 2010).
7967:Advanced Functional Materials
7897:Lerner, E.J. (October 2004).
7427:10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00736-4
7389:Electrochemistry Encyclopedia
7198:"The electrical double layer"
7146:10.1016/S0008-6223(00)00183-4
7019:Evans Capacitor Company 2007
6476:Energy Harvesting and Systems
6407:
6383:List of emerging technologies
5642:Emirates Air Line (cable car)
5437:A hybrid electric bus called
5217:recover energy during braking
5155:
4989:to shock the heart back into
3685:This internal DC resistance R
3528:A 2.4v Skelcap ultracapacitor
2939:
2460:supercapacitor anchored on a
2102:scanning tunneling microscopy
2060:is a one-atom thick sheet of
1742:
1680:and an electrolytic solution
1304:0.5 k – 10 k
1298:20 k – 100 k
395:of a 200 V high-voltage
122:
86:than rechargeable batteries.
12414:10.1088/2053-1583/2/3/032002
11238:Londoner Emirates Air Line:
10348:10.1016/j.ijepes.2014.01.004
10233:10.1109/SusTech.2013.6617314
9884:M. Farhadi and O. Mohammed,
9091:10.1016/j.nanoen.2012.02.011
8285:Marcus, J. (15 March 2012).
8205:10.1088/2053-1583/2/3/032002
7849:10.1016/0008-6223(92)90178-Y
7676:10.1016/j.elstat.2019.103396
6598:10.1016/j.energy.2016.11.019
6128:3D porous graphene electrode
5971:Battery-electrode nanohybrid
5441:was unveiled in 2008 by the
5106:diesel–electric transmission
5005:
4981:Supercapacitors are used in
4950:
4651:
3691:equivalent series resistance
2541:electron-conducting polymers
2511:have been tested in aqueous
2197:electrochemical double layer
2082:nickel–metal hydride battery
1804:equivalent series resistance
1733:
904:and electrode coming from a
415:Recent developments include
378:equivalent series resistance
254:electrochemical double layer
7:
12080:. IDTechEx. 1 November 2016
10453:J. R. Miller, A. F. Burke,
9908:10.1109/SCEECS.2016.7509275
9776:P. Van den Bossche et al.:
9464:Topics in Current Chemistry
7762:Kim Kinoshita (June 1992).
6340:
6265:Survives repeated flexing.
5603:
5335:trams in the form of their
5029:
4996:
4985:where they can deliver 500
4598:
4392:
4025:and can be represented as:
3896:) and initial resistance (R
3405:this can be calculated as:
2040:
2000:precursors, such as binary
644:electrochemical capacitor:
117:static random-access memory
84:charge and discharge cycles
10:
12837:
9707:10.1016/j.pecs.2005.04.001
9610:Marts, John (9 May 2018).
9258:10.1038/s41598-019-53421-w
8593:10.1109/JPROC.2009.2030240
8232:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
7640:Journal of Carbon Research
5554:
5548:
5346:
5304:In 2014 China began using
5140:rubber tyred gantry cranes
5115:
5074:
5036:Diehl Luftfahrt Elektronik
4976:
3150:standards 62391-1 and -2.
2825:) or lithium hexafluoride
1755:of activated carbon under
1660:achieved by separation of
1656:storage of the electrical
1043:
1006:extrinsic pseudocapacitors
947:in the available surface.
859:
681:
373:chips or for data backup.
274:
12781:
12737:
12669:
12601:Artificial photosynthesis
12588:
12581:
12574:
12356:. John Wiley & Sons.
12335:10.1007/s10008-003-0412-x
12281:10.1007/978-1-4757-3058-6
12136:10.1016/j.ccr.2023.215470
10423:10.1109/VPPC.2010.5729131
10050:. Discoversolarenergy.com
9719:Maxwell Application Note
9687:Prog. Energy Combust. Sci
9512:A. Schneuwly, R. Gallay,
9476:10.1007/s41061-017-0150-7
9200:10.1016/j.est.2021.102402
9188:Journal of Energy Storage
8548:10.1007/s11837-005-0179-x
7663:Journal of Electrostatics
6315:
5557:Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
5315:ground-level power supply
5260:Rio de Janeiro Light Rail
5192:Bombardier Transportation
5190:Energy Saver system from
5091:Bombardier Transportation
4959:is a hybrid rechargeable
3544:at which the electrolyte
2579:have costs comparable to
2445:capacitance of 2000 F/g.
1854:(less than 2 nm) to
1513:
1412:0.3 – 1.5 W/g
1198:
1195:
1188:
1185:
813:Accordingly, capacitance
429:
232:, the mobile charges are
12750:Battery electric vehicle
12745:Alternative fuel vehicle
12616:Concentrated solar power
12247:10.1201/9781420055405-c8
11199:29 February 2012 at the
11116:. Toyotahybridracing.com
11035:17 February 2012 at the
10884:. Vag.de. Archived from
10770:"First one up the drive"
10286:10.1109/TEC.2013.2260752
10190:10.1109/TSG.2012.2194169
10068:A. Stepanov, I. Galkin,
9984:10.1109/tia.2015.2420630
9953:10.1109/TSG.2014.2347253
8665:Journal of Power Sources
7942:. Penton. Archived from
7906:The Industrial Physicist
6693:10.1109/mei.2010.5383924
6520:Journal of Power Sources
6371:Electric vehicle battery
6278:, tungsten disulfide (WS
5905:SWNT composite electrode
5571:hybrid electric vehicles
5545:Hybrid electric vehicles
5522:2012 24 Hours of Le Mans
5483:2012 24 Hours of Le Mans
5342:
5249:tramway network in Paris
5186:vehicle (LRV) using the
4966:double-layer capacitance
4842:, micro-controllers and
2748:chemicals. Treated with
1969:) and specific power of
1650:Double-layer capacitance
1589:double-layer capacitance
1574:
1320:≤ 2.7 F
1127:breakdown field strength
952:double-layer capacitance
684:Double-layer capacitance
649:Double-layer capacitance
488:is given by the formula
481:. The total capacitance
463:Capacitance distribution
98:double-layer capacitance
12755:Hybrid electric vehicle
12684:Flywheel energy storage
12656:Space-based solar power
12385:10.1023/A:1020220425954
11967:10.1021/acsnano.6b06111
11743:National Science Review
11385:10.1126/science.1200770
11285:10.1126/science.1239089
11173:A. Pesaran, J. Gonder,
10936:11 January 2014 at the
10914:11 January 2014 at the
10787:武汉首列超级电容100%低地板有轨电车首发试乘
10527:11 January 2014 at the
10075:11 January 2014 at the
10046:David A. Johnson, P.E.
10032:30 January 2014 at the
9798:13 January 2015 at the
9749:11 January 2014 at the
9532:10 January 2014 at the
9065:Coin type PAS capacitor
8467:10.1126/science.1194372
8338:10.1126/science.1216744
8253:10.1073/pnas.0706508104
7876:10.1023/A:1009629423578
7797:. Carbon-Ukraine. 2015.
7341:10.1073/pnas.1300599110
7223:Srinivasan, S. (2006).
7177:MITRE Nanosystems Group
6377:Flywheel energy storage
6182:On chip line filtering
6083:intercalated nanoflakes
5635:connects the city with
5551:Hybrid electric vehicle
5526:Audi R18 e-tron quattro
5481:Toyota TS030 Hybrid at
5443:University of Glamorgan
5267:Geneva Public Transport
5148:Supercapacitor-powered
5070:
5053:
4848:automated meter reading
4192:stores typically 30 to
4188:, while a conventional
4148:watt-hours per kilogram
3921:electrolytic capacitors
3678:The discharge current I
2634:Battery-type electrodes
1904:Activated carbon fibres
1883:1,250 to 2,000 S/m
1600:Double-layer capacitors
1397:> 100 W/g
1323:0.1 – 470 F
1279:2.5 – 4.2 V
1273:2.2 – 3.8 V
1270:2.2 – 3.3 V
1267:1.2 – 3.3 V
1131:electrolytic capacitors
882:by means of reversible
93:, but rather, they use
72:electrolytic capacitors
12724:Thermal energy storage
12429:Ploehn, Harry (2015).
12218:10.1098/rspa.1963.0114
11608:10.1002/adfm.201201176
11572:10.1002/adfm.201102796
11493:10.1002/ange.201103493
11344:. Rsc.org. 13 May 2011
11180:7 October 2012 at the
11141:7 January 2014 at the
10025:R. Gallay, Garmanage,
10007:Cite journal requires
9549:NESSCAP Co., Ltd. 2008
9394:10.1002/smll.202000180
8022:10.1002/adfm.201002094
7979:10.1002/adfm.201201176
7497:10.1002/smll.202002806
7200:. 2011. Archived from
6940:Adam Marcus Namisnyk.
6904:. ELNA. Archived from
6888:9 January 2014 at the
6720:6 January 2014 at the
6227:LSG/manganese dioxide
5772:Curved graphene sheets
5620:
5566:
5486:
5474:
5402:
5362:
5265:In 2012 tram operator
5262:
5219:
5168:
5164:Light rail vehicle in
5131:
5093:
4929:electromagnetic fields
4855:rechargeable batteries
4831:
4754:portable media players
4661:
4608:
4591:
4516:
4402:
4365:
4296:
4113:
4003:
3916:
3888:
3846:
3788:Internal resistance "R
3762:
3721:
3669:
3593:
3565:Lithium-ion capacitors
3529:
3521:
3491:
3377:
3313:can be calculated as:
3268:
3130:
3108:
3029:
3000:
2992:
2984:
2957:Collectors and housing
2934:electrochemical window
2640:lithium-ion capacitors
2624:lithium-ion capacitors
2539:Another approach uses
2372:) or sulfides such as
2242:+ H (C) + e ⇌ MnOOH(C)
2116:
2105:
2054:
1994:Carbide-derived carbon
1990:
1981:Carbide-derived carbon
1926:
1824:carbide-derived carbon
1768:
1632:lithium-ion capacitors
1584:
1555:
1545:
1535:
1523:
1475:temp., years (y)
1406:3 – 14 W/g
1403:3 – 10 W/g
1400:2 – 10 W/g
1098:
1090:
1082:
1073:Potential distribution
932:
871:
803:
766:
693:
569:
445:
417:lithium-ion capacitors
341:Between 1975 and 1980
297:rechargeable batteries
284:
76:rechargeable batteries
43:
35:
12651:Photovoltaic pavement
12596:Airborne wind turbine
12568:Emerging technologies
12323:J. Solid State Electr
12099:T2+2™ Market Overview
12018:10.1557/JMR.2010.0192
11460:. Green Car Congress.
10538:Mai 2008, Soul, Korea
10365:. YEC. Archived from
7271:10.3390/ijms241310861
6489:10.1515/ehs-2018-0010
6389:Lithium-ion capacitor
6327:) grew from US$ 47.5
6270:Tungsten trioxide (WO
6187:Nanosheet capacitors
5611:
5564:
5480:
5468:
5421:tested a new form of
5400:
5360:
5347:Further information:
5257:
5206:
5163:
5129:
5085:Green Cargo operates
5084:
4947:) for over 10 hours.
4890:Voltage stabilization
4825:
4659:
4606:
4589:
4517:
4400:
4366:
4297:
4198:lithium-ion batteries
4114:
4004:
3911:
3886:
3847:
3763:
3722:
3720:{\displaystyle \tau }
3670:
3591:
3527:
3519:
3492:
3378:
3269:
3128:
3109:
3030:
2998:
2990:
2982:
2970:Electrical parameters
2847:operating temperature
2421:value (1715 F/g) for
2111:
2099:
2048:
2014:thermal decomposition
1988:
1924:
1887:specific surface area
1789:specific surface area
1750:
1706:, electrosorption or
1582:
1551:
1541:
1529:
1521:
1264:4 – 630 V
1173:lithium-ion batteries
1096:
1088:
1080:
1046:Lithium-ion capacitor
1036:Asymmetric capacitors
930:
891:electric double-layer
869:
804:
763:
691:
570:
442:
309:specific surface area
282:
240:. In electrochemical
58:, is a high-capacity
41:
33:
12373:Russ. J. Electrochem
12235:Frackowiak, Elzbieta
11160:19 June 2013 at the
10627:on 17 September 2011
10227:. pp. 162–166.
10090:"Supercapacitor UPS"
9728:13 June 2018 at the
9592:17 July 2013 at the
9430:P. Simon, A. Burke,
8836:10.1149/2.0201505jes
8496:Akbulut, S. (2011).
7407:Frackowiak, Elzbieta
7122:Frackowiak, Elzbieta
7047:3 March 2016 at the
7026:15 June 2017 at the
7001:4 March 2016 at the
6325:Frost & Sullivan
5366:Maxwell Technologies
5211:on sections without
5182:adopted a prototype
5024:regenerative braking
4900:photovoltaic systems
4802:Grid power buffering
4791:electric screwdriver
4769:photographic flashes
4762:photovoltaic systems
4736:Consumer electronics
4540:= specified lifetime
4533:= estimated lifetime
4446:
4308:
4239:
4032:
3942:
3803:
3733:
3711:
3620:
3412:
3320:
3181:
3054:
3019:
2614:Composite electrodes
2053:made of carbon atoms
1933:is a highly porous,
1814:Electrodes for EDLCs
1668:double layer at the
1591:and electrochemical
1487:5 – 10 y
1484:5 – 10 y
1481:5 – 10 y
1478:> 20 y
1473:Working life at room
777:
600: = ½
495:
391:. In 1994 using the
382:Maxwell Technologies
316:Standard Oil of Ohio
305:electrical conductor
287:In the early 1950s,
113:regenerative braking
12719:Silicon–air battery
12704:Molten-salt battery
12694:Lithium–air battery
12689:Grid energy storage
12641:Molten salt reactor
12611:Carbon-neutral fuel
12502:10.1038/nature14647
12494:2015Natur.523..576L
12447:2015Natur.523..536P
12406:2015TDM.....2c2002P
12265:Conway, Brian Evans
12210:1963RSPSA.274...55B
12166:2008PhT....61l..43A
12104:16 May 2011 at the
12010:2010JMatR..25.1500R
11961:(12): 10726–10735.
11698:2013NatSR...3E1408Z
11647:2013NatSR...3E1718M
11485:2011AngCh.123.8912K
11377:2011Sci...332.1537Z
11371:(3067): 1537–1541.
11277:2013Sci...341..534Y
11076:Racecar Engineering
10800:"4-Neo Green Power"
10743:on 10 December 2012
10713:on 10 December 2012
10657:on 10 December 2012
10467:fuelcellworks.com.
10340:2014IJEPE..58...42L
10278:2013ITEnC..28..690I
10150:14 May 2013 at the
9699:2005PECS...31..422D
9664:2002JPS...110..107C
9572:12 May 2013 at the
9525:A. Laforgue et al.
9318:2016NatSR...638620H
9250:2019NatSR...916782M
9103:H. Gualous et al.:
9028:2008NatMa...7..845S
8954:2014NatSR...4E4452W
8907:2009NanoL...9..677D
8872:1995JElS..142.2699Z
8794:2000JElS..147..444P
8677:1997JPS....66....1C
8540:2005JOM....57l..26A
8459:2010Sci...329.1637M
8453:(5999): 1637–1639.
8416:2010NanoL..10.4863L
8330:2012Sci...335.1326E
8324:(6074): 1326–1330.
8293:. Science X network
8244:2007PNAS..10413574P
8238:(34): 13574–13577.
8197:2015TDM.....2c2002P
8154:2011NanoL..11.1423Y
7841:1992Carbo..30..601L
7741:2006JPS...157...11P
7598:2016JPS...326..604Y
7545:10.3390/nano9020148
7452:on 22 November 2012
7419:2001JPS....97..822F
7381:Conway, Brian Evans
7332:2013PNAS..110.3282Y
7231:. Springer eBooks.
7138:2001Carbo..39..937F
6956:on 22 December 2014
6859:1991JElS..138.1539C
6847:J. Electrochem. Soc
6839:Conway, Brian Evans
6803:Conway, Brian Evans
6590:2017Ene...118.1313T
6532:2019JPS...414..420B
6439:2017JVSTB..35d0801Q
5681:
5658:Greenwich Peninsula
5652:, that crosses the
5539:Toyota TS040 Hybrid
5510:Toyota TS030 Hybrid
5373:hybrid electric bus
5281:In August 2012 the
5067:stop-start system.
5064:PSA Peugeot Citroën
4105:
4087:
3998:
3584:Internal resistance
3480:
3462:
3401:for a certain time
3298:rated capacitance.
3103:
3013:orders of magnitude
2862:propylene carbonate
2811:lithium perchlorate
2789:such as quaternary
2783:potassium hydroxide
2577:conductive polymers
2545:conductive polymers
2535:Conductive polymers
2488:and anchored CNTs.
2465:ruthenium-anchored
1939:ultralight material
1806:(ESR) and decrease
1500:alternating current
1492:3 – 5 y
1419:time at room temp.
1286:thousands (k)
1182:
1157:internal resistance
1056:carbon–Ni(OH)
956:potential-dependent
746:physical adsorption
714:double layer effect
367:internal resistance
12046:on 3 November 2016
11933:. 25 November 2016
11931:www.kurzweilai.net
11871:www.kurzweilai.net
11777:. 28 February 2016
11775:www.kurzweilai.net
11756:10.1093/nsr/nwt003
11011:on 11 January 2014
10888:on 11 January 2014
10812:on 10 January 2014
10369:on 11 January 2014
9793:If the cap fits ..
9306:Scientific Reports
9238:Scientific Reports
8942:Scientific Reports
8829:(5): A5185–A5189.
8085:on 10 January 2014
7946:on 21 October 2021
7795:"EnterosorbU, FAQ"
7413:. 97–98: 822–825.
6883:Panasonic Goldcaps
5767:First realization
5679:
5621:
5567:
5487:
5475:
5403:
5363:
5263:
5220:
5209:Paris T3 tram line
5169:
5132:
5094:
4832:
4662:
4609:
4592:
4512:
4437:Arrhenius equation
4403:
4382:to 15 kW/kg.
4361:
4292:
4109:
4091:
4073:
3999:
3984:
3917:
3889:
3842:
3758:
3717:
3665:
3594:
3530:
3522:
3487:
3466:
3448:
3373:
3264:
3131:
3104:
3089:
3025:
3011:(F), three to six
3001:
2993:
2985:
2930:Ionic electrolytes
2852:Electrolytes with
2795:sodium perchlorate
2207:oxides such as MnO
2117:
2106:
2055:
1991:
1975:composite material
1927:
1769:
1759:illumination on a
1622:conducting polymer
1585:
1556:
1546:
1536:
1530:Radial style of a
1524:
1229:Temperature range,
1178:
1107:ceramic capacitors
1099:
1091:
1083:
978:or derivatives of
933:
872:
799:
767:
694:
639:Storage principles
565:
446:
444:(6) separator
343:Brian Evans Conway
301:Activated charcoal
285:
200:conducting polymer
186:chemical reactions
54:), also called an
44:
36:
12821:Energy conversion
12801:
12800:
12777:
12776:
12773:
12772:
12488:(7562): 576–579.
12441:(7562): 536–537.
12363:978-0-471-84802-8
12313:978-3-527-32869-7
12256:978-1-4200-5540-5
12174:10.1063/1.3047681
11905:10.1021/am509065d
11811:10.1021/nn406367p
11706:10.1038/srep01408
11656:10.1038/srep01718
11602:(23): 5038–5043.
11559:Adv. Funct. Mater
11532:10.1021/nn1017457
11479:(37): 8753–8757.
11473:Angewandte Chemie
11428:10.1021/nn402077v
11271:(6145): 534–537.
11213:Ross, Jeffrey N.
11078:. 24 January 2012
10501:on 8 October 2013
10432:978-1-4244-8220-7
10242:978-1-4673-4630-6
9917:978-1-4673-7918-2
9563:Maxwell BOOSTCAP
9326:10.1038/srep38620
9158:10.1021/ar200308h
8962:10.1038/srep04452
8915:10.1021/nl803168s
8880:10.1149/1.2050077
8803:10.1149/1.1393216
8763:10.1021/cm049649j
8757:(16): 3184–3190.
8728:10.1021/cr9003314
8722:(11): 6856–6872.
8638:10.1021/nn101595y
8632:(10): 6039–6049.
8587:(11): 1837–1847.
8424:10.1021/nl102661q
8410:(12): 4863–4868.
8162:10.1021/nl200225j
8068:10.1021/nn901825y
8047:(February 2010).
8010:Adv. Funct. Mater
7973:(23): 5038–5043.
7940:Power Electronics
7775:978-0-471-57043-1
7395:on 13 August 2012
7238:978-0-387-35402-6
6868:10.1149/1.2085829
6639:978-0-07-162421-3
6448:10.1116/1.4983210
6303:
6302:
6081:Manganese dioxide
5518:Le Mans Prototype
5150:terminal tractors
5089:locomotives from
5040:evacuation slides
4961:lead-acid battery
4921:energy harvesting
4915:Energy harvesting
4758:hand-held devices
4509:
4429:accelerated aging
4359:
4332:
4318:
4290:
4263:
4249:
4190:lead–acid battery
4098:
4080:
4069:
4060:
4056:
4042:
3991:
3978:
3966:
3952:
3826:
3813:
3749:
3663:
3660:
3630:
3542:breakdown voltage
3512:Operating voltage
3473:
3455:
3434:
3371:
3361:
3348:
3262:
3204:
3191:
3158:. Then the time t
3096:
3083:
3071:
3028:{\displaystyle W}
2947:polyacrylonitrile
2882:tetrafluoroborate
2870:diethyl carbonate
2856:solvents such as
2600:pseudocapacitance
2581:carbon electrodes
2517:manganese dioxide
1721:on the electrode.
1700:Pseudocapacitance
1628:Hybrid capacitors
1593:pseudocapacitance
1496:
1495:
1213:Pseudocapacitors
1051:Hybrid capacitors
922:chemical reaction
880:electrical energy
862:Pseudocapacitance
797:
659:Pseudocapacitance
563:
505:
389:breakdown voltage
105:pseudocapacitance
16:(Redirected from
12828:
12789:
12788:
12709:Nanowire battery
12636:Methanol economy
12631:Hydrogen economy
12586:
12585:
12579:
12578:
12561:
12554:
12547:
12538:
12537:
12521:
12476:
12458:
12425:
12388:
12367:
12346:
12317:
12294:
12260:
12229:
12192:
12190:
12188:
12182:
12176:. Archived from
12151:
12139:
12109:
12096:
12090:
12089:
12087:
12085:
12074:
12068:
12062:
12056:
12055:
12053:
12051:
12036:
12030:
12029:
12004:(8): 1500–1506.
11993:
11987:
11986:
11949:
11943:
11942:
11940:
11938:
11923:
11917:
11916:
11899:(5): 3414–3419.
11888:
11882:
11881:
11879:
11877:
11863:
11857:
11856:
11854:
11852:
11837:
11831:
11830:
11805:(3): 2658–2666.
11793:
11787:
11786:
11784:
11782:
11767:
11761:
11760:
11758:
11734:
11728:
11727:
11717:
11677:
11671:
11670:
11668:
11658:
11626:
11620:
11619:
11591:
11585:
11584:
11574:
11565:(6): 1272–1278.
11550:
11544:
11543:
11511:
11505:
11504:
11468:
11462:
11461:
11454:
11448:
11447:
11422:(8): 6899–6905.
11411:
11405:
11404:
11360:
11354:
11353:
11351:
11349:
11338:
11332:
11331:
11329:
11327:
11316:"Paradigm shift"
11311:
11305:
11304:
11260:
11254:
11248:
11242:
11236:
11230:
11225:
11219:
11218:
11210:
11204:
11191:
11185:
11171:
11165:
11151:
11145:
11132:
11126:
11125:
11123:
11121:
11109:
11103:
11102:
11094:
11088:
11087:
11085:
11083:
11068:
11062:
11061:
11059:
11057:
11046:
11040:
11027:
11021:
11020:
11018:
11016:
11001:
10995:
10994:
10992:
10990:
10975:
10969:
10968:
10966:
10964:
10959:on 26 March 2013
10948:
10942:
10926:
10920:
10904:
10898:
10897:
10895:
10893:
10878:
10872:
10871:
10869:
10867:
10853:
10847:
10846:
10844:
10842:
10828:
10822:
10821:
10819:
10817:
10811:
10805:. Archived from
10804:
10796:
10790:
10784:
10778:
10777:
10766:
10753:
10752:
10750:
10748:
10729:
10723:
10722:
10720:
10718:
10699:
10693:
10692:
10690:
10688:
10673:
10667:
10666:
10664:
10662:
10643:
10637:
10636:
10634:
10632:
10613:
10607:
10606:
10605:. Alstom, STEEM.
10599:
10593:
10592:
10590:
10588:
10569:
10563:
10561:Presentation PDF
10557:
10551:
10545:
10539:
10517:
10511:
10510:
10508:
10506:
10491:
10485:
10484:
10482:
10480:
10471:. Archived from
10464:
10458:
10451:
10445:
10444:
10417:. pp. 1–6.
10408:
10402:
10401:
10388:
10379:
10378:
10376:
10374:
10358:
10352:
10351:
10322:
10316:
10315:
10297:
10261:
10255:
10254:
10216:
10210:
10209:
10184:(4): 1903–1910.
10173:
10167:
10161:
10155:
10141:
10135:
10134:
10132:
10130:
10115:
10106:
10105:
10103:
10101:
10096:on 20 April 2013
10086:
10080:
10066:
10060:
10059:
10057:
10055:
10043:
10037:
10023:
10017:
10016:
10010:
10005:
10003:
9995:
9978:(5): 3570–3578.
9971:
9965:
9964:
9936:
9930:
9929:
9902:. pp. 1–6.
9895:
9889:
9882:
9873:
9872:
9870:
9868:
9853:
9847:
9846:
9844:
9842:
9831:
9825:
9824:
9822:
9820:
9809:
9803:
9789:
9783:
9774:
9765:
9764:1246501-1246501.
9761:
9755:
9739:
9733:
9717:
9711:
9710:
9693:(5–6): 422–465.
9682:
9676:
9675:
9652:J. Power Sources
9647:
9641:
9639:
9634:
9628:
9627:
9607:
9596:
9583:
9577:
9561:
9550:
9542:
9536:
9523:
9517:
9510:
9504:
9503:
9459:
9450:
9440:
9434:
9428:
9422:
9421:
9373:
9364:
9363:
9345:
9297:
9288:
9287:
9277:
9229:
9220:
9219:
9179:
9170:
9169:
9152:(5): 1075–1083.
9141:
9132:
9131:
9129:
9127:
9116:
9110:
9101:
9095:
9094:
9074:
9068:
9062:
9056:
9055:
9036:10.1038/nmat2297
9016:Nature Materials
9013:
9004:
8998:
8997:
8990:
8984:
8983:
8973:
8933:
8927:
8926:
8890:
8884:
8883:
8866:(8): 2699–2703.
8855:
8849:
8848:
8838:
8814:
8808:
8807:
8805:
8773:
8767:
8766:
8746:
8740:
8739:
8711:
8705:
8704:
8656:
8650:
8649:
8621:
8615:
8614:
8604:
8576:
8567:
8566:
8565:on 25 June 2009.
8564:
8558:. Archived from
8525:
8516:
8507:
8506:
8504:
8493:
8487:
8486:
8442:
8436:
8435:
8399:
8390:
8389:
8387:
8385:
8367:
8358:
8357:
8309:
8303:
8302:
8300:
8298:
8282:
8276:
8275:
8265:
8255:
8223:
8217:
8216:
8180:
8174:
8173:
8148:(4): 1423–1427.
8133:
8127:
8126:
8124:
8122:
8116:
8109:
8101:
8095:
8094:
8092:
8090:
8084:
8078:. Archived from
8062:(3): 1337–1344.
8053:
8040:
8034:
8033:
8005:
7999:
7998:
7962:
7956:
7955:
7953:
7951:
7931:
7925:
7924:
7922:
7920:
7914:
7903:
7894:
7888:
7887:
7859:
7853:
7852:
7824:
7818:
7817:
7816:
7812:
7805:
7799:
7798:
7791:
7780:
7779:
7759:
7753:
7752:
7729:J. Power Sources
7724:
7711:
7710:
7708:
7706:
7695:
7689:
7688:
7678:
7654:
7648:
7647:
7631:
7625:
7624:
7622:
7620:
7614:
7608:. Archived from
7586:J. Power Sources
7583:
7574:
7568:
7567:
7557:
7547:
7523:
7517:
7516:
7491:(37): e2002806.
7482:
7473:
7462:
7461:
7459:
7457:
7437:
7431:
7430:
7411:J. Power Sources
7403:
7397:
7396:
7391:, archived from
7377:
7364:
7363:
7353:
7343:
7325:
7316:(9): 3282–3286.
7300:
7294:
7293:
7283:
7273:
7249:
7243:
7242:
7220:
7214:
7213:
7211:
7209:
7194:
7188:
7187:
7185:
7183:
7174:
7165:
7150:
7149:
7118:
7103:
7102:
7092:
7083:
7074:
7073:
7071:
7069:
7058:
7052:
7038:David A. Evans:
7036:
7030:
7021:Capattery series
7017:
7011:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6979:
6972:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6961:
6955:
6948:
6937:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6913:
6908:on 13 March 2015
6898:
6892:
6879:
6873:
6872:
6870:
6853:(6): 1539–1548.
6835:
6826:
6825:
6815:, pp. 1–8,
6799:
6782:
6781:
6780:
6776:
6769:
6763:
6758:
6743:
6742:
6741:
6737:
6730:
6724:
6711:
6705:
6704:
6678:
6669:
6663:
6662:
6661:
6657:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6624:
6618:
6617:
6575:
6566:
6560:
6559:
6515:
6509:
6508:
6506:
6504:
6491:
6467:
6461:
6460:
6450:
6418:
6367:
6352:
6310:
6173:
6153:
6140:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6108:
6095:
6072:
6061:
6052:
6028:
6027:
6026:
6018:
6017:
6009:
6008:
5992:
5983:
5959:
5946:
5932:Nickel hydroxide
5919:
5890:
5871:
5855:
5835:
5821:
5803:
5797:
5784:
5759:
5750:
5720:
5682:
5678:
5675:
5590:rotary vane type
5516:developed under
5393:
5392:
5391:
5046:, including the
5021:
5020:
5019:
4521:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4504:
4503:
4491:
4490:
4480:
4471:
4470:
4458:
4457:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4357:
4348:
4347:
4338:
4333:
4325:
4320:
4319:
4316:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4288:
4279:
4278:
4269:
4264:
4256:
4251:
4250:
4247:
4211:
4209:
4203:
4195:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4176:of 32.4 MJ/L or
4171:
4118:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4104:
4099:
4096:
4086:
4081:
4078:
4067:
4058:
4057:
4049:
4044:
4043:
4040:
4008:
4006:
4005:
4000:
3997:
3992:
3989:
3980:
3979:
3976:
3967:
3959:
3954:
3953:
3950:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3828:
3827:
3824:
3815:
3814:
3811:
3796:" according to:
3767:
3765:
3764:
3759:
3751:
3750:
3747:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3637:
3632:
3631:
3628:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3479:
3474:
3471:
3461:
3456:
3453:
3435:
3433:
3422:
3382:
3380:
3379:
3374:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3362:
3359:
3350:
3349:
3346:
3330:
3273:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3247:
3246:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3222:
3221:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3105:
3102:
3097:
3094:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3072:
3064:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3026:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2915:
2914:
2904:
2903:
2902:
2894:
2893:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2766:
2765:
2629:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2418:activated carbon
2412:
2411:96.12 kJ/kg
2408:
2407:
2406:
2398:
2397:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2374:titanium sulfide
2371:
2370:
2369:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2345:
2344:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2205:transition-metal
2138:matryoshka dolls
2120:Carbon nanotubes
2092:Carbon nanotubes
2079:
2075:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2006:titanium carbide
1972:
1968:
1964:
1912:
1897:amorphous carbon
1879:Activated carbon
1874:Activated carbon
1869:
1868:
1867:
1844:carbon nanotubes
1820:activated carbon
1793:activated carbon
1761:light microscope
1618:transition metal
1614:Pseudocapacitors
1608:activated carbon
1351:0.01 – 0.3
1284:Recharge cycles,
1221:
1216:Hybrid (Li-ion)
1210:(memory backup)
1196:Supercapacitors
1183:
1177:
1067:
1063:
937:valence electron
848:nanostructures.
808:
806:
805:
800:
798:
790:
574:
572:
571:
566:
564:
562:
561:
560:
548:
547:
537:
536:
535:
523:
522:
512:
507:
506:
503:
289:General Electric
21:
12836:
12835:
12831:
12830:
12829:
12827:
12826:
12825:
12806:
12805:
12802:
12797:
12769:
12733:
12665:
12570:
12565:
12528:
12456:10.1038/523536a
12364:
12314:
12291:
12257:
12204:(1356): 55–79.
12198:Proc. R. Soc. A
12186:
12184:
12183:on 4 March 2016
12180:
12149:
12118:
12116:Further reading
12113:
12112:
12106:Wayback Machine
12097:
12093:
12083:
12081:
12076:
12075:
12071:
12063:
12059:
12049:
12047:
12038:
12037:
12033:
11994:
11990:
11950:
11946:
11936:
11934:
11925:
11924:
11920:
11889:
11885:
11875:
11873:
11865:
11864:
11860:
11850:
11848:
11838:
11834:
11794:
11790:
11780:
11778:
11769:
11768:
11764:
11735:
11731:
11678:
11674:
11627:
11623:
11592:
11588:
11551:
11547:
11512:
11508:
11469:
11465:
11456:
11455:
11451:
11412:
11408:
11361:
11357:
11347:
11345:
11340:
11339:
11335:
11325:
11323:
11322:on 21 June 2013
11312:
11308:
11261:
11257:
11249:
11245:
11237:
11233:
11226:
11222:
11211:
11207:
11201:Wayback Machine
11192:
11188:
11182:Wayback Machine
11172:
11168:
11162:Wayback Machine
11152:
11148:
11143:Wayback Machine
11133:
11129:
11119:
11117:
11110:
11106:
11095:
11091:
11081:
11079:
11070:
11069:
11065:
11055:
11053:
11048:
11047:
11043:
11037:Wayback Machine
11028:
11024:
11014:
11012:
11003:
11002:
10998:
10988:
10986:
10977:
10976:
10972:
10962:
10960:
10949:
10945:
10938:Wayback Machine
10927:
10923:
10916:Wayback Machine
10905:
10901:
10891:
10889:
10880:
10879:
10875:
10865:
10863:
10855:
10854:
10850:
10840:
10838:
10830:
10829:
10825:
10815:
10813:
10809:
10802:
10798:
10797:
10793:
10785:
10781:
10776:. 10 July 2014.
10768:
10767:
10756:
10746:
10744:
10737:Railway Gazette
10731:
10730:
10726:
10716:
10714:
10707:Railway Gazette
10701:
10700:
10696:
10686:
10684:
10675:
10674:
10670:
10660:
10658:
10651:Railway Gazette
10645:
10644:
10640:
10630:
10628:
10621:Railway Gazette
10615:
10614:
10610:
10601:
10600:
10596:
10586:
10584:
10577:Railway Gazette
10571:
10570:
10566:
10558:
10554:
10546:
10542:
10529:Wayback Machine
10518:
10514:
10504:
10502:
10493:
10492:
10488:
10478:
10476:
10465:
10461:
10452:
10448:
10433:
10409:
10405:
10400:. 12 July 2014.
10390:
10389:
10382:
10372:
10370:
10359:
10355:
10323:
10319:
10262:
10258:
10243:
10217:
10213:
10174:
10170:
10162:
10158:
10152:Wayback Machine
10142:
10138:
10128:
10126:
10117:
10116:
10109:
10099:
10097:
10088:
10087:
10083:
10077:Wayback Machine
10067:
10063:
10053:
10051:
10044:
10040:
10034:Wayback Machine
10024:
10020:
10008:
10006:
9997:
9996:
9972:
9968:
9937:
9933:
9918:
9896:
9892:
9883:
9876:
9866:
9864:
9863:on 7 March 2012
9855:
9854:
9850:
9840:
9838:
9833:
9832:
9828:
9818:
9816:
9811:
9810:
9806:
9800:Wayback Machine
9791:Graham Pitcher
9790:
9786:
9775:
9768:
9762:
9758:
9751:Wayback Machine
9740:
9736:
9730:Wayback Machine
9718:
9714:
9683:
9679:
9648:
9644:
9638:3700 Wh/kg
9637:
9635:
9631:
9608:
9599:
9594:Wayback Machine
9584:
9580:
9574:Wayback Machine
9562:
9553:
9543:
9539:
9534:Wayback Machine
9524:
9520:
9511:
9507:
9460:
9453:
9441:
9437:
9429:
9425:
9388:(31): 2000180.
9374:
9367:
9298:
9291:
9230:
9223:
9180:
9173:
9142:
9135:
9125:
9123:
9118:
9117:
9113:
9102:
9098:
9075:
9071:
9063:
9059:
9022:(11): 845–854.
9011:
9005:
9001:
8992:
8991:
8987:
8934:
8930:
8891:
8887:
8856:
8852:
8815:
8811:
8774:
8770:
8747:
8743:
8712:
8708:
8659:Conway, B. E.;
8657:
8653:
8622:
8618:
8577:
8570:
8562:
8523:
8517:
8510:
8502:
8494:
8490:
8443:
8439:
8400:
8393:
8383:
8381:
8368:
8361:
8310:
8306:
8296:
8294:
8283:
8279:
8224:
8220:
8181:
8177:
8134:
8130:
8120:
8118:
8117:on 2 April 2016
8114:
8107:
8103:
8102:
8098:
8088:
8086:
8082:
8051:
8041:
8037:
8006:
8002:
7963:
7959:
7949:
7947:
7932:
7928:
7918:
7916:
7915:on 2 April 2015
7912:
7901:
7895:
7891:
7860:
7856:
7825:
7821:
7814:
7806:
7802:
7793:
7792:
7783:
7776:
7760:
7756:
7725:
7714:
7704:
7702:
7697:
7696:
7692:
7655:
7651:
7632:
7628:
7618:
7616:
7615:on 19 July 2018
7612:
7581:
7575:
7571:
7524:
7520:
7480:
7474:
7465:
7455:
7453:
7438:
7434:
7404:
7400:
7378:
7367:
7301:
7297:
7250:
7246:
7239:
7221:
7217:
7207:
7205:
7196:
7195:
7191:
7181:
7179:
7172:
7166:
7153:
7119:
7106:
7090:
7084:
7077:
7067:
7065:
7060:
7059:
7055:
7049:Wayback Machine
7037:
7033:
7028:Wayback Machine
7018:
7014:
7003:Wayback Machine
6992:
6988:
6981:
6973:
6969:
6959:
6957:
6953:
6946:
6938:
6921:
6911:
6909:
6900:
6899:
6895:
6890:Wayback Machine
6880:
6876:
6836:
6829:
6823:
6800:
6785:
6778:
6770:
6766:
6759:
6746:
6739:
6731:
6727:
6722:Wayback Machine
6712:
6708:
6676:
6670:
6666:
6659:
6651:
6647:
6640:
6626:
6625:
6621:
6573:
6567:
6563:
6516:
6512:
6502:
6500:
6468:
6464:
6419:
6415:
6410:
6365:
6356:Capacitor types
6350:
6343:
6318:
6281:
6273:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6167:
6147:
6134:
6119:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6102:
6089:
6066:
6055:
6046:
6025:
6022:
6021:
6020:
6016:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6007:
6004:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5986:
5977:
5965:
5953:
5940:
5913:
5884:
5865:
5849:
5829:
5815:
5801:
5791:
5778:
5753:
5744:
5740:
5738:
5714:
5691:Specific energy
5673:
5670:
5612:Aerial lift in
5606:
5598:Peugeot Citroën
5559:
5553:
5547:
5463:
5390:
5387:
5386:
5385:
5383:
5355:
5345:
5319:the VLT network
5158:
5124:
5118:Crane (machine)
5116:Main articles:
5114:
5112:Plant machinery
5079:
5073:
5056:
5032:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5008:
4999:
4979:
4953:
4937:radio frequency
4917:
4908:
4892:
4820:
4804:
4799:
4773:digital cameras
4738:
4726:
4716:BS/EN 61881-3,
4654:
4633:
4601:
4584:
4576:leakage current
4571:
4553:
4546:
4539:
4532:
4499:
4495:
4486:
4482:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4466:
4462:
4453:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4395:
4377:
4353:
4349:
4343:
4339:
4337:
4324:
4315:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4284:
4280:
4274:
4270:
4268:
4255:
4246:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4207:
4205:
4201:
4193:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4169:
4140:gravimetrically
4136:specific energy
4128:
4100:
4095:
4082:
4077:
4048:
4039:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4016:
3993:
3988:
3975:
3971:
3958:
3949:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3939:
3930:
3906:
3904:Energy capacity
3899:
3895:
3881:
3836:
3832:
3823:
3819:
3810:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3782:
3746:
3742:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3699:
3688:
3681:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3636:
3627:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3586:
3535:
3514:
3507:
3503:
3475:
3470:
3457:
3452:
3426:
3421:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3393:
3389:
3358:
3354:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3321:
3318:
3317:
3255:
3251:
3242:
3238:
3237:
3230:
3226:
3217:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3201:
3197:
3188:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3123:
3098:
3093:
3080:
3076:
3063:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3006:
2977:
2972:
2959:
2942:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2874:γ-butyrolactone
2866:tetrahydrofuran
2837:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2805:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2702:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2648:
2636:
2628:50.4 kJ/kg
2627:
2616:
2604:specific energy
2596:
2537:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2491:Less expensive
2481:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2471:carbon nanotube
2456:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2427:carbon nanotube
2423:ruthenium oxide
2410:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2297:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2241:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2185:
2178:
2172:
2094:
2077:
2074:85.6 Wh/kg
2073:
2049:Graphene is an
2043:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2002:silicon carbide
1983:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1919:
1910:
1906:
1876:
1870:intercalation.
1866:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1816:
1800:specific energy
1745:
1736:
1719:charge-transfer
1704:redox reactions
1676:of a conductor
1577:
1553:
1543:
1516:
1474:
1445:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1390:
1385:
1375:
1374:100 – 265
1367:
1362:
1357:
1356:1.5 – 3.9
1352:
1347:
1343:
1340:Specific energy
1313:
1301:> 20 k
1289:< unlimited
1285:
1257:
1256:Maximum charge,
1232:degrees Celsius
1230:
1224:(experimental)
1223:
1209:
1207:
1200:
1192:
1190:
1180:
1169:
1146:electrochemical
1111:film capacitors
1075:
1059:
1053:
1048:
1038:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
987:electric charge
973:
969:
965:
918:electrosorption
898:charge-transfer
887:redox reactions
864:
858:
789:
778:
775:
774:
686:
680:
663:electrochemical
641:
634:
627:
620:
613:
606:
599:
592:
585:
556:
552:
543:
539:
538:
531:
527:
518:
514:
513:
511:
502:
498:
496:
493:
492:
487:
480:
473:
465:
449:Electrochemical
437:
432:
347:ruthenium oxide
277:
228:In solid-state
222:electrosorption
214:redox reactions
210:charge-transfer
125:
102:electrochemical
28:
23:
22:
18:Supercapacitors
15:
12:
11:
5:
12834:
12824:
12823:
12818:
12799:
12798:
12796:
12795:
12782:
12779:
12778:
12775:
12774:
12771:
12770:
12768:
12767:
12765:Wireless power
12762:
12757:
12752:
12747:
12741:
12739:
12735:
12734:
12732:
12731:
12729:Ultracapacitor
12726:
12721:
12716:
12711:
12706:
12701:
12696:
12691:
12686:
12681:
12675:
12673:
12667:
12666:
12664:
12663:
12658:
12653:
12648:
12643:
12638:
12633:
12628:
12626:Home fuel cell
12623:
12618:
12613:
12608:
12603:
12598:
12592:
12590:
12583:
12576:
12572:
12571:
12564:
12563:
12556:
12549:
12541:
12535:
12534:
12527:
12526:External links
12524:
12523:
12522:
12477:
12426:
12389:
12379:(9): 935–959.
12368:
12362:
12347:
12318:
12312:
12295:
12290:978-0306457364
12289:
12261:
12255:
12230:
12193:
12141:
12140:
12117:
12114:
12111:
12110:
12091:
12069:
12057:
12031:
11988:
11944:
11918:
11883:
11858:
11846:www.gizmag.com
11832:
11788:
11762:
11749:(2): 277–292.
11729:
11672:
11621:
11586:
11545:
11526:(2): 811–819.
11506:
11463:
11449:
11406:
11355:
11333:
11306:
11255:
11243:
11231:
11220:
11205:
11186:
11166:
11146:
11127:
11104:
11089:
11063:
11041:
11022:
10996:
10970:
10943:
10921:
10899:
10873:
10861:www.alstom.com
10848:
10836:www.alstom.com
10823:
10791:
10779:
10754:
10724:
10694:
10683:on 12 May 2013
10668:
10638:
10608:
10594:
10583:on 8 June 2011
10564:
10552:
10540:
10512:
10486:
10475:on 21 May 2008
10459:
10446:
10431:
10403:
10380:
10353:
10317:
10272:(3): 690–697.
10256:
10241:
10211:
10168:
10156:
10136:
10125:on 22 May 2013
10107:
10081:
10061:
10038:
10018:
10009:|journal=
9966:
9931:
9916:
9890:
9874:
9848:
9826:
9804:
9784:
9766:
9756:
9734:
9712:
9677:
9658:(1): 107–116.
9642:
9629:
9597:
9578:
9551:
9537:
9518:
9505:
9451:
9435:
9423:
9365:
9289:
9221:
9171:
9133:
9111:
9096:
9085:(3): 479–487.
9069:
9057:
8999:
8985:
8928:
8901:(2): 677–683.
8885:
8850:
8809:
8788:(2): 444–450.
8768:
8741:
8706:
8651:
8616:
8568:
8508:
8488:
8437:
8391:
8359:
8304:
8277:
8218:
8175:
8128:
8096:
8035:
8016:(5): 810–833.
8000:
7957:
7926:
7889:
7870:(4): 281–285.
7854:
7835:(4): 601–604.
7819:
7800:
7781:
7774:
7754:
7712:
7690:
7649:
7626:
7569:
7518:
7463:
7432:
7398:
7365:
7295:
7244:
7237:
7215:
7204:on 31 May 2011
7189:
7151:
7132:(6): 937–950.
7104:
7075:
7053:
7031:
7012:
6986:
6967:
6919:
6893:
6874:
6827:
6822:978-0306457364
6821:
6783:
6764:
6744:
6725:
6706:
6664:
6645:
6638:
6619:
6561:
6510:
6482:(3–4): 43–51.
6462:
6412:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6405:
6404:
6398:
6392:
6386:
6380:
6374:
6368:
6359:
6353:
6342:
6339:
6317:
6314:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6289:
6286:
6283:
6279:
6271:
6267:
6266:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6246:
6245:
6242:
6240:
6237:
6234:
6231:
6228:
6224:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6210:Dielectric: Ca
6207:
6203:
6202:Electrodes: Ru
6200:
6197:
6195:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6184:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6176:
6174:
6165:
6162:
6158:
6157:
6154:
6145:
6143:
6141:
6132:
6129:
6125:
6124:
6117:
6109:
6100:
6098:
6096:
6087:
6084:
6077:
6076:
6073:
6064:
6062:
6053:
6044:
6041:
6031:
6030:
6023:
6014:
6005:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5984:
5975:
5972:
5968:
5967:
5963:
5960:
5951:
5949:
5947:
5938:
5935:
5928:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5902:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5882:
5879:
5873:
5872:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5856:
5847:
5844:
5840:
5839:
5836:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5813:
5810:
5806:
5805:
5798:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5776:
5773:
5769:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5751:
5742:
5735:
5731:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5723:
5721:
5712:
5709:
5705:
5704:
5701:
5698:
5695:
5694:Specific power
5692:
5689:
5686:
5680:Announcements
5669:
5666:
5605:
5602:
5549:Main article:
5546:
5543:
5537:. In 2014 the
5462:
5459:
5417:In early 2005
5405:As of 2002 in
5388:
5344:
5341:
5323:Rio de Janeiro
5213:overhead wires
5173:overhead lines
5157:
5154:
5145:forklift truck
5134:Mobile hybrid
5122:Forklift truck
5113:
5110:
5075:Main article:
5072:
5069:
5055:
5052:
5031:
5028:
5016:
5007:
5004:
4998:
4995:
4983:defibrillators
4978:
4975:
4952:
4949:
4933:energy storage
4916:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4891:
4888:
4819:
4816:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4783:, 90 seconds.
4737:
4734:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4698:
4697:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4653:
4650:
4632:
4629:
4600:
4597:
4583:
4580:
4570:
4569:Self-discharge
4567:
4556:
4555:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4530:
4523:
4522:
4508:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4474:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4456:
4452:
4394:
4391:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4356:
4352:
4346:
4342:
4336:
4331:
4328:
4323:
4314:
4303:
4287:
4283:
4277:
4273:
4267:
4262:
4259:
4254:
4245:
4229:
4224:
4217:specific power
4202:265 Wh/kg
4186:0.3 Wh/kg
4178:9000 Wh/L
4174:energy density
4159:volumetrically
4127:
4124:
4120:
4119:
4108:
4103:
4094:
4090:
4085:
4076:
4072:
4066:
4063:
4055:
4052:
4047:
4038:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4009:
3996:
3987:
3983:
3974:
3970:
3965:
3962:
3957:
3948:
3931:(expressed in
3928:
3927:. The energy W
3905:
3902:
3897:
3893:
3880:
3877:
3853:
3852:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3822:
3818:
3809:
3793:
3789:
3781:
3778:
3769:
3768:
3757:
3754:
3745:
3741:
3738:
3716:
3701:
3697:
3686:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3656:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3626:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3585:
3582:
3533:
3513:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3486:
3483:
3478:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3417:
3391:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3370:
3366:
3357:
3353:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3328:
3325:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3275:
3274:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3245:
3241:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3216:
3209:
3200:
3196:
3187:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3144:time constants
3122:
3119:
3115:
3114:
3101:
3092:
3088:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3067:
3062:
3059:
3044:
3035:(expressed in
3024:
3004:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2958:
2955:
2941:
2938:
2920:
2911:
2899:
2890:
2878:ammonium salts
2835:
2819:
2803:
2771:
2762:
2701:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2647:
2644:
2635:
2632:
2615:
2612:
2608:specific power
2595:
2592:
2536:
2533:
2525:
2479:
2454:
2439:
2403:
2394:
2382:
2366:
2350:
2341:
2325:
2309:
2296:
2293:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2273:+ C + e ⇌ (MnO
2270:
2266:
2258:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2183:
2176:
2171:
2168:
2093:
2090:
2078:308 kJ/kg
2042:
2039:
2030:
1982:
1979:
1963:325 kJ/kg
1918:
1917:Carbon aerogel
1915:
1905:
1902:
1875:
1872:
1864:
1826:(CDC), carbon
1815:
1812:
1808:specific power
1744:
1741:
1735:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1697:
1688:(0.3–0.8
1635:
1634:
1625:
1611:
1576:
1573:
1569:short circuits
1515:
1512:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1451:Efficiency (%)
1448:
1447:
1442:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1417:Self-discharge
1414:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1382:Specific power
1378:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1226:
1225:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1203:
1202:
1197:
1194:
1187:
1168:
1165:
1122:electric field
1074:
1071:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
985:The amount of
971:
967:
963:
860:Main article:
857:
854:
811:
810:
796:
793:
788:
785:
782:
682:Main article:
679:
676:
671:
670:
656:
640:
637:
632:
625:
618:
611:
604:
597:
590:
583:
576:
575:
559:
555:
551:
546:
542:
534:
530:
526:
521:
517:
510:
501:
485:
478:
471:
464:
461:
436:
433:
431:
428:
276:
273:
269:conductivities
256:structure. In
226:
225:
189:
173:
164:(0.3–0.8
124:
121:
56:ultracapacitor
48:supercapacitor
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12833:
12822:
12819:
12817:
12814:
12813:
12811:
12804:
12794:
12793:
12784:
12783:
12780:
12766:
12763:
12761:
12758:
12756:
12753:
12751:
12748:
12746:
12743:
12742:
12740:
12736:
12730:
12727:
12725:
12722:
12720:
12717:
12715:
12712:
12710:
12707:
12705:
12702:
12700:
12697:
12695:
12692:
12690:
12687:
12685:
12682:
12680:
12677:
12676:
12674:
12672:
12668:
12662:
12661:Vortex engine
12659:
12657:
12654:
12652:
12649:
12647:
12644:
12642:
12639:
12637:
12634:
12632:
12629:
12627:
12624:
12622:
12619:
12617:
12614:
12612:
12609:
12607:
12604:
12602:
12599:
12597:
12594:
12593:
12591:
12587:
12584:
12580:
12577:
12573:
12569:
12562:
12557:
12555:
12550:
12548:
12543:
12542:
12539:
12533:
12530:
12529:
12519:
12515:
12511:
12507:
12503:
12499:
12495:
12491:
12487:
12483:
12478:
12474:
12470:
12466:
12462:
12457:
12452:
12448:
12444:
12440:
12436:
12432:
12427:
12423:
12419:
12415:
12411:
12407:
12403:
12400:(3): 032002.
12399:
12395:
12390:
12386:
12382:
12378:
12374:
12369:
12365:
12359:
12355:
12354:
12348:
12344:
12340:
12336:
12332:
12328:
12324:
12319:
12315:
12309:
12305:
12301:
12296:
12292:
12286:
12282:
12278:
12274:
12270:
12266:
12262:
12258:
12252:
12248:
12244:
12240:
12236:
12231:
12227:
12223:
12219:
12215:
12211:
12207:
12203:
12199:
12194:
12179:
12175:
12171:
12167:
12163:
12160:(12): 43–47.
12159:
12155:
12148:
12143:
12142:
12137:
12133:
12129:
12125:
12120:
12119:
12107:
12103:
12100:
12095:
12079:
12073:
12067:
12061:
12045:
12041:
12035:
12027:
12023:
12019:
12015:
12011:
12007:
12003:
11999:
11992:
11984:
11980:
11976:
11972:
11968:
11964:
11960:
11956:
11948:
11932:
11928:
11922:
11914:
11910:
11906:
11902:
11898:
11894:
11887:
11872:
11868:
11862:
11847:
11843:
11836:
11828:
11824:
11820:
11816:
11812:
11808:
11804:
11800:
11792:
11776:
11772:
11766:
11757:
11752:
11748:
11744:
11740:
11733:
11725:
11721:
11716:
11711:
11707:
11703:
11699:
11695:
11691:
11687:
11683:
11676:
11667:
11662:
11657:
11652:
11648:
11644:
11640:
11636:
11632:
11625:
11617:
11613:
11609:
11605:
11601:
11597:
11590:
11582:
11578:
11573:
11568:
11564:
11560:
11556:
11549:
11541:
11537:
11533:
11529:
11525:
11521:
11517:
11510:
11502:
11498:
11494:
11490:
11486:
11482:
11478:
11474:
11467:
11459:
11453:
11445:
11441:
11437:
11433:
11429:
11425:
11421:
11417:
11410:
11402:
11398:
11394:
11390:
11386:
11382:
11378:
11374:
11370:
11366:
11359:
11343:
11337:
11321:
11317:
11310:
11302:
11298:
11294:
11290:
11286:
11282:
11278:
11274:
11270:
11266:
11259:
11253:
11247:
11241:
11235:
11229:
11224:
11216:
11209:
11202:
11198:
11195:
11190:
11183:
11179:
11176:
11170:
11163:
11159:
11156:
11150:
11144:
11140:
11137:
11131:
11115:
11108:
11100:
11093:
11077:
11073:
11067:
11051:
11045:
11038:
11034:
11031:
11026:
11010:
11006:
11000:
10985:. 5 June 2008
10984:
10980:
10974:
10958:
10954:
10947:
10940:
10939:
10935:
10932:
10925:
10918:
10917:
10913:
10910:
10903:
10887:
10883:
10877:
10862:
10858:
10852:
10837:
10833:
10827:
10808:
10801:
10795:
10788:
10783:
10775:
10774:The Economist
10771:
10765:
10763:
10761:
10759:
10742:
10738:
10734:
10728:
10712:
10708:
10704:
10698:
10682:
10678:
10672:
10656:
10652:
10648:
10642:
10626:
10622:
10618:
10612:
10604:
10598:
10582:
10578:
10574:
10568:
10562:
10556:
10550:
10544:
10537:
10536:
10531:
10530:
10526:
10523:
10516:
10500:
10496:
10490:
10474:
10470:
10463:
10456:
10450:
10442:
10438:
10434:
10428:
10424:
10420:
10416:
10415:
10407:
10399:
10398:
10397:The Economist
10393:
10387:
10385:
10368:
10364:
10357:
10349:
10345:
10341:
10337:
10333:
10329:
10321:
10313:
10309:
10305:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10287:
10283:
10279:
10275:
10271:
10267:
10260:
10252:
10248:
10244:
10238:
10234:
10230:
10226:
10222:
10215:
10207:
10203:
10199:
10195:
10191:
10187:
10183:
10179:
10172:
10166:
10160:
10153:
10149:
10146:
10140:
10124:
10120:
10114:
10112:
10095:
10091:
10085:
10078:
10074:
10071:
10065:
10049:
10042:
10035:
10031:
10028:
10022:
10014:
10001:
9993:
9989:
9985:
9981:
9977:
9970:
9962:
9958:
9954:
9950:
9946:
9942:
9935:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9913:
9909:
9905:
9901:
9894:
9887:
9881:
9879:
9862:
9858:
9852:
9836:
9830:
9814:
9808:
9801:
9797:
9794:
9788:
9781:
9780:
9773:
9771:
9760:
9753:
9752:
9748:
9745:
9738:
9731:
9727:
9724:
9723:
9716:
9708:
9704:
9700:
9696:
9692:
9688:
9681:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9653:
9646:
9633:
9625:
9621:
9617:
9613:
9606:
9604:
9602:
9595:
9591:
9588:
9582:
9575:
9571:
9568:
9567:
9560:
9558:
9556:
9548:
9547:
9541:
9535:
9531:
9528:
9522:
9515:
9509:
9501:
9497:
9493:
9489:
9485:
9481:
9477:
9473:
9469:
9465:
9458:
9456:
9449:
9445:
9439:
9433:
9427:
9419:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9395:
9391:
9387:
9383:
9379:
9372:
9370:
9361:
9357:
9353:
9349:
9344:
9339:
9335:
9331:
9327:
9323:
9319:
9315:
9311:
9307:
9303:
9296:
9294:
9285:
9281:
9276:
9271:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9255:
9251:
9247:
9243:
9239:
9235:
9228:
9226:
9217:
9213:
9209:
9205:
9201:
9197:
9193:
9189:
9185:
9178:
9176:
9167:
9163:
9159:
9155:
9151:
9147:
9140:
9138:
9121:
9115:
9108:
9107:
9100:
9092:
9088:
9084:
9080:
9073:
9066:
9061:
9053:
9049:
9045:
9041:
9037:
9033:
9029:
9025:
9021:
9017:
9010:
9003:
8995:
8989:
8981:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8963:
8959:
8955:
8951:
8947:
8943:
8939:
8932:
8924:
8920:
8916:
8912:
8908:
8904:
8900:
8896:
8889:
8881:
8877:
8873:
8869:
8865:
8861:
8854:
8846:
8842:
8837:
8832:
8828:
8824:
8820:
8813:
8804:
8799:
8795:
8791:
8787:
8783:
8779:
8772:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8752:
8745:
8737:
8733:
8729:
8725:
8721:
8717:
8710:
8702:
8698:
8694:
8690:
8686:
8682:
8678:
8674:
8671:(1–2): 1–14.
8670:
8666:
8662:
8655:
8647:
8643:
8639:
8635:
8631:
8627:
8620:
8612:
8608:
8603:
8598:
8594:
8590:
8586:
8582:
8575:
8573:
8561:
8557:
8553:
8549:
8545:
8541:
8537:
8534:(12): 24–31.
8533:
8529:
8522:
8515:
8513:
8501:
8500:
8492:
8484:
8480:
8476:
8472:
8468:
8464:
8460:
8456:
8452:
8448:
8441:
8433:
8429:
8425:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8409:
8405:
8398:
8396:
8379:
8378:
8377:Physics World
8373:
8366:
8364:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8331:
8327:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8308:
8292:
8288:
8281:
8273:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8245:
8241:
8237:
8233:
8229:
8222:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8191:(3): 032002.
8190:
8186:
8179:
8171:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8155:
8151:
8147:
8143:
8139:
8132:
8113:
8106:
8100:
8081:
8077:
8073:
8069:
8065:
8061:
8057:
8050:
8046:
8039:
8031:
8027:
8023:
8019:
8015:
8011:
8004:
7996:
7992:
7988:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7961:
7945:
7941:
7937:
7930:
7911:
7907:
7900:
7893:
7885:
7881:
7877:
7873:
7869:
7865:
7864:J. Porous Mat
7858:
7850:
7846:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7830:
7823:
7810:
7804:
7796:
7790:
7788:
7786:
7777:
7771:
7767:
7766:
7758:
7750:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7723:
7721:
7719:
7717:
7700:
7694:
7686:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7653:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7630:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7580:
7573:
7565:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7546:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7532:Nanomaterials
7529:
7522:
7514:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7479:
7472:
7470:
7468:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7436:
7428:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7408:
7402:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7376:
7374:
7372:
7370:
7361:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7333:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7315:
7311:
7307:
7299:
7291:
7287:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7267:
7264:(13): 10861.
7263:
7259:
7255:
7248:
7240:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7219:
7203:
7199:
7193:
7178:
7171:
7164:
7162:
7160:
7158:
7156:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7117:
7115:
7113:
7111:
7109:
7100:
7096:
7089:
7082:
7080:
7063:
7057:
7050:
7046:
7043:
7042:
7035:
7029:
7025:
7022:
7016:
7010:22 March 1994
7009:
7005:
7004:
7000:
6997:
6990:
6977:
6971:
6952:
6945:
6944:
6936:
6934:
6932:
6930:
6928:
6926:
6924:
6907:
6903:
6897:
6891:
6887:
6884:
6878:
6869:
6864:
6860:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6840:
6834:
6832:
6824:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6809:
6804:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6774:
6768:
6762:
6757:
6755:
6753:
6751:
6749:
6735:
6729:
6723:
6719:
6716:
6710:
6702:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6675:
6668:
6655:
6649:
6641:
6635:
6631:
6630:
6623:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6584:: 1313–1321.
6583:
6579:
6572:
6565:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6514:
6499:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6466:
6458:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6433:(4): 040801.
6432:
6428:
6424:
6417:
6413:
6402:
6399:
6396:
6393:
6390:
6387:
6384:
6381:
6378:
6375:
6372:
6369:
6363:
6360:
6357:
6354:
6348:
6345:
6344:
6338:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6326:
6321:
6313:
6309:
6308:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6290:
6287:
6284:
6277:
6269:
6268:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6248:
6247:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:10 kW/L
6235:
6232:
6229:
6226:
6225:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6186:
6185:
6181:
6179:
6177:
6175:
6171:
6166:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6146:
6144:
6142:
6138:
6133:
6130:
6127:
6126:
6110:
6106:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6093:
6088:
6085:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6065:
6063:
6059:
6054:
6050:
6045:
6042:
6039:
6036:
6033:
6032:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5990:
5985:
5981:
5976:
5973:
5970:
5969:
5961:
5957:
5952:
5950:
5948:
5944:
5939:
5936:
5933:
5930:
5929:
5925:
5923:
5921:
5917:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5888:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5874:
5869:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5857:
5853:
5848:
5845:
5842:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5828:
5825:
5823:
5819:
5814:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5799:
5795:
5790:
5788:
5786:
5782:
5777:
5774:
5771:
5770:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5757:
5752:
5748:
5743:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5728:
5726:
5724:
5722:
5718:
5713:
5710:
5707:
5706:
5702:
5699:
5696:
5693:
5690:
5687:
5684:
5683:
5677:
5674:54 kJ/kg
5665:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5643:
5638:
5637:Schmittenhöhe
5634:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5615:
5610:
5601:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5578:
5574:
5572:
5563:
5558:
5552:
5542:
5540:
5536:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5498:
5492:
5484:
5479:
5472:
5467:
5458:
5456:
5452:
5451:hydrogen fuel
5448:
5444:
5440:
5435:
5433:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5415:
5412:
5408:
5399:
5395:
5380:
5378:
5374:
5369:
5367:
5359:
5354:
5350:
5340:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5310:
5307:
5302:
5300:
5295:
5293:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5270:
5268:
5261:
5256:
5252:
5250:
5246:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5228:
5225:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5205:
5201:
5198:
5197:overhead line
5193:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5176:
5174:
5167:
5162:
5153:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5137:
5128:
5123:
5119:
5109:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5092:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5068:
5065:
5061:
5051:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5027:
5025:
5003:
4994:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4974:
4971:
4967:
4962:
4958:
4948:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4912:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4887:
4885:
4881:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4851:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4829:
4824:
4815:
4813:
4809:
4794:
4792:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4765:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4733:
4730:
4719:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4707:
4704:IEC 62391–2,
4703:
4702:
4701:
4695:
4692:
4689:
4687:Memory backup
4686:
4685:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4666:
4658:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4628:
4624:
4621:
4617:
4614:
4605:
4596:
4588:
4579:
4577:
4566:
4563:
4559:
4549:
4542:
4535:
4528:
4527:
4526:
4506:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4487:
4483:
4476:
4472:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4454:
4450:
4442:
4441:
4440:
4438:
4432:
4430:
4425:
4423:
4418:
4416:
4411:
4407:
4399:
4390:
4387:
4386:Ragone charts
4383:
4379:
4354:
4350:
4344:
4340:
4334:
4329:
4326:
4321:
4312:
4304:
4285:
4281:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4260:
4257:
4252:
4243:
4235:
4234:
4233:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4199:
4194:40 Wh/kg
4191:
4182:15 Wh/kg
4175:
4166:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4142:(per unit of
4141:
4137:
4133:
4123:
4101:
4092:
4088:
4083:
4074:
4064:
4061:
4053:
4050:
4045:
4036:
4028:
4027:
4026:
3994:
3985:
3981:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3960:
3955:
3946:
3938:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3926:
3922:
3914:
3910:
3901:
3885:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3861:
3856:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3820:
3816:
3807:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3786:
3777:
3773:
3755:
3752:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3729:
3728:
3727:
3714:
3707:
3706:time constant
3694:
3692:
3683:
3654:
3647:
3643:
3633:
3624:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3598:
3590:
3581:
3579:
3573:
3569:
3566:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3538:
3526:
3518:
3509:
3484:
3476:
3467:
3463:
3458:
3449:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3415:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3395:
3368:
3355:
3351:
3342:
3335:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3198:
3194:
3185:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3151:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3127:
3118:
3099:
3090:
3086:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3057:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3042:
3038:
3022:
3014:
3010:
2997:
2989:
2981:
2967:
2965:
2964:galvanic cell
2954:
2952:
2948:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2828:
2812:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2755:
2754:sulfuric acid
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2722:and negative
2721:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2707:consist of a
2706:
2697:
2656:
2652:
2643:
2641:
2631:
2625:
2620:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2591:
2589:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2565:polyacetylene
2562:
2558:
2557:polythiophene
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2532:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2486:nanoparticles
2472:
2468:
2463:
2462:graphene foam
2446:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2375:
2359:
2334:
2318:
2302:
2292:
2290:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2167:
2163:
2161:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2134:nanostructure
2132:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2098:
2089:
2085:
2083:
2069:
2065:
2063:
2059:
2052:
2047:
2038:
2023:
2019:
2016:or chemical,
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1987:
1978:
1976:
1967:90 Wh/kg
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1923:
1914:
1911:2500 m/g
1901:
1899:
1898:
1895:consolidated
1892:
1891:tennis courts
1888:
1884:
1880:
1871:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1763:. Notice the
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1740:
1731:
1727:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1708:intercalation
1705:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1654:electrostatic
1651:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1639:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1581:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1560:
1550:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1520:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1443:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1373:
1370:
1366:10 – 15
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1276:~ 4.0 V
1275:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1205:
1204:
1184:
1176:
1174:
1164:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1144:In contrast,
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1125:dielectric's
1123:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1101:Conventional
1095:
1087:
1079:
1070:
1047:
1042:
1033:
1011:
1008:. Chodankar
1007:
1003:
998:
996:
992:
988:
983:
981:
980:polythiophene
977:
959:
957:
953:
948:
946:
942:
938:
929:
925:
923:
919:
915:
914:intercalation
911:
907:
903:
899:
896:
892:
888:
885:
881:
877:
868:
863:
853:
849:
845:
841:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
820:
816:
794:
791:
786:
783:
780:
773:
772:
771:
762:
758:
754:
752:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
720:emerges from
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
690:
685:
675:
668:
664:
660:
657:
654:
653:electrostatic
650:
647:
646:
645:
636:
631:
628: ≈
624:
617:
610:
603:
596:
589:
586: =
582:
557:
553:
549:
544:
540:
532:
528:
524:
519:
515:
508:
499:
491:
490:
489:
484:
477:
470:
460:
456:
454:
450:
441:
427:
424:
422:
418:
413:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
379:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
352:intercalation
348:
344:
339:
337:
332:
330:
324:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
281:
272:
270:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
223:
219:
218:intercalation
215:
211:
208:
205:
201:
197:
193:
190:
187:
184:
180:
178:
174:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
148:
144:
141:
137:
133:
130:
129:
128:
120:
118:
114:
108:
106:
103:
99:
96:
95:electrostatic
92:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
40:
32:
19:
12803:
12790:
12728:
12621:Fusion power
12485:
12481:
12438:
12434:
12397:
12394:2D Materials
12393:
12376:
12372:
12352:
12329:(1): 15–16.
12326:
12322:
12303:
12268:
12238:
12201:
12197:
12185:. Retrieved
12178:the original
12157:
12153:
12127:
12123:
12094:
12082:. Retrieved
12072:
12060:
12048:. Retrieved
12044:the original
12034:
12001:
11997:
11991:
11958:
11954:
11947:
11935:. Retrieved
11930:
11921:
11896:
11892:
11886:
11874:. Retrieved
11870:
11861:
11849:. Retrieved
11845:
11835:
11802:
11798:
11791:
11779:. Retrieved
11774:
11765:
11746:
11742:
11732:
11689:
11685:
11675:
11638:
11634:
11624:
11599:
11595:
11589:
11562:
11558:
11548:
11523:
11519:
11509:
11476:
11472:
11466:
11452:
11419:
11415:
11409:
11368:
11364:
11358:
11346:. Retrieved
11336:
11324:. Retrieved
11320:the original
11309:
11268:
11264:
11258:
11246:
11234:
11223:
11208:
11189:
11169:
11164:, March 2012
11149:
11134:A.F. Burke,
11130:
11118:. Retrieved
11107:
11092:
11080:. Retrieved
11075:
11066:
11054:. Retrieved
11044:
11025:
11013:. Retrieved
11009:the original
10999:
10987:. Retrieved
10982:
10973:
10961:. Retrieved
10957:the original
10946:
10929:
10924:
10907:
10902:
10890:. Retrieved
10886:the original
10876:
10864:. Retrieved
10860:
10851:
10839:. Retrieved
10835:
10826:
10814:. Retrieved
10807:the original
10794:
10782:
10773:
10745:. Retrieved
10741:the original
10736:
10727:
10715:. Retrieved
10711:the original
10706:
10697:
10685:. Retrieved
10681:the original
10671:
10659:. Retrieved
10655:the original
10650:
10641:
10629:. Retrieved
10625:the original
10620:
10611:
10597:
10585:. Retrieved
10581:the original
10576:
10567:
10555:
10543:
10533:
10520:
10515:
10503:. Retrieved
10499:the original
10489:
10477:. Retrieved
10473:the original
10462:
10449:
10413:
10406:
10395:
10371:. Retrieved
10367:the original
10361:yec.com.tw.
10356:
10331:
10327:
10320:
10269:
10265:
10259:
10224:
10220:
10214:
10181:
10177:
10171:
10159:
10139:
10127:. Retrieved
10123:the original
10098:. Retrieved
10094:the original
10084:
10064:
10052:. Retrieved
10041:
10021:
10000:cite journal
9975:
9969:
9944:
9940:
9934:
9899:
9893:
9865:. Retrieved
9861:the original
9851:
9839:. Retrieved
9829:
9817:. Retrieved
9807:
9787:
9777:
9759:
9742:
9737:
9721:
9715:
9690:
9686:
9680:
9655:
9651:
9645:
9632:
9624:10976/166930
9615:
9611:
9581:
9565:
9545:
9540:
9521:
9508:
9467:
9463:
9438:
9426:
9385:
9381:
9312:(1): 38620.
9309:
9305:
9244:(1): 16782.
9241:
9237:
9191:
9187:
9149:
9145:
9124:. Retrieved
9114:
9104:
9099:
9082:
9078:
9072:
9060:
9019:
9015:
9002:
8988:
8945:
8941:
8931:
8898:
8895:Nano Letters
8894:
8888:
8863:
8859:
8853:
8826:
8822:
8812:
8785:
8781:
8771:
8754:
8750:
8744:
8719:
8715:
8709:
8668:
8664:
8654:
8629:
8625:
8619:
8602:1721.1/54729
8584:
8580:
8560:the original
8531:
8527:
8498:
8491:
8450:
8446:
8440:
8407:
8404:Nano Letters
8403:
8382:. Retrieved
8375:
8321:
8317:
8307:
8295:. Retrieved
8290:
8280:
8235:
8231:
8221:
8188:
8185:2D Materials
8184:
8178:
8145:
8142:Nano Letters
8141:
8131:
8119:. Retrieved
8112:the original
8099:
8087:. Retrieved
8080:the original
8059:
8055:
8038:
8013:
8009:
8003:
7970:
7966:
7960:
7948:. Retrieved
7944:the original
7939:
7929:
7917:. Retrieved
7910:the original
7905:
7892:
7867:
7863:
7857:
7832:
7828:
7822:
7803:
7764:
7757:
7735:(1): 11–27.
7732:
7728:
7703:. Retrieved
7693:
7666:
7662:
7652:
7643:
7639:
7629:
7617:. Retrieved
7610:the original
7589:
7585:
7572:
7535:
7531:
7521:
7488:
7484:
7454:. Retrieved
7450:the original
7445:
7435:
7410:
7401:
7393:the original
7388:
7313:
7309:
7298:
7261:
7257:
7247:
7228:
7218:
7206:. Retrieved
7202:the original
7192:
7180:. Retrieved
7176:
7129:
7125:
7098:
7094:
7066:. Retrieved
7056:
7040:
7034:
7015:
7007:
6994:
6989:
6970:
6958:. Retrieved
6951:the original
6942:
6910:. Retrieved
6906:the original
6896:
6877:
6850:
6846:
6841:(May 1991).
6807:
6767:
6728:
6709:
6687:(1): 20–25.
6684:
6680:
6667:
6648:
6628:
6622:
6581:
6577:
6564:
6523:
6519:
6513:
6501:. Retrieved
6479:
6475:
6465:
6430:
6426:
6416:
6347:Capa vehicle
6336:
6333:
6322:
6319:
6307:
6304:
6291:1 kW/L
5671:
5668:Developments
5622:
5579:
5575:
5568:
5512:LMP1 car, a
5494:
5488:
5461:Motor racing
5436:
5423:electric bus
5416:
5404:
5381:
5370:
5364:
5349:Capa vehicle
5327:
5311:
5303:
5296:
5280:
5277:
5271:
5264:
5229:
5221:
5177:
5170:
5133:
5095:
5060:Toyota Yaris
5057:
5033:
5009:
5000:
4991:sinus rhythm
4980:
4957:UltraBattery
4954:
4924:
4918:
4909:
4893:
4884:wind turbine
4877:
4871:
4858:
4852:
4833:
4830:pitch system
4828:wind turbine
4805:
4788:
4785:
4780:
4766:
4739:
4731:
4727:
4724:Applications
4717:
4711:
4705:
4699:
4682:
4677:
4667:
4663:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4610:
4593:
4572:
4564:
4560:
4557:
4524:
4433:
4426:
4422:service life
4419:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4384:
4380:
4373:
4214:
4167:
4154:
4152:
4131:
4129:
4121:
4011:
3918:
3913:Ragone chart
3890:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3857:
3854:
3787:
3783:
3774:
3770:
3695:
3684:
3677:
3599:
3595:
3574:
3570:
3562:
3552:splits into
3539:
3531:
3499:
3402:
3398:
3396:
3385:
3310:
3306:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3293:
3276:
3152:
3140:
3132:
3116:
3002:
2960:
2943:
2928:
2858:acetonitrile
2851:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:conductivity
2705:Electrolytes
2703:
2700:Electrolytes
2657:
2653:
2649:
2637:
2621:
2617:
2597:
2585:
2549:conductivity
2538:
2513:electrolytes
2490:
2447:
2415:
2298:
2295:Metal oxides
2283:
2245:
2225:alkali metal
2173:
2164:
2159:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2118:
2086:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2022:halogenation
2017:
2009:
1992:
1951:formaldehyde
1928:
1907:
1894:
1877:
1848:
1817:
1797:
1781:
1770:
1757:bright field
1737:
1728:
1724:
1672:between the
1640:
1636:
1627:
1613:
1603:
1599:
1586:
1561:
1557:
1508:
1497:
1409:32 W/g
1394: (W/g)
1206:Double-layer
1191:electrolytic
1170:
1161:
1143:
1100:
1054:
1039:
1016:, nano LiCoO
1009:
1005:
999:
984:
960:
949:
934:
873:
850:
846:
842:
838:Debye length
829:
825:
821:
819:permittivity
814:
812:
768:
755:
750:
733:
718:
695:
672:
642:
629:
622:
615:
608:
601:
594:
587:
580:
577:
482:
475:
468:
466:
457:
447:
435:Basic design
425:
414:
407:(IV) oxide)
386:
375:
356:
340:
333:
325:
313:
286:
242:double-layer
227:
191:
175:
150:double layer
135:
131:
126:
109:
88:
55:
51:
47:
45:
12187:17 February
12154:Phys. Today
11876:11 February
11851:10 February
11781:11 February
10549:Support PDF
10295:11336/23530
9841:29 November
9516:, PCIM 2000
9444:CID 2724277
9079:Nano Energy
8751:Chem. Mater
8384:28 February
8297:28 February
8121:28 February
7950:28 February
7919:28 February
7705:28 February
7592:: 604–612.
7456:23 February
7182:16 February
7101:(1): 34–37.
7068:21 February
6960:21 February
6912:21 February
6526:: 420–434.
6257:0.02 mA/cm
6199:27.5 μF cm
5754:37.12
5745:13.50
5700:Capacitance
5685:Development
5662:Royal Docks
5633:aerial lift
5625:Zell am See
5614:Zell am See
5502:power train
5455:solar cells
5411:Switzerland
5238:equipped a
5102:locomotives
4906:Micro grids
4863:mains power
4826:Rotor with
4789:A cordless
4744:computers,
4710:IEC 62576,
4210: Wh/kg
4196:and modern
4170:8 Wh/L
3170:) to 40% (V
3121:Measurement
2975:Capacitance
2791:phosphonium
2561:polypyrrole
2553:polyaniline
2448:In 2014, a
2431:capacitance
2252:electrolyte
2131:cylindrical
1971:20 W/g
1959:gravimetric
1955:micrometres
1682:electrolyte
1643:capacitance
1361:4 – 9
1310:Capacitance
1234: (°C)
1199:Lithium-ion
1193:capacitors
976:polyaniline
906:de-solvated
902:electrolyte
698:electrolyte
401:metal oxide
196:metal oxide
170:electrolyte
158:electrolyte
64:capacitance
12816:Capacitors
12810:Categories
12760:Smart grid
12589:Production
12130:: 215470.
11937:2 February
11015:12 January
10989:12 January
10866:4 November
10841:4 November
10816:23 October
9194:: 102402.
8693:1880/44956
8581:Proc. IEEE
8045:Yushin, G.
7809:US 6787235
7669:: 103396.
7619:4 December
7538:(2): 148.
7446:Earth2Tech
7208:20 January
6976:US 5369547
6773:US 3536963
6734:US 3288641
6654:US 2800616
6503:30 October
6408:References
6401:Nanoflower
6288:~100 Wh/L
6168:2.42
6103:1000
6067:1700
6056:2.25
5954:3300
5941:50.6
5866:3290
5826:>10,000
5779:85.6
5555:See also:
5514:racing car
5485:motor race
5371:The first
5224:Heidelberg
5184:light-rail
5156:Light rail
5138:–electric
5048:Airbus 380
4896:powerlines
4810:chargers,
4155:per volume
3546:decomposes
2940:Separators
2785:(KOH), or
2675:@NiO, MgCo
2547:have high
2248:adsorption
2189:electrodes
1947:resorcinol
1852:micropores
1791:, such as
1753:micrograph
1743:Electrodes
1696:in origin.
1371:206 Wh/kg
1345:watt-hours
1317: (F)
1261: (V)
1208:capacitors
1201:batteries
1186:Parameter
1153:resistance
1149:capacitors
1115:dielectric
1103:capacitors
1044:See also:
293:fuel cells
262:electronic
238:dielectric
230:capacitors
172:solution).
143:electrodes
123:Background
91:dielectric
12422:135679359
12026:110695012
11975:1936-0851
11314:Fastcap.
11301:206549319
10334:: 42–46.
10304:0885-8969
10198:1949-3053
9947:: 54–62.
9587:K2 series
9585:Maxwell,
9484:2364-8961
9470:(3): 63.
9418:220255613
9402:1613-6829
9334:2045-2322
9266:2045-2322
9216:233572817
9208:2352-152X
9052:189826716
8845:0013-4651
8716:Chem. Rev
8661:Birss, V.
8556:110891569
8213:135679359
7987:1616-3028
7768:. Wiley.
7685:0304-3886
7513:225371915
7323:1302.3967
7095:Interface
6606:0360-5442
6556:104416995
6548:0378-7753
6457:2166-2746
6148:231
6090:110
6038:cobaltite
5987:7.5
5914:990
5830:200
5792:550
5656:from the
5497:Formula 1
5377:Nuremberg
5353:Solar bus
5288:Guangzhou
5230:In 2009,
5100:railroad
5044:airliners
5006:Transport
4951:Batteries
4941:rectifier
4880:actuators
4867:fuel cell
4861:, if the
4676:62391–1,
4652:Standards
4493:−
4473:⋅
4335:⋅
4266:⋅
4150:(Wh/kg).
4089:−
4065:⋅
3982:⋅
3969:⋅
3925:batteries
3830:⋅
3753:⋅
3737:τ
3715:τ
3680:discharge
3659:discharge
3640:Δ
3611:discharge
3578:resistors
3504:down to U
3464:−
3443:⋅
3437:⋅
3390:down to U
3352:−
3336:⋅
3305:The time
3249:−
3224:−
3208:⋅
3203:discharge
3156:discharge
3087:⋅
3074:⋅
3043:voltage V
2746:inorganic
2716:chemicals
2713:dissolved
2588:polyacene
2358:manganese
2301:ruthenium
2232:oxidation
2127:molecules
1943:pyrolysis
1935:synthetic
1856:mesopores
1777:inertness
1734:Materials
1692:) and is
1686:ångströms
1678:electrode
1670:interface
1666:Helmholtz
1620:oxide or
1565:insulator
1504:reactance
1002:diffusion
834:ångströms
787:ε
730:molecules
722:dissolved
614:>>
525:⋅
453:separator
405:ruthenium
359:Panasonic
320:fuel cell
258:batteries
234:electrons
177:Batteries
162:ångströms
154:interface
147:Helmholtz
62:, with a
60:capacitor
12646:Nantenna
12606:Biofuels
12510:26223625
12465:26223620
12343:95416761
12273:Springer
12267:(1999).
12226:94958336
12102:Archived
12084:10 March
12050:19 March
11983:27732778
11955:ACS Nano
11913:25584857
11819:24548057
11799:ACS Nano
11724:23474952
11692:: 1408.
11641:: 1718.
11616:97810530
11581:93356811
11540:21210712
11520:ACS Nano
11501:21842523
11436:23829569
11416:ACS Nano
11401:10398110
11393:21566159
11293:23908233
11197:Archived
11178:Archived
11158:Archived
11139:Archived
11033:Archived
10934:Archived
10912:Archived
10525:Archived
10441:26839128
10251:23894868
10148:Archived
10073:Archived
10030:Archived
9992:17217802
9961:37615694
9926:16899819
9796:Archived
9747:Archived
9726:Archived
9590:Archived
9570:Archived
9530:Archived
9500:22068271
9492:28560657
9410:32596998
9360:19483393
9352:27924927
9284:31728061
9166:22433167
9044:18956000
8980:24663242
8948:: 4452.
8923:19170555
8736:20839769
8701:94810807
8646:20828214
8626:ACS Nano
8611:29479545
8483:33772133
8475:20929845
8432:21058713
8354:18958488
8346:22422977
8272:17699622
8170:21381713
8076:20180559
8056:ACS Nano
8030:96797238
7995:97810530
7884:91596134
7564:30682829
7505:32761793
7360:23401538
7290:37446037
7281:10341730
7045:Archived
7024:Archived
6999:Archived
6886:Archived
6813:Springer
6805:(1999),
6718:Archived
6701:23077215
6614:55090490
6498:64526195
6341:See also
6262:9 mF/cm
6233:42 Wh/L
6135:98
6047:53
5978:40
5885:53
5850:74
5816:85
5802:4 V
5715:60
5604:Gondolas
5586:Ё-mobile
5565:RAV4 HEV
5530:flywheel
5471:Malaysia
5432:terminus
5419:Shanghai
5339:system.
5180:Mannheim
5178:In 2003
5166:Mannheim
5042:used in
5030:Aviation
4997:Military
4844:PC Cards
4775:and for
4613:polarity
4599:Polarity
4393:Lifetime
4132:per mass
3554:hydrogen
2827:arsenate
2781:such as
2752:such as
2501:vanadium
2467:graphene
2062:graphite
2058:Graphene
2041:Graphene
1846:(CNTs).
1840:graphane
1836:graphene
1832:graphite
1716:faradaic
1652: –
1606:): with
1446:(month)
1439:(month)
1434:(weeks)
1429:(weeks)
1334:—
1189:Aluminum
970:, or MnO
941:orbitals
939:states (
910:adsorbed
900:between
895:electron
884:faradaic
765:polarity
749:forces,
726:solvated
207:electron
204:Faradaic
119:(SRAM).
12671:Storage
12518:4472947
12490:Bibcode
12473:4398225
12443:Bibcode
12402:Bibcode
12206:Bibcode
12162:Bibcode
12006:Bibcode
11827:7232811
11715:3593215
11694:Bibcode
11686:Sci Rep
11666:3634106
11643:Bibcode
11635:Sci Rep
11481:Bibcode
11444:5063753
11373:Bibcode
11365:Science
11348:1 March
11273:Bibcode
11265:Science
11153:Cap-XX
10336:Bibcode
10312:7454678
10274:Bibcode
10206:2107900
9695:Bibcode
9660:Bibcode
9448:PubChem
9343:5141571
9314:Bibcode
9275:6856085
9246:Bibcode
9024:Bibcode
8971:3964521
8950:Bibcode
8903:Bibcode
8868:Bibcode
8790:Bibcode
8673:Bibcode
8536:Bibcode
8455:Bibcode
8447:Science
8412:Bibcode
8326:Bibcode
8318:Science
8291:PhysOrg
8263:1959422
8240:Bibcode
8193:Bibcode
8150:Bibcode
7837:Bibcode
7737:Bibcode
7594:Bibcode
7555:6409971
7415:Bibcode
7351:3587260
7328:Bibcode
7134:Bibcode
6855:Bibcode
6586:Bibcode
6528:Bibcode
6435:Bibcode
6329:billion
6294:30,000
6239:10,000
5762:300,000
5660:to the
5629:Austria
5618:Austria
5582:Mazda 6
5439:tribrid
5427:capabus
5425:called
5333:Urbos 3
5273:Siemens
5247:of the
5245:line T3
5240:Citadis
5215:and to
4977:Medical
4200:100 to
2907:NMe(Et)
2854:organic
2793:salts,
2779:alkalis
2720:cations
2709:solvent
2573:cations
2317:iridium
2279:surface
2271:surface
2255:cations
2228:cations
2223:(H) or
2221:protons
2142:coaxial
2129:with a
1998:carbide
1931:aerogel
1929:Carbon
1828:aerogel
1773:current
1765:fractal
1674:surface
1616:: with
1424:(days)
1139:cathode
991:voltage
945:reagent
876:solvent
742:solvent
621:, then
593:, then
421:Fujitsu
409:cathode
275:History
246:cations
152:at the
68:voltage
12582:Energy
12575:Fields
12516:
12508:
12482:Nature
12471:
12463:
12435:Nature
12420:
12360:
12341:
12310:
12287:
12253:
12224:
12024:
11981:
11973:
11911:
11825:
11817:
11722:
11712:
11663:
11614:
11579:
11538:
11499:
11442:
11434:
11399:
11391:
11326:30 May
11299:
11291:
11120:30 May
11082:30 May
11056:29 May
10963:29 May
10892:29 May
10747:29 May
10717:29 May
10687:29 May
10661:29 May
10631:29 May
10587:29 May
10505:29 May
10479:29 May
10439:
10429:
10373:29 May
10310:
10302:
10249:
10239:
10204:
10196:
10129:29 May
10100:29 May
10054:29 May
9990:
9959:
9924:
9914:
9867:29 May
9819:29 May
9498:
9490:
9482:
9416:
9408:
9400:
9358:
9350:
9340:
9332:
9282:
9272:
9264:
9214:
9206:
9164:
9126:29 May
9050:
9042:
8978:
8968:
8921:
8843:
8734:
8699:
8644:
8609:
8554:
8481:
8473:
8430:
8352:
8344:
8270:
8260:
8211:
8168:
8089:16 May
8074:
8028:
7993:
7985:
7882:
7829:Carbon
7815:
7772:
7683:
7562:
7552:
7511:
7503:
7358:
7348:
7288:
7278:
7235:
7126:Carbon
6982:
6819:
6779:
6740:
6699:
6660:
6636:
6612:
6604:
6578:Energy
6554:
6546:
6496:
6455:
6316:Market
6035:Nickel
5995:10,000
5895:10,000
5703:Notes
5697:Cycles
5654:Thames
5646:London
5407:Luzern
5299:SYTRAL
5232:Alstom
5188:MITRAC
5136:Diesel
5098:diesel
4987:joules
4760:, and
4742:laptop
4525:With:
4068:
4059:
3990:loaded
3558:oxygen
3502:charge
3454:charge
3388:charge
3347:charge
3009:farads
2951:Kapton
2724:anions
2569:anions
2509:cobalt
2505:nickel
2493:oxides
2286:Ni(OH)
2257:on MnO
2124:carbon
1785:spongy
1694:static
1662:charge
1658:energy
1514:Styles
1432:medium
1427:medium
1376:Wh/kg
1368:Wh/kg
1363:Wh/kg
1358:Wh/kg
1353:Wh/kg
1315:farads
1119:static
1010:et al.
736:, for
710:liquid
702:phases
430:Design
303:is an
250:anions
140:carbon
138:) use
12738:Other
12514:S2CID
12469:S2CID
12418:S2CID
12339:S2CID
12222:S2CID
12181:(PDF)
12150:(PDF)
12022:S2CID
11823:S2CID
11612:S2CID
11577:S2CID
11440:S2CID
11397:S2CID
11297:S2CID
10810:(PDF)
10803:(PDF)
10437:S2CID
10308:S2CID
10247:S2CID
10202:S2CID
9988:S2CID
9957:S2CID
9922:S2CID
9496:S2CID
9446:from
9414:S2CID
9382:Small
9356:S2CID
9212:S2CID
9048:S2CID
9012:(PDF)
8697:S2CID
8607:S2CID
8563:(PDF)
8552:S2CID
8524:(PDF)
8503:(PDF)
8479:S2CID
8380:. IOP
8350:S2CID
8209:S2CID
8115:(PDF)
8108:(PDF)
8083:(PDF)
8052:(PDF)
8026:S2CID
7991:S2CID
7913:(PDF)
7902:(PDF)
7880:S2CID
7613:(PDF)
7582:(PDF)
7509:S2CID
7485:Small
7481:(PDF)
7318:arXiv
7173:(PDF)
7091:(PDF)
7064:. FDK
6954:(PDF)
6947:(PDF)
6697:S2CID
6677:(PDF)
6610:S2CID
6574:(PDF)
6552:S2CID
6494:S2CID
6285:2016
6252:2015
6230:2015
6190:2014
5631:, an
5594:Yaris
5528:with
5447:Wales
5343:Buses
5306:trams
5292:Wuhan
5104:with
5087:TRAXX
4865:or a
4163:litre
4146:) in
4021:and V
3977:total
3933:Joule
3550:water
3190:total
3162:and t
3037:Joule
2886:N(Et)
2831:LiAsF
2815:LiClO
2799:NaClO
2787:salts
2750:acids
2742:Water
2201:redox
1664:in a
1604:EDLCs
1575:Types
1502:(AC)
1422:short
1387:watts
1259:volts
1135:anode
995:farad
966:, IrO
738:water
706:solid
667:redox
626:total
598:total
504:total
486:total
393:anode
329:farad
266:ionic
212:with
183:redox
136:EDLCs
12792:List
12506:PMID
12461:PMID
12358:ISBN
12308:ISBN
12285:ISBN
12251:ISBN
12189:2015
12086:2017
12052:2017
11979:PMID
11971:ISSN
11939:2017
11909:PMID
11878:2016
11853:2016
11815:PMID
11783:2014
11720:PMID
11536:PMID
11497:PMID
11432:PMID
11389:PMID
11350:2015
11328:2013
11289:PMID
11122:2013
11084:2013
11058:2013
11017:2013
10991:2013
10965:2013
10894:2013
10868:2017
10843:2017
10818:2013
10749:2013
10719:2013
10689:2013
10663:2013
10633:2013
10589:2013
10532:In:
10507:2013
10481:2013
10427:ISBN
10375:2013
10300:ISSN
10237:ISBN
10223:Tech
10194:ISSN
10131:2013
10102:2013
10056:2013
10013:help
9912:ISBN
9869:2013
9843:2013
9821:2013
9488:PMID
9480:ISSN
9406:PMID
9398:ISSN
9348:PMID
9330:ISSN
9280:PMID
9262:ISSN
9204:ISSN
9162:PMID
9128:2013
9040:PMID
8976:PMID
8919:PMID
8841:ISSN
8732:PMID
8642:PMID
8471:PMID
8428:PMID
8386:2015
8342:PMID
8299:2015
8268:PMID
8166:PMID
8123:2015
8091:2013
8072:PMID
7983:ISSN
7952:2015
7921:2015
7770:ISBN
7707:2015
7681:ISSN
7621:2018
7560:PMID
7501:PMID
7458:2015
7356:PMID
7310:PNAS
7286:PMID
7233:ISBN
7210:2014
7184:2015
7070:2015
7006:In:
6962:2015
6914:2015
6817:ISBN
6634:ISBN
6602:ISSN
6544:ISSN
6505:2020
6453:ISSN
6204:0.95
6164:2013
6131:2013
6086:2013
6043:2012
5974:2012
5937:2012
5908:2011
5881:2011
5846:2013
5812:2011
5775:2010
5741:2013
5739:2009
5737:2007
5711:2013
5688:Date
5506:KERS
5489:The
5473:2010
5351:and
5236:RATP
5234:and
5120:and
5071:Rail
5058:The
5054:Cars
4955:The
4945:ASIC
4925:e.g.
4859:e.g.
4840:SRAM
4812:HEVs
4781:e.g.
4746:PDAs
4415:e.g.
4221:load
4144:mass
3812:loss
3794:loss
3556:and
2711:and
2691:@CeO
2683:@MnO
2571:and
2563:and
2507:and
2497:iron
2469:and
2333:iron
2265:(MnO
2180:and
2160:e.g.
2018:e.g.
2010:e.g.
2004:and
1842:and
1712:ions
1641:The
1468:90%
1463:90%
1444:long
1437:long
1392:gram
1222:EDLC
1220:NTGS
1109:and
1064:and
908:and
751:e.g.
734:e.g.
724:and
474:and
371:SRAM
363:ELNA
295:and
264:and
248:and
100:and
74:and
12498:doi
12486:523
12451:doi
12439:523
12410:doi
12381:doi
12331:doi
12277:doi
12243:doi
12214:doi
12202:274
12170:doi
12132:doi
12128:498
12014:doi
11963:doi
11901:doi
11807:doi
11751:doi
11710:PMC
11702:doi
11661:PMC
11651:doi
11604:doi
11567:doi
11528:doi
11489:doi
11424:doi
11381:doi
11369:332
11281:doi
11269:341
10983:BBC
10419:doi
10344:doi
10290:hdl
10282:doi
10229:doi
10186:doi
9980:doi
9949:doi
9904:doi
9703:doi
9668:doi
9656:110
9620:hdl
9472:doi
9468:375
9390:doi
9338:PMC
9322:doi
9270:PMC
9254:doi
9196:doi
9154:doi
9087:doi
9032:doi
8966:PMC
8958:doi
8911:doi
8876:doi
8864:142
8831:doi
8827:162
8798:doi
8786:147
8759:doi
8724:doi
8720:110
8689:hdl
8681:doi
8634:doi
8597:hdl
8589:doi
8544:doi
8528:JOM
8463:doi
8451:329
8420:doi
8334:doi
8322:335
8258:PMC
8248:doi
8236:104
8201:doi
8158:doi
8064:doi
8018:doi
7975:doi
7872:doi
7845:doi
7745:doi
7733:157
7671:doi
7667:103
7602:doi
7590:326
7550:PMC
7540:doi
7493:doi
7423:doi
7346:PMC
7336:doi
7314:110
7276:PMC
7266:doi
7142:doi
6863:doi
6851:138
6689:doi
6594:doi
6582:118
6536:doi
6524:414
6484:doi
6443:doi
6139:/kg
6113:MnO
6094:/kg
6060:/kg
6051:/kg
5945:/kg
5918:/kg
5889:/kg
5854:/kg
5820:/kg
5783:/kg
5749:/kg
5623:In
5491:FIA
5453:or
5337:ACR
5329:CAF
5321:in
4882:in
4836:RAM
4777:LED
4771:in
4750:GPS
4670:IEC
4317:max
4248:eff
4230:eff
4225:max
4208:300
4097:min
4079:max
4041:eff
4023:min
4019:max
4015:eff
3951:max
3929:max
3506:min
3472:min
3392:min
3360:min
3148:IEC
2949:or
2809:),
2777:),
2630:).
2521:MnO
2495:of
2475:RuO
2450:RuO
2435:RuO
2413:).
2378:TiS
2362:MnO
2356:),
2331:),
2321:IrO
2315:),
2305:RuO
2250:of
2238:MnO
2193:aic
2182:RuO
2175:MnO
2113:SEM
1945:of
1838:),
1460:95%
1457:95%
1454:99%
1389:per
1066:GCD
1032:).
916:or
740:as
635:).
336:NEC
220:or
198:or
12812::
12512:.
12504:.
12496:.
12484:.
12467:.
12459:.
12449:.
12437:.
12433:.
12416:.
12408:.
12396:.
12377:38
12375:.
12337:.
12325:.
12302:.
12283:.
12275:.
12271:.
12249:.
12220:.
12212:.
12200:.
12168:.
12158:61
12156:.
12152:.
12126:.
12020:.
12012:.
12002:25
12000:.
11977:.
11969:.
11959:10
11957:.
11929:.
11907:.
11895:.
11869:.
11844:.
11821:.
11813:.
11801:.
11773:.
11745:.
11741:.
11718:.
11708:.
11700:.
11688:.
11684:.
11659:.
11649:.
11637:.
11633:.
11610:.
11600:22
11598:.
11575:.
11563:22
11561:.
11557:.
11534:.
11522:.
11518:.
11495:.
11487:.
11477:50
11475:.
11438:.
11430:.
11418:.
11395:.
11387:.
11379:.
11367:.
11295:.
11287:.
11279:.
11267:.
11074:.
10981:.
10859:.
10834:.
10772:.
10757:^
10735:.
10705:.
10649:.
10619:.
10575:.
10435:.
10425:.
10394:.
10383:^
10342:.
10332:58
10330:.
10306:.
10298:.
10288:.
10280:.
10270:28
10268:.
10245:.
10235:.
10200:.
10192:.
10180:.
10110:^
10004::
10002:}}
9998:{{
9986:.
9976:51
9955:.
9943:.
9920:.
9910:.
9877:^
9769:^
9701:.
9691:31
9689:.
9666:.
9654:.
9614:.
9600:^
9554:^
9494:.
9486:.
9478:.
9466:.
9454:^
9412:.
9404:.
9396:.
9386:16
9384:.
9380:.
9368:^
9354:.
9346:.
9336:.
9328:.
9320:.
9308:.
9304:.
9292:^
9278:.
9268:.
9260:.
9252:.
9240:.
9236:.
9224:^
9210:.
9202:.
9192:36
9190:.
9186:.
9174:^
9160:.
9150:46
9148:.
9136:^
9081:.
9046:.
9038:.
9030:.
9018:.
9014:.
8974:.
8964:.
8956:.
8944:.
8940:.
8917:.
8909:.
8897:.
8874:.
8862:.
8839:.
8825:.
8821:.
8796:.
8784:.
8780:.
8755:16
8753:.
8730:.
8718:.
8695:.
8687:.
8679:.
8669:66
8667:.
8640:.
8628:.
8605:.
8595:.
8585:97
8583:.
8571:^
8550:.
8542:.
8532:57
8530:.
8526:.
8511:^
8477:.
8469:.
8461:.
8449:.
8426:.
8418:.
8408:10
8406:.
8394:^
8374:.
8362:^
8348:.
8340:.
8332:.
8320:.
8316:.
8289:.
8266:.
8256:.
8246:.
8234:.
8230:.
8207:.
8199:.
8187:.
8164:.
8156:.
8146:11
8144:.
8140:.
8070:.
8058:.
8054:.
8024:.
8014:21
8012:.
7989:.
7981:.
7971:22
7969:.
7938:.
7904:.
7878:.
7866:.
7843:.
7833:30
7831:.
7784:^
7743:.
7731:.
7715:^
7679:.
7665:.
7661:.
7642:.
7638:.
7600:.
7588:.
7584:.
7558:.
7548:.
7534:.
7530:.
7507:.
7499:.
7489:16
7487:.
7483:.
7466:^
7444:.
7421:.
7387:,
7383:,
7368:^
7354:.
7344:.
7334:.
7326:.
7312:.
7308:.
7284:.
7274:.
7262:24
7260:.
7256:.
7227:.
7175:.
7154:^
7140:.
7130:39
7128:.
7107:^
7099:17
7097:.
7093:.
7078:^
6922:^
6861:.
6849:.
6845:.
6830:^
6786:^
6747:^
6695:.
6685:26
6683:.
6679:.
6608:.
6600:.
6592:.
6580:.
6576:.
6550:.
6542:.
6534:.
6522:.
6492:.
6478:.
6474:.
6451:.
6441:.
6431:35
6429:.
6425:.
6282:)
6220:10
6214:Nb
6172:/L
6170:Wh
6152:/g
6137:Wh
6107:/g
6092:Wh
6071:/g
6049:Wh
6024:12
6010:Ti
6001:Li
5991:/L
5982:/L
5980:Wh
5958:/g
5943:Wh
5887:Wh
5870:/g
5852:Wh
5834:/g
5818:Wh
5804:.
5796:/g
5781:Wh
5758:/g
5747:Wh
5719:/L
5717:Wh
5650:UK
5648:,
5627:,
5616:,
5445:,
5409:,
5384:CO
5294:.
5050:.
5012:CO
4993:.
4838:,
4808:EV
4756:,
4752:,
4748:,
4680:.
4674:EN
4507:10
4212:.
4206:12
3894:ss
3508:.
3394:.
3135:AC
3095:DC
3082:DC
3047:.
3045:DC
3041:DC
2966:.
2916:BF
2895:BF
2872:,
2868:,
2864:,
2860:,
2767:SO
2583:.
2559:,
2555:,
2503:,
2499:,
2399:SO
2337:Fe
2277:C)
2261:.
2234:.
2100:A
2020:,
2012:,
1937:,
1830:,
1751:A
1690:nm
1062:CV
840:.
732:,
716:.
661:,
651:,
299:.
216:,
166:nm
52:SC
46:A
12560:e
12553:t
12546:v
12520:.
12500::
12492::
12475:.
12453::
12445::
12424:.
12412::
12404::
12398:2
12387:.
12383::
12366:.
12345:.
12333::
12327:8
12316:.
12293:.
12279::
12259:.
12245::
12228:.
12216::
12208::
12191:.
12172::
12164::
12138:.
12134::
12088:.
12054:.
12028:.
12016::
12008::
11985:.
11965::
11941:.
11915:.
11903::
11897:7
11880:.
11855:.
11829:.
11809::
11803:8
11785:.
11759:.
11753::
11747:1
11726:.
11704::
11696::
11690:3
11669:.
11653::
11645::
11639:3
11618:.
11606::
11583:.
11569::
11542:.
11530::
11524:5
11503:.
11491::
11483::
11446:.
11426::
11420:7
11403:.
11383::
11375::
11352:.
11330:.
11303:.
11283::
11275::
11217:.
11124:.
11101:.
11086:.
11060:.
11019:.
10993:.
10967:.
10896:.
10870:.
10845:.
10820:.
10751:.
10721:.
10691:.
10665:.
10635:.
10591:.
10509:.
10483:.
10443:.
10421::
10377:.
10350:.
10346::
10338::
10314:.
10292::
10284::
10276::
10253:.
10231::
10225:)
10208:.
10188::
10182:3
10133:.
10104:.
10058:.
10015:)
10011:(
9994:.
9982::
9963:.
9951::
9945:6
9928:.
9906::
9871:.
9845:.
9823:.
9709:.
9705::
9697::
9674:.
9670::
9662::
9626:.
9622::
9502:.
9474::
9420:.
9392::
9362:.
9324::
9316::
9310:6
9286:.
9256::
9248::
9242:9
9218:.
9198::
9168:.
9156::
9130:.
9093:.
9089::
9083:1
9054:.
9034::
9026::
9020:7
8996:.
8982:.
8960::
8952::
8946:4
8925:.
8913::
8905::
8899:9
8882:.
8878::
8870::
8847:.
8833::
8806:.
8800::
8792::
8765:.
8761::
8738:.
8726::
8703:.
8691::
8683::
8675::
8648:.
8636::
8630:4
8613:.
8599::
8591::
8546::
8538::
8485:.
8465::
8457::
8434:.
8422::
8414::
8388:.
8356:.
8336::
8328::
8301:.
8274:.
8250::
8242::
8215:.
8203::
8195::
8189:2
8172:.
8160::
8152::
8125:.
8093:.
8066::
8060:4
8032:.
8020::
7997:.
7977::
7954:.
7923:.
7886:.
7874::
7868:4
7851:.
7847::
7839::
7778:.
7751:.
7747::
7739::
7709:.
7687:.
7673::
7646:.
7644:6
7623:.
7604::
7596::
7566:.
7542::
7536:9
7515:.
7495::
7460:.
7429:.
7425::
7417::
7362:.
7338::
7330::
7320::
7292:.
7268::
7241:.
7212:.
7186:.
7148:.
7144::
7136::
7072:.
6964:.
6916:.
6871:.
6865::
6857::
6703:.
6691::
6642:.
6616:.
6596::
6588::
6558:.
6538::
6530::
6507:.
6486::
6480:5
6459:.
6445::
6437::
6280:2
6272:3
6218:O
6216:3
6212:2
6208:2
6206:O
6150:F
6118:2
6105:F
6069:F
6058:W
6019:O
6015:5
6006:4
5989:W
5964:2
5956:F
5916:W
5868:m
5832:F
5794:F
5756:W
5389:2
5017:2
4672:/
4552:x
4550:T
4545:0
4543:T
4538:0
4536:L
4531:x
4529:L
4501:x
4497:T
4488:0
4484:T
4477:2
4468:0
4464:L
4460:=
4455:x
4451:L
4376:i
4355:i
4351:R
4345:2
4341:V
4330:4
4327:1
4322:=
4313:P
4302:,
4286:i
4282:R
4276:2
4272:V
4261:8
4258:1
4253:=
4244:P
4228:P
4107:)
4102:2
4093:V
4084:2
4075:V
4071:(
4062:C
4054:2
4051:1
4046:=
4037:W
3995:2
3986:V
3973:C
3964:2
3961:1
3956:=
3947:W
3898:i
3860:K
3838:2
3834:I
3825:i
3821:R
3817:=
3808:P
3790:i
3756:C
3748:i
3744:R
3740:=
3702:i
3698:i
3696:R
3687:i
3655:I
3648:2
3644:V
3634:=
3629:i
3625:R
3607:2
3603:i
3534:R
3485:.
3482:)
3477:2
3468:U
3459:2
3450:U
3446:(
3440:C
3431:P
3428:2
3424:1
3419:=
3416:t
3403:t
3399:P
3369:I
3365:)
3356:U
3343:U
3339:(
3333:C
3327:=
3324:t
3311:I
3307:t
3257:2
3253:V
3244:1
3240:V
3232:1
3228:t
3219:2
3215:t
3199:I
3195:=
3186:C
3172:2
3168:1
3164:2
3160:1
3154:I
3100:2
3091:V
3078:C
3069:2
3066:1
3061:=
3058:W
3023:W
3005:R
2921:4
2912:3
2900:4
2891:4
2884:(
2843:S
2836:6
2829:(
2820:4
2813:(
2804:4
2797:(
2772:4
2763:2
2758:H
2756:(
2693:2
2689:2
2685:2
2681:4
2679:O
2677:2
2673:4
2671:S
2669:2
2665:2
2660:3
2526:2
2519:(
2480:2
2455:2
2440:2
2404:4
2395:2
2390:H
2383:2
2376:(
2367:2
2360:(
2351:4
2346:O
2342:3
2335:(
2326:2
2319:(
2310:2
2303:(
2288:2
2275:2
2269:)
2267:2
2259:2
2240:2
2217:2
2213:2
2209:2
2184:2
2177:2
2076:(
2031:2
2026:H
1965:(
1949:-
1865:2
1860:H
1834:(
1602:(
1384:,
1342:,
1312:,
1155:(
1058:2
1030:5
1028:O
1026:2
1022:2
1018:2
1014:2
972:2
968:2
964:2
830:d
826:A
822:ε
815:C
809:.
795:d
792:A
784:=
781:C
633:2
630:C
623:C
619:2
616:C
612:1
609:C
605:1
602:C
595:C
591:2
588:C
584:1
581:C
558:2
554:C
550:+
545:1
541:C
533:2
529:C
520:1
516:C
509:=
500:C
483:C
479:2
476:C
472:1
469:C
403:(
224:.
188:.
134:(
50:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.