1111:
1102:
2541:, and was not of the Teller–Ulam configuration. It used alternating layers of fissile material and lithium deuteride fusion fuel spiked with tritium (this was later dubbed Sakharov's "First Idea"). Though nuclear fusion might have been technically achievable, it did not have the scaling property of a "staged" weapon. Thus, such a design could not produce thermonuclear weapons whose explosive yields could be made arbitrarily large (unlike U.S. designs at that time). The fusion layer wrapped around the fission core could only moderately multiply the fission energy (modern Teller–Ulam designs can multiply it 30-fold). Additionally, the whole fusion stage had to be imploded by conventional explosives, along with the fission core, substantially increasing the amount of chemical explosives needed.
2329:, a co-worker of Teller, made the first key conceptual leaps towards a workable fusion design. Ulam's two innovations that rendered the fusion bomb practical were that compression of the thermonuclear fuel before extreme heating was a practical path towards the conditions needed for fusion, and the idea of staging or placing a separate thermonuclear component outside a fission primary component, and somehow using the primary to compress the secondary. Teller then realized that the gamma and X-ray radiation produced in the primary could transfer enough energy into the secondary to create a successful implosion and fusion burn, if the whole assembly was wrapped in a
7101:
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2921:, after receiving credible information from an "American scientist" (Teller), on Israel's nuclear capability. During the 1990s, Teller eventually confirmed speculations in the media that it was during his visits in the 1960s that he concluded that Israel was in possession of nuclear weapons. After he conveyed the matter to the higher level of the U.S. government, Teller reportedly said: "They have it, and they were clever enough to trust their research and not to test, they know that to test would get them into trouble."
2574:
7766:
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2883:. Other Indian scientists involved in the test have disputed Santhanam's claim, arguing that his claims are unscientific. British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that the magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes of TNT (250 TJ), consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes of TNT (230 TJ). U.S. seismologist Jack Evernden has argued that for correct estimation of yields, one should 'account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites'.
1245:, for use in the W76. Production of Fogbank lapsed after the W76 production run ended. The W76 Life Extension Program required more Fogbank to be made. This was complicated by the fact that the original Fogbank's properties were not fully documented, so a massive effort was mounted to re-invent the process. An impurity crucial to the properties of the old Fogbank was omitted during the new process. Only close analysis of new and old batches revealed the nature of that impurity. The manufacturing process used
719:
2859:, said that India's assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was believable. India says that their thermonuclear device was tested at a controlled yield of 45 kt (190 TJ) because of the close proximity of the Khetolai village at about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi), to ensure that the houses in that village do not suffer significant damage. Another cited reason was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45 kt might not have been contained fully. After the
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402:
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1872:
the outer case: if the foam were not there, metal would ablate from the inside of the outer case with a large impulse, causing the casing to recoil outwards rapidly. The purpose of the casing is to contain the explosion for as long as possible, allowing as much X-ray ablation of the metallic surface of the secondary stage as possible, so it compresses the secondary efficiently, maximizing the fusion yield. Plastic foam has a low density, so causes a smaller impulse when it ablates than metal does.
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1207:) each protruding through the outer edge of the reflector with one end in each section; all are clamped to the carriage and arranged more or less evenly around the casing's circumference. The neutron guns are tilted so the neutron emitting end of each gun end is pointed towards the central axis of the bomb. Neutrons from each neutron gun pass through and are focused by the neutron focus lens towards the centre of primary in order to boost the initial fissioning of the plutonium. A "
2147:. The Soviet Union is thought to have used multiple stages (including more than one tertiary fusion stage) in their 50 Mt (210 PJ) (100 Mt (420 PJ) in intended use) Tsar Bomba. The fissionable jacket could be replaced with lead, as was done with the Tsar Bomba. If any hydrogen bombs have been made from configurations other than those based on the Teller–Ulam design, the fact of it is not publicly known. A possible exception to this is the Soviet early
33:
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2157:
alone (first stage). Second, the radiation from the fissioning of the primary would be used to compress and ignite the secondary fusion stage, resulting in a fusion explosion many times more powerful than the fission explosion alone. This chain of compression could conceivably be continued with an arbitrary number of tertiary fusion stages, each igniting more fusion fuel in the next stage although this is debated. Finally, efficient bombs (but not so-called
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is not known with any confidence. The difficulty that other countries had in developing the Teller–Ulam design (even when they apparently understood the design, such as with the United
Kingdom) makes it somewhat unlikely that this simple information alone is what provides the ability to manufacture thermonuclear weapons. Nevertheless, the ideas put forward by Morland in 1979 have been the basis for all the current speculation on the Teller–Ulam design.
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2240:) inside a specially shaped radiation case (known as the "peanut" for its shape). The value of an egg-shaped primary lies apparently in the fact that a MIRV warhead is limited by the diameter of the primary: if an egg-shaped primary can be made to work properly, then the MIRV warhead can be made considerably smaller yet still deliver a high-yield explosion. A W88 warhead manages to yield up to 475 kilotonnes of TNT (1,990 TJ) with a
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2600:. The United Kingdom had worked closely with the Americans on the Manhattan Project. British access to nuclear weapons information was cut off by the United States at one point due to concerns about Soviet espionage. Full cooperation was not reestablished until an agreement governing the handling of secret information and other issues was signed. However, the British were allowed to observe the U.S.
2394:
2985:(DOE) policy has been, and continues to be, that they do not acknowledge when "leaks" occur, because doing so would acknowledge the accuracy of the supposed leaked information. Aside from images of the warhead casing, most information in the public domain about this design is relegated to a few terse statements by the DOE and the work of a few individual investigators.
883:, a container that traps the first stage or primary's energy inside temporarily. The outside of this radiation case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb component's configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified.
2952:(USGS), the blast released energy equivalent to an earthquake with a seismic magnitude of 6.3, 10 times more powerful than previous nuclear tests conducted by North Korea. U.S. Intelligence released an early assessment that the yield estimate was 140 kt (590 TJ), with an uncertainty range of 70 to 280 kt (290 to 1,170 TJ). On 12 September,
2836:
2206:
the radiation from the primary heated the polyethylene foam lining of the casing to a plasma, which then re-radiated radiation into the secondary's pusher, causing its surface to ablate and driving it inwards, compressing the secondary, igniting the sparkplug, and causing the fusion reaction. The general applicability of this principle is unclear.
341:. Additionally, in most designs the radiation case is also constructed of a material that undergoes fission driven by fast thermonuclear neutrons. Such bombs are classified as two stage weapons. Fast fission of the tamper and radiation case is the main contribution to the total yield and is the dominant process that produces
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design, beyond the fact that France detonated a 2.6 Mt (11 PJ) device in the "Canopus" test. France reportedly had great difficulty with its initial development of the Teller-Ulam design, but it later overcame these and is believed to have nuclear weapons equal in sophistication to the other major nuclear powers.
2445:, megaton-class warheads were as small as 18 inches (0.46 m) in diameter and 720 pounds (330 kg) in weight. Further innovation in miniaturizing warheads was accomplished by the mid-1970s, when versions of the Teller–Ulam design were created that could fit ten or more warheads on the end of a small MIRVed missile.
2280:. Teller spent much of the Manhattan Project attempting to figure out how to make the design work, preferring it over work on the atomic bomb, and over the last year of the project he was assigned exclusively to the task. However once World War II ended, there was little impetus to devote many resources to the
1218:(RRW) Program. A graphic includes blurbs describing the potential advantage of a RRW on a part-by-part level, with the interstage blurb saying a new design would replace "toxic, brittle material" and "expensive 'special' material... unique facilities". The "toxic, brittle material" is widely assumed to be
292:) between the primary and secondary assemblies placed within an enclosure called a radiation case, which confines the X-ray energy and resists its outward pressure. The distance separating the two assemblies ensures that debris fragments from the fission primary (which move much more slowly than X-ray
4694:...said..."none of these explosions were thermonuclear, we are doing research and can do a fusion test if asked..." ""These boosted devices are like a half way stage towards a thermonuclear bomb. They use elements of the thermonuclear process, and are effectively stronger Atom bombs," Munir Ahmad Khan
3150:
Morland's work is interpreted as being at least partially correct because the DOE had sought to censor it, one of the few times they violated their usual approach of not acknowledging "secret" material that had been released; however, to what degree it lacks information, or has incorrect information,
2878:
The yield of India's hydrogen bomb test remains highly debatable among the Indian science community and the international scholars. The question of politicisation and disputes between Indian scientists further complicated the matter. In an interview in August 2009, the director for the 1998 test site
2636:
American observers had been invited to these kinds of tests. After
Britain's successful detonation of a megaton-range device (and thus demonstrating a practical understanding of the Teller–Ulam design "secret"), the United States agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the United Kingdom,
1686:
The outer casing of the secondary assembly is called the "tamper-pusher". The purpose of a tamper in an implosion bomb is to delay the expansion of the reacting fuel supply (which is very hot dense plasma) until the fuel is fully consumed and the explosion runs to completion. The same tamper material
320:
of this chain reaction heat the highly compressed (and thus super dense) thermonuclear fuel surrounding the spark plug to around 300 million kelvin, igniting fusion reactions between fusion fuel nuclei. In modern weapons fueled by lithium deuteride, the fissioning plutonium spark plug also emits free
2184:
For destruction of cities and non-hardened targets, breaking the mass of a single missile payload down into smaller MIRV bombs in order to spread the energy of the explosions into a "pancake" area is far more efficient in terms of area-destruction per unit of bomb energy. This also applies to single
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In essence, the Teller–Ulam configuration relies on at least two instances of implosion occurring: first, the conventional (chemical) explosives in the primary would compress the fissile core, resulting in a fission explosion many times more powerful than that which chemical explosives could achieve
3025:
was declassified in 1991: "Fact that fissile or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated." In 1998 the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and the
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was the modified fission bomb and produced 720 kt (3,000 TJ)—making it the largest fission explosion ever. At the time almost everyone (including the pilots of the plane that dropped it) thought that this was a fusion bomb. This bomb was put into service in 1958. A second prototype fusion
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Energy released in the primary is transferred to the "secondary" (or fusion) stage. This energy compresses the fusion fuel and sparkplug; the compressed sparkplug becomes supercritical and undergoes a fission chain reaction, further heating the compressed fusion fuel to a high enough temperature to
1076:
the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary. It must direct the hot gases, plasma, electromagnetic radiation and neutrons toward the right place at the right time. Less than optimal interstage designs have resulted in the secondary failing to work entirely on multiple shots, known as a
2632:
A second set of tests was scheduled, with testing recommencing in
September 1957. The first test was based on a "… new simpler design. A two-stage thermonuclear bomb that had a much more powerful trigger". This test Grapple X Round C was exploded on 8 November and yielded approximately 1.8 Mt
2205:
device, based on information obtained from extensive interviews with the scientists and engineers who assembled it. According to Rhodes, the actual mechanism for the compression of the secondary was a combination of the radiation pressure, foam plasma pressure, and tamper-pusher ablation theories;
1871:
stated that a 1-inch-thick (25 mm) layer of plastic foam was fixed to the lead liner of the inside of the Ivy Mike steel casing using copper nails. Rhodes quotes several designers of that bomb explaining that the plastic foam layer inside the outer case is to delay ablation and thus recoil of
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The proposed tamper-pusher ablation mechanism posits that the outer layers of the thermonuclear secondary's tamper-pusher are heated so extremely by the primary's X-ray flux that they expand violently and ablate away (fly off). Because total momentum is conserved, this mass of high velocity ejecta
5622:
Following the crash, and a painstaking clear-up mission to recover thousands of pieces of material from 500 million gallons of ice, the
Pentagon stated that all four weapons onboard had been "destroyed". However, documents obtained by the BBC under the US Freedom of Information act have disclosed
2130:
Most bombs do not apparently have tertiary "stages"—that is, third compression stage(s), which are additional fusion stages compressed by a previous fusion stage. The fissioning of the last blanket of uranium, which provides about half the yield in large bombs, does not count as a "stage" in this
1850:
The calculated ablation pressure is one order of magnitude greater than the higher proposed plasma pressures and nearly two orders of magnitude greater than calculated radiation pressure. No mechanism to avoid the absorption of energy into the radiation case wall and the secondary tamper has been
1202:
Next comes the "Reflector/Neutron Gun
Carriage". The reflector seals the gap between the Neutron Focus Lens (in the center) and the outer casing near the primary. It separates the primary from the secondary and performs the same function as the previous reflector. There are about six neutron guns
792:
is the primary example). Such processes have resulted in a body of unclassified knowledge about nuclear bombs that is generally consistent with official unclassified information releases and related physics and is thought to be internally consistent, though there are some points of interpretation
2291:
in August 1949 came earlier than expected by
Americans, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with development of the far more powerful Super. The debate covered matters that were
2244:
68.9 inches (1,750 mm) long, with a maximum diameter of 21.8 inches (550 mm), and by different estimates weighing in a range from 175 to 360 kilograms (386 to 794 lb). The smaller warhead allows more of them to fit onto a single missile and improves basic flight properties such as
1142:. The major components and their arrangement are in the diagram, though details are almost absent; what scattered details it does include likely have intentional omissions or inaccuracies. They are labeled "End-cap and Neutron Focus Lens" and "Reflector Wrap"; the former channels neutrons to the
2552:
design to achieve megaton-range results proved unfeasible. After the United States tested the "Ivy Mike" thermonuclear device in
November 1952, proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created, the Soviets searched for an alternative design. The "Second Idea", as Sakharov referred to it in his
2940:
speculated that North Korea may be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device may be North Korea's next weapons test. In
January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, although only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a
2800:
warheads with a yield of about 300 kt (1,300 TJ) each. France's nuclear program has been carefully designed to ensure that these weapons remain usable decades into the future. Currently, France is no longer deliberately producing critical mass materials such as plutonium and enriched
2715:
on 24 August 1968 was the country's first multistage thermonuclear weapon test. The bomb was detonated from a balloon at a height of 520 metres (1,710 ft). The result of this test was significant atmospheric contamination. Very little is known about France's development of the Teller–Ulam
1719:
The primary's reaction is over and it has expanded. The surface of the pusher for the secondary is now so hot that it is also ablating or expanding away, pushing the rest of the secondary (tamper, fusion fuel, and fissile spark plug) inwards. The spark plug starts to fission. Not depicted: the
3130:
case was moot, dropped its suit, and allowed the magazine to publish its article, which it did in
November 1979. Morland had by then, however, changed his opinion of how the bomb worked, suggesting that a foam medium (the polystyrene) rather than radiation pressure was used to compress the
356:
in 1951 was the first
American nuclear test series to test principles that led to the development of thermonuclear weapons. Sufficient fission was achieved to boost the associated fusion device, and enough was learned to achieve a full-scale device within a year. The design of all modern
3062:
and allow citizens to feel empowered to question official statements on the importance of nuclear weapons and nuclear secrecy. Most of Morland's ideas about how the weapon worked were compiled from accessible sources: the drawings that most inspired his approach came from the
1052:) often boosted by deuterium gas. The spark plug, when compressed, can undergo nuclear fission (because of the shape, it is not a critical mass without compression). The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary and probably be made of the same materials.
3017:", and in 1979 added, "n thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel." To this latter sentence the US government specified that "
1691:
impels the rest of the tamper-pusher to recoil inwards with tremendous force, crushing the fusion fuel and the spark plug. The tamper-pusher is built robustly enough to insulate the fusion fuel from the extreme heat outside; otherwise, the compression would be spoiled.
2395:
307:
spark plug—is imploded by the X-ray energy impinging on its pusher/ tamper. This compresses the entire secondary stage and drives up the density of the plutonium spark plug. The density of the plutonium fuel rises to such an extent that the spark plug is driven into a
2565:" in November 1955 with a yield of 1.6 Mt (6.7 PJ). The Soviets demonstrated the power of the staging concept in October 1961, when they detonated the massive and unwieldy Tsar Bomba. It was the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country.
3121:
Through a variety of more complicated circumstances, the DOE case began to wane as it became clear that some of the data they were attempting to claim as "secret" had been published in a students' encyclopedia a few years earlier. After another H-bomb speculator,
1357:
and exerts a force on any surface it strikes. The pressure of radiation at the intensities seen in everyday life, such as sunlight striking a surface, is usually imperceptible, but at the extreme intensities found in a thermonuclear bomb the pressure is enormous.
2396:
2935:
North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on 6 January 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) were relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the
779:
Though large quantities of vague data have been officially released—and larger quantities of vague data have been unofficially leaked by former bomb designers—most public descriptions of nuclear weapon design details rely to some degree on speculation,
1186:
reflector; typically a cylinder made of an X-ray opaque material such as uranium with the primary and secondary at either end. It does not reflect like a mirror; instead, it gets heated to a high temperature by the X-ray flux from the primary, then it
3185:. The US Air Force maintains that the bomb was unarmed and did not contain the live plutonium core necessary to initiate a nuclear explosion. The bomb was thought by the Department of Energy to lie buried under several feet of silt at the bottom of
1275:
The fusion fuel of the secondary stage may be surrounded by a layer of additional fuel that undergoes fission when hit by the neutrons from the reactions within. These fission events account for about half of the total energy released in typical
7166:
3208:
detonated upon impact with the ground, dispersing plutonium over nearby farms. A third bomb landed intact near Palomares while the fourth fell 12 miles (19 km) off the coast into the Mediterranean sea and was recovered a few months later.
2633:(7.5 PJ). On 28 April 1958 a bomb was dropped that yielded 3 Mt (13 PJ)—Britain's most powerful test. Two final air burst tests on 2 and 11 September 1958, dropped smaller bombs that yielded around 1 Mt (4.2 PJ) each.
1361:
For two thermonuclear bombs for which the general size and primary characteristics are well understood, the Ivy Mike test bomb and the modern W-80 cruise missile warhead variant of the W-61 design, the radiation pressure was calculated to be
3029:
Whether these statements vindicate some or all of the models presented above is up for interpretation, and official U.S. government releases about the technical details of nuclear weapons have been purposely equivocating in the past (e.g.,
2398:
1746:
Applying the more detailed form of those calculations to the Ivy Mike device yields vaporized pusher gas expansion velocity of 290 kilometres per second (180 mi/s) and an implosion velocity of perhaps 400 km/s (250 mi/s) if
5284:
324:
The secondary's relatively massive tamper (which resists outward expansion as the explosion proceeds) also serves as a thermal barrier to keep the fusion fuel filler from becoming too hot, which would spoil the compression. If made of
2871:, said that India has the capability to build thermonuclear bombs of any yield at will. India officially maintains that it can build thermonuclear weapons of various yields up to around 200 kt (840 TJ) on the basis of the
2619:
tests were carried out. The first test, Green Granite, was a prototype fusion bomb that failed to produce equivalent yields compared to the U.S. and Soviets, achieving only approximately 300 kt (1,300 TJ). The second test
2138:
but is thought to have fielded only one such tertiary model, i.e., a bomb in which a fission stage, followed by a fusion stage, finally compresses yet another fusion stage. This U.S. design was the heavy but highly efficient (i.e.,
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radiation from the primary. Most of the energy produced would be absorbed by either the walls of the radiation case or the tamper around the secondary. Analyzing the effects of that absorbed energy led to the third mechanism:
2941:
similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt (25–38 TJ) atomic bomb. These seismic recordings cast doubt upon North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test.
1578:. The fission reactions though, especially the last fission reactions, release a tremendous amount of fission products and fallout. If the last fission stage is omitted, by replacing the uranium tamper with one made of
2553:
memoirs, was a previous proposal by Ginzburg in November 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb, which would, in the course of being bombarded by neutrons, produce tritium and free deuterium. In late 1953 physicist
2904:
It is well established that Edward Teller advised and guided the Israeli establishment on general nuclear matters for some 20 years. Between 1964 and 1967, Teller made six visits to Israel where he lectured at the
776:. Ford claims he used only pre-existing information and even submitted a manuscript to the government, which wanted to remove entire sections of the book for concern that foreign states could use the information.
759:
has been not to acknowledge the leaking of design information, as such acknowledgment would potentially validate the information as accurate. In a small number of prior cases, the U.S. government has attempted to
2964:
estimate of 6.3. Its yield estimate was revised to 250 kt (1,000 TJ), while noting the estimate had some uncertainty and an undisclosed margin of error. On 13 September, an analysis of before and after
1730:
Rough calculations for the basic ablation effect are relatively simple: the energy from the primary is distributed evenly onto all of the surfaces within the outer radiation case, with the components coming to a
1660:
Current technical criticisms of the idea of "foam plasma pressure" focus on unclassified analysis from similar high energy physics fields that indicate that the pressure produced by such a plasma would only be a
1129:
There is very little detailed information in the open literature about the mechanism of the interstage. One of the best sources is a simplified diagram of a British thermonuclear weapon similar to the American
2727:. Between 1966 and 1996 France carried out more than 190 nuclear tests. France's final nuclear test took place on 27 January 1996, and then the country dismantled its Polynesian test sites. France signed the
1253:, which led to at least three evacuations of the Fogbank plant in 2006. Widely used in the petroleum and pharmaceutical industries, acetonitrile is flammable and toxic. Y-12 is the sole producer of Fogbank.
2788:
capable of carrying nuclear warheads. The M51.1 missiles are intended to be replaced with the new M51.2 warhead beginning in 2016, which has a 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) greater range than the M51.1.
2350:) total yield, it raised expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work. On 1 November 1952, the Teller–Ulam configuration was tested at full scale in the "Ivy Mike" shot at an island in the
2173:." However, usually such weapons were not more than a dozen megatons, which was generally considered enough to destroy even the most hardened practical targets (for example, a control facility such as the
5259:
3013:
In 1972 the United States government declassified a document stating "n thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission 'primary' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a 'secondary
3232:
in Greenland. The resulting fire caused extensive radioactive contamination. Personnel involved in the cleanup failed to recover all the debris from three of the bombs, and one bomb was not recovered.
2342:
of 9 May 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale. As the first successful (uncontrolled) release of nuclear fusion energy, which made up a small fraction of the 225
5288:
2764:
ballistic missile submarines. One ballistic missile submarine is deployed in the deep ocean, but a total of three must be in operational use at all times. The three older submarines are armed with 16
2666:
of 1954–1955. The People's Republic of China detonated its first thermonuclear bomb on 17 June 1967, 32 months after detonating its first fission weapon, with a yield of 3.31 Mt. It took place in the
6102:"Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café: Father of the hydrogen bomb, "Star Wars" missile defense and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Edward Teller has no regrets about his contentious career"
1764:
the gas expansion velocity is roughly 410 km/s (250 mi/s) and the implosion velocity 570 km/s (350 mi/s). The pressure due to the ablating material is calculated to be 5.3
1511:
Pushed from both sides (from the primary and the spark plug), the lithium deuteride fuel is highly compressed and heated to thermonuclear temperatures. Also, by being bombarded with neutrons, each
5609:
1857:
official declassification reports indicate that foamed plastic materials are or may be used in radiation case liners, and despite the low direct plasma pressure they may be of use in delaying the
860:
could be constructed. This contrasts with fission weapons, which are limited in yield because only so much fission fuel can be amassed in one place before the danger of its accidentally becoming
2977:
The Teller–Ulam design was for many years considered one of the top nuclear secrets, and even today it is not discussed in any detail by official publications with origins "behind the fence" of
2596:
in charge of the project. British knowledge on how to make a thermonuclear fusion bomb was rudimentary, and at the time the United States was not exchanging any nuclear knowledge because of the
3118:. Morland and his lawyers disagreed on all points, but the injunction was granted, as the judge in the case felt that it was safer to grant the injunction and allow Morland, et al., to appeal.
2691:
delivered information indicating that China knew secret details of the U.S. W88 warhead, supposedly through espionage. (This line of investigation eventually resulted in the abortive trial of
1739:
of the tamper/pusher outer surface, and the temperature of that layer can then be calculated. The velocity at which the surface then expands outwards is calculated and, from a basic Newtonian
3853:
3102:
magazine, was sent to the DOE after falling into the hands of a professor who was opposed to Morland's goal, the DOE requested that the article not be published and pressed for a temporary
2299:
and colleagues concluded that "he extreme danger to mankind inherent in the proposal wholly outweighs any military advantage." Despite the objections raised, on 31 January 1950, President
5311:"North Korea's Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site: Satellite Imagery Shows Post-Test Effects and New Activity in Alternate Tunnel Portal Areas | 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea"
3106:. The DOE argued that Morland's information was (1) likely derived from classified sources, (2) if not derived from classified sources, itself counted as "secret" information under the "
2185:
bombs deliverable by cruise missile or other system, such as a bomber, resulting in most operational warheads in the U.S. program having yields of less than 500 kt (2,100 TJ).
3073:
to encourage informative responses from them (i.e., asking questions such as "Do they still use spark plugs?" even if he was not aware what the latter term specifically referred to).
3069:. Morland also interviewed (often informally) many former Los Alamos scientists (including Teller and Ulam, though neither gave him any useful information), and he used a variety of
2612:
agreed to a secret plan, whereby if the Aldermaston scientists failed or were greatly delayed in developing the fusion bomb, it would be replaced by an extremely large fission bomb.
1222:, which fits that description and would also moderate the neutron flux from the primary. Some material to absorb and re-radiate the X-rays in a particular manner may also be used.
2969:
satellite imagery of the test site was published suggesting the test occurred under 900 metres (3,000 ft) of rock, and the yield "could have been in excess of 300 kilotons".
2397:
2897:
Israel is alleged to possess thermonuclear weapons of the Teller–Ulam design, but it is not known to have tested any nuclear devices, although it is widely speculated that the
2608:, providing them with clear, direct evidence of the compression produced in the secondary stages by radiation implosion. Because of these difficulties, in 1955 Prime Minister
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serves also as a pusher in that it is the medium by which the outside pressure (force acting on the surface area of the secondary) is transferred to the mass of fusion fuel.
793:
that are still considered open. The state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below.
3334:
But, yes, the hydrogen bomb—that is, a two-stage thermonuclear device, as we refer to it—is indeed the principal part of the US arsenal, as it is of the Russian arsenal..
1712:
The primary's fission reaction has run to completion, and the primary is now at several million degrees and radiating gamma and hard X-rays, heating up the inside of the
3147:
a month later. In 1981, Morland published a book about his experience, describing in detail the train of thought that led him to his conclusions about the "secret".
3058:
in 1979 on the "secret of the hydrogen bomb". In 1978, Morland had decided that discovering and exposing this "last remaining secret" would focus attention onto the
4507:
Report of the United States House of Representatives Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial Concerns with the People's Republic of China
2879:
preparations, K. Santhanam claimed that the yield of the thermonuclear explosion was lower than expected and that India should therefore not rush into signing the
6418:
379:
was the most powerful bomb ever detonated. As thermonuclear weapons represent the most efficient design for weapon energy yield in weapons with yields above 50
4798:
4608:
5499:"Air Force Search & Recovery Assessment of the 1958 Savannah, GA B-47 Accident". AF Nuclear Weapons and Counterproliferation Agency. U.S. Air Force. 2001.
5528:
3449:
3034:). Other information, such as the types of fuel used in some of the early weapons, has been declassified, though precise technical information has not been.
996:, which is used because it is easier to weaponize than liquefied tritium/deuterium gas. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, a heavy
5546:
992:
that helps compress the fusion fuel (and, in the case of uranium, may eventually undergo fission itself). Inside this is the fusion fuel, usually a form of
7416:
5206:
3483:
856:" is thought to have been a three-stage fission-fusion-fusion device. Theoretically by continuing this process thermonuclear weapons with arbitrarily high
4731:
1665:
of the basic photon pressure within the radiation case, and also that the known foam materials intrinsically have a very low absorption efficiency of the
1479:
case, based on research that located declassified documents listing special foams as liner components within the radiation case of thermonuclear weapons.
384:
8026:
7073:
5584:
2426:) (2.5 times expected) and is the largest U.S. bomb ever tested. Efforts shifted towards developing miniaturized Teller–Ulam weapons that could fit into
6388:
5564:
2957:
1110:
1101:
534:
5233:
3529:
2557:
achieved the first breakthrough of staging the reaactions. The next breakthrough of radiation implosion was discovered and developed by Sakharov and
2104:
would thus increase the yield of a Teller–Ulam bomb above a depleted uranium or natural uranium jacket. This has been proposed specifically for the
1064:. The fissioning primary produces four types of energy: 1) expanding hot gases from high explosive charges that implode the primary; 2) superheated
2937:
2626:
3850:
7249:
7061:
606:
1984:
nuclei require a minimum energy of about 1 megaelectronvolt (0.16 pJ)) and because these slower neutrons are produced by other fissioning
7110:
2118:
The inside of the casing may or may not be specially machined to "reflect" the X-rays. X-ray "reflection" is not like light reflecting off a
540:
1329:
X-rays creating a plasma in the radiation channel's filler (a polystyrene or "Fogbank" plastic foam). This was a second idea put forward by
960:
The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel and other components wrapped in many layers. Around the column is first a "pusher-
2670:
in northwest China. China had received extensive technical help from the Soviet Union to jump-start their nuclear program, but by 1960 the
1214:
The first U.S. government document to mention the interstage was only recently released to the public promoting the 2004 initiation of the
601:
7547:
4448:
2930:
1570:
This would complete the fission-fusion-fission sequence. Fusion, unlike fission, is relatively "clean"—it releases energy but no harmful
590:
4713:
741:", even if it is created by persons who are not government employees or associated with weapons programs, in a legal doctrine known as "
5838:
2115:
In some descriptions, additional internal structures exist to protect the secondary from receiving excessive neutrons from the primary.
611:
6437:
YouTube Playlist of declassified nuclear explosion tests obtained by converting film scans to digital at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
6436:
3143:
of fissile material as well. He published these changes, based in part on the proceedings of the appeals trial, as a short erratum in
4750:
642:
4678:
4478:
2166:
2165:
provided by the fusion reactions in secondary or tertiary stages. Such designs are suggested to be capable of being scaled up to an
6973:
585:
3821:
2851:, a Pakistani nuclear physicist, asserted that if Shakti-I had been a thermonuclear test, the device had failed to fire. However,
1702:
Warhead before firing. The nested spheres at the top are the fission primary; the cylinders below are the fusion secondary device.
1508:, pushing against the tamper of the secondary, compressing it tightly, and beginning the fission chain reaction in the spark plug.
1309:
the X-rays create the pressure is the main remaining disputed point in the unclassified press. There are three proposed theories:
7431:
7370:
3708:
3418:
3126:, had his own ideas about the "secret" (quite different from Morland's) published in a Wisconsin newspaper, the DOE claimed that
2638:
1519:. Then begins a fusion reaction between the tritium and the deuterium, releasing even more neutrons, and a huge amount of energy.
4645:"Pokhran – II tests were fully successful; given India capability to build nuclear deterrence: Dr. Kakodkar and Dr. Chidambaram"
7729:
7689:
7044:
6463:
4032:
2743:
555:
545:
5653:
1353:
inside the closed casing might be enough to compress the secondary. Electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays or light carries
7105:
4215:
3772:
2880:
2830:
2728:
2480:
2254:
1582:, for example, the overall explosive force is reduced by approximately half but the amount of fallout is relatively low. The
1433:
813:
683:
571:
560:
550:
358:
4582:
4423:
2548:, was detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to 400 kt (1,700 TJ) (15%-20% from fusion). Attempts to use a
2753:
2431:
1597:
Warhead before firing; primary (fission bomb) at top, secondary (fusion fuel) at bottom, all suspended in polystyrene foam.
852:. This process could be continued, with energy from the secondary igniting a third fusion stage; the Soviet Union's AN602 "
475:
3050:
Most of the current ideas on the workings of the Teller–Ulam design came into public awareness after the DOE attempted to
1586:
is a hydrogen bomb with an intentionally thin tamper, allowing as many of the fast fusion neutrons as possible to escape.
7017:
4847:
3241:
2161:) end with the fissioning of the final natural uranium tamper, something that could not normally be achieved without the
1854:
524:
203:
7348:
6834:
6187:
6144:
6066:
6016:
5970:
5799:
5748:
5686:
5463:
5378:
5033:
4973:
4904:
4391:
4331:
4252:
4166:
4119:
4042:
3996:
3692:
3627:
3160:
2982:
2427:
2406:
The liquid deuterium fuel of Ivy Mike was impractical for a deployable weapon, and the next advance was to use a solid
756:
747:
3373:
The B61-based "Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator:" Clever retrofit or headway towards fourth-generation nuclear weapons?
1123:, in which they proposed their revolutionary staged implosion idea. This declassified version is extensively redacted.
6511:
6426:
6276:
5510:
2868:
2506:
1459:
1093:
from the primary to prematurely begin heating the secondary, weakening the compression enough to prevent any fusion.
705:
371:, who developed it in 1951 for the United States, with certain concepts developed with the contribution of physicist
4806:
2488:
1441:
1293:
has been the subject of some disagreement in the open press but is thought to be transmitted through the X-rays and
7365:
6791:
4529:
3045:
2769:
1600:
High-explosive fires in primary, compressing plutonium core into supercriticality and beginning a fission reaction.
3026:
term 'channel filler', with no elaboration", which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance).
1735:, and the effects of that thermal energy are then analyzed. The energy is mostly deposited within about one X-ray
8031:
7873:
7007:
2961:
2720:
2641:. Instead of continuing with its own design, the British were given access to the design of the smaller American
2561:
in early 1954. Sakharov's "Third Idea", as the Teller–Ulam design was known in the USSR, was tested in the shot "
1603:
Fission primary emits X-rays that are scattered along the inside of the casing, irradiating the polystyrene foam.
375:. Similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, China and India. The thermonuclear
8056:
7421:
3221:
2945:
2856:
2558:
2484:
1437:
1238:
687:
202:) was carried out by the United States in 1952, and the concept has since been employed by most of the world's
7552:
3557:
7360:
7268:
6385:
5623:
that while this is technically true—none of the bombs remained complete—one of the weapons was not recovered.
4505:
3070:
635:
453:
7848:
7787:
6695:
6419:
University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear History Working Paper No5.
2593:
2589:
1215:
1204:
6373:
5325:
5097:
4284:
1072:; and 4) the neutrons from the primary's nuclear detonation. The interstage is responsible for accurately
7802:
7724:
7694:
7034:
7027:
6914:
6819:
6806:
6687:
2910:
2781:
2442:
1861:
until energy has distributed evenly and a sufficient fraction has reached the secondary's tamper/pusher.
1723:
The secondary's fuel has started the fusion reaction and shortly will burn up. A fireball starts to form.
789:
616:
17:
6101:
4081:
Harvey, John R.; Michalowski, Stefan (21 December 2007). "Nuclear weapons safety: The case of trident".
2780:
thermonuclear warheads. The air fleet is four squadrons at four different bases. In total, there are 23
2084:
nuclei consume fusion neutrons in the fast-fission process. Using a final fissionable/fissile jacket of
1061:
7858:
7406:
7273:
7012:
6903:
6879:
6506:
6501:
6456:
6058:
5123:
2892:
2761:
2739:
2663:
2520:
1078:
816:
is the idea that different parts of a thermonuclear weapon can be chained together in stages, with the
576:
421:
2370:, used an extra-large fission bomb as a "trigger" and liquid deuterium—kept in its liquid state by 20
1566:
bomb casing), causing it to undergo a fast fission reaction, providing about half of the total energy.
1486:
The high explosives surrounding the core of the primary fire, compressing the fissile material into a
1004:
that can undergo nuclear fusion, along with the deuterium present in the mixture. (See the article on
321:
neutrons that collide with lithium nuclei and supply the tritium component of the thermonuclear fuel.
7782:
7631:
6945:
6549:
4965:
4452:
3193:
3111:
2597:
2174:
1778:) in the Ivy Mike device and 64 billion bars (6.4 quadrillion pascals) in the W-80 device.
1069:
8061:
7699:
7601:
7307:
6796:
6374:
Annotated bibliography for nuclear weapons design from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
6136:
5791:
5285:"The nuclear explosion in North Korea on 3 September 2017: A revised magnitude assessment – NORSAR"
2966:
2469:
1610:
1512:
1422:
628:
441:
262:
1606:
Polystyrene foam becomes plasma, compressing secondary, and plutonium sparkplug begins to fission.
745:" (though the constitutional standing of the doctrine has been at times called into question; see
8009:
7755:
7684:
7643:
7411:
6783:
6668:
6643:
6599:
6413:
5836:(1 January 1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952–1954".
4828:
3908:
3502:
2473:
1571:
1426:
961:
676:
470:
436:
317:
300:
3687:(CD-ROM & download available) (2nd ed.). Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications.
2264:
The idea of a thermonuclear fusion bomb ignited by a smaller fission bomb was first proposed by
1008:
for a more detailed technical discussion of fusion reactions.) Inside the layer of fuel is the "
7570:
6950:
6717:
6663:
6648:
5886:(31 October 1996). "American and Soviet H-bomb development programmes: historical background".
5166:
3933:
3619:
3205:
3065:
2978:
2949:
2864:
2704:
1851:
suggested, making ablation apparently unavoidable. The other mechanisms appear to be unneeded.
1772:
954:
890:
730:
313:
138:. Its greater sophistication affords it vastly greater destructive power than first-generation
4456:
1760:
of the total tamper/pusher mass is ablated off, the most energy efficient proportion. For the
7606:
7302:
7022:
6884:
6867:
6449:
5962:
4776:
3980:
3217:
3178:
3166:
3115:
2998:
2296:
2216:
2178:
1809:
1761:
1131:
802:
510:
495:
431:
135:
6239:
6053:
In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist
6050:
5670:
3585:
3518:"So far as is known all high yield nuclear weapons today (>50 kt or so) use this design."
3197:
1272:
Energy released by the fusion events continues heating the fuel, keeping the reaction going.
886:
The primary is thought to be a standard implosion method fission bomb, though likely with a
142:, a more compact size, a lower mass, or a combination of these benefits. Characteristics of
7616:
7485:
7232:
6727:
6658:
6611:
6588:
6559:
6285:
6235:
5897:
5565:"US B-52 nuclear bomber crash in Greenland 51 years ago has ill Danes seeking compensation"
3170:
2667:
2339:
2140:
2123:
1242:
1188:
887:
857:
458:
446:
353:
338:
309:
4717:
4644:
2752:
In 2015 France confirmed that its nuclear arsenal contains about 300 warheads, carried by
820:
of each stage providing the energy to ignite the next stage. At a minimum, this implies a
8:
7426:
6889:
6128:
6107:
6008:
4670:
4240:
4034:
Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Encyclopedia of Worldwide Policy, Technology, and History
3764:
2906:
2629:, was used in the third test, but only produced approximately 150 kt (630 TJ).
2273:
1765:
1732:
1233:
has been suggested as a possibility. It was first used in thermonuclear weapons with the
1192:
845:
781:
500:
334:
6289:
5901:
4829:"We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent"
1720:
radiation case is also ablating and expanding outwards (omitted for clarity of diagram).
7508:
7254:
7209:
7078:
6990:
6722:
6301:
6046:
5945:
5913:
5871:
5855:
5449:
5234:"US Intelligence: North Korea's Sixth Test Was a 140 Kiloton 'Advanced Nuclear' Device"
3955:
3851:"Improved Security, Safety & Manufacturability of the Reliable Replacement Warhead"
3829:
3612:
3558:"A physicist might be in trouble for what he revealed in his new book about the H bomb"
3534:
3376:
3351:
3320:
3251:
3085:
2679:
1313:
7948:
6441:
6349:
4298:
3712:
3409:
3001:
nuclear warhead, allow for some speculation as to the relative size and shapes of the
1944:
in depleted or natural uranium, but its fission-efficiency is higher. This is because
6773:
6754:
6621:
6521:
6516:
6367:
6325:
6317:
6309:
6259:
6251:
6193:
6183:
6150:
6140:
6112:
6072:
6062:
6051:
6022:
6012:
6001:
5976:
5966:
5949:
5937:
5929:
5921:
5863:
5805:
5795:
5762:
5754:
5744:
5692:
5682:
5601:
5593:
5469:
5459:
5392:
5384:
5374:
5047:
5039:
5029:
5022:
4987:
4979:
4969:
4918:
4910:
4900:
4616:
4557:
4397:
4387:
4337:
4327:
4258:
4248:
4211:
4180:
4172:
4162:
4125:
4115:
4109:
4048:
4038:
4002:
3992:
3985:
3872:
that depicts an interstage that absorbs and re-radiates X-rays. From Howard Morland,
3786:
3778:
3768:
3688:
3641:
3633:
3623:
3457:
3182:
2848:
2671:
2616:
2577:
2277:
2221:
2135:
2122:, but rather the reflector material is heated by the X-rays, causing the material to
1073:
993:
734:
505:
490:
485:
480:
416:
249:) and a separate nuclear fusion secondary stage containing thermonuclear fuel: heavy
94:
5909:
2956:
revised its estimate of the explosion magnitude upward to 6.1, matching that of the
368:
7936:
7672:
7513:
7144:
7002:
6824:
6700:
6569:
6554:
6361:
6355:
6297:
6293:
6243:
6209:
6172:
6088:
6038:
5905:
5883:
5847:
5833:
5821:
5645:
5485:
5024:
The Bomb in the Basement: How Israel Went Nuclear and What That Means for the World
5003:
4934:
4380:
4090:
3802:
3664:
3213:
3201:
2723:
of 1963, which banned nuclear test explosions in the atmosphere, underwater, or in
2712:
2642:
2601:
2554:
2311:
2169:(with apparently as many fusion stages as desired), potentially to the level of a "
2144:
2109:
1505:
1501:, which "reflect" along the inside of the casing, irradiating the polystyrene foam.
1086:
1065:
372:
330:
296:) cannot disassemble the secondary before the fusion explosion runs to completion.
151:
147:
6274:; Smirnov, Yuri; Rothstein, Linda; Leskov, Sergei (1993). "The Khariton Version".
4609:"India Sets 3 Nuclear Blasts, Defying a Worldwide Ban; Tests Bring a Sharp Outcry"
3987:
The Release of Thermonuclear Energy by Inertial Confinement: Ways Towards Ignition
3869:
3727:
2843:
On 11 May 1998, India announced that it had detonated a thermonuclear bomb in its
2573:
7853:
7657:
7518:
7244:
7185:
7149:
6995:
6705:
6653:
6539:
6430:
6392:
6201:
6158:
6080:
6030:
5984:
5888:
5813:
5770:
5700:
5671:
5477:
5445:
5441:
5400:
5055:
4995:
4926:
4714:"Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests"
4405:
4345:
4266:
4188:
4133:
4056:
4010:
3857:
3794:
3649:
3450:"Nuclear Anxiety: The Overview; India Detonated a Hydrogen Bomb, Experts Confirm"
3098:
3051:
2914:
2852:
2785:
2757:
2530:
2526:
2407:
2300:
2241:
2170:
1575:
1322:
1191:
more evenly spread X-rays that travel to the secondary, causing what is known as
825:
769:
761:
738:
426:
346:
210:
5310:
3348:
Fourth Generation Nuclear Weapons: Military effectiveness and collateral effects
1199:, gold was used as a coating over the uranium to enhance the blackbody effect.
7770:
7336:
6544:
6496:
6488:
6271:
5996:
5732:
5455:
5362:
5188:
5148:
5017:
4959:
4424:"17 June 1967 – China's first thermonuclear test: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"
4154:
3756:
3405:
3282:
test in 1954 revealed the extent to which the design relies on fission as well.
3229:
3225:
3055:
2605:
2439:
2419:
2355:
2351:
2343:
2326:
2306:
2220:
reported that the U.S. W88 nuclear warhead, a small MIRVed warhead used on the
2198:
1864:
1516:
1491:
1317:
1005:
950:
946:
945:
core would be compressed to a smaller sphere by special layers of conventional
849:
755:
is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation. The official policy of the
515:
463:
393:
380:
289:
143:
52:
6410:– "The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it, why we're telling" (entire issue online).
6247:
6154:
5343:
4922:
4873:
4262:
4094:
3889:
1904:(highly enriched uranium) in the final fission jacket. The far more expensive
1225:
Candidates for the "special material" are polystyrene and a substance called "
383:(210 TJ), virtually all the nuclear weapons of this size deployed by the
8050:
8004:
7838:
7792:
7285:
7056:
6985:
6814:
6606:
6534:
6329:
6313:
6305:
6255:
6226:
De Geer, Lars-Erik (1991). "The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb".
6197:
6179:
6116:
6076:
6026:
5980:
5925:
5917:
5867:
5859:
5829:
5784:
5766:
5696:
5597:
5473:
5051:
4894:
4890:
4768:
4620:
4401:
4341:
4184:
4052:
4006:
3790:
3645:
3484:"Russia Declassifies Video From 1961 of Largest Hydrogen Bomb Ever Detonated"
3461:
3401:
2909:
on general topics in theoretical physics. It took him a year to convince the
2898:
2803:
2773:
2765:
2684:
2621:
2269:
1796:
1775:
1736:
1706:
1487:
1395:
1377:
1164:
1014:
907:
861:
722:
364:
342:
177:
6263:
6205:
6162:
6133:
Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb
5941:
5809:
5774:
5704:
5605:
4991:
4409:
4270:
4245:
Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb
4192:
4014:
3806:
718:
7977:
7965:
7868:
7589:
6636:
6626:
6472:
6084:
6034:
5988:
5817:
5740:
5715:
5481:
5404:
5396:
5370:
5059:
4930:
4516:, esp. Ch. 2, "PRC Theft of U.S. Thermonuclear Warhead Design Information".
4349:
4137:
4060:
3798:
3653:
3607:
3411:
On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors
3279:
3186:
3123:
3096:
before igniting it. When an early draft of the article, to be published in
3031:
2688:
2609:
2411:
2363:
2317:
2265:
2162:
2158:
1583:
1527:
1523:
1330:
1246:
1121:
On Heterocatalytic Detonations I: Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors
1090:
833:
139:
6423:
6414:
Annotated bibliography on the hydrogen bomb from the Alsos Digital Library
6398:
4999:
3873:
3315:
2847:
tests ("Shakti-I", specifically, in Hindi the word 'Shakti' means power).
2674:
had become so great that the Soviet Union ceased all assistance to China.
7878:
7843:
7833:
7480:
7384:
6744:
6732:
6710:
5260:"North Korea nuclear test may have been twice as strong as first thought"
4955:
4896:
The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal & American Foreign Policy
3909:"Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions 4.4.3.3 The Ablation Process"
3107:
2918:
2724:
2362:) (over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki during
2086:
2066:
2046:
2026:
2006:
1986:
1966:
1946:
1926:
1906:
1886:
1229:", an unclassified codename. Fogbank's composition is classified, though
1208:
1144:
1082:
1034:
970:
965:
927:
905:
when heated and compressed, inducing additional fission. When fired, the
742:
288:. These X-rays flood the void (the "radiation channel" often filled with
155:
85:
58:
5875:
3381:
3356:
2533:
in 1949 (before the Soviets had a working fission bomb), was dubbed the
2303:
made the decision to go forward with the development of the new weapon.
1743:
balance, the velocity at which the rest of the tamper implodes inwards.
1705:
Fission primary's explosives have detonated and collapsed the primary's
772:
defied government orders to remove classified information from his book
737:. In the United States, such knowledge can by default be classified as "
32:
7863:
4691:
4285:"The 'George' shot, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organisation website"
4031:
Croddy, Eric A.; Wirtz, James J.; Larsen ear, Jeffrey A., eds. (2004).
3311:
3174:
3103:
2872:
2860:
2844:
2708:
2692:
2659:
2654:
2581:
2538:
2379:
1768:
1635:) and begins the fusion reaction. The neutron flux produced causes the
1482:
The sequence of firing the weapon (with the foam) would be as follows:
1475:
plasma pressure is the concept that Chuck Hansen introduced during the
1391:
1373:
1135:
1068:
that was originally the bomb's fissile material and its tamper; 3) the
1009:
853:
817:
690: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
376:
277:
265:. For this reason, thermonuclear weapons are often colloquially called
101:
6404:
5418:
4530:"24 August 1968 – French 'Canopus' test: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"
2993:
2325:
Teller and other U.S. physicists struggled to find a workable design.
150:
as the weapon's main fuel, thus allowing more efficient use of scarce
7901:
7542:
7039:
6759:
6678:
6673:
6616:
6124:
6096:
5851:
4236:
3059:
2801:
uranium, but it still relies on nuclear energy for electricity, with
2383:
2371:
2347:
1694:
1666:
1294:
1219:
894:
867:
304:
280:
of the fission primary stage. Its temperature soars past 100 million
254:
74:
5737:
Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years
5529:"US to clean up Spanish radioactive site 49 years after plane crash"
4159:
Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years
3934:"Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions 4.4.4 Implosion Systems"
2458:
1411:
665:
655:
209:
Modern fusion weapons essentially consist of two main components: a
7953:
7171:
6847:
5451:
Born Secret: The H-Bomb, the Progressive Case and National Security
4583:"Overview of the verification regime: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"
2948:
was conducted that resulted in "perfect success". According to the
2331:
1858:
1804:
1740:
1713:
1675:
1354:
1337:
1196:
1001:
876:
199:
5959:
Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956
5043:
4511:
4324:
Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956
4129:
4111:
A Convenient Spy: Wen Ho Lee and the Politics of Nuclear Espionage
2901:
of 1979 may have been a joint Israeli–South African nuclear test.
1589:
1265:
A (relatively) small fission bomb known as the "primary" explodes.
7741:
7312:
6925:
6764:
6749:
6737:
6564:
4799:"Former NSA disagrees with scientist, says Pokhran II successful"
3956:"The B-41 (Mk-41) Bomb – High yield strategic thermonuclear bomb"
3822:"The W76 Warhead: Intermediate Yield Strategic SLBM MIRV Warhead"
3681:
Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945
3275:
3246:
1884:
Either the tamper or the casing have been proposed to be made of
1614:
1250:
1230:
1226:
997:
902:
898:
785:
326:
258:
250:
78:
70:
6321:
5933:
5758:
5388:
5348:. Vol. 7. United States Department of Energy. January 2001.
4983:
4914:
4671:"Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program - 1998: The Year of Testing"
4176:
3782:
3637:
3530:"Hydrogen Bomb Physicist's Book Runs Afoul of Energy Department"
2734:
7324:
7290:
7132:
5345:
Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the present
4449:"China's Nuclear Weapon Development, Modernization and Testing"
2953:
2944:
On 3 September 2017, the country's state media reported that a
2731:
that same year, and then ratified the Treaty within two years.
2562:
2149:
2134:
The U.S. tested three-stage bombs in several explosions during
2119:
1350:
293:
281:
64:
6350:"Basic Principles of Staged Radiation Implosion (Teller–Ulam)"
6270:
2662:
decided to begin a Chinese nuclear-weapons program during the
2201:
describes in detail the internal components of the "Ivy Mike"
1786:
Comparing the three mechanisms proposed, it can be seen that:
1349:
The radiation pressure exerted by the large quantity of X-ray
7924:
7530:
7468:
7443:
7197:
7161:
7127:
7122:
6872:
6842:
4716:. Press Information Bureau. 24 September 2009. Archived from
4479:"Spies versus sweat, the debate over China's nuclear advance"
2835:
2797:
2793:
2777:
2545:
2423:
2387:
2375:
2359:
2288:
2177:). Even such large bombs have been replaced by smaller yield
1880:
Possible variations to the weapon design have been proposed:
1670:
1498:
1183:
784:
from known information, or comparison with similar fields of
401:
387:
today are thermonuclear weapons using the Teller–Ulam design.
385:
five nuclear-weapon states under the Non-Proliferation Treaty
285:
108:
6433:– documentary film on the history of nuclear weapon testing.
5149:"North Korea nuclear: State claims first hydrogen bomb test"
4950:
4948:
4946:
4944:
3503:"Nuclear Weapons FAQ Section 4.4.1.4 The Teller–Ulam Design"
3076:
Morland eventually concluded that the "secret" was that the
1316:
exerted by the X-rays. This was the first idea put forth by
7115:
6940:
6631:
5439:
5419:"The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it and why we're telling it"
5121:
3679:
1579:
1472:
989:
901:
gas) for extra efficiency; the fusion fuel releases excess
357:
thermonuclear weapons in the United States is known as the
6395:(with U.S. and USSR bomb designers as well as historians).
5839:
Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
5681:] (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). Livraria da FĂsica.
1340:. This is the concept best supported by physical analysis.
4941:
4503:
3417:(Technical report). A. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.
3316:"Sixty Years of Trying to Control the Bomb (Transcripts)"
3165:
On 5 February 1958, during a training mission flown by a
2435:
2276:
in September 1941, at the start of what would become the
2105:
1234:
5207:"North Korea says conducts 'perfect' hydrogen bomb test"
4732:"Nukes of 200kt yield possible: Architect of Pokhran-II"
3196:
occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over
2997:
Photographs of warhead casings, such as this one of the
2292:
alternatively strategic, pragmatic, and moral. In their
6471:
6399:
Howard Morland on how he discovered the "H-bomb secret"
6386:
PBS: Race for the Superbomb: Interviews and Transcripts
5646:"Section 4.0 Engineering and Design of Nuclear Weapons"
2988:
4662:
3274:
was already in wide public use before fission product
2792:
France has about 60 air-launched missiles tipped with
1522:
The fuel undergoing the fusion reaction emits a large
299:
The secondary fusion stage—consisting of outer pusher/
5189:"North Korea nuclear H-bomb claims met by scepticism"
4030:
3728:"British H-bomb posted on the Internet by Greenpeace"
2410:
fusion fuel instead. In 1954 this was tested in the "
1237:
thermonuclear warhead and produced at a plant in the
1119:
Classified paper by Teller and Ulam on 9 March 1951:
871:
One possible version of the Teller–Ulam configuration
337:
and undergoes fission itself, increasing the overall
284:, causing it to glow intensely with thermal ("soft")
4848:"India, Pakistan can build hydrogen bomb: Scientist"
4839:
3019:
Any elaboration of this statement will be classified
2382:
equipment—as its fusion fuel, and weighed around 80
1211:
Polarizer/Plasma Source" is also shown (see below).
729:
Detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is
8027:
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
5575:
5257:
3200:, Spain. The conventional explosives in two of the
3037:
6171:
6100:
6000:
5783:
5583:
5167:M5.1 – 21 km ENE of Sungjibaegam, North Korea
5021:
4379:
3984:
3611:
1261:A simplified summary of the above explanation is:
5511:"For 50 Years, Nuclear Bomb Lost in Watery Grave"
5225:
5122:Kang Seung-woo; Chung Min-uck (4 February 2013).
5098:"North Korea could be developing a hydrogen bomb"
4231:
4229:
4227:
4080:
3054:a magazine article by U.S. anti-weapons activist
1781:
1285:How exactly the energy is "transported" from the
1060:Separating the secondary from the primary is the
656:Public knowledge concerning nuclear weapon design
8048:
5828:
3432:– via Nuclear Non-Proliferation Institute.
3021:." The only information that may pertain to the
1924:is also fissionable with fast neutrons like the
6352:from Carey Sublette's NuclearWeaponArchive.org.
5585:"US left nuclear weapon under ice in Greenland"
5357:
5355:
4958:(1998). "Chapter 16: The Battle over the NPT".
4749:PTI, Press Trust of India (25 September 2009).
4742:
2913:about Israel's capability and finally in 1976,
2143:per unit bomb weight) 25 Mt (100 PJ)
2064:jacket fosters neutron multiplication, whereas
1515:(Li) atom splits into one tritium atom and one
1280:
807:
146:reactions make possible the use of non-fissile
6587:
6123:
4235:
4224:
4101:
4074:
3903:
3901:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:
1964:nuclei also undergo fission by slow neutrons (
762:censor weapons information in the public press
6487:
6457:
6356:"Matter, Energy, and Radiation Hydrodynamics"
6111:. Vol. 281, no. 4. pp. 42–43.
5075:"The Hungarian Phenomenon in Israeli Science"
4107:
3975:
3973:
3709:"Figure 5 – Thermonuclear Warhead Components"
3671:
3375:. Independent Scientific Research Institute.
3350:. Independent Scientific Research Institute.
2525:The first Soviet fusion design, developed by
1653:tamper to fission. A fireball starts to form.
893:by small amounts of fusion fuel (usually 1:1
636:
5352:
4751:"AEC ex-chief backs Santhanam on Pokhran-II"
3481:
3114:, and (3) was dangerous and would encourage
2719:France and China did not sign or ratify the
2024:supports the nuclear chain reaction whereas
1089:is a good example; a small flaw allowed the
957:that powers the conventional "atomic bomb".
848:, at which point it is heated and undergoes
198:). The first full-scale thermonuclear test (
6362:"Engineering and Design of Nuclear Weapons"
5251:
5095:
5072:
4779:. What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?
4373:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4359:
3928:
3926:
3898:
3742:
3586:"Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons"
3580:
3578:
2931:North Korea and weapons of mass destruction
2487:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2108:warheads retrofitted to currently deployed
1440:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1301:. This energy is then used to compress the
824:section that consists of an implosion-type
261:) as the pure element or in modern weapons
6464:
6450:
6370:from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapons FAQ.
6364:from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapons FAQ.
6358:from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapons FAQ.
4777:"What are the real yield of India's Test?"
3979:
3970:
3600:
3482:Magazine, Smithsonian; Machemer, Theresa.
3400:
2687:reported that in 1995, a supposed Chinese
2289:first atomic bomb test by the Soviet Union
643:
629:
400:
36:A basic diagram of a thermonuclear weapon.
6368:"Elements of Thermonuclear Weapon Design"
6003:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
5882:
5258:Michelle Ye Hee Lee (13 September 2017).
4441:
4208:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
4026:
4024:
3761:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
3380:
3355:
3228:while attempting an emergency landing at
2740:Triomphant-class nuclear-armed submarines
2592:to develop the British fusion bomb, with
2584:was the first British hydrogen bomb test.
2507:Learn how and when to remove this message
2294:Report of the General Advisory Committee,
2195:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
1681:
1460:Learn how and when to remove this message
1182:Spark Plug while the latter refers to an
764:, with limited success. According to the
706:Learn how and when to remove this message
61:("tamper") lined with beryllium reflector
6045:
5956:
5643:
5010:
4668:
4356:
4321:
4315:
4149:
4147:
3923:
3819:
3614:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History
3575:
3500:
3396:
3394:
3392:
2992:
2834:
2733:
2572:
2392:
2305:
1693:
1593:Foam plasma mechanism firing sequence.
1588:
1012:", a hollow column of fissile material (
866:
717:
31:
6225:
6169:
5781:
5668:
5361:
4845:
4377:
3991:. World Scientific Publishing Company.
3370:
3345:
3304:
3212:On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four
2772:, was commissioned in 2010, and it has
2672:rift between the Soviet Union and China
1401:
774:Building the H Bomb: A Personal History
38:Some designs use spherical secondaries.
14:
8049:
5995:
5581:
5016:
4205:
4021:
3755:
3677:
3606:
3555:
2004:nuclei in the jacket (in other words,
1716:and the shield and secondary's tamper.
875:Surrounding the other components is a
6445:
5731:
5323:
5231:
4954:
4889:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4669:Sublette, Carey (10 September 2001).
4639:
4637:
4606:
4552:
4550:
4524:
4522:
4153:
4144:
3527:
3447:
3424:from the original on 28 November 2020
3389:
3310:
2881:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
2831:India and weapons of mass destruction
2754:submarine-launched ballistic missiles
2729:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
2645:and were able to manufacture copies.
2432:submarine-launched ballistic missiles
2402:Castle Bravo detonation, 1st Mar 1954
2126:, which then travel to the secondary.
1497:The fissioning primary emits thermal
1344:
1297:that are emitted from the fissioning
6218:
6095:
5656:from the original on 6 February 2021
5324:Lewis, Jeffrey (13 September 2017).
4774:
3443:
3441:
3439:
3154:
2989:U.S. Department of Energy statements
2485:adding citations to reliable sources
2452:
1875:
1698:Ablation mechanism firing sequence.
1438:adding citations to reliable sources
1405:
688:adding citations to reliable sources
659:
5636:
5547:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs"
4748:
4681:from the original on 10 August 2011
4455:. 26 September 2003. Archived from
3813:
3730:. Federation of American Scientists
3528:Broad, William J. (23 March 2015).
3242:COLEX process (isotopic separation)
2972:
2639:1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement
2428:intercontinental ballistic missiles
1855:United States Department of Defense
1526:of high energy neutrons (17.6
1380:) for the Ivy Mike design and 1,400
276:A fusion explosion begins with the
24:
6424:Peter Kuran's "Trinity and Beyond"
5631:
4699:
4634:
4575:
4547:
4519:
4504:Christopher Cox, chairman (1999).
4108:Stober, Dan; Hoffman, Ian (2001).
3820:Sublette, Carey (9 January 2007).
3161:List of military nuclear accidents
2983:United States Department of Energy
2604:and used sampling aircraft in the
2414:" shot (the device was code-named
1504:The irradiated foam becomes a hot
796:
757:United States Department of Energy
748:United States v. Progressive, Inc.
733:to some degree in virtually every
333:or plutonium, the tamper captures
25:
8073:
6338:
6277:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
5679:The Physics of Nuclear Explosives
5673:A Fisica dos Explosivos Nucleares
5644:Sublette, Carey (19 March 2019).
5232:Panda, Ankit (6 September 2017).
5124:"North Korea may detonate H-bomb"
3436:
2869:Atomic Energy Commission of India
2568:
2255:History of the Teller–Ulam design
303:, fusion fuel filler and central
107:Radiation case (confines thermal
7998:
7971:
7959:
7942:
7930:
7918:
7895:
7827:
7776:
7764:
7735:
7718:
7678:
7666:
7637:
7625:
7595:
7583:
7536:
7524:
7502:
7474:
7462:
7437:
7400:
7354:
7342:
7330:
7318:
7296:
7279:
7262:
7238:
7226:
7203:
7191:
7179:
7155:
7138:
7099:
7067:
7050:
6979:
6967:
5612:from the original on 1 June 2009
5582:Swaine, Jon (11 November 2008).
4846:Samdani, Zafar (25 March 2000).
4805:. 27 August 2009. Archived from
3046:United States v. The Progressive
3039:United States v. The Progressive
2457:
2418:), which had a yield of 15
2259:
1490:state and beginning the fission
1410:
1109:
1100:
664:
363:for its two chief contributors,
206:in the design of their weapons.
8032:ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility
6057:. Princeton Series in Physics.
5910:10.1070/PU1996v039n10ABEH000174
5557:
5539:
5521:
5503:
5492:
5433:
5411:
5336:
5317:
5303:
5277:
5199:
5181:
5159:
5141:
5115:
5096:Kim Kyu-won (7 February 2013).
5089:
5066:
4883:
4865:
4821:
4791:
4724:
4600:
4497:
4471:
4416:
4291:
4277:
4199:
3948:
3883:
3863:
3844:
3701:
3549:
3501:Sublette, Carey (3 July 2007).
3285:
2721:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
2448:
675:needs additional citations for
6298:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341
5669:Barroso, Dalton E. G. (2009).
5169:(Report). USGS. 6 January 2016
5077:. Hungarian Academy of Science
4607:Burns, John F. (12 May 1998).
4412:– via Internet Archive].
3521:
3494:
3475:
3448:Burns, John F. (18 May 1998).
3364:
3339:
3264:
3009:in U.S. thermonuclear weapons.
2924:
2857:Los Alamos National Laboratory
2544:The first Sloika design test,
1782:Comparing implosion mechanisms
1530: ), which irradiates the
314:nuclear fission chain reaction
84:Radiation channel filled with
13:
1:
6343:
6228:Science & Global Security
5062:– via Internet Archive.
4775:Sublette, Carey; et al.
4562:The Nuclear Threat Initiative
4299:"Photograph of a W47 warhead"
4140:– via Internet Archive.
4083:Science & Global Security
4017:– via Internet Archive.
3809:– via Internet Archive.
3556:Greene, Jes (25 March 2015).
3298:
2938:South Korean Defense Ministry
2776:missiles capable of carrying
1140:"Dual Use Nuclear Technology"
1055:
836:. The energy released by the
6696:Field-reversed configuration
6379:
6170:Younger, Stephen M. (2009).
5724:
4378:Younger, Stephen M. (2009).
4247:. Cornell University Press.
3177:, was lost off the coast of
3084:were kept separate and that
2917:of the CIA testified to the
2443:ballistic missile submarines
2354:, with a yield of 10.4
1333:and later by Howard Morland.
1281:Compression of the secondary
1216:Reliable Replacement Warhead
1205:Sandia National Laboratories
1134:warhead. It was released by
808:Primary and secondary stages
7:
5782:DeGroot, Gerard J. (2005).
5448:; Stanford, George (1981).
3235:
2960:but less powerful than the
2214:In 1999 a reporter for the
2188:
1843:
1840:
1832:
1829:
1821:
1818:
812:The basic principle of the
790:inertial confinement fusion
10:
8078:
6059:Princeton University Press
4899:. New York: Random House.
4675:The Nuclear Weapon Archive
4558:"France | Countries | NTI"
3158:
3043:
2928:
2893:Nuclear weapons and Israel
2890:
2828:
2664:First Taiwan Strait Crisis
2652:
2521:Soviet atomic bomb project
2518:
2366:). The device, dubbed the
2272:when they were talking at
2252:
2248:
2044:does not). Furthermore, a
1256:
828:bomb (a "trigger"), and a
800:
73:"boost" gas (blue) within
8022:
7990:
7910:
7887:
7819:
7812:
7801:
7754:
7710:
7656:
7615:
7578:
7569:
7494:
7452:
7392:
7383:
7218:
7089:
6959:
6933:
6924:
6913:
6902:
6860:
6833:
6805:
6782:
6686:
6598:
6578:
6550:Fusion energy gain factor
6480:
6248:10.1080/08929889108426372
5326:"SAR Image of Punggye-ri"
4966:Columbia University Press
4453:Nuclear Threat Initiative
4326:. Yale University Press.
4095:10.1080/08929889408426405
4070:– via Google Books.
3214:B28FI thermonuclear bombs
2886:
2867:, former chairman of the
2855:, former director of the
2698:
2598:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
2175:Cheyenne Mountain Complex
1794:
1791:
1070:electromagnetic radiation
949:arranged around it in an
832:section that consists of
814:Teller–Ulam configuration
360:Teller–Ulam configuration
213:primary stage (fueled by
134:) is a second-generation
91:Uranium ("pusher/tamper")
6137:Cornell University Press
5957:Holloway, David (1994).
5792:Harvard University Press
5367:The secret that exploded
5028:. Simon & Schuster.
4322:Holloway, David (1994).
4210:. Simon & Schuster.
4114:. Simon & Schuster.
3936:. 2.04. 20 February 1999
3911:. 2.04. 20 February 1999
3257:
3071:interpersonal strategies
2967:synthetic-aperture radar
2824:
2768:. The newest submarine,
2648:
2284:, as it was then known.
1305:. The crucial detail of
953:pattern, initiating the
6475:, processes and devices
6429:9 December 2018 at the
6401:(includes many slides).
6240:1991S&GS....2..351D
6174:The Bomb: A New History
4382:The Bomb: A New History
3371:Gsponer, Andre (2005).
3346:Gsponer, Andre (2005).
1609:Compressed and heated,
844:through the process of
312:state, and it begins a
5650:Nuclear Weapon Archive
3981:Winterberg, Friedwardt
3890:Speculation on Fogbank
3826:Nuclear Weapon Archive
3725:A cleaned up version:
3678:Hansen, Chuck (2007).
3066:Encyclopedia Americana
3010:
2950:U.S. Geological Survey
2865:Rajagopala Chidambaram
2840:
2749:
2588:In 1954 work began at
2585:
2403:
2322:
2209:
1727:
1682:Tamper-pusher ablation
1657:
955:nuclear chain reaction
872:
735:industrialized country
726:
115:
45:fusion secondary stage
27:2-stage nuclear weapon
8057:Nuclear weapon design
6391:11 March 2017 at the
5963:Yale University Press
5440:De Volpi, Alexander;
3880:, March 2005, p 1374.
3218:Operation Chrome Dome
3116:nuclear proliferation
3110:" clause of the 1954
2996:
2838:
2737:
2576:
2401:
2338:The "George" shot of
2309:
2217:San Jose Mercury News
2179:nuclear bunker buster
2167:arbitrary large yield
1697:
1592:
870:
803:Nuclear weapon design
721:
136:nuclear weapon design
42:fission primary stage
35:
6612:Triple-alpha process
6560:Magnetohydrodynamics
6512:List of technologies
6129:Schilling, Warner R.
6009:Simon & Schuster
5884:Goncharov, German A.
5834:Bernstein, Barton J.
5429:(11). November 1979.
5313:. 12 September 2017.
5291:on 13 September 2017
5073:Gábor Palló (2000).
4852:Dawn News Interviews
4738:. 25 September 2009.
4241:Schilling, Warner R.
3765:Simon & Schuster
3488:Smithsonian Magazine
3291:emphasis in original
3270:The misleading term
3192:On 17 January 1966,
3173:, also known as the
3171:Mark 15 nuclear bomb
2875:thermonuclear test.
2481:improve this section
2438:warhead deployed on
2434:. By 1960, with the
2340:Operation Greenhouse
2335:or radiation case.
2315:thermonuclear test,
2224:SLBM, had a prolate
2141:nuclear weapon yield
1574:or large amounts of
1572:radioactive products
1434:improve this section
1402:Foam plasma pressure
1243:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
964:", a heavy layer of
684:improve this article
525:Nuclear-armed states
354:Operation Greenhouse
335:fast fusion neutrons
120:thermonuclear weapon
7690:Lockheed Martin CFR
6644:Proton–proton chain
6507:List of experiments
6408:November 1979 issue
6290:1993BuAtS..49d..20K
6108:Scientific American
6099:(20 October 1999).
6047:Schweber, Silvan S.
5902:1996PhyU...39.1033G
5590:The Daily Telegraph
5553:. 14 November 2008.
4961:Israel and the Bomb
4720:on 24 October 2017.
3507:Nuclear Weapons FAQ
3314:(8 November 2005).
2907:Tel Aviv University
2274:Columbia University
1733:thermal equilibrium
1611:lithium-6 deuteride
1193:radiation implosion
1138:in a report titled
864:becomes too great.
846:radiation implosion
782:reverse engineering
95:Lithium-6 deuteride
6723:Dense plasma focus
5535:. 19 October 2015.
5517:. 3 February 2008.
5213:. 3 September 2017
5018:Karpin, Michael I.
4968:(published 1999).
4803:The Times of India
4736:The Times of India
4613:The New York Times
4485:. 7 September 1999
4483:The New York Times
3878:Cardozo Law Review
3860:, NNSA March 2007.
3856:2008-12-17 at the
3832:on 26 January 2021
3535:The New York Times
3454:The New York Times
3321:Talk of the Nation
3252:Pure fusion weapon
3222:crashed on the ice
3216:aboard as part of
3135:, and that in the
3086:radiation pressure
3011:
2946:hydrogen bomb test
2841:
2760:. France has four
2750:
2680:The New York Times
2594:Sir William Penney
2586:
2537:, after a Russian
2404:
2323:
2297:Robert Oppenheimer
2232:) and a spherical
1816:Radiation pressure
1728:
1658:
1345:Radiation pressure
1314:Radiation pressure
873:
727:
116:
67:("levitated core")
8044:
8043:
8040:
8039:
8018:
8017:
7986:
7985:
7937:Asterix IV (PALS)
7750:
7749:
7652:
7651:
7565:
7564:
7379:
7378:
6898:
6897:
6856:
6855:
6815:Bubble (acoustic)
6797:Magnetized target
6774:Toroidal solenoid
6530:
6529:
6219:Analyzing fallout
5896:(10): 1033–1044.
5330:Arms Control Wonk
5195:. 6 January 2016.
5155:. 6 January 2016.
4891:Hersh, Seymour M.
4835:. 2 January 1999.
4809:on 30 August 2009
4514:on 4 August 2005.
4459:on 8 October 2011
4386:. HarperCollins.
4217:978-0-684-80400-2
4206:Rhodes R (1995).
3958:. 21 October 1997
3894:Arms Control Wonk
3774:978-0-68-480400-2
3759:(1 August 1995).
3194:a fatal collision
3183:Savannah, Georgia
3155:Notable accidents
3112:Atomic Energy Act
2849:Samar Mubarakmand
2668:Lop Nor Test Site
2617:Operation Grapple
2578:Operation Grapple
2517:
2516:
2509:
2408:lithium deuteride
2399:
2278:Manhattan Project
2268:to his colleague
2245:speed and range.
2193:In his 1995 book
2136:Operation Redwing
1876:Design variations
1848:
1847:
1838:Ablation pressure
1737:optical thickness
1470:
1469:
1462:
1320:in an article in
994:lithium deuteride
716:
715:
708:
653:
652:
417:Nuclear explosion
352:Before Ivy Mike,
263:lithium deuteride
16:(Redirected from
8069:
8003:
8002:
8001:
7976:
7975:
7974:
7964:
7963:
7962:
7947:
7946:
7945:
7935:
7934:
7933:
7923:
7922:
7921:
7900:
7899:
7898:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7817:
7816:
7810:
7809:
7781:
7780:
7779:
7769:
7768:
7767:
7756:Magneto-inertial
7740:
7739:
7738:
7723:
7722:
7721:
7683:
7682:
7681:
7671:
7670:
7669:
7642:
7641:
7640:
7630:
7629:
7628:
7600:
7599:
7598:
7588:
7587:
7586:
7576:
7575:
7556:
7541:
7540:
7539:
7529:
7528:
7527:
7514:Wendelstein 7-AS
7507:
7506:
7505:
7479:
7478:
7477:
7467:
7466:
7465:
7442:
7441:
7440:
7405:
7404:
7403:
7390:
7389:
7359:
7358:
7357:
7347:
7346:
7345:
7335:
7334:
7333:
7323:
7322:
7321:
7301:
7300:
7299:
7284:
7283:
7282:
7267:
7266:
7265:
7258:
7243:
7242:
7241:
7231:
7230:
7229:
7208:
7207:
7206:
7196:
7195:
7194:
7184:
7183:
7182:
7175:
7160:
7159:
7158:
7143:
7142:
7141:
7104:
7103:
7102:
7082:
7072:
7071:
7070:
7055:
7054:
7053:
7008:Electric Tokamak
6984:
6983:
6982:
6972:
6971:
6970:
6931:
6930:
6922:
6921:
6911:
6910:
6792:Magnetized liner
6784:Magneto-inertial
6701:Levitated dipole
6596:
6595:
6585:
6584:
6555:Lawson criterion
6485:
6484:
6466:
6459:
6452:
6443:
6442:
6333:
6267:
6213:
6210:Internet Archive
6177:
6166:
6120:
6104:
6092:
6089:Internet Archive
6056:
6042:
6039:Internet Archive
6006:
5992:
5953:
5879:
5852:10.2307/27757627
5825:
5822:Internet Archive
5789:
5786:The Bomb: A Life
5778:
5719:
5713:
5711:
5676:
5665:
5663:
5661:
5637:Basic principles
5626:
5625:
5619:
5617:
5587:
5579:
5573:
5572:
5561:
5555:
5554:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5525:
5519:
5518:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5496:
5490:
5489:
5486:Internet Archive
5442:Marsh, Gerald E.
5437:
5431:
5430:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5359:
5350:
5349:
5340:
5334:
5333:
5321:
5315:
5314:
5307:
5301:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5287:. Archived from
5281:
5275:
5274:
5272:
5270:
5255:
5249:
5248:
5246:
5244:
5229:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5218:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5185:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5174:
5163:
5157:
5156:
5145:
5139:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5119:
5113:
5112:
5110:
5108:
5093:
5087:
5086:
5084:
5082:
5070:
5064:
5063:
5027:
5014:
5008:
5007:
5004:Internet Archive
4952:
4939:
4938:
4935:Internet Archive
4887:
4881:
4879:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4843:
4837:
4836:
4825:
4819:
4818:
4816:
4814:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4772:
4766:
4765:
4763:
4761:
4746:
4740:
4739:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4710:
4697:
4696:
4688:
4686:
4666:
4660:
4659:
4657:
4655:
4641:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4604:
4598:
4597:
4595:
4593:
4579:
4573:
4572:
4570:
4568:
4554:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4540:
4526:
4517:
4515:
4510:. Archived from
4501:
4495:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4475:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4420:
4414:
4413:
4385:
4375:
4354:
4353:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4303:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4281:
4275:
4274:
4233:
4222:
4221:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4161:. Random House.
4151:
4142:
4141:
4105:
4099:
4098:
4078:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4067:
4028:
4019:
4018:
3990:
3977:
3968:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3941:
3930:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3905:
3896:
3887:
3881:
3867:
3861:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3828:. Archived from
3817:
3811:
3810:
3753:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3735:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3711:. Archived from
3705:
3699:
3698:
3686:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3665:Internet Archive
3662:
3660:
3617:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3588:. 1 October 1997
3582:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3562:Business Insider
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3479:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3445:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3429:
3423:
3416:
3408:(9 March 1951).
3398:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3343:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3329:
3308:
3292:
3289:
3283:
3268:
3016:
2973:Public knowledge
2845:Operation Shakti
2821:as a byproduct.
2820:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2809:
2784:aircraft and 20
2762:Triomphant-class
2738:One of France's
2713:French Polynesia
2582:Christmas Island
2559:Yakov Zel'dovich
2555:Viktor Davidenko
2512:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2492:
2461:
2453:
2400:
2312:Operation Castle
2145:B41 nuclear bomb
2110:LGM-30 Minuteman
2103:
2101:
2100:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2073:
2072:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2053:
2052:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2033:
2032:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2013:
2012:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1993:
1992:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1973:
1972:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1953:
1952:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1933:
1932:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1912:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1893:
1892:
1789:
1788:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1751:
1663:small multiplier
1652:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1642:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1624:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1537:
1465:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1414:
1406:
1398:) for the W-80.
1386:
1385:
1368:
1367:
1203:(seen here from
1181:
1179:
1178:
1171:
1170:
1161:
1159:
1158:
1151:
1150:
1113:
1104:
1087:Operation Castle
1051:
1049:
1048:
1041:
1040:
1031:
1029:
1028:
1021:
1020:
987:
985:
984:
977:
976:
944:
942:
941:
934:
933:
924:
922:
921:
914:
913:
711:
704:
700:
697:
691:
668:
660:
645:
638:
631:
582:
476:Target selection
404:
390:
389:
373:John von Neumann
345:fission product
331:enriched uranium
318:fission products
290:polystyrene foam
248:
247:
246:
239:
238:
230:
229:
228:
221:
220:
197:
196:
195:
188:
187:
175:
174:
173:
166:
165:
152:fissile material
148:depleted uranium
21:
8077:
8076:
8072:
8071:
8070:
8068:
8067:
8066:
8062:Nuclear secrecy
8047:
8046:
8045:
8036:
8014:
7999:
7997:
7982:
7972:
7970:
7960:
7958:
7943:
7941:
7931:
7929:
7919:
7917:
7906:
7896:
7894:
7883:
7828:
7826:
7804:
7797:
7777:
7775:
7765:
7763:
7746:
7736:
7734:
7719:
7717:
7706:
7679:
7677:
7667:
7665:
7648:
7638:
7636:
7626:
7624:
7611:
7596:
7594:
7584:
7582:
7561:
7550:
7537:
7535:
7525:
7523:
7519:Wendelstein 7-X
7503:
7501:
7490:
7475:
7473:
7463:
7461:
7454:
7448:
7438:
7436:
7401:
7399:
7375:
7355:
7353:
7343:
7341:
7331:
7329:
7319:
7317:
7297:
7295:
7280:
7278:
7263:
7261:
7252:
7239:
7237:
7227:
7225:
7214:
7204:
7202:
7192:
7190:
7180:
7178:
7169:
7156:
7154:
7139:
7137:
7100:
7098:
7091:
7085:
7076:
7068:
7066:
7051:
7049:
6980:
6978:
6968:
6966:
6955:
6916:
6905:
6894:
6852:
6829:
6801:
6778:
6706:Magnetic mirror
6682:
6669:Silicon-burning
6654:Lithium burning
6591:
6580:
6574:
6540:Nuclear reactor
6526:
6476:
6470:
6431:Wayback Machine
6406:The Progressive
6393:Wayback Machine
6382:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6221:
6216:
6190:
6147:
6069:
6019:
5997:Rhodes, Richard
5973:
5889:Physics-Uspekhi
5802:
5751:
5733:Bundy, McGeorge
5727:
5722:
5709:
5707:
5689:
5659:
5657:
5639:
5634:
5632:Further reading
5629:
5615:
5613:
5580:
5576:
5563:
5562:
5558:
5545:
5544:
5540:
5527:
5526:
5522:
5509:
5508:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5493:
5466:
5438:
5434:
5423:The Progressive
5417:
5416:
5412:
5381:
5363:Morland, Howard
5360:
5353:
5342:
5341:
5337:
5322:
5318:
5309:
5308:
5304:
5294:
5292:
5283:
5282:
5278:
5268:
5266:
5264:Washington Post
5256:
5252:
5242:
5240:
5230:
5226:
5216:
5214:
5205:
5204:
5200:
5187:
5186:
5182:
5172:
5170:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5147:
5146:
5142:
5132:
5130:
5120:
5116:
5106:
5104:
5094:
5090:
5080:
5078:
5071:
5067:
5036:
5015:
5011:
4976:
4953:
4942:
4907:
4888:
4884:
4871:
4870:
4866:
4856:
4854:
4844:
4840:
4827:
4826:
4822:
4812:
4810:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4782:
4780:
4773:
4769:
4759:
4757:
4755:The Hindu, 2009
4747:
4743:
4730:
4729:
4725:
4712:
4711:
4700:
4684:
4682:
4667:
4663:
4653:
4651:
4643:
4642:
4635:
4625:
4623:
4605:
4601:
4591:
4589:
4581:
4580:
4576:
4566:
4564:
4556:
4555:
4548:
4538:
4536:
4528:
4527:
4520:
4502:
4498:
4488:
4486:
4477:
4476:
4472:
4462:
4460:
4447:
4446:
4442:
4432:
4430:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4394:
4376:
4357:
4334:
4320:
4316:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4283:
4282:
4278:
4255:
4234:
4225:
4218:
4204:
4200:
4169:
4155:Bundy, McGeorge
4152:
4145:
4122:
4106:
4102:
4079:
4075:
4065:
4063:
4045:
4029:
4022:
3999:
3978:
3971:
3961:
3959:
3954:
3953:
3949:
3939:
3937:
3932:
3931:
3924:
3914:
3912:
3907:
3906:
3899:
3888:
3884:
3868:
3864:
3858:Wayback Machine
3849:
3845:
3835:
3833:
3818:
3814:
3775:
3757:Rhodes, Richard
3754:
3743:
3733:
3731:
3726:
3718:
3716:
3715:on 12 July 2010
3707:
3706:
3702:
3695:
3684:
3676:
3672:
3658:
3656:
3630:
3605:
3601:
3591:
3589:
3584:
3583:
3576:
3566:
3564:
3554:
3550:
3540:
3538:
3526:
3522:
3511:
3509:
3499:
3495:
3480:
3476:
3466:
3464:
3446:
3437:
3427:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3406:Ulam, Stanislaw
3399:
3390:
3382:physics/0510052
3369:
3365:
3357:physics/0510071
3344:
3340:
3327:
3325:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3286:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3238:
3163:
3157:
3145:The Progressive
3128:The Progressive
3099:The Progressive
3092:compressed the
3048:
3042:
3014:
2991:
2975:
2933:
2927:
2895:
2889:
2853:Harold M. Agnew
2833:
2827:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2758:fighter-bombers
2701:
2657:
2651:
2637:leading to the
2606:mushroom clouds
2571:
2531:Vitaly Ginzburg
2527:Andrei Sakharov
2523:
2513:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2478:
2462:
2451:
2393:
2301:Harry S. Truman
2262:
2257:
2251:
2242:physics package
2212:
2191:
2171:doomsday device
2099:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2079:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2005:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1899:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1878:
1827:Plasma pressure
1784:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1726:
1684:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1576:nuclear fallout
1562:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1548:tamper (or the
1544:
1542:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1466:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1431:
1415:
1404:
1383:
1381:
1365:
1363:
1347:
1323:The Progressive
1283:
1259:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1157:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1106:
1105:
1058:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1013:
983:
981:
980:
979:
975:
973:
972:
971:
969:
947:high explosives
940:
938:
937:
936:
932:
930:
929:
928:
926:
920:
918:
917:
916:
912:
910:
909:
908:
906:
840:compresses the
810:
805:
799:
797:Basic principle
770:Kenneth W. Ford
739:Restricted Data
712:
701:
695:
692:
681:
669:
658:
649:
600:
580:
570:
539:
394:Nuclear weapons
381:kilotons of TNT
339:explosive yield
245:
243:
242:
241:
237:
235:
234:
233:
232:
227:
225:
224:
223:
219:
217:
216:
215:
214:
211:nuclear fission
194:
192:
191:
190:
186:
184:
183:
182:
181:
172:
170:
169:
168:
164:
162:
161:
160:
159:
114:
48:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8075:
8065:
8064:
8059:
8042:
8041:
8038:
8037:
8035:
8034:
8029:
8023:
8020:
8019:
8016:
8015:
8013:
8012:
8007:
7994:
7992:
7988:
7987:
7984:
7983:
7981:
7980:
7968:
7956:
7951:
7939:
7927:
7914:
7912:
7908:
7907:
7905:
7904:
7891:
7889:
7885:
7884:
7882:
7881:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7861:
7856:
7851:
7846:
7841:
7836:
7823:
7821:
7814:
7807:
7799:
7798:
7796:
7795:
7790:
7785:
7773:
7760:
7758:
7752:
7751:
7748:
7747:
7745:
7744:
7732:
7727:
7714:
7712:
7708:
7707:
7705:
7704:
7703:
7702:
7692:
7687:
7675:
7662:
7660:
7654:
7653:
7650:
7649:
7647:
7646:
7634:
7621:
7619:
7613:
7612:
7610:
7609:
7604:
7592:
7579:
7573:
7567:
7566:
7563:
7562:
7560:
7559:
7558:
7557:
7533:
7521:
7516:
7511:
7498:
7496:
7492:
7491:
7489:
7488:
7483:
7471:
7458:
7456:
7450:
7449:
7447:
7446:
7434:
7429:
7424:
7419:
7414:
7409:
7396:
7394:
7387:
7381:
7380:
7377:
7376:
7374:
7373:
7368:
7363:
7351:
7339:
7327:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7293:
7288:
7276:
7271:
7259:
7247:
7235:
7222:
7220:
7216:
7215:
7213:
7212:
7200:
7188:
7176:
7164:
7152:
7147:
7135:
7130:
7125:
7120:
7119:
7118:
7108:
7095:
7093:
7087:
7086:
7084:
7083:
7064:
7059:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7031:
7030:
7025:
7015:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6999:
6998:
6988:
6976:
6963:
6961:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6937:
6935:
6928:
6919:
6908:
6900:
6899:
6896:
6895:
6893:
6892:
6887:
6885:Muon-catalyzed
6882:
6877:
6876:
6875:
6868:Colliding beam
6864:
6862:
6858:
6857:
6854:
6853:
6851:
6850:
6845:
6839:
6837:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6811:
6809:
6803:
6802:
6800:
6799:
6794:
6788:
6786:
6780:
6779:
6777:
6776:
6771:
6770:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6757:
6747:
6742:
6741:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6728:Reversed field
6725:
6715:
6714:
6713:
6703:
6698:
6692:
6690:
6684:
6683:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6664:Oxygen-burning
6661:
6656:
6651:
6649:Carbon-burning
6646:
6641:
6640:
6639:
6629:
6624:
6619:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6602:
6593:
6582:
6576:
6575:
6573:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6545:Atomic nucleus
6542:
6537:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6525:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6497:Burning plasma
6493:
6491:
6489:Nuclear fusion
6482:
6478:
6477:
6469:
6468:
6461:
6454:
6446:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6402:
6396:
6381:
6378:
6377:
6376:
6371:
6365:
6359:
6353:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6339:External links
6337:
6335:
6334:
6272:Khariton, Yuli
6268:
6234:(4): 351–363.
6222:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6214:
6189:978-0061537196
6188:
6167:
6146:978-1501745164
6145:
6121:
6093:
6068:978-0691127859
6067:
6043:
6018:978-0684804002
6017:
5993:
5972:978-0300060560
5971:
5954:
5880:
5846:(2): 267–347.
5830:Galison, Peter
5826:
5801:978-0674017245
5800:
5779:
5750:978-0394522784
5749:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5720:
5688:978-8578610166
5687:
5666:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5627:
5574:
5571:. 3 June 2019.
5556:
5538:
5520:
5502:
5491:
5465:978-0080259956
5464:
5456:Pergamon Press
5432:
5410:
5380:978-0394512976
5379:
5351:
5335:
5316:
5302:
5276:
5250:
5224:
5198:
5180:
5158:
5140:
5114:
5088:
5065:
5035:978-0743265942
5034:
5009:
4975:978-0585041506
4974:
4940:
4906:978-0394570068
4905:
4882:
4864:
4838:
4820:
4790:
4767:
4741:
4723:
4698:
4661:
4633:
4599:
4574:
4546:
4518:
4496:
4470:
4440:
4415:
4393:978-0061537196
4392:
4355:
4333:978-0300060560
4332:
4314:
4290:
4276:
4254:978-1501745164
4253:
4223:
4216:
4198:
4168:978-0394522784
4167:
4143:
4121:978-0743223782
4120:
4100:
4073:
4044:978-1851094905
4043:
4020:
3998:978-9814295901
3997:
3969:
3947:
3922:
3897:
3882:
3870:A 1976 drawing
3862:
3843:
3812:
3773:
3741:
3700:
3694:978-0979191503
3693:
3670:
3629:978-0517567401
3628:
3599:
3574:
3548:
3520:
3493:
3474:
3435:
3402:Teller, Edward
3388:
3363:
3338:
3324:(Podcast). NPR
3302:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3284:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3237:
3234:
3230:Thule Air Base
3226:North Star Bay
3206:hydrogen bombs
3156:
3153:
3056:Howard Morland
3044:Main article:
3041:
3036:
2990:
2987:
2979:classification
2974:
2971:
2929:Main article:
2926:
2923:
2891:Main article:
2888:
2885:
2826:
2823:
2815:
2807:
2705:"Canopus" test
2700:
2697:
2653:Main article:
2650:
2647:
2627:Purple Granite
2570:
2569:United Kingdom
2567:
2515:
2514:
2465:
2463:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2352:Enewetak Atoll
2327:Stanislaw Ulam
2261:
2258:
2253:Main article:
2250:
2247:
2211:
2208:
2199:Richard Rhodes
2190:
2187:
2128:
2127:
2116:
2113:
2098:
2090:
2078:
2070:
2058:
2050:
2038:
2030:
2018:
2010:
1998:
1990:
1978:
1970:
1958:
1950:
1938:
1930:
1918:
1910:
1898:
1890:
1877:
1874:
1865:Richard Rhodes
1846:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1793:
1783:
1780:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1699:
1683:
1680:
1655:
1654:
1648:
1640:
1630:
1622:
1613:fuel produces
1607:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1568:
1567:
1561:
1553:
1543:
1535:
1520:
1517:alpha particle
1509:
1502:
1495:
1492:chain reaction
1468:
1467:
1418:
1416:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1336:Tamper/pusher
1334:
1327:
1318:Howard Morland
1282:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1269:induce fusion.
1266:
1258:
1255:
1176:
1168:
1156:
1148:
1118:
1117:
1108:
1107:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1079:fissile fizzle
1057:
1054:
1046:
1038:
1026:
1018:
1006:nuclear fusion
982:
974:
951:explosive lens
939:
931:
919:
911:
881:radiation case
850:nuclear fusion
809:
806:
801:Main article:
798:
795:
766:New York Times
714:
713:
672:
670:
663:
657:
654:
651:
650:
648:
647:
640:
633:
625:
622:
621:
620:
619:
614:
609:
604:
594:
593:
588:
583:
574:
564:
563:
558:
553:
551:United Kingdom
548:
543:
528:
527:
521:
520:
519:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
467:
466:
461:
456:
450:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
411:
410:
406:
405:
397:
396:
369:Stanisław Ulam
267:hydrogen bombs
244:
236:
226:
218:
204:nuclear powers
193:
185:
171:
163:
144:nuclear fusion
113:
112:
111:by reflection)
105:
98:
92:
89:
82:
68:
62:
56:
53:High-explosive
49:
47:
46:
43:
39:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8074:
8063:
8060:
8058:
8055:
8054:
8052:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8024:
8021:
8011:
8008:
8006:
7996:
7995:
7993:
7989:
7979:
7969:
7967:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7950:
7940:
7938:
7928:
7926:
7916:
7915:
7913:
7909:
7903:
7893:
7892:
7890:
7886:
7880:
7877:
7875:
7872:
7870:
7867:
7865:
7862:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7825:
7824:
7822:
7818:
7815:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7793:Fusion Engine
7791:
7789:
7788:FRX-L – FRCHX
7786:
7784:
7774:
7772:
7762:
7761:
7759:
7757:
7753:
7743:
7733:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7716:
7715:
7713:
7709:
7701:
7698:
7697:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7676:
7674:
7664:
7663:
7661:
7659:
7655:
7645:
7635:
7633:
7623:
7622:
7620:
7618:
7614:
7608:
7605:
7603:
7593:
7591:
7581:
7580:
7577:
7574:
7572:
7568:
7554:
7549:
7546:
7545:
7544:
7534:
7532:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7500:
7499:
7497:
7493:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7472:
7470:
7460:
7459:
7457:
7451:
7445:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7423:
7420:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7398:
7397:
7395:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7382:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7352:
7350:
7340:
7338:
7328:
7326:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7287:
7286:ASDEX Upgrade
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7260:
7256:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7236:
7234:
7224:
7223:
7221:
7217:
7211:
7201:
7199:
7189:
7187:
7177:
7173:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7126:
7124:
7121:
7117:
7114:
7113:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7097:
7096:
7094:
7088:
7080:
7075:
7065:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7020:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6986:Alcator C-Mod
6977:
6975:
6965:
6964:
6962:
6958:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6938:
6936:
6934:International
6932:
6929:
6927:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6901:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6880:Metal lattice
6878:
6874:
6871:
6870:
6869:
6866:
6865:
6863:
6859:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6840:
6838:
6836:
6835:Electrostatic
6832:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6812:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6785:
6781:
6775:
6772:
6766:
6763:
6762:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6752:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6720:
6719:
6716:
6712:
6709:
6708:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6689:
6685:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6650:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6618:
6615:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6607:Alpha process
6605:
6603:
6601:
6600:Gravitational
6597:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6583:
6577:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6535:Nuclear power
6533:
6532:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6490:
6486:
6483:
6479:
6474:
6467:
6462:
6460:
6455:
6453:
6448:
6447:
6444:
6438:
6435:
6432:
6428:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6403:
6400:
6397:
6394:
6390:
6387:
6384:
6383:
6375:
6372:
6369:
6366:
6363:
6360:
6357:
6354:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6278:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6224:
6223:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6185:
6181:
6180:HarperCollins
6176:
6175:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6109:
6103:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6064:
6060:
6055:
6054:
6048:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6014:
6010:
6005:
6004:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5890:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5840:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5797:
5793:
5788:
5787:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5729:
5717:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5684:
5680:
5675:
5674:
5667:
5655:
5651:
5647:
5642:
5641:
5624:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5586:
5578:
5570:
5566:
5560:
5552:
5548:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5524:
5516:
5512:
5506:
5495:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5452:
5447:
5443:
5436:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5414:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5358:
5356:
5347:
5346:
5339:
5331:
5327:
5320:
5312:
5306:
5290:
5286:
5280:
5265:
5261:
5254:
5239:
5235:
5228:
5212:
5208:
5202:
5194:
5190:
5184:
5168:
5162:
5154:
5150:
5144:
5129:
5125:
5118:
5103:
5102:The Hankyoreh
5099:
5092:
5076:
5069:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5031:
5026:
5025:
5019:
5013:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4962:
4957:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4902:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4886:
4877:
4876:
4868:
4853:
4849:
4842:
4834:
4830:
4824:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4794:
4778:
4771:
4756:
4752:
4745:
4737:
4733:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4709:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4695:
4693:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4665:
4650:
4646:
4640:
4638:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4603:
4588:
4587:www.ctbto.org
4584:
4578:
4563:
4559:
4553:
4551:
4535:
4534:www.ctbto.org
4531:
4525:
4523:
4513:
4509:
4508:
4500:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4458:
4454:
4450:
4444:
4429:
4428:www.ctbto.org
4425:
4419:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4389:
4384:
4383:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4329:
4325:
4318:
4300:
4294:
4286:
4280:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4219:
4213:
4209:
4202:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4148:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4104:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4040:
4036:
4035:
4027:
4025:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3974:
3957:
3951:
3935:
3929:
3927:
3910:
3904:
3902:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3879:
3875:
3874:"The Article"
3871:
3866:
3859:
3855:
3852:
3847:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3816:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3729:
3714:
3710:
3704:
3696:
3690:
3683:
3682:
3674:
3666:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3625:
3621:
3616:
3615:
3609:
3608:Hansen, Chuck
3603:
3587:
3581:
3579:
3563:
3559:
3552:
3537:
3536:
3531:
3524:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3489:
3485:
3478:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3420:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3385:. ISRI-03-08.
3383:
3378:
3374:
3367:
3360:. ISRI-05-03.
3358:
3353:
3349:
3342:
3335:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3307:
3303:
3288:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3272:hydrogen bomb
3267:
3263:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3162:
3152:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3074:
3072:
3068:
3067:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3047:
3040:
3035:
3033:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2986:
2984:
2980:
2970:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2939:
2932:
2922:
2920:
2919:U.S. Congress
2916:
2912:
2908:
2902:
2900:
2899:Vela incident
2894:
2884:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2837:
2832:
2822:
2819:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2770:"Le Terrible"
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2685:William Broad
2682:
2681:
2675:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2646:
2644:
2643:Mk 28 warhead
2640:
2634:
2630:
2628:
2623:
2622:Orange Herald
2618:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2522:
2511:
2508:
2500:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2466:This section
2464:
2460:
2455:
2454:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2391:
2390:) altogether.
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2270:Edward Teller
2267:
2260:United States
2256:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2159:neutron bombs
2154:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2131:terminology.
2125:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2082:
2062:
2042:
2022:
2002:
1982:
1962:
1942:
1922:
1902:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1873:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1837:
1836:
1826:
1825:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1790:
1787:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1722:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1500:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1488:supercritical
1485:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1464:
1461:
1453:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1419:This section
1417:
1413:
1408:
1407:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1274:
1271:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1160:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1122:
1112:
1103:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1053:
1050:
1030:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
986:
967:
963:
958:
956:
952:
948:
943:
923:
904:
900:
896:
892:
889:
884:
882:
878:
869:
865:
863:
862:supercritical
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
804:
794:
791:
787:
783:
777:
775:
771:
767:
763:
758:
754:
750:
749:
744:
740:
736:
732:
724:
723:Edward Teller
720:
710:
707:
699:
696:December 2015
689:
685:
679:
678:
673:This section
671:
667:
662:
661:
646:
641:
639:
634:
632:
627:
626:
624:
623:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
599:
596:
595:
592:
589:
587:
584:
578:
575:
573:
569:
566:
565:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
541:United States
538:
536:
532:
531:
530:
529:
526:
523:
522:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
496:Proliferation
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
468:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
451:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
414:
413:
412:
408:
407:
403:
399:
398:
395:
392:
391:
388:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
365:Edward Teller
362:
361:
355:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
322:
319:
315:
311:
310:supercritical
306:
302:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
253:of hydrogen (
252:
212:
207:
205:
201:
179:
178:plutonium-239
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
140:nuclear bombs
137:
133:
129:
128:hydrogen bomb
125:
124:fusion weapon
121:
110:
106:
103:
99:
97:(fusion fuel)
96:
93:
90:
87:
83:
80:
76:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
57:
54:
51:
50:
44:
41:
40:
34:
30:
19:
7590:Perhapsatron
6890:Pyroelectric
6820:Laser-driven
6659:Neon-burning
6627:Helium flash
6473:Fusion power
6405:
6284:(4): 20–31.
6281:
6275:
6231:
6227:
6208:– via
6173:
6132:
6106:
6087:– via
6052:
6037:– via
6007:. New York:
6002:
5958:
5893:
5887:
5843:
5837:
5820:– via
5785:
5741:Random House
5736:
5716:Google Books
5714:– via
5708:. Retrieved
5678:
5672:
5658:. Retrieved
5649:
5621:
5614:. Retrieved
5589:
5577:
5568:
5559:
5550:
5541:
5533:The Guardian
5532:
5523:
5514:
5505:
5494:
5484:– via
5450:
5435:
5426:
5422:
5413:
5371:Random House
5366:
5344:
5338:
5329:
5319:
5305:
5293:. Retrieved
5289:the original
5279:
5269:28 September
5267:. Retrieved
5263:
5253:
5241:. Retrieved
5238:The Diplomat
5237:
5227:
5217:10 September
5215:. Retrieved
5210:
5201:
5192:
5183:
5171:. Retrieved
5161:
5152:
5143:
5131:. Retrieved
5127:
5117:
5105:. Retrieved
5101:
5091:
5079:. Retrieved
5068:
5023:
5012:
5002:– via
4960:
4956:Cohen, Avner
4933:– via
4895:
4885:
4874:
4872:"Doctrine",
4867:
4855:. Retrieved
4851:
4841:
4832:
4823:
4811:. Retrieved
4807:the original
4802:
4793:
4781:. Retrieved
4770:
4758:. Retrieved
4754:
4744:
4735:
4726:
4718:the original
4690:
4683:. Retrieved
4674:
4664:
4652:. Retrieved
4648:
4624:. Retrieved
4612:
4602:
4590:. Retrieved
4586:
4577:
4565:. Retrieved
4561:
4537:. Retrieved
4533:
4512:the original
4506:
4499:
4487:. Retrieved
4482:
4473:
4461:. Retrieved
4457:the original
4443:
4431:. Retrieved
4427:
4418:
4381:
4323:
4317:
4305:. Retrieved
4293:
4279:
4244:
4207:
4201:
4158:
4110:
4103:
4086:
4082:
4076:
4064:. Retrieved
4037:. ABC-Clio.
4033:
3986:
3960:. Retrieved
3950:
3938:. Retrieved
3913:. Retrieved
3893:
3885:
3877:
3865:
3846:
3834:. Retrieved
3830:the original
3825:
3815:
3760:
3732:. Retrieved
3717:. Retrieved
3713:the original
3703:
3680:
3673:
3663:– via
3657:. Retrieved
3613:
3602:
3590:. Retrieved
3565:. Retrieved
3561:
3551:
3539:. Retrieved
3533:
3523:
3510:. Retrieved
3506:
3496:
3487:
3477:
3465:. Retrieved
3453:
3426:. Retrieved
3410:
3372:
3366:
3347:
3341:
3333:
3326:. Retrieved
3319:
3306:
3287:
3280:Castle Bravo
3271:
3266:
3211:
3191:
3187:Wassaw Sound
3179:Tybee Island
3164:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3139:there was a
3136:
3132:
3127:
3124:Chuck Hansen
3120:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3081:
3077:
3075:
3064:
3049:
3038:
3032:Smyth Report
3028:
3022:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3002:
2976:
2943:
2934:
2915:Carl Duckett
2903:
2896:
2877:
2842:
2791:
2782:Mirage 2000N
2766:M45 missiles
2751:
2745:Le Téméraire
2744:
2718:
2702:
2689:double agent
2678:
2676:
2658:
2635:
2631:
2615:In 1957 the
2614:
2610:Anthony Eden
2602:Castle tests
2587:
2549:
2543:
2534:
2524:
2503:
2497:October 2022
2494:
2479:Please help
2467:
2449:Soviet Union
2415:
2412:Castle Bravo
2405:
2367:
2364:World War II
2337:
2330:
2324:
2318:Castle Romeo
2316:
2310:
2293:
2286:
2281:
2266:Enrico Fermi
2263:
2237:
2236:(code-named
2233:
2229:
2228:(code-named
2225:
2215:
2213:
2202:
2194:
2192:
2183:
2163:neutron flux
2155:
2148:
2133:
2129:
1879:
1868:
1863:
1853:
1849:
1785:
1745:
1729:
1689:
1685:
1662:
1659:
1584:neutron bomb
1569:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1456:
1450:October 2022
1447:
1432:Please help
1420:
1387:
1369:
1360:
1348:
1331:Chuck Hansen
1321:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1284:
1260:
1247:acetonitrile
1239:Y-12 Complex
1224:
1213:
1201:
1139:
1128:
1120:
1091:neutron flux
1059:
959:
885:
880:
874:
841:
837:
829:
821:
811:
778:
773:
768:, physicist
765:
752:
746:
728:
702:
693:
682:Please help
677:verification
674:
602:South Africa
597:
581:(undeclared)
567:
533:
359:
351:
323:
298:
275:
270:
266:
208:
131:
127:
123:
119:
117:
100:Plutonium ("
29:
7805:confinement
7551: [
7481:Heliotron J
7385:Stellarator
7253: [
7170: [
7077: [
6917:confinement
6906:experiments
6861:Other forms
6745:Stellarator
6711:Bumpy torus
6589:Confinement
6481:Core topics
5616:10 February
5551:Der Spiegel
5446:Postol, Ted
5295:18 November
5243:6 September
5128:Korea Times
5081:11 December
4857:23 December
4813:20 November
4626:24 December
3659:10 November
3567:20 November
3541:20 November
3428:10 February
3328:10 February
3312:Conan, Neal
3108:born secret
3007:secondaries
2925:North Korea
2725:outer space
2677:A story in
2590:Aldermaston
2124:emit X-rays
1707:fissile pit
1477:Progressive
1209:polystyrene
1083:Castle Koon
966:uranium-238
834:fusion fuel
753:Born secret
743:born secret
591:North Korea
501:Disarmament
343:radioactive
156:uranium-235
132:H bomb
86:polystyrene
81:hollow core
59:Uranium-238
18:Teller-Ulam
8051:Categories
6825:Ion-driven
6579:Processes,
6522:Aneutronic
6517:Commercial
6344:Principles
6155:1164620354
6125:Young, Ken
6097:Stix, Gary
5710:9 February
5660:9 February
5133:8 February
5107:8 February
5044:2005051689
4923:1159416022
4783:18 January
4760:18 January
4692:A. Q. Khan
4649:pib.nic.in
4463:4 November
4263:1164620354
4237:Young, Ken
4130:2001054945
4089:(1): 288.
4066:8 February
3836:8 February
3807:Q105755363
3299:References
3175:Tybee Bomb
3159:See also:
3141:spark plug
3104:injunction
3023:spark plug
2861:Pokhran-II
2829:See also:
2709:Fangataufa
2693:Wen Ho Lee
2660:Mao Zedong
2655:Test No. 6
2539:layer cake
2519:See also:
2384:short tons
2372:short tons
2346:(940
2222:Trident II
2112:III ICBMs.
1795:Pressure (
1771:(530
1394:(140
1376:(7.3
1295:gamma rays
1136:Greenpeace
1074:modulating
1062:interstage
1056:Interstage
1010:spark plug
854:Tsar Bomba
818:detonation
731:classified
612:Kazakhstan
537:recognized
511:Opposition
409:Background
377:Tsar Bomba
278:detonation
102:spark plug
8010:Z machine
7991:Non-laser
7902:GEKKO XII
7854:Long path
7548:Uragan-3M
7543:Uragan-2M
7040:Riggatron
6760:Spheromak
6755:Spherical
6679:S-process
6674:R-process
6617:CNO cycle
6330:470268256
6314:0096-3402
6306:1938-3282
6256:0892-9882
6206:24318509M
6198:310470696
6163:28729278M
6117:0036-8733
6077:868971191
6027:717414304
5981:470165274
5950:250861572
5926:1063-7869
5918:1468-4780
5868:1939-1811
5860:1939-182X
5775:24963545M
5767:610771749
5705:30689359M
5697:733273749
5598:0307-1235
5474:558172005
5173:6 January
5052:892937053
4833:Frontline
4685:10 August
4621:0362-4331
4433:3 October
4410:24318509M
4402:310470696
4342:470165274
4271:28729278M
4193:24963545M
4185:610771749
4053:941444356
4015:26140529M
4007:496957934
3791:456652278
3734:27 August
3719:27 August
3646:865554459
3462:0362-4331
3278:from the
3198:Palomares
3137:secondary
3133:secondary
3094:secondary
3088:from the
3082:secondary
3060:arms race
3003:primaries
2711:atoll in
2468:does not
2422:(63
2386:(73
2380:cryogenic
2374:(18
2358:(44
2234:secondary
2197:, author
1792:Mechanism
1667:gamma ray
1513:lithium-6
1421:does not
1303:secondary
1291:secondary
1220:beryllium
895:deuterium
842:secondary
830:secondary
506:Terrorism
491:Espionage
486:Blackmail
481:Arms race
305:plutonium
255:deuterium
75:plutonium
7954:LULI2000
7820:Americas
7803:Inertial
7393:Americas
6960:Americas
6915:Magnetic
6904:Devices,
6848:Polywell
6807:Inertial
6688:Magnetic
6637:remnants
6502:Timeline
6427:Archived
6389:Archived
6322:48034039
6264:15307789
6131:(2020).
6085:7757230M
6049:(2007).
6035:7720934M
5999:(1995).
5989:1084400M
5942:36334507
5934:93646146
5876:27757627
5818:7671320M
5810:57750742
5759:89040089
5735:(1988).
5654:Archived
5610:Archived
5606:49632006
5569:Fox News
5482:7311029M
5405:4094494M
5389:80006032
5365:(1981).
5193:BBC News
5153:BBC News
5060:3427490M
5020:(2006).
4992:42330721
4984:98003402
4931:1567229M
4915:91052678
4893:(1991).
4679:Archived
4592:15 April
4567:15 April
4539:15 April
4489:18 April
4350:1084400M
4307:13 March
4243:(2020).
4177:89040089
4157:(1988).
4138:7927314M
4061:8969957M
3983:(2010).
3962:13 March
3940:13 March
3915:13 March
3854:Archived
3803:Wikidata
3799:7720934M
3783:95011070
3654:2392513M
3638:87021995
3610:(1988).
3592:13 March
3419:Archived
3236:See also
2873:Shakti-1
2839:Shakti-1
2332:hohlraum
2189:Ivy Mike
2153:design.
1869:Dark Sun
1859:ablation
1805:Ivy Mike
1773:trillion
1741:momentum
1714:hohlraum
1676:ablation
1355:momentum
1338:ablation
1276:designs.
1197:Ivy Mike
1085:shot of
1002:hydrogen
903:neutrons
877:hohlraum
607:Belarus
586:Pakistan
471:Arsenals
442:Delivery
251:isotopes
200:Ivy Mike
154:such as
7839:Cyclops
7771:SPECTOR
7742:Trisops
7602:Sceptre
7455:Oceania
7427:Model C
7313:IGNITOR
7245:COMPASS
7092:Oceania
7074:Novillo
7035:Pegasus
6926:Tokamak
6765:Dynomak
6750:Tokamak
6581:methods
6565:Neutron
6380:History
6286:Bibcode
6236:Bibcode
5898:Bibcode
5725:History
5397:7196781
5211:Reuters
5000:344440M
4654:26 July
3512:17 July
3467:26 July
3276:fallout
3247:NUKEMAP
3224:of the
3090:primary
3078:primary
2863:tests,
2786:Rafales
2707:in the
2489:removed
2474:sources
2440:Polaris
2368:Sausage
2249:History
2226:primary
2203:Sausage
2181:bombs.
1867:' book
1776:pascals
1766:billion
1755:⁄
1615:tritium
1442:removed
1427:sources
1351:photons
1299:primary
1289:to the
1287:primary
1257:Summary
1251:solvent
1231:aerogel
1227:Fogbank
1081:". The
998:isotope
899:tritium
891:boosted
838:primary
826:fission
822:primary
786:physics
725:in 1958
617:Ukraine
459:Workers
454:Effects
437:Testing
427:Warfare
422:History
347:fallout
327:uranium
294:photons
271:H-bombs
259:tritium
79:uranium
71:Tritium
7978:Vulcan
7911:Europe
7685:Astron
7658:Mirror
7495:Europe
7361:MAST-U
7325:ISTTOK
7291:TEXTOR
7219:Europe
7145:ADITYA
7133:SUNIST
7003:DIII-D
6974:STOR-M
6570:Plasma
6328:
6320:
6312:
6304:
6262:
6254:
6204:
6196:
6186:
6161:
6153:
6143:
6115:
6083:
6075:
6065:
6033:
6025:
6015:
5987:
5979:
5969:
5948:
5940:
5932:
5924:
5916:
5874:
5866:
5858:
5816:
5808:
5798:
5773:
5765:
5757:
5747:
5703:
5695:
5685:
5604:
5596:
5480:
5472:
5462:
5403:
5395:
5387:
5377:
5058:
5050:
5042:
5032:
4998:
4990:
4982:
4972:
4929:
4921:
4913:
4903:
4875:Israel
4619:
4408:
4400:
4390:
4348:
4340:
4330:
4269:
4261:
4251:
4214:
4191:
4183:
4175:
4165:
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4128:
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4059:
4051:
4041:
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3995:
3805:
3797:
3789:
3781:
3771:
3691:
3652:
3644:
3636:
3626:
3460:
3204:-type
3052:censor
2954:NORSAR
2887:Israel
2747:(S617)
2699:France
2625:bomb,
2563:RDS-37
2550:Sloika
2546:RDS-6s
2535:Sloika
2416:Shrimp
2230:Komodo
2150:Sloika
2120:mirror
1506:plasma
1499:X-rays
1390:
1372:
1066:plasma
962:tamper
598:Former
579:
577:Israel
568:Others
556:France
546:Russia
516:Winter
464:Ethics
432:Design
316:. The
301:tamper
286:X-rays
282:kelvin
109:X-rays
65:Vacuum
55:lenses
8005:PACER
7966:ISKRA
7925:HiPER
7879:Shiva
7874:OMEGA
7844:Janus
7834:Argus
7813:Laser
7783:Linus
7711:Other
7571:Pinch
7555:]
7531:TJ-II
7469:H-1NF
7453:Asia,
7444:SCR-1
7417:HIDRA
7366:START
7257:]
7250:GOLEM
7198:KSTAR
7186:GLAST
7174:]
7167:QUEST
7162:JT-60
7150:SST-1
7128:HL-2M
7123:HL-2A
7106:CFETR
7090:Asia,
7081:]
7062:TCABR
6996:SPARC
6951:PROTO
6873:Migma
6843:Fusor
6733:Theta
6718:Pinch
6622:Fusor
6302:eISSN
5946:S2CID
5914:eISSN
5872:JSTOR
5856:eISSN
5677:[
4878:, FAS
4302:(JPG)
3685:(PDF)
3620:Crown
3422:(PDF)
3415:(pdf)
3377:arXiv
3352:arXiv
3258:Notes
3181:near
2958:CTBTO
2825:India
2798:TN 81
2794:TN 80
2778:TN 75
2649:China
2378:) of
2282:Super
2238:Cursa
1844:6400
1671:X-ray
1249:as a
1195:. In
1189:emits
1184:X-ray
988:) or
858:yield
572:India
561:China
447:Yield
176:) or
7888:Asia
7869:Nova
7864:Nike
7849:LIFE
7730:PFRC
7695:MFTF
7607:ZETA
7509:WEGA
7432:NCSX
7371:STEP
7337:T-15
7274:WEST
7210:TT-1
7116:HT-7
7111:EAST
7045:SSPX
7028:TFTR
7018:NSTX
6946:DEMO
6941:ITER
6738:Zeta
6632:Nova
6592:type
6326:OCLC
6318:LCCN
6310:ISSN
6260:OCLC
6252:ISSN
6194:OCLC
6184:ISBN
6151:OCLC
6141:ISBN
6113:ISSN
6073:OCLC
6063:ISBN
6023:OCLC
6013:ISBN
5977:OCLC
5967:ISBN
5938:OCLC
5930:LCCN
5922:ISSN
5864:ISSN
5806:OCLC
5796:ISBN
5763:OCLC
5755:LCCN
5745:ISBN
5712:2020
5693:OCLC
5683:ISBN
5662:2021
5618:2021
5602:OCLC
5594:ISSN
5470:OCLC
5460:ISBN
5393:OCLC
5385:LCCN
5375:ISBN
5297:2017
5271:2017
5245:2017
5219:2023
5175:2016
5135:2013
5109:2013
5083:2012
5048:OCLC
5040:LCCN
5030:ISBN
4988:OCLC
4980:LCCN
4970:ISBN
4919:OCLC
4911:LCCN
4901:ISBN
4859:2012
4815:2015
4785:2013
4762:2013
4687:2011
4656:2019
4628:2019
4617:ISSN
4594:2017
4569:2017
4541:2017
4491:2011
4465:2011
4435:2016
4398:OCLC
4388:ISBN
4338:OCLC
4328:ISBN
4309:2006
4259:OCLC
4249:ISBN
4212:ISBN
4181:OCLC
4173:LCCN
4163:ISBN
4126:LCCN
4116:ISBN
4068:2021
4049:OCLC
4039:ISBN
4003:OCLC
3993:ISBN
3964:2006
3942:2006
3917:2006
3838:2021
3787:OCLC
3779:LCCN
3769:ISBN
3736:2010
3721:2010
3689:ISBN
3661:2021
3642:OCLC
3634:LCCN
3624:ISBN
3594:2006
3569:2015
3543:2015
3514:2011
3469:2019
3458:ISSN
3430:2021
3330:2021
3202:Mk28
3169:, a
3167:B-47
3080:and
3005:and
2962:USGS
2756:and
2703:The
2529:and
2472:any
2470:cite
2430:and
2321:shot
2287:The
1833:750
1822:140
1769:bars
1762:W-80
1669:and
1580:lead
1524:flux
1473:Foam
1425:any
1423:cite
990:lead
888:core
367:and
257:and
88:foam
7949:LMJ
7859:NIF
7725:LDX
7700:TMX
7673:GDT
7644:MST
7632:RFX
7617:RFP
7486:LHD
7422:HSX
7412:CTH
7407:CNT
7349:TCV
7308:FTU
7303:DTT
7269:TFR
7233:JET
7057:ETE
7023:PLT
7013:LTX
6991:ARC
6294:doi
6244:doi
5906:doi
5848:doi
5515:NPR
4091:doi
2999:W80
2911:CIA
2774:M51
2695:.)
2683:by
2580:on
2483:by
2436:W47
2210:W88
2106:W87
1841:530
1819:7.3
1810:W80
1797:TPa
1528:MeV
1436:by
1396:TPa
1392:bar
1378:TPa
1374:bar
1307:how
1241:at
1235:W76
1132:W80
1032:or
1000:of
925:or
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751:).
686:by
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