Supercomputer - Knowledge

609:

333 MHz, Intel Pentium II computers running a modified Linux kernel. Bader ported a significant amount of software to provide Linux support for necessary components as well as code from members of the National Computational Science Alliance (NCSA) to ensure interoperability, as none of it had been run on Linux previously. Using the successful prototype design, he led the development of "RoadRunner," the first Linux supercomputer for open use by the national science and engineering community via the National Science Foundation's National Technology Grid. RoadRunner was put into production use in April 1999. At the time of its deployment, it was considered one of the 100 fastest supercomputers in the world. Though Linux-based clusters using consumer-grade parts, such as

617: 2297: 2067: 2563: 1061: 2220: 2140: 1993: 1908: 1580: 470:

different processors and then recombines the results. The ILLIAC's design was finalized in 1966 with 256 processors and offer speed up to 1 GFLOPS, compared to the 1970s Cray-1's peak of 250 MFLOPS. However, development problems led to only 64 processors being built, and the system could never operate more quickly than about 200 MFLOPS while being much larger and more complex than the Cray. Another problem was that writing software for the system was difficult, and getting peak performance from it was a matter of serious effort.

8814: 263: 72: 1360: 95: 801: 8850: 279: 2384: 837: 8732: 7731: 7002: 8838: 950:, the ability of the cooling systems to remove waste heat is a limiting factor. As of 2015, many existing supercomputers have more infrastructure capacity than the actual peak demand of the machine – designers generally conservatively design the power and cooling infrastructure to handle more than the theoretical peak electrical power consumed by the supercomputer. Designs for future supercomputers are power-limited – the 1450: 8790: 2621:. Based on the energy consumption of the Green 500 list of supercomputers between 2007 and 2011, a supercomputer with 1 exaFLOPS in 2011 would have required nearly 500 megawatts. Operating systems were developed for existing hardware to conserve energy whenever possible. CPU cores not in use during the execution of a parallelized application were put into low-power states, producing energy savings for some supercomputing applications. 1740: 8742: 446: 8778: 8826: 8752: 1828: 1657: 2248: 2168: 2091: 2021: 1936: 1851: 628: 6032:. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 240. Proceedings of the Joint los Alamos National Laboratory – Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique Meeting Held at Cadarache Castle, Provence, France 22–26 April 1985; Monte-Carlo Methods and Applications in Neutronics, Photonics and Statistical Physics, Alcouffe, R.; Dautray, R.; Forster, A.; Forster, G.; Mercier, B.; Eds. (Springer Verlag, Berlin). pp. 184–195. 271: 2542: 1685: 1608: 1528: 2334: 8802: 2505:/P computer has been used to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to approximately one percent of a human cerebral cortex, containing 1.6 billion neurons with approximately 9 trillion connections. The same research group also succeeded in using a supercomputer to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to the entirety of a rat's brain. 1151: 593:. But by the mid-1990s, general-purpose CPU performance had improved so much in that a supercomputer could be built using them as the individual processing units, instead of using custom chips. By the turn of the 21st century, designs featuring tens of thousands of commodity CPUs were the norm, with later machines adding 2640:

Funding supercomputer hardware also became increasingly difficult. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer cost about 10 million euros, while in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required an investment of between 40 and 50 million euros. In the 2000s national governments put in place different

387:

transistors. Silicon transistors could run more quickly and the overheating problem was solved by introducing refrigeration to the supercomputer design. Thus, the CDC6600 became the fastest computer in the world. Given that the 6600 outperformed all the other contemporary computers by about 10 times,

1424:

of a large matrix. The LINPACK performance gives some indication of performance for some real-world problems, but does not necessarily match the processing requirements of many other supercomputer workloads, which for example may require more memory bandwidth, or may require better integer computing

325:

instructions, prefetched data through a memory controller and included pioneering random access disk drives. The IBM 7030 was completed in 1961 and despite not meeting the challenge of a hundredfold increase in performance, it was purchased by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Customers in England

1411:

is computing performance in the exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) range. An EFLOPS is one quintillion (10) FLOPS (one million TFLOPS). However, The performance of a supercomputer can be severely impacted by fluctuation brought on by elements like system load, network traffic, and concurrent processes, as mentioned

1332:

Supercomputers generally aim for the maximum in capability computing rather than capacity computing. Capability computing is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a single large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem

1028:

problem for processing and peripheral resources, in a massively parallel system, the job management system needs to manage the allocation of both computational and communication resources, as well as gracefully deal with inevitable hardware failures when tens of thousands of processors are present.

1238:

by achieving more control over the assignment of tasks to distributed resources and the use of intelligence about the availability and reliability of individual systems within the supercomputing network. However, quasi-opportunistic distributed execution of demanding parallel computing software in

469:

computer, in which many processors worked together to solve different parts of a single larger problem. In contrast with the vector systems, which were designed to run a single stream of data as quickly as possible, in this concept, the computer instead feeds separate parts of the data to entirely

227:

The US has long been the leader in the supercomputer field, first through Cray's almost uninterrupted dominance of the field, and later through a variety of technology companies. Japan made major strides in the field in the 1980s and 90s, with China becoming increasingly active in the field. As of

2608:

The cost of operating high performance supercomputers has risen, mainly due to increasing power consumption. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer required in the range of 100 kilowatts, in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required between 1 and 2 megawatts. A 2010 study commissioned by

1415:

No single number can reflect the overall performance of a computer system, yet the goal of the Linpack benchmark is to approximate how fast the computer solves numerical problems and it is widely used in the industry. The FLOPS measurement is either quoted based on the theoretical floating point

1340:

Capacity computing, in contrast, is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve a few somewhat large problems or many small problems. Architectures that lend themselves to supporting many users for routine everyday tasks may have a lot of capacity but are not

473:

But the partial success of the ILLIAC IV was widely seen as pointing the way to the future of supercomputing. Cray argued against this, famously quipping that "If you were plowing a field, which would you rather use? Two strong oxen or 1024 chickens?" But by the early 1980s, several teams were

711:

in general-purpose high-performance computing applications has been the subject of debate, in that while a GPGPU may be tuned to score well on specific benchmarks, its overall applicability to everyday algorithms may be limited unless significant effort is spent to tune the application to it.

608:

supercomputer using commodity parts. While at the University of New Mexico, Bader sought to build a supercomputer running Linux using consumer off-the-shelf parts and a high-speed low-latency interconnection network. The prototype utilized an Alta Technologies "AltaCluster" of eight dual,

2624:

The increasing cost of operating supercomputers has been a driving factor in a trend toward bundling of resources through a distributed supercomputer infrastructure. National supercomputing centers first emerged in the US, followed by Germany and Japan. The European Union launched the

2641:

strategies to fund supercomputers. In the UK the national government funded supercomputers entirely and high performance computing was put under the control of a national funding agency. Germany developed a mixed funding model, pooling local state funding and federal funding.

1250:

with its recent and rapid expansions and development have grabbed the attention of high-performance computing (HPC) users and developers in recent years. Cloud computing attempts to provide HPC-as-a-service exactly like other forms of services available in the cloud such as

1111:

for tightly coordinated shared memory machines are used. Significant effort is required to optimize an algorithm for the interconnect characteristics of the machine it will be run on; the aim is to prevent any of the CPUs from wasting time waiting on data from other nodes.

349:. He designed the Atlas to have memory space for up to a million words of 48 bits, but because magnetic storage with such a capacity was unaffordable, the actual core memory of the Atlas was only 16,000 words, with a drum providing memory for a further 96,000 words. The 816:

has remained a key issue for most centralized supercomputers. The large amount of heat generated by a system may also have other effects, e.g. reducing the lifetime of other system components. There have been diverse approaches to heat management, from pumping

1036:-based operating systems, each manufacturer has its own specific Linux-derivative, and no industry standard exists, partly due to the fact that the differences in hardware architectures require changes to optimize the operating system to each hardware design. 643:

approach, the processing power of many computers, organized as distributed, diverse administrative domains, is opportunistically used whenever a computer is available. In another approach, many processors are used in proximity to each other, e.g. in a

2537:

was front and center in the world. Supercomputers used different simulations to find compounds that could potentially stop the spread. These computers run for tens of hours using multiple paralleled running CPU's to model different processes.

1263:. HPC users may benefit from the cloud in different angles such as scalability, resources being on-demand, fast, and inexpensive. On the other hand, moving HPC applications have a set of challenges too. Good examples of such challenges are 954:

of the supercomputer as a whole, the amount that the power and cooling infrastructure can handle, is somewhat more than the expected normal power consumption, but less than the theoretical peak power consumption of the electronic hardware.

2637:, Iceland, this supercomputer relies on completely renewable sources for its power rather than fossil fuels. The colder climate also reduces the need for active cooling, making it one of the greenest facilities in the world of computers. 1239:

grids should be achieved through the implementation of grid-wise allocation agreements, co-allocation subsystems, communication topology-aware allocation mechanisms, fault tolerant message passing libraries and data pre-conditioning.

1233:

whereby the "super virtual computer" of many networked geographically disperse computers performs computing tasks that demand huge processing power. Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing aims to provide a higher quality of service than

1416:

performance of a processor (derived from manufacturer's processor specifications and shown as "Rpeak" in the TOP500 lists), which is generally unachievable when running real workloads, or the achievable throughput, derived from the

1318:

of compute nodes is not suitable for HPC. Penguin Computing has also criticized that HPC clouds may have allocated computing nodes to customers that are far apart, causing latency that impairs performance for some HPC applications.

203:

and subsequent companies bearing his name or monogram. The first such machines were highly tuned conventional designs that ran more quickly than their more general-purpose contemporaries. Through the decade, increasing amounts of

1203:(BOINC) platform hosts a number of volunteer computing projects. As of February 2017, BOINC recorded a processing power of over 166 petaFLOPS through over 762 thousand active Computers (Hosts) on the network. 2617:. At the time a megawatt per year in energy consumption cost about 1 million dollars. Supercomputing facilities were constructed to efficiently remove the increasing amount of heat produced by modern multi-core 3385:

Due to Soviet propaganda, it can be read sometimes that the Soviet supercomputer M13 was the first to reach the gigaflops barrier. Actually, the M13 building began in 1984, but it was not operational before 1986.

4228: 1214:

search achieved about 0.313 PFLOPS through over 1.3 million computers. The PrimeNet server has supported GIMPS's grid computing approach, one of the earliest volunteer computing projects, since 1997.

885:"cooling waterfall" which was forced through the modules under pressure. However, the submerged liquid cooling approach was not practical for the multi-cabinet systems based on off-the-shelf processors, and in 2626: 274:

The CDC 6600. Behind the system console are two of the "arms" of the plus-sign shaped cabinet with the covers opened. Each arm of the machine had up to four such racks. On the right is the cooling system.

1267:

overhead in the cloud, multi-tenancy of resources, and network latency issues. Much research is currently being done to overcome these challenges and make HPC in the cloud a more realistic possibility.

982:. While early operating systems were custom tailored to each supercomputer to gain speed, the trend has been to move away from in-house operating systems to the adaptation of generic software such as 129:

FLOPS, 100 petaFLOPS or 100 PFLOPS). For comparison, a desktop computer has performance in the range of hundreds of gigaFLOPS (10) to tens of teraFLOPS (10). Since November 2017, all of the

2692: 137:-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China to build faster, more powerful and technologically superior 5782: 573:

Software development remained a problem, but the CM series sparked off considerable research into this issue. Similar designs using custom hardware were made by many companies, including the

5948: 808:

supercomputer was as of November 2018 the fastest supercomputer in the world. With a measured power efficiency of 14.668 GFlops/watt it is also the third most energy efficient in the world.

613:, existed prior to the development of Bader's prototype and RoadRunner, they lacked the scalability, bandwidth, and parallel computing capabilities to be considered "true" supercomputers. 1072:

The parallel architectures of supercomputers often dictate the use of special programming techniques to exploit their speed. Software tools for distributed processing include standard

1768: 490:

to share data. Several updated versions followed; the CM-5 supercomputer is a massively parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second.

6002: 5656: 4505: 5884: 244:. The US has five of the top 10; Japan, Finland, Switzerland, Italy and Spain have one each. In June 2018, all combined supercomputers on the TOP500 list broke the 1 5290:

Brehm, M. and Bruhwiler, D. L. (2015) 'Performance Characteristics of the Plasma Wakefield Acceleration Driven by Proton Bunches'. Journal of Physics: Conference Series

4232: 1461:

results. The list does not claim to be unbiased or definitive, but it is a widely cited current definition of the "fastest" supercomputer available at any given time.

6208: 3896: 5534: 3710: 4255: 2633:

in porting, scaling and optimizing supercomputing applications. Iceland built the world's first zero-emission supercomputer. Located at the Thor Data Center in

6328: 833:(MW) of electricity. The cost to power and cool the system can be significant, e.g. 4 MW at $ 0.10/kWh is $ 400 an hour or about $ 3.5 million per year. 825:

temperatures. A typical supercomputer consumes large amounts of electrical power, almost all of which is converted into heat, requiring cooling. For example,

6086:

Recent Advances in the Message Passing Interface: 18th European MPI Users' Group Meeting, EuroMPI 2011, Santorini, Greece, September 18-21, 2011. Proceedings

5246:

by Committee on the Potential Impact of High-End Computing on Illustrative Fields of Science and Engineering and National Research Council (28 October 2008)

5721: 4725: 2133: 4303: 3992: 1200: 946:

Because copper wires can transfer energy into a supercomputer with much higher power densities than forced air or circulating refrigerants can remove

5790: 4532:

IBM... BlueGene/Q system .. setting a record in power efficiency with a value of 1,680 MFLOPS/W, more than twice that of the next best system.

368:

and was designed to operate at processing speeds approaching one microsecond per instruction, about one million instructions per second.

5812: 5747: 4527: 4616: 3965:

Proc. of 14th International Conference on Field-Programmable Logic and Applications (FPL), 2004, Antwerp – Belgium, LNCS 3203, pp. 927 – 932

2782: 2509: 1128: 566:

machine which connected processors via a high speed two-dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the

2601:, collisions, and energy and momentum depositions of neutrons, photons, ions, electrons, etc. The next step for microprocessors may be into the 4476: 6418: 6270: 5911: 1196:

processing power. Of this, over 100 PFLOPS are contributed by clients running on various GPUs, and the rest from various CPU systems.

360:

to supercomputing, so that more than one program could be executed on the supercomputer at any one time. Atlas was a joint venture between

3772: 3574: 8890: 7768: 6010: 4599: 4419: 2629:(PRACE) with the aim of creating a persistent pan-European supercomputer infrastructure with services to support scientists across the 2290: 172:, polymers, and crystals), and physical simulations (such as simulations of the early moments of the universe, airplane and spacecraft 113:

with a high level of performance as compared to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in

5684:"The world's fastest supercomputer identified chemicals that could stop coronavirus from spreading, a crucial step toward a treatment" 5660: 3865: 2813: 3450: 2527: 2285: 7039: 4327:"Making a Case for Efficient Supercomputing | ACM Queue Magazine, Volume 1 Issue 7, 10 January 2003 doi 10.1145/957717.957772" 739:

A number of special-purpose systems have been designed, dedicated to a single problem. This allows the use of specially programmed

301:(LARC), today considered among the first supercomputers, for the US Navy Research and Development Center. It still used high-speed 4501: 5135:

Kim, H.; el-Khamra, Y.; Jha, S.; Parashar, M. (1 December 2009). "An Autonomic Approach to Integrated HPC Grid and Cloud Usage".

4882: 2272: 744: 4562: 4450: 3531:

Y. Iwasaki, The CP-PACS project, Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements, Volume 60, Issues 1–2, January 1998, pages 246–254.

8485: 8457: 6399: 4544: 2970: 2060: 1986: 1383:(million instructions per second), as is the case with general-purpose computers. These measurements are commonly used with an 86:

runs 164,000 processor cores using normal data center air conditioning, grouped in 40 racks/cabinets connected by a high-speed

5459: 3541: 3186: 8510: 6053: 5986: 5275: 5162: 5111: 5060: 5017: 4824: 4751: 4192: 4020: 3946: 3833: 3766: 3676: 3561: 3519: 3353: 3330: 3303: 3272: 3242: 3052: 3020: 1170:

volunteer computing machines performs very large computing tasks. Grid computing has been applied to a number of large-scale

6439: 5863: 4263: 8361: 6666: 2732: 2602: 1207: 1186: 1045: 6216: 5683: 5630: 3692: 1793: 850:

Heat management is a major issue in complex electronic devices and affects powerful computer systems in various ways. The

8515: 7787: 6689: 5503:"Tianhe-2A - TH-IVB-FEP Cluster, Intel Xeon E5-2692v2 12C 2.2GHz, TH Express-2, Matrix-2000 | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites" 2747: 998: 747:, allowing better price/performance ratios by sacrificing generality. Examples of special-purpose supercomputers include 563: 2688: 8020: 6578: 6175:

James H. Laros III; Kevin Pedretti; Suzanne M. Kelly; Wei Shu; Kurt Ferreira; John Van Dyke; Courtenay Vaughan (2012).

6142:

James H. Laros III; Kevin Pedretti; Suzanne M. Kelly; Wei Shu; Kurt Ferreira; John Van Dyke; Courtenay Vaughan (2012).

6109:

James H. Laros III; Kevin Pedretti; Suzanne M. Kelly; Wei Shu; Kurt Ferreira; John Van Dyke; Courtenay Vaughan (2012).

5527: 4764: 3893: 2717: 2605:; and specializing to Monte Carlo, the many layers could be identical, simplifying the design and manufacture process. 1224: 550:

obtained a peak performance of 600 GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional

6434: 3721: 1314:

ranges from 50 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s. Citing Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, Penguin Computing argues that

8667: 8495: 8025: 6684: 6661: 6192: 6159: 6126: 6093: 5885:"EU $ 1.2 supercomputer project to several 10-100 PetaFLOP computers by 2020 and exaFLOP by 2022 | NextBigFuture.com" 5251: 4712: 4692: 4672: 4652: 4215: 4169: 4149: 4129: 3503: 3373: 3170: 3145: 3120: 1709: 1552: 1073: 342: 8755: 7849: 7048: 6263: 5041:

Jamalian, S.; Rajaei, H. (1 June 2015). "Data-Intensive HPC Tasks Scheduling with SDN to Enable HPC-as-a-Service".

3486:

N. Hirose & M. Fukuda (1997). "Numerical Wind Tunnel (NWT) and CFD Research at National Aerospace Laboratory".

2570:

In the 2010s, China, the United States, the European Union, and others competed to be the first to create a 1

2468: 4998:

Jamalian, S.; Rajaei, H. (1 March 2015). "ASETS: A SDN Empowered Task Scheduling System for HPCaaS on the Cloud".

2987: 889:

a special cooling system that combined air conditioning with liquid cooling was developed in conjunction with the

126: 8143: 6656: 6471: 5725: 3068: 2512:

uses supercomputers to crunch hundreds of millions of observations to help make weather forecasts more accurate.

1380: 975: 969: 122: 8434: 8396: 8053: 7761: 6763: 6677: 6626: 4916: 4311: 1280: 1065: 314: 221: 63: 17: 1354: 8885: 8576: 8553: 8283: 8273: 7735: 6987: 6821: 6672: 6359: 5837: 3989: 3792: 2696: 2590: 1901: 1573: 740: 723:

High-performance computers have an expected life cycle of about three years before requiring an upgrade. The

356:

data in the form of pages between the magnetic core and the drum. The Atlas operating system also introduced

317:, which then in 1955 had requested a computer 100 times faster than any existing computer. The IBM 7030 used 42: 5244:

The Potential Impact of High-End Capability Computing on Four Illustrative Fields of Science and Engineering

4087:

Xue-June Yang; Xiang-Ke Liao; et al. (2011). "The TianHe-1A Supercomputer: Its Hardware and Software".

4037: 908:

system uses hot water cooling to achieve energy efficiency, the water being used to heat buildings as well.

8875: 8657: 8245: 8153: 8058: 7834: 7819: 7032: 5752: 2575: 8895: 8842: 8745: 8480: 7978: 7006: 6952: 6412: 6256: 3913: 2847: 2839: 1260: 83: 4931:"Internet PrimeNet Server Distributed Computing Technology for the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search" 3880: 562:

processors in various configurations and was ranked the fastest in the world in 1993. The Paragon was a

8880: 8768: 8717: 8366: 7479: 6931: 6726: 6611: 6573: 6423: 6313: 3938: 2787: 2727: 2515:

In 2011, the challenges and difficulties in pushing the envelope in supercomputing were underscored by

2103: 1725: 1568: 1055: 994: 979: 916: 752: 574: 440: 436: 420: 6243:"Supercomputer Design: An Initial Effort to Capture the Environmental, Economic, and Societal Impacts" 4277: 8818: 8735: 8662: 8637: 8500: 8148: 7754: 6947: 6926: 6871: 6758: 6748: 6721: 6583: 5187: 3744:"Performance Modelling and Optimization of Memory Access on Cellular Computer Architecture Cyclops64" 2578:

has theorized that a zettaFLOPS (10 or one sextillion FLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full

1444: 1440: 1104: 1077: 940: 567: 257: 38: 5304: 5145: 5094: 4976: 4484: 4393: 3518:

H. Fujii, Y. Yasuda, H. Akashi, Y. Inagami, M. Koga, O. Ishihara, M. Syazwan, H. Wada, T. Sumimoto,

3464: 2395: 997:, they usually run different operating systems on different nodes, e.g. using a small and efficient 660:

becomes very important and modern supercomputers have used various approaches ranging from enhanced

542:

supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a peak speed of 1.7

8586: 8419: 8005: 7874: 6901: 6527: 6466: 6379: 4963: 3806: 3544:, Publication of the NCF, Stichting Nationale Computer Faciliteiten, the Netherlands, January 1997. 2762: 2314: 2010: 1925: 1779: 1674: 1539: 1100: 1081: 886: 776: 728: 233: 196: 4366: 3387: 8870: 8647: 8581: 8472: 8288: 7948: 7716: 7527: 7139: 7025: 6962: 6957: 6816: 6407: 6083: 3731: 2772: 2767: 2757: 2618: 1341:

typically considered supercomputers, given that they do not solve a single very complex problem.

1171: 513: 498: 408: 392:

and defined the supercomputing market, when one hundred computers were sold at $ 8 million each.

209: 165: 161: 7352: 5922: 3743: 3295: 3234: 2895: 148:, and are used for a wide range of computationally intensive tasks in various fields, including 125:(MIPS). Since 2017, supercomputers have existed which can perform over 10 FLOPS (a hundred 8712: 8543: 8424: 8191: 8181: 8176: 7489: 7404: 7189: 6701: 6633: 6537: 6429: 6384: 5366: 5140: 5089: 4971: 3826:

Facing the Multicore-Challenge: Aspects of New Paradigms and Technologies in Parallel Computing

3320: 2777: 2180: 2157: 1948: 1863: 1757: 1624: 1619: 1597: 805: 241: 216:

operating on large arrays of data came to dominate. A notable example is the highly successful

6184: 6151: 5265: 3821: 3668: 2582:, which could cover a two-week time span accurately. Such systems might be built around 2030. 1457:

Since 1993, the fastest supercomputers have been ranked on the TOP500 list according to their

1425:

performance, or may need a high performance I/O system to achieve high levels of performance.

993:

supercomputers typically separate computations from other services by using multiple types of

616: 220:

of 1976. Vector computers remained the dominant design into the 1990s. From then until today,

8682: 8652: 8642: 8538: 8452: 8328: 8268: 8235: 8225: 8108: 8073: 8063: 8000: 7869: 7844: 7839: 7804: 7699: 7672: 7532: 7494: 7437: 7261: 6793: 6753: 6706: 6696: 6491: 6354: 6293: 6118: 5708: 4742:

Open Job Management Architecture for the Blue Gene/L Supercomputer by Yariv Aridor et al. in

3603:"Linux and Supercomputing: How My Passion for Building COTS Systems Led to an HPC Revolution" 3522:, Proceedings of 11th International Parallel Processing Symposium, April 1997, pages 233–241. 3262: 2920: 2672: 1372: 1256: 1252: 1230: 855: 748: 717: 539: 530:. Fujitsu's VPP500 from 1992 is unusual since, to achieve higher speeds, its processors used 365: 191:

Supercomputers were introduced in the 1960s, and for several decades the fastest was made by

145: 6176: 6143: 6110: 6025: 5949:"Global Bitcoin Computing Power Now 256 Times Faster Than Top 500 Supercomputers, Combined!" 5559:

Joshi, Rajani R. (9 June 1998). "A new heuristic algorithm for probabilistic optimization".

5413: 4596: 4427: 3660: 2545:

Taiwania 3 is a Taiwanese supercomputer which assisted the scientific community in fighting

2530:

currently uses supercomputers to maintain and simulate the United States nuclear stockpile.

869:

The packing of thousands of processors together inevitably generates significant amounts of

8854: 8442: 8414: 8386: 8381: 8210: 8186: 8138: 8121: 8116: 8098: 8088: 8083: 8045: 7995: 7990: 7907: 7853: 7447: 7427: 7369: 7278: 7099: 7052: 6733: 6621: 6616: 6606: 6593: 6389: 6033: 3819: 2817: 1696: 1472:

became the world's largest provider for the TOP500 supercomputers with 117 units produced.

1089: 1085: 1002: 951: 924: 851: 713: 680: 669: 527: 353: 322: 4894: 3711:"Blue Gene/L Torus Interconnection Network | IBM Journal of Research and Development" 2562: 8: 8707: 8632: 8548: 8533: 8298: 8078: 8035: 8030: 7927: 7917: 7889: 7522: 7229: 6896: 6851: 6651: 6517: 3644: 3399: 2594: 2579: 2114: 1300: 1272: 1179: 1093: 1060: 928: 523: 318: 153: 6037: 8830: 8782: 8672: 8571: 8447: 8404: 8313: 8255: 8240: 8230: 8015: 7814: 7704: 7641: 7364: 7201: 7134: 7094: 7076: 6921: 6770: 6743: 6568: 6532: 6522: 6481: 6323: 6303: 6298: 6279: 6174: 6141: 6108: 5327: 5168: 5117: 5066: 5023: 4348: 4104: 3850: 3624: 3432: 3227: 2752: 2676: 2614: 2586: 2571: 2355: 1458: 1417: 1408: 1350: 1334: 1051: 1006: 990: 696: 665: 649: 632: 502: 475: 466: 461:

The only computer to seriously challenge the Cray-1's performance in the 1970s was the

205: 138: 87: 5572: 5084:

Gupta, A.; Milojicic, D. (1 October 2011). "Evaluation of HPC Applications on Cloud".

4122:

The Supermen: Story of Seymour Cray and the Technical Wizards Behind the Supercomputer

3575:"David Bader Selected to Receive the 2021 IEEE Computer Society Sidney Fernbach Award" 3520:

Architecture and performance of the Hitachi SR2201 massively parallel processor system

3418: 3289: 900:

system, IBM deliberately used low power processors to deal with heat density. The IBM

841: 8692: 8622: 8601: 8563: 8371: 8338: 8318: 8010: 7922: 7796: 7692: 7646: 7620: 7607: 7542: 7273: 7256: 7184: 7104: 6967: 6643: 6601: 6496: 6188: 6177: 6155: 6144: 6122: 6111: 6089: 6059: 6049: 6030:

Monte-Carlo Methods and Applications in Neutronics, Photonics and Statistical Physics

5982: 5271: 5247: 5213: 5158: 5107: 5056: 5013: 4910: 4820: 4747: 4708: 4688: 4668: 4648: 4558: 4454: 4211: 4188: 4165: 4145: 4125: 4016: 3942: 3829: 3789:

Analysis and performance results of computing betweenness centrality on IBM Cyclops64

3762: 3672: 3661: 3628: 3557: 3499: 3369: 3349: 3326: 3299: 3268: 3238: 3166: 3141: 3116: 3048: 3016: 2792: 2664: 2033: 1953: 1868: 1364: 1116:

have hundreds of processor cores and are programmed using programming models such as

890: 821:

through the system, to a hybrid liquid-air cooling system or air cooling with normal

237: 149: 5172: 5070: 5027: 4352: 3488:

Proceedings High Performance Computing on the Information Superhighway. HPC Asia '97

2945: 904:, released in 2011, has closely packed elements that require water cooling. The IBM 639:

Systems with a massive number of processors generally take one of two paths. In the

8525: 8409: 8376: 8171: 8093: 7982: 7968: 7963: 7912: 7899: 7824: 7777: 7567: 7550: 7330: 7251: 7244: 6977: 6776: 6711: 6558: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6333: 6041: 5568: 5331: 5319: 5150: 5121: 5099: 5048: 5005: 4338: 4108: 4096: 3754: 3614: 3491: 3192: 2737: 2680: 1421: 878: 859: 822: 791: 645: 494: 487: 412: 350: 338: 327: 310: 287: 224:

supercomputers with tens of thousands of off-the-shelf processors became the norm.

213: 157: 6242: 4628:

Curtis Storlie; Joe Sexton; Scott Pakin; Michael Lang; Brian Reich; William Rust.

3990:

Completion of a one-petaFLOPS computer system for simulation of molecular dynamics

3962: 2414:

The stages of supercomputer application may be summarized in the following table:

1182:

cannot handle traditional supercomputing tasks such as fluid dynamic simulations.

8794: 8596: 8490: 8462: 8356: 8308: 8293: 8278: 8133: 8128: 8068: 7958: 7932: 7884: 7829: 7687: 7677: 7667: 7504: 7484: 7396: 7196: 7169: 6841: 6781: 6716: 6563: 6553: 6486: 6476: 6318: 6308: 5345:"Understanding measures of supercomputer performance and storage system capacity" 4905:

Note this link will give current statistics, not those on the date last accessed.

4603: 4062: 4012:

Cracking DES – Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics & Chip Design

3996: 3930: 3900: 3663:

Grid computing: experiment management, tool integration, and scientific workflows

2566:

Distribution of TOP500 supercomputers among different countries, in November 2015

2456: 2108: 1701: 1544: 1420:

and shown as "Rmax" in the TOP500 list. The LINPACK benchmark typically performs

1288: 1247: 1175: 1174:

problems that require supercomputing performance scales. However, basic grid and

1150: 1025: 863: 610: 551: 262: 177: 6084:

Yiannis Cotronis; Anthony Danalis; Dimitris Nikolopoulos; Jack Dongarra (2011).

5974: 4010: 403:

in 1976, which became one of the most successful supercomputers in history. The

71: 8702: 8606: 8505: 8351: 8323: 7636: 7266: 7239: 7114: 7084: 6972: 6788: 6445: 6338: 5634: 5431: 4959: 3739: 3086: 2630: 2589:

use the same algorithm to process a randomly generated data set; particularly,

2044: 1315: 1264: 1235: 1211: 1167: 1163: 1155: 1145: 1021: 912: 640: 601: 547: 534:, a material normally reserved for microwave applications due to its toxicity. 506: 483: 181: 169: 114: 5460:"China Tops Supercomputer Rankings with New 93-Petaflop Machine | TOP500" 5154: 4630:"Modeling and Predicting Power Consumption of High-Performance Computing Jobs" 4585:"Asymptotically Zero Energy Computing Using Split-Level Charge Recovery Logic" 4100: 3935:

Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion

3619: 3602: 2495:

Scientific research for outbreak prevention/Electrochemical Reaction Research

1468:

since June 1993, and the "Peak speed" is given as the "Rmax" rating. In 2018,

8864: 8591: 7879: 7462: 7419: 7347: 7288: 7179: 7174: 7119: 7089: 7060: 7017: 6861: 6738: 5631:"Disarmament Diplomacy: – DOE Supercomputing & Test Simulation Programme" 4790: 4142:

Parallel Computational Fluid Dyynamics; Recent Advances and Future Directions

3642:

Fleck, John (8 April 1999). "UNM to crank up $ 400,000 supercomputer today".

3318: 3069:"Japan Captures TOP500 Crown with Arm-Powered Supercomputer - TOP500 website" 3040: 2742: 2704: 2225: 2199: 2145: 2121: 1998: 1913: 1801: 1632: 1585: 1359: 911:

The energy efficiency of computer systems is generally measured in terms of "

756: 727:

supercomputer is unique in that it uses both a massively parallel design and

555: 331: 200: 185: 4768: 3495: 3490:. Proceedings of HPC-Asia '97. IEEE Computer SocietyPages. pp. 99–103. 1407:

supercomputers can process one quadrillion (10) (1000 trillion) FLOPS.

94: 8806: 8687: 8346: 7682: 7615: 7584: 7457: 7452: 7305: 7300: 7144: 6461: 5586: 5477: 5414:"Lenovo Attains Status as Largest Global Provider of TOP500 Supercomputers" 2359: 2237: 1970: 1885: 1717: 1560: 1189: 870: 844: 813: 764: 590: 454: 376: 357: 192: 173: 168:(computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds, biological 5813:"Supercomputer Simulations Help Advance Electrochemical Reaction Research" 5608: 5052: 4617:"Inside the Titan Supercomputer: 299K AMD x86 Cores and 18.6K NVIDIA GPUs" 4343: 4326: 3820:

Hans Hacker; Carsten Trinitis; Josef Weidendorfer; Matthias Brehm (2010).

2634: 2613:

identified power consumption as the most pervasive challenge in achieving

278: 8677: 8303: 8215: 7442: 7374: 7213: 7206: 7129: 7109: 6982: 5344: 5009: 4705:

Euro-Par 2006 Parallel Processing: 12th International Euro-Par Conference

4685:

Euro-Par 2004 Parallel Processing: 10th International Euro-Par Conference

4038:"Move Over, China: U.S. Is Again Home to World's Speediest Supercomputer" 2650: 2598: 2520: 1784: 1311: 1296: 800: 510: 346: 302: 298: 5502: 5267:

Performance Evaluation, Prediction and Visualization of Parallel Systems

5103: 3976:

Scientific Simulations with Special Purpose Computers: The GRAPE Systems

3758: 2873: 2383: 1333:

of a size or complexity that no other computer can, e.g. a very complex

836: 8697: 8627: 8220: 7953: 7809: 7589: 7572: 7555: 7514: 7474: 7467: 6045: 4489:

performing 376 million calculations for every watt of electricity used.

3753:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 3779. pp. 132–143. 2722: 2549:. It was launched in 2020 and has a capacity of about two to three Peta 1975: 1890: 1818: 1808: 1730: 1307: 1292: 947: 882: 818: 772: 700: 661: 586: 559: 416: 306: 6063: 5657:"China's Investment in GPU Supercomputing Begins to Pay Off Big Time!" 4968:

IEEE International Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing

2971:"Global Race Toward Exascale Will Drive Supercomputing, AI to Masses." 1449: 931:

reached 1,684 MFLOPS/W and in June 2011 the top two spots on the

672:

combined with centralization is an emerging direction, e.g. as in the

474:

working on parallel designs with thousands of processors, notably the

337:

The third pioneering supercomputer project in the early 1960s was the

8202: 8163: 7711: 7577: 7562: 7384: 7359: 6856: 6831: 6248: 6245:. Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Publications and Other Works. 4964:"Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing in grids, hot topic paper (2007)" 4856: 4707:, 2006, by Wolfgang E. Nagel, Wolfgang V. Walter and Wolfgang Lehner 2574:(10 or one quintillion FLOPS) supercomputer. Erik P. DeBenedictis of 2502: 2484: 2444: 2348: 2191: 1404: 1384: 1127:

Moreover, it is quite difficult to debug and test parallel programs.

936: 932: 901: 897: 826: 768: 688: 673: 462: 450: 424: 380: 326:

and France also bought the computer, and it became the basis for the

79: 8837: 5323: 4584: 2851: 445: 8777: 8263: 7746: 7499: 7432: 7310: 7293: 7234: 7124: 6906: 6886: 6811: 6179:

Energy-Efficient High Performance Computing: Measurement and Tuning

6146:

Energy-Efficient High Performance Computing: Measurement and Tuning

6113:

Energy-Efficient High Performance Computing: Measurement and Tuning

5864:"OSTP Funding Supercomputer Research to Combat COVID-19 – MeriTalk" 5391: 5042: 4999: 4958:

Kravtsov, Valentin; Carmeli, David; Dubitzky, Werner; Orda, Ariel;

4930: 4841: 2684: 2660: 2656: 2546: 2534: 2344: 2260: 1303: 830: 795: 692: 427:, making it the first supercomputer to break the gigaflop barrier. 372: 361: 110: 4687:

2004, by Marco Danelutto, Marco Vanneschi and Domenico Laforenza,

4629: 2508:

Modern-day weather forecasting also relies on supercomputers. The

1299:

98:

Computing power of the top 1 supercomputer each year, measured in

7409: 7379: 7283: 6911: 6891: 6866: 6501: 1821: 1745: 1733: 1645: 1464:

This is a list of the computers which appeared at the top of the

1284: 939:

machines in New York (one achieving 2097 MFLOPS/W) with the

905: 724: 699:

have started to rely on them. However, other systems such as the

535: 520: 384: 4731:

International Journal of High Performance Computing Applications

1192:(F@h). As of April 2020, F@h reported 2.5 exaFLOPS of 7339: 6881: 6876: 4208:

Computational science – ICCS 2005: 5th international conference

2668: 2472: 2432: 2213: 2208: 1962: 1877: 1469: 1465: 1434: 1121: 1108: 874: 779: 621: 578: 404: 400: 399:. Four years after leaving CDC, Cray delivered the 80 MHz 294: 283: 229: 217: 130: 5724:. News.nationalgeographic.com. 28 October 2010. Archived from 4185:

Parallel computing for real-time signal processing and control

4008: 3851:"Cray's Titan Supercomputer for ORNL Could Be World's Fastest" 3287: 2467:

3D nuclear test simulations as a substitute for legal conduct

978:

have undergone major transformations, based on the changes in

270: 5303:

Dongarra, Jack J.; Luszczek, Piotr; Petitet, Antoine (2003),

4890: 2610: 2550: 2541: 2310: 2302: 2233: 2153: 2080: 2072: 2006: 1921: 1841: 1833: 1753: 1670: 1662: 1650: 1593: 1396: 1388: 1376: 1276: 1131:

need to be used for testing and debugging such applications.

1113: 1033: 1010: 983: 771:

for protein structure prediction and molecular dynamics, and

760: 708: 704: 684: 627: 605: 594: 582: 543: 134: 118: 99: 4420:"IBM Hot Water-Cooled Supercomputer Goes Live at ETH Zurich" 3824:. In Rainer Keller; David Kramer; Jan-Philipp Weiss (eds.). 3822:"Considering GPGPU for HPC Centers: Is It Worth the Effort?" 3348:

by Mark Donald Hill, Norman Paul Jouppi, Gurindar Sohi 1999

3160: 3135: 3110: 1379:(floating-point operations per second), and not in terms of 6916: 6846: 6836: 6026:"MECA: A multiprocessor concept specialized to Monte Carlo" 5270:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 114–117. 4726:

An Evaluation of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Cray XT3

4281: 4259: 3828:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 118–121. 1813: 1399:, combined into the shorthand PFLOPS (10 FLOPS, pronounced 1391:, combined into the shorthand TFLOPS (10 FLOPS, pronounced 1158:

system connecting many personal computers over the internet

1117: 531: 517: 396: 245: 4086: 3388:

Rogachev Yury Vasilievich, Russian Virtual Computer Museum

3319:

Andrew R. L. Cayton; Richard Sisson; Chris Zacher (2006).

8801: 6826: 6803: 5589:. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, Issy-les-Moulineaux, France 5044:

2015 IEEE 8th International Conference on Cloud Computing

3366:

Milestones in computer science and information technology

3013:

Supercomputers: directions in technology and applications

2700: 2516: 1981: 1896: 1193: 1014: 920: 479: 309:

technology. Also, among the first supercomputers was the

76: 5979:

Proceedings of the 2nd conference on Computing frontiers

5767: 5587:"Abstract for SAMSY – Shielding Analysis Modular System" 4231:(Press release). Nvidia. 29 October 2010. Archived from 3791:

by Guangming Tan, Vugranam C. Sreedhar and Guang R. Gao

2699:

was mentioned as the supercomputer used to sequence the

1371:

In general, the speed of supercomputers is measured and

465:. This machine was the first realized example of a true 5302: 5134: 5001:

2015 IEEE International Conference on Cloud Engineering

4957: 4398:: IBM 'Blue Waters' super node washes ashore in August" 4229:"NVIDIA Tesla GPUs Power World's Fastest Supercomputer" 3878: 5214:"Penguin Puts High-performance Computing in the Cloud" 3866:"GPUs Will Morph ORNL's Jaguar into 20-Petaflop Titan" 2443:

Probabilistic analysis, radiation shielding modeling (

1295:

compute model to execute code, but each user is given

858:

issues in supercomputing surpass those of traditional

379:, was finished in 1964 and marked the transition from 144:

Supercomputers play an important role in the field of

8766: 5838:"IBM's Summit—The Supercomputer Fighting Coronavirus" 5137:

2009 Fifth IEEE International Conference on e-Science

4528:"Top500 Supercomputing List Reveals Computing Trends" 1476:

Top 10 positions of the 60th TOP500 in November 2022

1039: 5312:

Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience

4502:"IBM Roadrunner Takes the Gold in the Petaflop Race" 3881:"Oak Ridge changes Jaguar's spots from CPUs to GPUs" 1355:

Grid computing § Fastest virtual supercomputers

1242: 1162:

Opportunistic supercomputing is a form of networked

482:. The CM-1 used as many as 65,536 simplified custom 4597:"Hot Topic – the Problem of Cooling Supercomputers" 1271:In 2016, Penguin Computing, Parallel Works, R-HPC, 943:in Nagasaki placing third with 1375 MFLOPS/W. 785: 6209:"Green Supercomputer Crunches Big Data in Iceland" 3485: 3433:"LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System-Computer Museum" 3322:The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia 3226: 1201:Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing 1099:In the most common scenario, environments such as 1020:While in a traditional multi-user computer system 712:However, GPUs are gaining ground, and in 2012 the 6183:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6150:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6117:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 5305:"The LINPACK Benchmark: past, present and future" 4744:Job scheduling strategies for parallel processing 4055: 3294:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1218: 958: 734: 635:used by systems such as Blue Gene, Cray XT3, etc. 8862: 5722:"Faster Supercomputers Aiding Weather Forecasts" 5633:. Acronym.org.uk. 22 August 2000. Archived from 1229:Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing is a form of 1009:on compute nodes, but a larger system such as a 707:-based designs and the overall applicability of 703:continue to use conventional processors such as 5748:"IBM Drops 'Blue Waters' Supercomputer Project" 5454: 5452: 4448: 4187:by M. O. Tokhi, Mohammad Alamgir Hossain 2003, 3658: 3554:Scalable input/output: achieving system balance 3224: 2988:"NSA Breaks Ground on Massive Computing Center" 2783:Testing high-performance computing applications 2510:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 395:Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company, 7047: 6003:"IDF: Intel says Moore's Law holds until 2029" 5921:. Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from 5083: 5040: 4997: 3737: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3267:. State History Publications. pp. 83–84. 3038: 2655:Examples of supercomputers in fiction include 1453:Top 20 supercomputers in the world (June 2014) 7786:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 7762: 7033: 6264: 5298: 5296: 4817:Introduction to HPC with MPI for Data Science 4477:"Government unveils world's fastest computer" 1327: 1287:, Sabalcore, and Gomput started to offer HPC 1134: 526:. It was mainly used for rendering realistic 430: 5972: 5909: 5449: 4665:Knowing machines: essays on technical change 4367:"IBM uncloaks 20 petaflops BlueGene/Q super" 4324: 3848: 3635: 3416: 2627:Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe 862:technologies. The supercomputing awards for 228:June 2024, the fastest supercomputer on the 184:). They have been essential in the field of 6079: 6077: 6075: 6073: 4953: 4951: 4842:"Chapter 03 Software and System Management" 4698: 4678: 4640: 4638: 3879:Timothy Prickett Morgan (11 October 2011). 3708: 3589: 2431:Weather forecasting, aerodynamic research ( 1166:whereby a "super virtual computer" of many 1139: 23: 7769: 7755: 7040: 7026: 6271: 6257: 5293: 5239: 5237: 5235: 4545:"IBM Research A Clear Winner in Green 500" 4359: 4089:Journal of Computer Science and Technology 3807:"Top 500 supers – The Dawning of the GPUs" 3693:IBM creates world's most powerful computer 3577:. IEEE Computer Society. 22 September 2021 3325:. Indiana University Press. p. 1489. 3191:, University of Manchester, archived from 3061: 2816:. 03.ibm.com. 26 June 2007. Archived from 2703:extracted from preserved parasites in the 2291:National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou 1322: 812:Throughout the decades, the management of 24: 6088:. Springer Science & Business Media. 5263: 5144: 5093: 4975: 4658: 4342: 3782: 3685: 3618: 3288:John Impagliazzo; John A. N. Lee (2004). 3256: 3254: 3215:, Charles Murray, Wiley & Sons, 1997. 3163:Computers: The Life Story of a Technology 3138:Computers: The Life Story of a Technology 3113:Computers: The Life Story of a Technology 3034: 3032: 3006: 3004: 2557: 2528:Advanced Simulation and Computing Program 1291:. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud is a 1185:The fastest grid computing system is the 685:general-purpose graphics processing units 6070: 5211: 4948: 4791:"Wide-angle view of the ALMA correlator" 4635: 4391: 4253: 4247: 4180: 4178: 4155: 3920:(ed.M.R.B.Clarke), Pergamon Press, 1982. 3872: 3804: 3795:Volume 56, Number 1, 1–24 September 2011 3659:Prodan, Radu; Fahringer, Thomas (2007). 3567: 2866: 2561: 2540: 1448: 1358: 1149: 1059: 1032:Although most modern supercomputers use 835: 799: 652:system the speed and flexibility of the 626: 615: 444: 313:. The IBM 7030 was built by IBM for the 277: 269: 261: 93: 70: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 5232: 4814: 4254:Balandin, Alexander A. (October 2009). 4203: 4201: 4115: 4029: 4009:Electronic Frontier Foundation (1998). 3863: 3607:IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 3359: 3161:Eric G. Swedin; David L. Ferro (2007). 3136:Eric G. Swedin; David L. Ferro (2007). 3111:Eric G. Swedin; David L. Ferro (2007). 3011:Hoffman, Allan R.; et al. (1990). 3010: 1310:networks. User connectivity to the POD 14: 8863: 8486:Knowledge representation and reasoning 6278: 5681: 4318: 4256:"Better Computing Through CPU Cooling" 3652: 3419:"ComputerGK.com : Supercomputers" 3339: 3260: 3251: 3029: 3015:. National Academies. pp. 35–47. 3001: 2061:National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi 1987:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 1651:RIKEN Center for Computational Science 1344: 240:score of 1.102 ExaFlop/s, followed by 8511:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 7750: 7021: 6252: 6023: 5975:"Reversible logic for supercomputing" 5946: 5558: 5257: 4854: 4736: 4508:from the original on 17 December 2008 4304:"Green 500 list ranks supercomputers" 4175: 4135: 3813: 3798: 3641: 3600: 3047:. Gulf Professional. pp. 40–49. 2985: 2844:Argonne Leadership Computing Facility 478:(CM) that developed from research at 7830:Energy consumption (Green computing) 7776: 5406: 4718: 4198: 4035: 3864:Feldman, Michael (11 October 2011). 3778:from the original on 9 October 2022. 2733:High-performance technical computing 2378: 2327: 1208:Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search 1046:Message passing in computer clusters 963: 687:(GPGPUs) have improved, a number of 449:A cabinet of the massively parallel 8516:Distributed artificial intelligence 7788:ACM Computing Classification System 5561:Computers & Operations Research 5540:from the original on 9 October 2022 5185: 4080: 3929: 2748:Nvidia Tesla Personal Supercomputer 1107:for loosely connected clusters and 974:Since the end of the 20th century, 716:supercomputer was transformed into 415:and the electronics coolant liquid 407:was released in 1985. It had eight 59:Type of extremely powerful computer 56: 8891:Distributed computing architecture 8021:Integrated development environment 5947:Cohen, Reuven (28 November 2013). 5659:. Blogs.nvidia.com. Archived from 5212:Niccolai, James (11 August 2009). 4645:Encyclopedia of Parallel Computing 4392:Prickett, Timothy (15 July 2011). 4210:edited by Vaidy S. Sunderam 2005, 3842: 2718:ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference 1428: 1225:Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing 1040:Software tools and message passing 505:processing architecture, with 514 299:Livermore Atomic Research Computer 131:world's fastest 500 supercomputers 57: 8907: 8496:Automated planning and scheduling 8026:Software configuration management 6235: 5682:Andrew, Scottie (19 March 2020). 4839: 4733:February 2008 vol. 22 no. 1 52–80 3805:Prickett, Timothy (31 May 2010). 3709:N. R. Agida; et al. (2005). 3542:Overview of recent supercomputers 3346:Readings in computer architecture 3291:History of computing in education 3264:Wisconsin Biographical Dictionary 3045:Readings in computer architecture 2946:"Operating system Family / Linux" 1767: 1710:Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C 1553:Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C 1243:High-performance computing clouds 305:, rather than the newly emerging 266:A circuit board from the IBM 7030 8848: 8836: 8824: 8812: 8800: 8788: 8776: 8750: 8740: 8731: 8730: 7730: 7729: 7001: 7000: 6201: 6168: 6135: 6102: 6017: 5995: 5966: 5940: 5903: 5877: 5856: 5830: 5805: 5775: 5740: 5714: 5711:(New York: Doubleday, 2011), 65. 5701: 5675: 5649: 5623: 5601: 5579: 5552: 5520: 5495: 5470: 5424: 5384: 5359: 5337: 5284: 5205: 4565:from the original on 3 July 2011 4162:Supercomputing Research Advances 4015:. Oreilly & Associates Inc. 3849:Damon Poeter (11 October 2011). 3451:"VPP500 (1992) - Fujitsu Global" 2969:Anderson, Mark (21 June 2017). 2469:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 2382: 2332: 2295: 2247: 2246: 2218: 2167: 2166: 2138: 2090: 2089: 2065: 2020: 2019: 1991: 1935: 1934: 1906: 1850: 1849: 1826: 1766: 1738: 1683: 1655: 1606: 1578: 1526: 873:that need to be dealt with. The 786:Energy usage and heat management 720:by retrofitting CPUs with GPUs. 499:LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System 8741: 8144:Computational complexity theory 6472:Analysis of parallel algorithms 6241:McDonnell, Marshall T. (2013). 5981:. ACM Press. pp. 391–402. 5912:"The Path To Extreme Computing" 5478:"Matrix-2000 - NUDT - WikiChip" 5179: 5128: 5077: 5034: 4991: 4923: 4875: 4848: 4833: 4808: 4783: 4757: 4622: 4609: 4590: 4577: 4551: 4537: 4520: 4494: 4469: 4453:. News.cnet.com. Archived from 4449:Martin LaMonica (10 May 2010). 4442: 4412: 4385: 4296: 4270: 4221: 4063:"Green500 List - November 2018" 4002: 3981: 3968: 3955: 3923: 3906: 3887: 3857: 3702: 3547: 3534: 3525: 3512: 3479: 3457: 3443: 3425: 3417:Steve Nelson (3 October 2014). 3410: 3392: 3379: 3312: 3281: 3218: 3206: 3179: 3154: 3129: 3104: 3079: 2483:Molecular dynamics simulation ( 2323: 1412:by Brehm and Bruhwiler (2015). 976:supercomputer operating systems 970:Supercomputer operating systems 631:Diagram of a three-dimensional 123:million instructions per second 7928:Network performance evaluation 6009:. 4 April 2008. Archived from 5973:DeBenedictis, Erik P. (2005). 5910:DeBenedictis, Erik P. (2004). 4819:. Springer. pp. 185–221. 4280:. Green500.org. Archived from 3912:Condon, J.H. and K.Thompson, " 3751:Network and Parallel Computing 2979: 2963: 2938: 2913: 2888: 2832: 2806: 2591:integro-differential equations 2347:format but may read better as 2279:35,584 × Matrix-2000 128-core 1684: 1607: 1527: 1281:Silicon Graphics International 1219:Quasi-opportunistic approaches 959:Software and system management 735:Special purpose supercomputers 679:As the price, performance and 457:, each holding many processors 315:Los Alamos National Laboratory 64:Supercomputer (disambiguation) 13: 1: 8299:Multimedia information system 8284:Geographic information system 8274:Enterprise information system 7863:Computer systems organization 6419:Simultaneous and heterogenous 6215:. 21 May 2015. Archived from 5609:"EFF DES Cracker Source Code" 5573:10.1016/S0305-0548(96)00056-1 5086:2011 Sixth Open Cirrus Summit 4426:. 2 July 2010. Archived from 3793:The Journal of Supercomputing 3720:. p. 265. Archived from 3718:Torus Interconnection Network 3697:NewScientist.com news service 3229:A History of Modern Computing 2976:. Retrieved 20 January 2019. 2921:"NVIDIA GeForce GT 730 Specs" 2896:"AMD Playstation 5 GPU Specs" 2799: 2644: 1902:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1574:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1499:Accelerator (e.g. GPU) cores 664:systems to three-dimensional 212:being typical. In the 1970s, 208:were added, with one to four 8658:Computational social science 8246:Theoretical computer science 8059:Software development process 7835:Electronic design automation 7820:Very Large Scale Integration 7007:Category: Parallel computing 5753:International Business Times 5528:"The Cray-1 Computer System" 5367:"Frequently Asked Questions" 4767:. Top500.org. Archived from 4144:edited by Rupak Biswas 2010 3918:Advances in Computer Chess 3 3467:. Netlib.org. 1 October 1996 2814:"IBM Blue gene announcement" 2595:physical transport processes 2576:Sandia National Laboratories 2284: 2253: 2207: 2173: 2129: 2096: 2056: 2026: 1980: 1941: 1895: 1856: 1812: 1772: 1724: 1689: 1644: 1612: 1567: 1532: 1236:opportunistic grid computing 330:, a supercomputer built for 82:supercomputer "Intrepid" at 7: 8481:Natural language processing 8269:Information storage systems 4124:by Charles J. Murray 1997, 4036:Lohr, Steve (8 June 2018). 3465:"TOP500 Annual Report 1994" 2848:Argonne National Laboratory 2710: 2455:Brute force code breaking ( 2423:Uses and computer involved 1261:infrastructure as a service 1187:volunteer computing project 575:Evans & Sutherland ES-1 84:Argonne National Laboratory 10: 8912: 8397:Human–computer interaction 8367:Intrusion detection system 8279:Social information systems 8264:Database management system 7480:Personal digital assistant 6314:High-performance computing 4915:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 4746:by Dror G. Feitelson 2005 3939:Princeton University Press 2788:Ultra Network Technologies 2728:High-performance computing 2648: 1954:IBM Power System 1869:IBM Power System 1438: 1432: 1363:Top supercomputer speeds: 1348: 1328:Capability versus capacity 1222: 1154:Example architecture of a 1143: 1135:Distributed supercomputing 1056:Parallel programming model 1049: 1043: 1013:-derivative on server and 980:supercomputer architecture 967: 789: 441:Parallel computer hardware 437:Supercomputer architecture 434: 431:Massively parallel designs 421:supercomputer architecture 255: 251: 61: 8726: 8663:Computational engineering 8638:Computational mathematics 8615: 8562: 8524: 8471: 8433: 8395: 8337: 8254: 8200: 8162: 8107: 8044: 7977: 7941: 7898: 7862: 7795: 7784: 7725: 7660: 7629: 7606: 7541: 7513: 7418: 7395: 7338: 7329: 7222: 7162: 7155: 7075: 7068: 7059: 6996: 6948:Automatic parallelization 6940: 6802: 6642: 6592: 6584:Application checkpointing 6546: 6510: 6454: 6398: 6347: 6286: 5787:U.S. Department of Energy 5188:"Moving HPC to the Cloud" 5155:10.1109/e-Science.2009.58 4857:"Client Statistics by OS" 4667:by Donald MacKenzie 1998 4101:10.1007/s02011-011-1137-8 3961:C. Donninger, U. Lorenz. 3620:10.1109/MAHC.2021.3101415 3165:. JHU Press. p. 58. 3140:. JHU Press. p. 56. 3115:. JHU Press. p. 57. 3087:"Performance Development" 3043:; Sohi, Gurindar (1999). 2986:Lemke, Tim (8 May 2013). 1445:History of supercomputing 1441:List of fastest computers 1206:As of October 2016, 568:Message Passing Interface 524:floating-point processors 345:, built by a team led by 258:History of supercomputing 8673:Computational healthcare 8668:Differentiable computing 8587:Graphics processing unit 8006:Domain-specific language 7875:Computational complexity 5611:. Cosic.esat.kuleuven.be 5432:"November 2022 | TOP500" 5220:. IDG Consumer & SMB 3963:The Chess Monster Hydra. 3899:4 September 2015 at the 3894:"The NETL SuperComputer" 3742:; Gao, Guang R. (2005). 3738:Niu, Yanwei; Hu, Ziang; 3601:Bader, David A. (2021). 3368:by Edwin D. Reilly 2003 3225:Paul E. Ceruzzi (2003). 2763:Supercomputing in Europe 2619:central processing units 2271:(35,584 × 12-core Intel 2205:Mellanox HDR Infiniband 1504: 1483: 1367:speed over 60 years 1178:approaches that rely on 1140:Opportunistic approaches 927:. In November 2010, the 729:liquid immersion cooling 648:. In such a centralized 558:could have 1000 to 4000 486:connected together in a 453:/L, showing the stacked 409:central processing units 343:University of Manchester 321:, magnetic core memory, 197:Control Data Corporation 39:latest accepted revision 8648:Computational chemistry 8582:Photograph manipulation 8473:Artificial intelligence 8289:Decision support system 7717:Wireless sensor network 6963:Embarrassingly parallel 6958:Deterministic algorithm 5771:(subscription required) 4815:Nielsen, Frank (2016). 4602:18 January 2015 at the 3995:2 December 2012 at the 3974:J Makino and M. Taiji, 3556:by Daniel A. Reed 2003 3496:10.1109/HPC.1997.592130 2773:Supercomputing in Japan 2768:Supercomputing in India 2758:Supercomputing in China 2695:. A supercomputer from 2587:Monte Carlo simulations 2356:converting this section 2117:64-core @2.45 GHz 1323:Performance measurement 1210:'s (GIMPS) distributed 1172:embarrassingly parallel 1064:Wide-angle view of the 691:supercomputers such as 419:was pumped through the 162:oil and gas exploration 139:exascale supercomputers 117:operations per second ( 8713:Educational technology 8544:Reinforcement learning 8294:Process control system 8192:Computational geometry 8182:Algorithmic efficiency 8177:Analysis of algorithms 7825:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 7490:Portable data terminal 6678:Associative processing 6634:Non-blocking algorithm 6440:Clustered multi-thread 5842:MedicalExpo e-Magazine 5766: – via 5533:. Cray Research, Inc. 4729:by Sadaf R. Alam etal 4164:by Yongge Huáng 2008, 3261:Hannan, Caryn (2008). 2567: 2558:Development and trends 2554: 2519:'s abandonment of the 1454: 1368: 1159: 1069: 935:list were occupied by 847: 809: 636: 624: 458: 423:. It reached 1.9 290: 275: 267: 232:supercomputer list is 102: 91: 8683:Electronic publishing 8653:Computational biology 8643:Computational physics 8539:Unsupervised learning 8453:Distributed computing 8329:Information retrieval 8236:Mathematical analysis 8226:Mathematical software 8109:Theory of computation 8074:Software construction 8064:Requirements analysis 7942:Software organization 7870:Computer architecture 7840:Hardware acceleration 7805:Printed circuit board 7673:Information appliance 7495:Portable media player 7438:Handheld game console 6794:Hardware acceleration 6707:Superscalar processor 6697:Dataflow architecture 6294:Distributed computing 6024:Solem, J. C. (1985). 5709:Physics of the Future 5053:10.1109/CLOUD.2015.85 4863:. Stanford University 4344:10.1145/957717.957772 4325:Wu-chun Feng (2003). 3987:RIKEN press release, 3667:. Springer. pp. 3400:"Seymour Cray Quotes" 3233:. MIT Press. p. 2874:"The List: June 2018" 2673:The Evitable Conflict 2565: 2544: 2190:(1,120 × 64-core AMD 2083:(RaiseOS 2.0.5) 1961:(8,640 × 22-core IBM 1876:(9,216 × 22-core IBM 1452: 1439:Further information: 1362: 1257:platform as a service 1253:software as a service 1231:distributed computing 1153: 1063: 923:operated at 376 856:CPU power dissipation 839: 803: 743:chips or even custom 670:multi-core processors 630: 619: 540:Numerical Wind Tunnel 448: 366:Manchester University 281: 273: 265: 146:computational science 97: 74: 8886:Concurrent computing 8843:Computer programming 8443:Concurrent computing 8415:Ubiquitous computing 8387:Application security 8382:Information security 8211:Discrete mathematics 8187:Randomized algorithm 8139:Computability theory 8117:Model of computation 8089:Software maintenance 8084:Software engineering 8046:Software development 7996:Programming language 7991:Programming paradigm 7908:Network architecture 7448:Mobile data terminal 7428:Electronic organizer 7100:Intelligent terminal 6673:Pipelined processing 6622:Explicit parallelism 6617:Implicit parallelism 6607:Dataflow programming 5347:. Indiana University 5139:. pp. 366–373. 5047:. pp. 596–603. 5010:10.1109/IC2E.2015.56 5004:. pp. 329–334. 4897:on 19 September 2010 4647:by David Padua 2011 3914:Belle Chess Hardware 3883:. Theregister.co.uk. 3809:. Theregister.co.uk. 3540:A.J. van der Steen, 2113:? × ?-core AMD 1642:Tofu interconnect D 1625:Supercomputer Fugaku 952:thermal design power 866:reflect this issue. 852:thermal design power 604:developed the first 528:3D computer graphics 236:, in the US, with a 176:, the detonation of 62:For other uses, see 8876:American inventions 8718:Document management 8708:Operations research 8633:Enterprise software 8549:Multi-task learning 8534:Supervised learning 8256:Information systems 8079:Software deployment 8036:Software repository 7890:Real-time computing 6897:Parallel Extensions 6702:Pipelined processor 6038:1985LNP...240..184S 6013:on 8 December 2013. 5728:on 5 September 2005 5104:10.1109/OCS.2011.10 4547:. 18 November 2010. 4400:. Theregister.co.uk 4314:on 22 October 2008. 3759:10.1007/11577188_18 3645:Albuquerque Journal 3041:Jouppi, Norman Paul 3039:Hill, Mark Donald; 2523:petascale project. 2043:(40,960 × 260-core 1969:17,280 × 80 Nvidia 1884:27,648 × 80 Nvidia 1631:(158,976 × 48-core 1477: 1345:Performance metrics 1273:Amazon Web Services 1180:volunteer computing 829:consumes 4.04 666:torus interconnects 546:per processor. The 154:weather forecasting 29:Page version status 8896:Parallel computing 8819:History of science 8501:Search methodology 8448:Parallel computing 8405:Interaction design 8314:Computing platform 8241:Numerical analysis 8231:Information theory 8016:Software framework 7979:Software notations 7918:Network components 7815:Integrated circuit 7705:Computer-on-module 7563:Digital wristwatch 7365:Mobile workstation 7135:Video game console 7095:Internet appliance 6771:Massively parallel 6749:distributed shared 6569:Cache invalidation 6533:Instruction window 6324:Manycore processor 6304:Massively parallel 6299:Parallel computing 6280:Parallel computing 6213:intelfreepress.com 6046:10.1007/BFb0049047 5264:Xingfu Wu (1999). 5186:Eadline, Douglas. 5088:. pp. 22–26. 4615:Anand Lal Shimpi. 4457:on 1 November 2013 4451:"CNet 10 May 2010" 4430:on 10 January 2011 4373:. 22 November 2010 3727:on 15 August 2011. 2753:Parallel computing 2615:Exascale computing 2568: 2555: 2394:. You can help by 2358:, if appropriate. 1794:Xeon Platinum 8358 1475: 1455: 1418:LINPACK benchmarks 1369: 1351:LINPACK benchmarks 1335:weather simulation 1160: 1129:Special techniques 1070: 1052:Parallel computing 999:lightweight kernel 991:massively parallel 848: 810: 767:for astrophysics, 650:massively parallel 637: 633:torus interconnect 625: 544:gigaFLOPS (GFLOPS) 514:control processors 503:massively parallel 476:Connection Machine 467:massively parallel 459: 291: 276: 268: 222:massively parallel 166:molecular modeling 103: 92: 35: 8881:Cluster computing 8764: 8763: 8693:Electronic voting 8623:Quantum Computing 8616:Applied computing 8602:Image compression 8372:Hardware security 8362:Security services 8319:Digital marketing 8099:Open-source model 8011:Modeling language 7923:Network scheduler 7744: 7743: 7693:Rugged smartphone 7602: 7601: 7598: 7597: 7325: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7279:Small form factor 7105:Interactive kiosk 7015: 7014: 6968:Parallel slowdown 6602:Stream processing 6492:Karp–Flatt metric 6055:978-3-540-16070-0 5988:978-1-59593-019-4 5891:. 4 February 2018 5889:NextBigFuture.com 5817:ucsdnews.ucsd.edu 5277:978-0-7923-8462-5 5164:978-1-4244-5340-5 5113:978-0-7695-4650-6 5062:978-1-4673-7287-9 5019:978-1-4799-8218-9 4962:; Yoshpa, Benny. 4826:978-3-319-21903-5 4795:ESO Press Release 4765:"Top500 OS chart" 4752:978-3-540-31024-2 4487:on 10 June 2008. 4284:on 26 August 2016 4193:978-1-85233-599-1 4022:978-1-56592-520-5 3948:978-0-691-09065-8 3835:978-3-642-16232-9 3768:978-3-540-29810-6 3678:978-3-540-69261-4 3562:978-0-262-68142-1 3437:museum.ipsj.or.jp 3354:978-1-55860-539-8 3332:978-0-253-00349-2 3305:978-1-4020-8135-4 3274:978-1-878592-63-7 3244:978-0-262-53203-7 3054:978-1-55860-539-8 3022:978-0-309-04088-4 2974:Spectrum.IEEE.org 2793:Quantum computing 2697:Thinking Machines 2665:The Machine Stops 2499: 2498: 2412: 2411: 2377: 2376: 2321: 2320: 1792:(3,456 × 32-core 1708:(2,352 × 64-core 1559:36,992 × 220 AMD 1551:(9,248 × 64-core 1459:LINPACK benchmark 1092:software such as 1024:is, in effect, a 964:Operating systems 775:for breaking the 681:energy efficiency 620:The CPU share of 286:preserved at the 238:LINPACK benchmark 214:vector processors 150:quantum mechanics 47:26 September 2024 26: 16:(Redirected from 8903: 8853: 8852: 8851: 8841: 8840: 8829: 8828: 8827: 8817: 8816: 8815: 8805: 8804: 8793: 8792: 8791: 8781: 8780: 8772: 8754: 8753: 8744: 8743: 8734: 8733: 8554:Cross-validation 8526:Machine learning 8410:Social computing 8377:Network security 8172:Algorithm design 8094:Programming team 8054:Control variable 8031:Software library 7969:Software quality 7964:Operating system 7913:Network protocol 7778:Computer science 7771: 7764: 7757: 7748: 7747: 7733: 7732: 7568:Calculator watch 7551:Activity tracker 7336: 7335: 7160: 7159: 7073: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7042: 7035: 7028: 7019: 7018: 7004: 7003: 6978:Software lockout 6777:Computer cluster 6712:Vector processor 6667:Array processing 6652:Flynn's taxonomy 6559:Memory coherence 6334:Computer network 6273: 6266: 6259: 6250: 6249: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6224: 6205: 6199: 6198: 6182: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6149: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6116: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6081: 6068: 6067: 6021: 6015: 6014: 5999: 5993: 5992: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5959: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5935: 5933: 5928:on 3 August 2007 5927: 5916: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5898: 5896: 5881: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5870: 5860: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5834: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5823: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5798: 5789:. Archived from 5783:"Supercomputers" 5779: 5773: 5772: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5718: 5712: 5705: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5679: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5644: 5642: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5583: 5577: 5576: 5556: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5539: 5532: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5513: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5456: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5442: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5352: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5309: 5300: 5291: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5261: 5255: 5241: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5209: 5203: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5148: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5097: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5038: 5032: 5031: 4995: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4979: 4955: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4927: 4921: 4920: 4914: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4893:. Archived from 4883:"BOINC Combined" 4879: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4812: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4761: 4755: 4740: 4734: 4722: 4716: 4702: 4696: 4682: 4676: 4662: 4656: 4642: 4633: 4626: 4620: 4613: 4607: 4594: 4588: 4587:. 1994. page 14. 4583:Saed G. Younis. 4581: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4561:. Green500.org. 4559:"Green 500 list" 4555: 4549: 4548: 4541: 4535: 4534: 4530:. 20 July 2010. 4524: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4513: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4483:. Archived from 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4416: 4410: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4389: 4383: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4346: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4310:. Archived from 4308:iTnews Australia 4300: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4266:on 14 July 2012. 4262:. Archived from 4251: 4245: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4225: 4219: 4205: 4196: 4182: 4173: 4159: 4153: 4139: 4133: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4084: 4078: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4006: 4000: 3985: 3979: 3972: 3966: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3931:Hsu, Feng-hsiung 3927: 3921: 3910: 3904: 3891: 3885: 3884: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3817: 3811: 3810: 3802: 3796: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3777: 3748: 3735: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3715: 3706: 3700: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3666: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3622: 3598: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3571: 3565: 3551: 3545: 3538: 3532: 3529: 3523: 3516: 3510: 3509: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3429: 3423: 3422: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3396: 3390: 3383: 3377: 3363: 3357: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3316: 3310: 3309: 3285: 3279: 3278: 3258: 3249: 3248: 3232: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3202: 3200: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3036: 3027: 3026: 3008: 2999: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2983: 2977: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2850:. Archived from 2836: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2810: 2738:Jungle computing 2580:weather modeling 2417: 2416: 2407: 2404: 2386: 2379: 2372: 2369: 2363: 2354:You can help by 2336: 2335: 2328: 2301: 2299: 2298: 2250: 2249: 2224: 2222: 2221: 2194:@2.25 GHz) 2170: 2169: 2144: 2142: 2141: 2093: 2092: 2071: 2069: 2068: 2047:@1.45 GHz) 2034:SunwayTaihuLight 2023: 2022: 1997: 1995: 1994: 1938: 1937: 1912: 1910: 1909: 1880:@3.07 GHz) 1853: 1852: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1770: 1769: 1744: 1742: 1741: 1716:9,408 × 220 AMD 1687: 1686: 1661: 1659: 1658: 1610: 1609: 1584: 1582: 1581: 1530: 1529: 1481:Rank (previous) 1478: 1474: 1422:LU decomposition 860:computer cooling 823:air conditioning 792:Computer cooling 658: 657: 646:computer cluster 509:, including 257 495:Osaka University 388:it was dubbed a 351:Atlas Supervisor 328:IBM 7950 Harvest 311:IBM 7030 Stretch 288:Deutsches Museum 158:climate research 88:3D torus network 21: 8911: 8910: 8906: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8901: 8900: 8861: 8860: 8859: 8849: 8847: 8835: 8825: 8823: 8813: 8811: 8799: 8789: 8787: 8775: 8767: 8765: 8760: 8751: 8722: 8703:Word processing 8611: 8597:Virtual reality 8558: 8520: 8491:Computer vision 8467: 8463:Multiprocessing 8429: 8391: 8357:Security hacker 8333: 8309:Digital library 8250: 8201:Mathematics of 8196: 8158: 8134:Automata theory 8129:Formal language 8103: 8069:Software design 8040: 7973: 7959:Virtual machine 7937: 7933:Network service 7894: 7885:Embedded system 7858: 7791: 7780: 7775: 7745: 7740: 7721: 7678:Microcontroller 7668:Embedded system 7656: 7625: 7594: 7537: 7509: 7505:Ultra-mobile PC 7414: 7391: 7317: 7218: 7151: 7055: 7046: 7016: 7011: 6992: 6936: 6842:Coarray Fortran 6798: 6782:Beowulf cluster 6638: 6588: 6579:Synchronization 6564:Cache coherence 6554:Multiprocessing 6542: 6506: 6487:Cost efficiency 6482:Gustafson's law 6450: 6394: 6343: 6319:Multiprocessing 6309:Cloud computing 6282: 6277: 6238: 6233: 6232: 6222: 6220: 6207: 6206: 6202: 6195: 6173: 6169: 6162: 6140: 6136: 6129: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6082: 6071: 6056: 6022: 6018: 6001: 6000: 5996: 5989: 5971: 5967: 5957: 5955: 5945: 5941: 5931: 5929: 5925: 5914: 5908: 5904: 5894: 5892: 5883: 5882: 5878: 5868: 5866: 5862: 5861: 5857: 5847: 5845: 5844:. 16 April 2020 5836: 5835: 5831: 5821: 5819: 5811: 5810: 5806: 5796: 5794: 5793:on 7 March 2017 5781: 5780: 5776: 5770: 5759: 5757: 5756:. 9 August 2011 5746: 5745: 5741: 5731: 5729: 5720: 5719: 5715: 5706: 5702: 5692: 5690: 5680: 5676: 5666: 5664: 5655: 5654: 5650: 5640: 5638: 5629: 5628: 5624: 5614: 5612: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5592: 5590: 5585: 5584: 5580: 5557: 5553: 5543: 5541: 5537: 5530: 5526: 5525: 5521: 5511: 5509: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5486: 5484: 5482:en.wikichip.org 5476: 5475: 5471: 5458: 5457: 5450: 5440: 5438: 5430: 5429: 5425: 5420:. 25 June 2018. 5412: 5411: 5407: 5397: 5395: 5390: 5389: 5385: 5375: 5373: 5365: 5364: 5360: 5350: 5348: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5324:10.1002/cpe.728 5307: 5301: 5294: 5289: 5285: 5278: 5262: 5258: 5242: 5233: 5223: 5221: 5210: 5206: 5196: 5194: 5184: 5180: 5165: 5146:10.1.1.455.7000 5133: 5129: 5114: 5095:10.1.1.294.3936 5082: 5078: 5063: 5039: 5035: 5020: 4996: 4992: 4982: 4980: 4977:10.1.1.135.8993 4960:Schuster, Assaf 4956: 4949: 4939: 4937: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4908: 4907: 4900: 4898: 4881: 4880: 4876: 4866: 4864: 4853: 4849: 4840:Rahat, Nazmul. 4838: 4834: 4827: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4797: 4789: 4788: 4784: 4774: 4772: 4771:on 5 March 2012 4763: 4762: 4758: 4741: 4737: 4723: 4719: 4703: 4699: 4683: 4679: 4663: 4659: 4643: 4636: 4627: 4623: 4614: 4610: 4604:Wayback Machine 4595: 4591: 4582: 4578: 4568: 4566: 4557: 4556: 4552: 4543: 4542: 4538: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4511: 4509: 4500: 4499: 4495: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4447: 4443: 4433: 4431: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4403: 4401: 4390: 4386: 4376: 4374: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4323: 4319: 4302: 4301: 4297: 4287: 4285: 4278:"The Green 500" 4276: 4275: 4271: 4252: 4248: 4238: 4236: 4235:on 2 March 2014 4227: 4226: 4222: 4206: 4199: 4195:, pages 201–202 4183: 4176: 4172:, pages 313–314 4160: 4156: 4140: 4136: 4132:, pages 133–135 4120: 4116: 4085: 4081: 4071: 4069: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4046: 4044: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4007: 4003: 3997:Wayback Machine 3986: 3982: 3973: 3969: 3960: 3956: 3949: 3928: 3924: 3911: 3907: 3901:Wayback Machine 3892: 3888: 3877: 3873: 3862: 3858: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3818: 3814: 3803: 3799: 3787: 3783: 3775: 3769: 3746: 3740:Barner, Kenneth 3736: 3732: 3724: 3713: 3707: 3703: 3691:Knight, Will: " 3690: 3686: 3679: 3657: 3653: 3640: 3636: 3599: 3590: 3580: 3578: 3573: 3572: 3568: 3552: 3548: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3517: 3513: 3506: 3484: 3480: 3470: 3468: 3463: 3462: 3458: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3431: 3430: 3426: 3415: 3411: 3398: 3397: 3393: 3384: 3380: 3364: 3360: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3259: 3252: 3245: 3223: 3219: 3211: 3207: 3198: 3196: 3195:on 28 July 2012 3185: 3184: 3180: 3173: 3159: 3155: 3148: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3037: 3030: 3023: 3009: 3002: 2992: 2990: 2984: 2980: 2968: 2964: 2954: 2952: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2902: 2894: 2893: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2872: 2871: 2867: 2857: 2855: 2838: 2837: 2833: 2823: 2821: 2812: 2811: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2713: 2677:Vulcan's Hammer 2653: 2647: 2603:third dimension 2560: 2533:In early 2020, 2457:EFF DES cracker 2408: 2402: 2399: 2392:needs expansion 2373: 2367: 2364: 2353: 2337: 2333: 2326: 2296: 2294: 2293: 2275:@2.2 GHz) 2273:Xeon E5–2692 v2 2219: 2217: 2216: 2139: 2137: 2136: 2109:HPE Cray EX235n 2066: 2064: 2063: 1992: 1990: 1989: 1965:@3.1 GHz) 1907: 1905: 1904: 1827: 1825: 1824: 1796:@2.6 GHz) 1739: 1737: 1736: 1718:Instinct MI250X 1712:@2.0 GHz) 1702:HPE Cray EX235a 1656: 1654: 1653: 1635:@2.2 GHz) 1579: 1577: 1576: 1561:Instinct MI250X 1555:@2.0 GHz) 1545:HPE Cray EX235a 1447: 1437: 1431: 1429:The TOP500 list 1357: 1347: 1330: 1325: 1289:cloud computing 1248:Cloud computing 1245: 1227: 1221: 1176:cloud computing 1168:loosely coupled 1148: 1142: 1137: 1058: 1048: 1042: 972: 966: 961: 891:Liebert company 864:green computing 798: 788: 737: 655: 654: 507:microprocessors 484:microprocessors 443: 435:Main articles: 433: 260: 254: 178:nuclear weapons 67: 60: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8909: 8899: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8871:Supercomputers 8858: 8857: 8845: 8833: 8821: 8809: 8797: 8785: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8748: 8738: 8727: 8724: 8723: 8721: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8619: 8617: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8609: 8607:Solid modeling 8604: 8599: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8574: 8568: 8566: 8560: 8559: 8557: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8530: 8528: 8522: 8521: 8519: 8518: 8513: 8508: 8506:Control method 8503: 8498: 8493: 8488: 8483: 8477: 8475: 8469: 8468: 8466: 8465: 8460: 8458:Multithreading 8455: 8450: 8445: 8439: 8437: 8431: 8430: 8428: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8401: 8399: 8393: 8392: 8390: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8352:Formal methods 8349: 8343: 8341: 8335: 8334: 8332: 8331: 8326: 8324:World Wide Web 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8260: 8258: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8207: 8205: 8198: 8197: 8195: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8168: 8166: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8113: 8111: 8105: 8104: 8102: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8050: 8048: 8042: 8041: 8039: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7987: 7985: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7945: 7943: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7904: 7902: 7896: 7895: 7893: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7866: 7864: 7860: 7859: 7857: 7856: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7801: 7799: 7793: 7792: 7785: 7782: 7781: 7774: 7773: 7766: 7759: 7751: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7726: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7708: 7707: 7697: 7696: 7695: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7657: 7655: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7633: 7631: 7627: 7626: 7624: 7623: 7618: 7612: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7600: 7599: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7581: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7560: 7559: 7558: 7547: 7545: 7539: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7519: 7517: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7424: 7422: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7412: 7407: 7401: 7399: 7393: 7392: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7382: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7344: 7342: 7333: 7327: 7326: 7323: 7322: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7315: 7314: 7313: 7308: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7276: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7249: 7248: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7226: 7224: 7220: 7219: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7199: 7194: 7193: 7192: 7190:Personal super 7182: 7177: 7172: 7166: 7164: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7142: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7085:Arcade cabinet 7081: 7079: 7070: 7063: 7057: 7056: 7049:Computer sizes 7045: 7044: 7037: 7030: 7022: 7013: 7012: 7010: 7009: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6973:Race condition 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6944: 6942: 6938: 6937: 6935: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6808: 6806: 6800: 6799: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6731: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6717:Multiprocessor 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6693: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6659: 6648: 6646: 6640: 6639: 6637: 6636: 6631: 6630: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6609: 6604: 6598: 6596: 6590: 6589: 6587: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6550: 6548: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6507: 6505: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6458: 6456: 6452: 6451: 6449: 6448: 6446:Hardware scout 6443: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6421: 6416: 6410: 6404: 6402: 6400:Multithreading 6396: 6395: 6393: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6351: 6349: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6339:Systolic array 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6290: 6288: 6284: 6283: 6276: 6275: 6268: 6261: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6237: 6236:External links 6234: 6231: 6230: 6219:on 20 May 2015 6200: 6193: 6167: 6160: 6134: 6127: 6101: 6094: 6069: 6054: 6016: 5994: 5987: 5965: 5939: 5902: 5876: 5855: 5829: 5804: 5774: 5739: 5713: 5707:Kaku, Michio. 5700: 5674: 5663:on 5 July 2011 5648: 5637:on 16 May 2013 5622: 5600: 5578: 5567:(7): 687–697. 5551: 5519: 5507:www.top500.org 5494: 5469: 5464:www.top500.org 5448: 5436:www.top500.org 5423: 5405: 5392:"Top500 lists" 5383: 5358: 5336: 5318:(9): 803–820, 5292: 5283: 5276: 5256: 5231: 5204: 5192:Admin Magazine 5178: 5163: 5127: 5112: 5076: 5061: 5033: 5018: 4990: 4947: 4922: 4874: 4847: 4832: 4825: 4807: 4782: 4756: 4735: 4717: 4697: 4677: 4657: 4634: 4621: 4608: 4589: 4576: 4550: 4536: 4519: 4493: 4468: 4441: 4411: 4384: 4358: 4317: 4295: 4269: 4246: 4220: 4197: 4174: 4154: 4134: 4114: 4095:(3): 344–351. 4079: 4054: 4042:New York Times 4028: 4021: 4001: 3980: 3978:, Wiley. 1998. 3967: 3954: 3947: 3922: 3905: 3886: 3871: 3868:. Hpcwire.com. 3856: 3841: 3834: 3812: 3797: 3781: 3767: 3730: 3701: 3684: 3677: 3651: 3634: 3588: 3566: 3546: 3533: 3524: 3511: 3504: 3478: 3456: 3442: 3424: 3409: 3391: 3378: 3358: 3338: 3331: 3311: 3304: 3280: 3273: 3250: 3243: 3217: 3205: 3178: 3171: 3153: 3146: 3128: 3121: 3103: 3091:www.top500.org 3078: 3073:www.top500.org 3060: 3053: 3028: 3021: 3000: 2978: 2962: 2937: 2912: 2887: 2865: 2831: 2820:on 8 July 2007 2804: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2725: 2720: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2649:Main article: 2646: 2643: 2631:European Union 2559: 2556: 2497: 2496: 2493: 2489: 2488: 2481: 2477: 2476: 2465: 2461: 2460: 2453: 2449: 2448: 2441: 2437: 2436: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2421: 2410: 2409: 2389: 2387: 2375: 2374: 2340: 2338: 2331: 2325: 2322: 2319: 2318: 2308: 2305: 2288: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2267: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2242: 2241: 2231: 2228: 2211: 2206: 2203: 2196: 2186: 2183: 2178: 2172: 2162: 2161: 2151: 2148: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2101: 2095: 2085: 2084: 2078: 2075: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2045:Sunway SW26010 2039: 2036: 2031: 2025: 2015: 2014: 2004: 2001: 1984: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1957: 1951: 1946: 1940: 1930: 1929: 1919: 1916: 1899: 1894: 1888: 1882: 1872: 1866: 1861: 1855: 1845: 1844: 1839: 1836: 1816: 1811: 1807:Nvidia HDR100 1805: 1798: 1788: 1782: 1777: 1771: 1762: 1761: 1751: 1748: 1728: 1723: 1720: 1714: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1688: 1679: 1678: 1668: 1665: 1648: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1611: 1602: 1601: 1591: 1588: 1571: 1566: 1563: 1557: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1531: 1522: 1521: 1515: 1512: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1482: 1433:Main article: 1430: 1427: 1346: 1343: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1316:virtualization 1301:10 Gbit/s 1265:virtualization 1244: 1241: 1223:Main article: 1220: 1217: 1212:Mersenne Prime 1164:grid computing 1156:grid computing 1146:Grid computing 1144:Main article: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1044:Main article: 1041: 1038: 1022:job scheduling 968:Main article: 965: 962: 960: 957: 941:DEGIMA cluster 913:FLOPS per watt 787: 784: 736: 733: 641:grid computing 548:Hitachi SR2201 432: 429: 413:liquid cooling 375:, designed by 256:Main article: 253: 250: 182:nuclear fusion 170:macromolecules 115:floating-point 58: 36: 30: 27: 25: 18:Supercomputers 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8908: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8868: 8866: 8856: 8855:United States 8846: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8832: 8822: 8820: 8810: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8796: 8786: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8773: 8770: 8757: 8749: 8747: 8739: 8737: 8729: 8728: 8725: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8620: 8618: 8614: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8592:Mixed reality 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8573: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8561: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8531: 8529: 8527: 8523: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8492: 8489: 8487: 8484: 8482: 8479: 8478: 8476: 8474: 8470: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8440: 8438: 8436: 8432: 8426: 8425:Accessibility 8423: 8421: 8420:Visualization 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8402: 8400: 8398: 8394: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8340: 8336: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8261: 8259: 8257: 8253: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8199: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8167: 8165: 8161: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8123: 8120: 8119: 8118: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8110: 8106: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8051: 8049: 8047: 8043: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7988: 7986: 7984: 7980: 7976: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7940: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7905: 7903: 7901: 7897: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7880:Dependability 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7802: 7800: 7798: 7794: 7789: 7783: 7779: 7772: 7767: 7765: 7760: 7758: 7753: 7752: 7749: 7737: 7728: 7727: 7724: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7706: 7703: 7702: 7701: 7698: 7694: 7691: 7690: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7659: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7628: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7609: 7605: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7565: 7564: 7561: 7557: 7554: 7553: 7552: 7549: 7548: 7546: 7544: 7540: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7516: 7512: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7425: 7423: 7421: 7417: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7400: 7398: 7394: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7343: 7341: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7328: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7303: 7302: 7299: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7281: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7254: 7253: 7250: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7232: 7231: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7221: 7215: 7212: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7167: 7165: 7161: 7158: 7154: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7137: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7120:Smart speaker 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7090:Diskless node 7088: 7086: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7078: 7074: 7071: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7043: 7038: 7036: 7031: 7029: 7024: 7023: 7020: 7008: 6999: 6998: 6995: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6939: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6862:Global Arrays 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6805: 6801: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6789:Grid computer 6787: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6775: 6772: 6769: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6736: 6735: 6732: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6719: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6654: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6645: 6641: 6635: 6632: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6614: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6599: 6597: 6595: 6591: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6545: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6515: 6513: 6509: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6459: 6457: 6453: 6447: 6444: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6403: 6401: 6397: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6350: 6346: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6274: 6269: 6267: 6262: 6260: 6255: 6254: 6251: 6244: 6240: 6239: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6204: 6196: 6194:9781447144922 6190: 6186: 6181: 6180: 6171: 6163: 6161:9781447144922 6157: 6153: 6148: 6147: 6138: 6130: 6128:9781447144922 6124: 6120: 6115: 6114: 6105: 6097: 6095:9783642244483 6091: 6087: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6020: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5998: 5990: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5969: 5954: 5950: 5943: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5906: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5865: 5859: 5843: 5839: 5833: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5769: 5755: 5754: 5749: 5743: 5727: 5723: 5717: 5710: 5704: 5689: 5685: 5678: 5662: 5658: 5652: 5636: 5632: 5626: 5610: 5604: 5588: 5582: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5536: 5529: 5523: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5455: 5453: 5437: 5433: 5427: 5419: 5418:Business Wire 5415: 5409: 5393: 5387: 5372: 5368: 5362: 5346: 5340: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5306: 5299: 5297: 5287: 5279: 5273: 5269: 5268: 5260: 5253: 5252:0-309-12485-9 5249: 5245: 5240: 5238: 5236: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5193: 5189: 5182: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5138: 5131: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5045: 5037: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 5002: 4994: 4978: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4952: 4936: 4932: 4926: 4918: 4912: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4878: 4862: 4858: 4851: 4843: 4836: 4828: 4822: 4818: 4811: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4770: 4766: 4760: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4732: 4728: 4727: 4721: 4714: 4713:3-540-37783-2 4710: 4706: 4701: 4694: 4693:3-540-22924-8 4690: 4686: 4681: 4674: 4673:0-262-63188-1 4670: 4666: 4661: 4655:pages 426–429 4654: 4653:0-387-09765-1 4650: 4646: 4641: 4639: 4631: 4625: 4618: 4612: 4605: 4601: 4598: 4593: 4586: 4580: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4546: 4540: 4533: 4529: 4523: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4472: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4429: 4425: 4424:IBM News room 4421: 4415: 4399: 4397: 4388: 4372: 4368: 4362: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4283: 4279: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4250: 4234: 4230: 4224: 4218:, pages 60–67 4217: 4216:3-540-26043-9 4213: 4209: 4204: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4179: 4171: 4170:1-60456-186-6 4167: 4163: 4158: 4151: 4150:1-60595-022-X 4147: 4143: 4138: 4131: 4130:0-471-04885-2 4127: 4123: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4083: 4068: 4064: 4058: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4024: 4018: 4014: 4013: 4005: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3991: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3950: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3926: 3919: 3915: 3909: 3902: 3898: 3895: 3890: 3882: 3875: 3867: 3860: 3852: 3845: 3837: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3801: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3774: 3770: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3664: 3655: 3648:. p. D1. 3647: 3646: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3576: 3570: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3543: 3537: 3528: 3521: 3515: 3507: 3505:0-8186-7901-8 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3466: 3460: 3452: 3446: 3438: 3434: 3428: 3420: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3389: 3382: 3375: 3374:1-57356-521-0 3371: 3367: 3362: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3334: 3328: 3324: 3323: 3315: 3307: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3292: 3284: 3276: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3257: 3255: 3246: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3230: 3221: 3214: 3209: 3194: 3190: 3189: 3182: 3174: 3172:9780801887741 3168: 3164: 3157: 3149: 3147:9780801887741 3143: 3139: 3132: 3124: 3122:9780801887741 3118: 3114: 3107: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3056: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3035: 3033: 3024: 3018: 3014: 3007: 3005: 2989: 2982: 2975: 2972: 2966: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2926: 2922: 2916: 2901: 2897: 2891: 2875: 2869: 2854:on 7 May 2013 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2835: 2819: 2815: 2809: 2805: 2794: 2791: 2789: 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2743:Metacomputing 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2719: 2716: 2715: 2708: 2706: 2705:Jurassic Park 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2652: 2642: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2606: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2564: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2531: 2529: 2524: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2511: 2506: 2504: 2494: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2415: 2406: 2397: 2393: 2390:This section 2388: 2385: 2381: 2380: 2371: 2362:is available. 2361: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2346: 2341:This section 2339: 2330: 2329: 2316: 2312: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2282:TH Express-2 2281: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2226:United States 2215: 2212: 2210: 2204: 2201: 2200:Nvidia Ampere 2197: 2195: 2193: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2146:United States 2135: 2132: 2127:Slingshot-10 2126: 2123: 2122:Nvidia Ampere 2119: 2116: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2100: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2062: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2017: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1999:United States 1988: 1985: 1983: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1932: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1914:United States 1903: 1900: 1898: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1847: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1803: 1802:Nvidia Ampere 1800:13,824 × 108 1799: 1797: 1795: 1789: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1722:Slingshot-11 1721: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1681: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1634: 1633:Fujitsu A64FX 1628: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1618: 1616: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1586:United States 1575: 1572: 1570: 1565:Slingshot-11 1564: 1562: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1548: 1546: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1524: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1505:Manufacturer 1502:Interconnect 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1451: 1446: 1442: 1436: 1426: 1423: 1419: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1352: 1342: 1338: 1337:application. 1336: 1320: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1240: 1237: 1232: 1226: 1216: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1132: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1053: 1047: 1037: 1035: 1030: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 989:Since modern 987: 985: 981: 977: 971: 956: 953: 949: 944: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 909: 907: 903: 899: 894: 892: 888: 884: 881:, and used a 880: 879:liquid cooled 876: 872: 867: 865: 861: 857: 853: 846: 843: 838: 834: 832: 828: 824: 820: 815: 807: 802: 797: 793: 783: 781: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 732: 730: 726: 721: 719: 715: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 677: 675: 671: 668:. The use of 667: 663: 659: 651: 647: 642: 634: 629: 623: 618: 614: 612: 607: 603: 598: 596: 595:graphic units 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 571: 569: 565: 561: 557: 556:Intel Paragon 554:network. The 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 522: 519: 515: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 477: 471: 468: 464: 456: 452: 447: 442: 438: 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 397:Cray Research 393: 391: 390:supercomputer 386: 382: 378: 374: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 352: 348: 344: 340: 335: 333: 332:cryptanalysis 329: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 289: 285: 280: 272: 264: 259: 249: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 225: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 202: 201:Cray Research 198: 194: 189: 187: 186:cryptanalysis 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 142: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 121:) instead of 120: 116: 112: 109:is a type of 108: 107:supercomputer 101: 96: 89: 85: 81: 78: 73: 69: 65: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 8688:Cyberwarfare 8347:Cryptography 7700:Single-board 7651: 7585:Smartglasses 7528:Programmable 7453:Mobile phone 7306:Blade server 7145:Microconsole 7140:Home console 6547:Coordination 6477:Amdahl's law 6413:Simultaneous 6221:. Retrieved 6217:the original 6212: 6203: 6178: 6170: 6145: 6137: 6112: 6104: 6085: 6029: 6019: 6011:the original 6007:Heise Online 6006: 5997: 5978: 5968: 5956:. Retrieved 5952: 5942: 5930:. Retrieved 5923:the original 5918: 5905: 5893:. Retrieved 5888: 5879: 5867:. Retrieved 5858: 5846:. Retrieved 5841: 5832: 5820:. Retrieved 5816: 5807: 5795:. Retrieved 5791:the original 5786: 5777: 5758:. Retrieved 5751: 5742: 5730:. Retrieved 5726:the original 5716: 5703: 5691:. Retrieved 5687: 5677: 5665:. Retrieved 5661:the original 5651: 5639:. Retrieved 5635:the original 5625: 5613:. Retrieved 5603: 5591:. Retrieved 5581: 5564: 5560: 5554: 5542:. Retrieved 5522: 5510:. Retrieved 5506: 5497: 5485:. Retrieved 5481: 5472: 5463: 5439:. Retrieved 5435: 5426: 5417: 5408: 5396:. Retrieved 5394:. Top500.org 5386: 5374:. Retrieved 5370: 5361: 5349:. Retrieved 5339: 5315: 5311: 5286: 5266: 5259: 5243: 5222:. Retrieved 5217: 5207: 5195:. Retrieved 5191: 5181: 5136: 5130: 5085: 5079: 5043: 5036: 5000: 4993: 4981:. Retrieved 4967: 4938:. Retrieved 4934: 4925: 4899:. Retrieved 4895:the original 4886: 4877: 4865:. Retrieved 4861:Folding@home 4860: 4850: 4835: 4816: 4810: 4798:. Retrieved 4794: 4785: 4773:. Retrieved 4769:the original 4759: 4754:pages 95–101 4743: 4738: 4730: 4724: 4720: 4704: 4700: 4684: 4680: 4675:page 149-151 4664: 4660: 4644: 4624: 4611: 4592: 4579: 4567:. Retrieved 4553: 4539: 4531: 4522: 4510:. Retrieved 4496: 4488: 4485:the original 4480: 4471: 4459:. Retrieved 4455:the original 4444: 4432:. Retrieved 4428:the original 4423: 4414: 4402:. Retrieved 4396:The Register 4395: 4387: 4375:. Retrieved 4371:The Register 4370: 4361: 4334: 4330: 4320: 4312:the original 4307: 4298: 4286:. Retrieved 4282:the original 4272: 4264:the original 4249: 4237:. Retrieved 4233:the original 4223: 4207: 4184: 4161: 4157: 4141: 4137: 4121: 4117: 4092: 4088: 4082: 4070:. Retrieved 4066: 4057: 4045:. Retrieved 4041: 4031: 4011: 4004: 3988: 3983: 3975: 3970: 3957: 3934: 3925: 3917: 3908: 3889: 3874: 3859: 3853:. Pcmag.com. 3844: 3825: 3815: 3800: 3788: 3784: 3750: 3733: 3722:the original 3717: 3704: 3696: 3687: 3662: 3654: 3643: 3637: 3613:(3): 73–80. 3610: 3606: 3579:. Retrieved 3569: 3553: 3549: 3536: 3527: 3514: 3487: 3481: 3469:. Retrieved 3459: 3445: 3436: 3427: 3412: 3403: 3394: 3381: 3365: 3361: 3345: 3341: 3321: 3314: 3290: 3283: 3263: 3228: 3220: 3213:The Supermen 3212: 3208: 3199:21 September 3197:, retrieved 3193:the original 3187: 3181: 3162: 3156: 3137: 3131: 3112: 3106: 3094:. Retrieved 3090: 3081: 3072: 3063: 3044: 3012: 2991:. Retrieved 2981: 2973: 2965: 2953:. Retrieved 2949: 2940: 2930:11 September 2928:. Retrieved 2924: 2915: 2905:11 September 2903:. Retrieved 2899: 2890: 2878:. Retrieved 2868: 2856:. Retrieved 2852:the original 2843: 2834: 2822:. Retrieved 2818:the original 2808: 2693:Deep Thought 2654: 2639: 2623: 2607: 2599:random paths 2584: 2569: 2532: 2525: 2514: 2507: 2500: 2413: 2403:January 2020 2400: 2396:adding to it 2391: 2368:January 2020 2365: 2360:Editing help 2342: 2324:Applications 2270: 2255: 2238:Ubuntu 20.04 2198:4,480 × 108 2189: 2175: 2098: 2042: 2028: 1960: 1943: 1875: 1858: 1791: 1774: 1707: 1691: 1630: 1614: 1550: 1534: 1518: 1509: 1485: 1463: 1456: 1414: 1400: 1392: 1370: 1339: 1331: 1270: 1246: 1228: 1205: 1198: 1190:Folding@home 1184: 1161: 1126: 1098: 1071: 1031: 1019: 988: 973: 945: 915:". In 2008, 910: 895: 871:heat density 868: 849: 814:heat density 811: 765:Gravity Pipe 759:for playing 738: 722: 678: 656:interconnect 653: 638: 599: 597:to the mix. 591:Goodyear MPP 572: 492: 472: 460: 394: 389: 377:Seymour Cray 370: 358:time-sharing 336: 292: 226: 193:Seymour Cray 190: 174:aerodynamics 143: 106: 104: 68: 46: 37:This is the 31: 8831:Spaceflight 8783:Electronics 8698:Video games 8678:Digital art 8435:Concurrency 8304:Data mining 8216:Probability 7949:Interpreter 7443:Handheld PC 7375:Subnotebook 7353:Convertible 7214:Workstation 7207:Home server 7130:Thin client 7110:Rich client 6983:Scalability 6744:distributed 6627:Concurrency 6594:Programming 6435:Cooperative 6424:Speculative 6360:Instruction 5932:9 September 5760:14 December 5512:16 November 4855:Pande lab. 4800:13 February 4377:25 November 4239:21 February 3699:, June 2007 3404:BrainyQuote 2993:11 December 2955:30 November 2925:TechPowerUp 2900:TechPowerUp 2651:AI takeover 2593:describing 2521:Blue Waters 2266:TH-IVB-FEP 2158:HPE Cray OS 2041:10,649,600 2038:Sunway MPP 1785:BullSequana 1758:HPE Cray OS 1598:HPE Cray OS 1466:TOP500 list 1373:benchmarked 1312:data center 1297:virtualized 1090:open source 929:Blue Gene/Q 602:David Bader 511:Zilog Z8001 347:Tom Kilburn 319:transistors 303:drum memory 206:parallelism 127:quadrillion 80:Blue Gene/P 8865:Categories 8756:Glossaries 8628:E-commerce 8221:Statistics 8164:Algorithms 8122:Stochastic 7954:Middleware 7810:Peripheral 7590:Smart ring 7578:Sportwatch 7573:Smartwatch 7556:Smart band 7533:Scientific 7515:Calculator 7475:Palmtop PC 7468:Smartphone 7405:Detachable 7230:All-in-one 7180:Industrial 7077:Appliances 6988:Starvation 6727:asymmetric 6462:PRAM model 6430:Preemptive 5958:1 December 5919:Zettaflops 5441:7 December 5376:3 December 5371:TOP500.org 5351:3 December 4901:30 October 4887:BOINCstats 4775:31 October 4695:, page 835 3581:12 October 3356:page 41-48 3096:27 October 2950:TOP500.org 2840:"Intrepid" 2800:References 2723:ACM SIGHPC 2645:In fiction 2104:Perlmutter 1976:InfiniBand 1971:Tesla V100 1891:InfiniBand 1886:Tesla V100 1819:EuroHPC JU 1809:Infiniband 1731:EuroHPC JU 1629:7,630,848 1517:Operating 1496:CPU cores 1349:See also: 1308:InfiniBand 1293:bare-metal 1068:correlator 1050:See also: 948:waste heat 917:Roadrunner 883:Fluorinert 819:Fluorinert 790:See also: 773:Deep Crack 701:K computer 662:Infiniband 587:Intel iPSC 560:Intel i860 417:Fluorinert 307:disk drive 297:built the 210:processors 8577:Rendering 8572:Animation 8203:computing 8154:Semantics 7845:Processor 7712:Smartdust 7647:Minisuper 7642:Mainframe 7621:Supermini 7385:Smartbook 7360:Cloudbook 7262:Pizza box 7156:Computers 7115:Simulator 6722:symmetric 6467:PEM model 5141:CiteSeerX 5090:CiteSeerX 4972:CiteSeerX 4337:(7): 54. 4288:14 August 3903:. page 2. 3629:237318907 3188:The Atlas 2876:. Top 500 2635:Reykjavík 2503:Blue Gene 2485:Tianhe-1A 2445:CDC Cyber 2192:Epyc 7742 2115:Epyc 7763 1535:1,685.65 1533:1,102.00 1405:Petascale 1401:petaflops 1393:teraflops 1385:SI prefix 937:Blue Gene 933:Green 500 902:Power 775 898:Blue Gene 831:megawatts 827:Tianhe-1A 769:MDGRAPE-3 753:Deep Blue 689:petaFLOPS 674:Cyclops64 600:In 1998, 493:In 1982, 463:ILLIAC IV 451:Blue Gene 425:gigaFLOPS 381:germanium 323:pipelined 293:In 1960, 8795:Illinois 8736:Category 8564:Graphics 8339:Security 8001:Compiler 7900:Networks 7797:Hardware 7736:Category 7608:Midrange 7543:Wearable 7523:Graphing 7500:Siftable 7433:E-reader 7420:Handheld 7370:Notebook 7311:Blade PC 7294:Stick PC 7274:Portable 7257:Deskside 7240:Tabletop 7185:Personal 7125:Smart TV 6953:Deadlock 6941:Problems 6907:pthreads 6887:OpenHMPP 6812:Ateji PX 6773:computer 6644:Hardware 6511:Elements 6497:Slowdown 6408:Temporal 6390:Pipeline 5535:Archived 5398:3 August 5197:30 March 5173:11502126 5071:10141367 5028:10974077 4983:4 August 4970:. IEEE. 4911:cite web 4867:10 April 4600:Archived 4569:16 March 4563:Archived 4512:16 March 4506:Archived 4434:16 March 4353:11283177 4152:page 401 3993:Archived 3933:(2002). 3897:Archived 3773:Archived 3564:page 182 2858:26 March 2711:See also 2707:series. 2681:Colossus 2661:Multivac 2657:HAL 9000 2547:COVID-19 2535:COVID-19 2501:The IBM 2269:427,008 2261:Tianhe-2 2256:100.679 2120:? × 108 2029:125.436 1959:190,080 1944:125.712 1874:202,752 1859:200.795 1790:110,592 1780:Leonardo 1706:150,528 1615:537.212 1613:442.010 1549:591,872 1540:Frontier 1510:country 1409:Exascale 1387:such as 1365:logscale 1304:Ethernet 1076:such as 1001:such as 925:MFLOPS/W 887:System X 842:IBM HS20 796:Green500 693:Tianhe-I 676:system. 589:and the 552:crossbar 516:and 257 411:(CPUs), 373:CDC 6600 362:Ferranti 246:exaFLOPS 234:Frontier 111:computer 43:reviewed 8769:Portals 8746:Outline 7463:Feature 7410:Phablet 7380:Netbook 7284:Mini PC 7252:Desktop 7245:Surface 7223:By size 7053:classes 6912:RaftLib 6892:OpenACC 6867:GPUOpen 6857:C++ AMP 6832:Charm++ 6574:Barrier 6518:Process 6502:Speedup 6287:General 6064:5689714 6034:Bibcode 5797:7 March 5487:19 July 5332:1900724 5218:PCWorld 5122:9405724 4632:. 2014. 4619:. 2012. 4109:1389468 4072:19 July 4047:19 July 3376:page 65 2880:25 June 2572:exaFLOP 2254:61.445 2188:71,680 2185:Nvidia 2176:79.215 2174:63.460 2054:Sunway 2027:93.015 1956:S922LC 1942:94.640 1857:148.60 1822:Bologna 1787:XH2000 1775:255.75 1773:174.70 1746:Finland 1734:Kajaani 1692:428.70 1690:309.10 1646:Fujitsu 1519:system 1306:or QDR 1285:Rescale 1094:Beowulf 1026:tasking 1017:nodes. 906:Aquasar 896:In the 725:Gyoukou 697:Nebulae 611:Beowulf 536:Fujitsu 501:used a 488:network 385:silicon 354:swapped 341:at the 252:History 199:(CDC), 133:run on 7734: 7688:Rugged 7661:Others 7485:Pocket 7458:Camera 7397:Tablet 7348:2-in-1 7340:Laptop 7331:Mobile 7202:Server 7197:Public 7170:Gaming 7163:By use 7069:Static 7005: 6882:OpenCL 6877:OpenMP 6822:Chapel 6739:shared 6734:Memory 6669:(SIMT) 6612:Models 6523:Thread 6455:Theory 6426:(SpMT) 6380:Memory 6365:Thread 6348:Levels 6223:18 May 6191: 6158: 6125: 6092: 6062: 6052: 5985: 5953:Forbes 5895:21 May 5869:12 May 5848:12 May 5822:12 May 5732:8 July 5693:12 May 5667:8 July 5641:8 July 5615:8 July 5593:25 May 5544:25 May 5330: 5274: 5254:page 9 5250: 5224:6 June 5171: 5161: 5143: 5120: 5110: 5092: 5069: 5059: 5026: 5016: 4974: 4940:6 June 4823: 4750: 4711: 4691: 4671: 4651: 4461:9 June 4404:9 June 4351: 4214: 4191: 4168: 4148: 4128: 4107: 4067:TOP500 4019: 3945: 3916:", In 3832: 3765: 3675: 3627: 3560: 3502: 3471:9 June 3372: 3352: 3329: 3302: 3271: 3241: 3169: 3144: 3119: 3051: 3019: 2824:9 June 2691:, and 2669:GLaDOS 2597:, the 2492:2020s 2480:2010s 2473:ASCI Q 2464:2000s 2452:1990s 2440:1980s 2433:Cray-1 2428:1970s 2420:Decade 2343:is in 2300: 2223: 2214:Nvidia 2209:Nvidia 2181:Selene 2143: 2099:93.75 2097:70.87 2070: 2057:NRCPC 1996: 1963:POWER9 1949:Sierra 1911: 1878:POWER9 1871:AC922 1864:Summit 1831: 1743: 1660: 1620:Fugaku 1583: 1493:Model 1486:Rpeak 1470:Lenovo 1435:TOP500 1395:), or 1259:, and 1122:OpenCL 1114:GPGPUs 1109:OpenMP 1088:, and 875:Cray-2 806:Summit 780:cipher 755:, and 714:Jaguar 709:GPGPUs 622:TOP500 579:MasPar 455:blades 405:Cray-2 401:Cray-1 295:UNIVAC 284:Cray-1 248:mark. 242:Aurora 230:TOP500 218:Cray-1 180:, and 8807:Linux 8149:Logic 7983:tools 7652:Super 7630:Large 7267:Tower 7235:Panel 7061:Micro 6852:Dryad 6817:Boost 6538:Array 6528:Fiber 6442:(CMT) 6415:(SMT) 6329:GPGPU 5926:(PDF) 5915:(PDF) 5768:EBSCO 5538:(PDF) 5531:(PDF) 5328:S2CID 5308:(PDF) 5169:S2CID 5118:S2CID 5067:S2CID 5024:S2CID 4935:GIMPS 4891:BOINC 4349:S2CID 4331:Queue 4105:S2CID 3776:(PDF) 3747:(PDF) 3725:(PDF) 3714:(PDF) 3625:S2CID 2778:SLURM 2611:DARPA 2585:Many 2551:FLOPS 2349:prose 2315:Kylin 2311:Linux 2307:2018 2303:China 2234:Linux 2230:2020 2202:A100 2154:Linux 2150:2021 2134:NERSC 2124:A100 2081:Linux 2077:2016 2073:China 2007:Linux 2003:2018 1928:7.4) 1922:Linux 1918:2018 1842:Linux 1838:2022 1834:Italy 1804:A100 1754:Linux 1750:2022 1671:Linux 1667:2020 1663:Japan 1594:Linux 1590:2022 1514:Year 1508:Site 1490:Name 1484:Rmax 1397:peta- 1389:tera- 1377:FLOPS 1277:Univa 1034:Linux 1011:Linux 995:nodes 984:Linux 845:blade 761:chess 757:Hydra 749:Belle 745:ASICs 718:Titan 705:SPARC 606:Linux 583:nCUBE 521:86/20 339:Atlas 135:Linux 119:FLOPS 100:FLOPS 7981:and 7854:Form 7850:Size 7683:Nano 7637:Grid 7616:Mini 7301:Rack 7289:Plug 7175:Home 7051:and 6917:ROCm 6847:CUDA 6837:Cilk 6804:APIs 6764:COMA 6759:NUMA 6690:MIMD 6685:MISD 6662:SIMD 6657:SISD 6385:Loop 6375:Data 6370:Task 6225:2015 6189:ISBN 6156:ISBN 6123:ISBN 6090:ISBN 6060:OSTI 6050:ISBN 5983:ISBN 5960:2017 5934:2020 5897:2018 5871:2020 5850:2020 5824:2020 5799:2017 5762:2018 5734:2011 5695:2020 5669:2011 5643:2011 5617:2011 5595:2011 5546:2011 5514:2022 5489:2019 5443:2022 5400:2024 5378:2017 5353:2017 5272:ISBN 5248:ISBN 5226:2016 5199:2019 5159:ISBN 5108:ISBN 5057:ISBN 5014:ISBN 4985:2011 4942:2011 4917:link 4903:2016 4869:2020 4821:ISBN 4802:2013 4777:2010 4748:ISBN 4715:page 4709:ISBN 4689:ISBN 4669:ISBN 4649:ISBN 4571:2020 4514:2020 4463:2012 4436:2020 4406:2012 4379:2010 4290:2011 4260:IEEE 4241:2011 4212:ISBN 4189:ISBN 4166:ISBN 4146:ISBN 4126:ISBN 4074:2018 4049:2018 4017:ISBN 3943:ISBN 3830:ISBN 3763:ISBN 3673:ISBN 3671:–4. 3583:2023 3558:ISBN 3500:ISBN 3473:2012 3370:ISBN 3350:ISBN 3327:ISBN 3300:ISBN 3269:ISBN 3239:ISBN 3201:2010 3167:ISBN 3142:ISBN 3117:ISBN 3098:2022 3049:ISBN 3017:ISBN 2995:2013 2957:2017 2932:2021 2907:2021 2882:2018 2860:2020 2826:2012 2685:WOPR 2526:The 2345:list 2286:NUDT 2251:(9) 2240:.1) 2171:(8) 2130:HPE 2094:(7) 2024:(6) 2011:RHEL 1978:EDR 1939:(5) 1926:RHEL 1893:EDR 1854:(4) 1814:Atos 1697:LUMI 1675:RHEL 1443:and 1381:MIPS 1353:and 1199:The 1118:CUDA 1103:and 1080:and 1074:APIs 1066:ALMA 1054:and 877:was 854:and 804:The 794:and 741:FPGA 695:and 564:MIMD 532:GaAs 518:iAPX 439:and 371:The 364:and 75:The 6932:ZPL 6927:TBB 6922:UPC 6902:PVM 6872:MPI 6827:HPX 6754:UMA 6355:Bit 6042:doi 5688:CNN 5569:doi 5320:doi 5151:doi 5100:doi 5049:doi 5006:doi 4481:CNN 4339:doi 4097:doi 3755:doi 3695:", 3615:doi 3492:doi 3296:172 3235:161 2701:DNA 2517:IBM 2475:). 2459:). 2447:). 2435:). 2398:. 2245:10 1982:IBM 1897:IBM 1726:HPE 1569:HPE 1403:.) 1375:in 1194:x86 1120:or 1105:MPI 1101:PVM 1086:VTL 1082:PVM 1078:MPI 1015:I/O 1007:CNL 1005:or 1003:CNK 921:IBM 919:by 840:An 777:DES 683:of 538:'s 497:'s 480:MIT 383:to 195:at 77:IBM 45:on 8867:: 7852:/ 6211:. 6187:. 6154:. 6121:. 6072:^ 6058:. 6048:. 6040:. 6028:. 6005:. 5977:. 5951:. 5917:. 5887:. 5840:. 5815:. 5785:. 5750:. 5686:. 5565:24 5563:. 5505:. 5480:. 5462:. 5451:^ 5434:. 5416:. 5369:. 5326:, 5316:15 5314:, 5310:, 5295:^ 5234:^ 5216:. 5190:. 5167:. 5157:. 5149:. 5116:. 5106:. 5098:. 5065:. 5055:. 5022:. 5012:. 4966:. 4950:^ 4933:. 4913:}} 4909:{{ 4889:. 4885:. 4859:. 4793:. 4637:^ 4504:. 4479:. 4422:. 4369:. 4347:. 4333:. 4329:. 4306:. 4258:. 4200:^ 4177:^ 4103:. 4093:26 4091:. 4065:. 4040:. 3941:. 3937:. 3771:. 3761:. 3749:. 3716:. 3623:. 3611:43 3609:. 3605:. 3591:^ 3498:. 3435:. 3402:. 3298:. 3253:^ 3237:. 3089:. 3071:. 3031:^ 3003:^ 2948:. 2923:. 2898:. 2846:. 2842:. 2689:AM 2687:, 2683:, 2679:, 2675:, 2671:, 2667:, 2663:, 2659:, 2487:) 2317:) 2263:A 2165:9 2160:) 2088:8 2051:0 2018:7 2013:) 1933:6 1848:5 1765:4 1760:) 1682:3 1677:) 1639:0 1605:2 1600:) 1525:1 1283:, 1279:, 1275:, 1255:, 1124:. 1096:. 1084:, 986:. 893:. 782:. 763:, 751:, 731:. 585:, 581:, 577:, 570:. 334:. 282:A 188:. 164:, 160:, 156:, 152:, 141:. 105:A 41:, 8771:: 7790:. 7770:e 7763:t 7756:v 7041:e 7034:t 7027:v 6272:e 6265:t 6258:v 6227:. 6197:. 6185:3 6164:. 6152:2 6131:. 6119:1 6098:. 6066:. 6044:: 6036:: 5991:. 5962:. 5936:. 5899:. 5873:. 5852:. 5826:. 5801:. 5764:. 5736:. 5697:. 5671:. 5645:. 5619:. 5597:. 5575:. 5571:: 5548:. 5516:. 5491:. 5466:. 5445:. 5402:. 5380:. 5355:. 5322:: 5280:. 5228:. 5201:. 5175:. 5153:: 5124:. 5102:: 5073:. 5051:: 5030:. 5008:: 4987:. 4944:. 4919:) 4871:. 4844:. 4829:. 4804:. 4779:. 4606:. 4573:. 4516:. 4465:. 4438:. 4408:. 4394:" 4381:. 4355:. 4341:: 4335:1 4292:. 4243:. 4111:. 4099:: 4076:. 4051:. 4025:. 3951:. 3838:. 3757:: 3681:. 3669:1 3631:. 3617:: 3585:. 3508:. 3494:: 3475:. 3453:. 3439:. 3421:. 3406:. 3335:. 3308:. 3277:. 3247:. 3175:. 3150:. 3125:. 3100:. 3075:. 3057:. 3025:. 2997:. 2959:. 2934:. 2909:. 2884:. 2862:. 2828:. 2553:. 2471:( 2405:) 2401:( 2370:) 2366:( 2352:. 2313:( 2236:( 2156:( 2009:( 1924:( 1756:( 1673:( 1596:( 90:. 66:. 49:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index