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Strike-slip faults are associated with dominantly horizontal movement, leading to relatively simple linear zones of surface rupture where the fault is a simple planar structure. However, many strike-slip faults are formed of overlapping segments, leading to complex zones of normal or reverse faulting
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Where there are thick superficial deposits overlying the trace of the faults, the resulting surface effects are typically more discontinuous. Where there is little or no superficial deposits, the surface rupture is generally continuous, except where the earthquake rupture affects more than one fault,
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Reverse faulting (particularly thrust faulting) is associated with more complex surface rupture patterns since the protruding unsupported part of the hanging-wall of the fault is liable to collapse. In addition there may be surface folding and back-thrust development.
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Surface ruptures commonly occur on pre-existing faults. Only rarely are earthquakes (and surface ruptures) associated with faulting on entirely new fault structures. There is shallow hypocenter, and large fracture energy on the
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Not every earthquake results in surface rupture, particularly for smaller and deeper earthquakes. In some cases, however, the lack of surface effects is because the fault that moved does not reach the surface. For example, the
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In surface rupture earthquakes, the large slips of land are concentrated in the shallow parts of the fault. And, notably, permanent ground displacements which are measureable can be produced by shallow earthquakes, of
199:. Where there are significant superficial deposits, sections with more oblique faulting may form sets of en-echelon scarp segments. Antithetic faults may also develop, giving rise to surface grabens.
66:, in addition to any risk from ground shaking. Surface rupture entails vertical or horizontal movement, on either side of a ruptured fault. Surface rupture can affect large areas of land.
536:
612:
Reilinger, R.E.; Ergintav S.; Bürgmann R.; McClusky S.; Lenk O.; Barka A.; Gurkan O.; Hearn L.; Feigl K.L.; Cakmak R.; Aktug B.; Ozener H. & Töksoz M.N. (2000).
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depending on the nature of the overlap. Additionally, where there are thick superficial deposits, the rupture typically appears as a set of en-echelon faults.
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To retrofit a house to survive surface rupture requires engineered design by geotechnical, and structural or civil engineers. This can be quite expensive.
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The form that surface rupturing takes depends on two things: the nature of the material at the surface and the type of fault movement.
62:, where there is no displacement at ground level. This is a major risk to any structure that is built across a fault zone that may be
537:"The transfer of slip between two en echelon strike-slip faults: A case study from the 1992 Landers earthquake, southern California"
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area, occurred at 18.2 km (11 mi) below the Earth's surface, but did not cause surface rupture, because it was a
671:[The slip in the Earth's crust was up to 7 meters 30 centimeters] (in Turkish). Gazete Zebra. 15 February 2023
454:"Generation Mechanism of Surface and Buried Faults Considering the Effect of Plasticity in a Shallow Crust Structure"
79:
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417:"Surface Rupturing and Buried Dynamic-Rupture Models Calibrated with Statistical Observations of Past Earthquakes"
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Tchalenko J.S.; Ambraseys N.N. (1970). "Structural
Analysis of the Dasht-e Bayaz (Iran) Earthquake Fractures".
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493:"Differences in ground motion and fault rupture process between the surface and buried rupture earthquakes"
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614:"Coseismic and Postseismic Fault Slip for the 17 August 1999, M = 7.5, Izmit, Turkey Earthquake"
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M7.3 in San
Bernardino County, California, strike-slip faulting - 80 km (50 mi),
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Extent of surface rupture caused by strike-slip faulting during the 2002 Denali earthquake
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395:"Ground Rupture & Surface Faulting - Earthquake Ground Displacement | CEA"
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which can lead to complex patterns of surface faulting, such as in the
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355:"Surface rupture can be caused by vertical or horizontal displacement"
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Surface ruptures associated with normal faults are typically simple
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Dalguer, Luis A.; Miyake, Hiroe; Day, Steven M.; Irikura, Kojiro.
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M7.8 in Turkey, strike-slip faulting - 400 km (250 mi)
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M7.9 in Alaska, strike-slip faulting - 340 km (211 mi)
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M7.6 in Turkey, strike-slip faulting - 150 km (93 mi),
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M7.8 in Tibet, strike-slip faulting - 400 km (249 mi)
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Surface rupture with folding due to reverse faulting along the
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M7.9 in
Sichuan, thrust faulting - 300 km (186 mi)
669:"Yer kabuğundaki kayma 7 metre 30 santimetreye kadar çıktı"
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affects the Earth's surface. Surface rupture is opposed by
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M7.6 in Taiwan, thrust faulting - 100 km (62 mi)
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10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[41:SAOTDB]2.0.CO;2
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M6.9 in Idaho, normal faulting - 34 km (21 mi)
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50:) is the visible offset of the ground surface when an
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Surface rupture caused by normal faulting along the
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369:"USGS Northridge Earthquake 10th Anniversary"
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16:Offset at ground-level after earthquakes
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709:Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation
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694:A large article about surface rupture
498:. Earth Planets Space. 14 March 2004
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102:of 6.7, caused major damage in the
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518:"Earthquake Processes and Effects"
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535:Zachariesen J.; Sieh K. (1995).
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544:Journal of Geophysical Research
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688:External links and references
647:10.1126/science.289.5484.1519
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285:2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake
114:Where surface rupture occurs
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237:Examples, with their extent
178:Effect of surface lithology
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419:. pubs.geoscienceworld.org
243:1983 Borah Peak earthquake
96:1994 Northridge earthquake
29:1983 Borah Peak earthquake
331:"What is Surface Rupture"
147:Types of surface rupture
550:(B8): 15, 281–15, 301.
279:2008 Sichuan earthquake
249:1992 Landers earthquake
185:1992 Landers earthquake
125:San Fernando earthquake
108:blind thrust earthquake
70:Lack of surface rupture
273:2002 Denali earthquake
267:2001 Kunlun earthquake
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308:Vertical displacement
255:1999 İzmit earthquake
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261:1999 Jiji earthquake
212:Strike-slip faulting
158:Consequences of the
84:1999 Jiji earthquake
639:2000Sci...289.1519R
556:1995JGR...10015281Z
522:earthquake.usgs.gov
452:Wada, K.; Goto, H.
48:ground displacement
719:Geological hazards
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160:Chi-Chi earthquake
133:Chi-Chi earthquake
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52:earthquake rupture
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104:Los Angeles
82:during the
714:Seismology
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502:26 October
463:31 October
423:28 October
340:2018-10-19
314:References
229:Mitigation
121:asperities
36:seismology
141:magnitude
655:10968782
629:(5484).
473:cite web
433:cite web
374:13 April
292:See also
54:along a
635:Bibcode
622:Science
552:Bibcode
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400:Jan 1,
172:Taiwan
131:, and
98:had a
88:Taiwan
64:active
617:(PDF)
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56:fault
46:, or
677:2023
651:PMID
504:2018
479:link
465:2018
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425:2018
402:2020
376:2016
335:USGS
164:Jiji
42:(or
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