33:
244:
412:
398:
215:
380:
1542:
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with one measurement of 63 GPa, still well below one theoretical value of 300 GPa. The first nanotube ropes (20 mm in length) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a strength of 3.6 GPa. The
1553:
The strength of spider silk is highly variable. It depends on many factors including kind of silk (Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.), species, age of silk, temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied during testing, length stress is applied, and way the silk is
161:; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, depending on the material, it may be dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material.
352:
is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress–strain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the ultimate tensile strength, given by point 1.
348:, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress–strain curve (curve A, figure 2); this is because the
1554:
gathered (forced silking or natural spinning). The value shown in the table, 1,000 MPa, is roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving several different species of spider however specific results varied greatly.
441:
correlates linearly with tensile strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held
341:. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely return to its original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.
325:, as shown in figure 1 up to point 3. The elastic behavior of materials often extends into a non-linear region, represented in figure 1 by point 2 (the "yield strength"), up to which
2712:
36:
Two vises apply tension to a specimen by pulling at it, stretching the specimen until it fractures. The maximum stress it withstands before fracturing is its ultimate tensile strength.
2658:
2672:
2567:
2149:
206:(lb/in or psi). Kilopounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi) is equal to 1000 psi, and is commonly used in the United States, when measuring tensile strengths.
85:
1890:
2067:
2175:
2017:
1991:
1965:
1939:
3020:
Yu, Min-Feng; Lourie, O; Dyer, MJ; Moloni, K; Kelly, TF; Ruoff, RS (2000). "Strength and
Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load".
2338:
344:
After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to
3170:"Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus"
179:
per unit area. For some non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the
2074:
364:. It is, however, used for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples.
2704:
1921:
2200:
168:, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and possibly
123:
is the ultimate tensile strength and has units of stress. The equivalent point for the case of compression, instead of tension, is called the
1162:
2610:
1865:
367:
The ultimate tensile strength is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle material because such materials have no
2926:
Xu, Wei; Chen, Yun; Zhan, Hang; Nong Wang, Jian (2016). "High-Strength Carbon
Nanotube Film from Improving Alignment and Densification".
3142:
3124:
2230:
2509:
2278:
2256:
2822:
3205:
2679:
2640:
1146:
2563:
2145:
2654:
2975:
2549:
2304:
1894:
2039:
2831:
3286:
2105:
2171:
2065:
2013:
1987:
1961:
1935:
158:
112:
2726:
Dang, Chaoqun; et al. (1 January 2021). "Achieving large uniform tensile elasticity in microfabricated diamond".
430:
Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional area, and then pulling it with a
17:
2354:"Quantitative detection of chemical compounds in human hair with coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy"
2330:
649:
2252:
3365:
333:
will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this elastic region, for
180:
165:
2403:"Bioprospecting Finds the Toughest Biological Material: Extraordinary Silk from a Giant Riverine Orb Spider"
434:
at a constant strain (change in gauge length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks.
2913:
199:
3360:
2204:
137:
members, but they are important with brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as
666:
451:
326:
3118:"From Highly Efficient Impurity-Free CNT Synthesis to DWNT forests, CNTsolids and Super-Capacitors"
3077:"Tensile strength of single-walled carbon nanotubes directly measured from their macroscopic ropes"
63:
1503:
1090:
519:
322:
248:
120:
2614:
1857:
1575:
1380:
329:
are completely recoverable upon removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in
203:
2778:
3146:
1813:
345:
278:
169:
2226:
3301:
3088:
3029:
2935:
2868:
2790:
2735:
2516:
2414:
2282:
1543:
density depends on the manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid).
830:
438:
124:
116:
2352:
Zimmerley, M.; Lin, C. Y.; Oertel, D. C.; Marsh, J. M.; Ward, J. L.; Potma, E. O. (2009).
8:
3169:
3117:
3072:
2636:
338:
330:
318:
264:
3305:
3092:
3033:
2939:
2872:
2794:
2739:
2418:
3325:
3197:
3053:
2997:
2970:
2891:
2856:
2814:
2759:
2486:
2461:
2437:
2402:
2378:
2353:
2095:), which is a more appropriate measure for brittle materials than "ultimate strength."
1838:
142:
89:
2589:
32:
3317:
3189:
3045:
3002:
2951:
2896:
2818:
2806:
2763:
2751:
2491:
2442:
2383:
2088:
1833:
1818:
1808:
447:
443:
130:
3329:
3287:"Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load"
3057:
2779:"Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene"
3309:
3267:
3201:
3181:
3096:
3037:
2992:
2984:
2943:
2886:
2876:
2798:
2743:
2541:
2481:
2473:
2432:
2422:
2373:
2365:
2308:
2119:
272:
252:
814:
798:
92:
that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In
3313:
3250:
Köhler T, Vollrath F (1995). "Thread biomechanics in the two orb-weaving spiders
3041:
2947:
2427:
2201:"Guide to Glass Reinforced Plastic (fibreglass) – East Coast Fibreglass Supplies"
2071:
2043:
1495:
1448:
1431:
1194:
782:
765:
425:
93:
2839:
3333:
2881:
2477:
1272:
1007:
537:
225:
1916:
3354:
1532:
Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity or composition.
1506:
945:
927:
683:
632:
214:
195:
188:
184:
2802:
2747:
587:
water quenched 855 °C (1,570 °F), 480 °C (900 °F) temper
3321:
3271:
3193:
3049:
3006:
2988:
2955:
2900:
2810:
2755:
2495:
2446:
2387:
1917:
Correlation of Yield
Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels
1057:
961:
361:
108:
2460:
Oral, E; Christensen, SD; Malhi, AS; Wannomae, KK; Muratoglu, OK (2006).
1073:
861:
731:
368:
97:
243:
2705:"What is the density of Hydrogenated Boron Nitride Nanotubes (H-BNNT)?"
2510:"Tensile and creep properties of ultra high molecular weight PE fibres"
1041:
616:
431:
411:
397:
3185:
3101:
3076:
2369:
218:
Figure 1: "Engineering" stress–strain (σ–ε) curve typical of aluminum
1823:
748:
713:
489:
134:
101:
3285:
Min-Feng Y, Lourie O, Dyer MJ, Moloni K, Kelly TF, Ruoff RS (2000).
2253:"Soda-Lime (Float) Glass Material Properties :: MakeItFrom.com"
450:
in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and
417:
Some parts showing the "cup" shape and some showing the "cone" shape
1684:
1654:
1624:
1500:
1412:
1351:
1104:
894:
2916:
Z. Wang, P. Ciselli and T. Peijs, Nanotechnology 18, 455709, 2007.
379:
1828:
1609:
1318:
1178:
357:
334:
146:
1564:
Human hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments.
187:(Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the
3143:"Finding Inspiration in Argiope Trifasciata Spider Silk Fibers"
1732:
1336:
1129:
1125:
1121:
977:
554:
403:
The "cup" side of the "cup–cone" characteristic failure pattern
356:
Ultimate tensile strength is not used in the design of ductile
107:
The ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a
175:
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as
27:
Maximum stress withstood by stretched material before breaking
1302:
910:
878:
176:
138:
2459:
1716:
1229:
1212:
2655:"Uhu endfest 300 epoxy: Strength over setting temperature"
2400:
1568:
1700:
133:
strengths are rarely of any consequence in the design of
96:
materials, the ultimate tensile strength is close to the
3284:
571:
Steel, Sandvik
Sanicro 36Mo logging cable precision wire
360:
members because design practices dictate the use of the
104:
materials, the ultimate tensile strength can be higher.
2857:"Elastic straining of free-standing monolayer graphene"
2351:
799:
Polyester and chopped strand mat laminate 30% E-glass
66:
3244:
2564:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2172:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2146:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2106:"MatWeb - the Online Materials Information Resource"
2014:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1988:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1962:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
1936:"MatWeb – The Online Materials Information Resource"
2925:
3019:
157:The ultimate tensile strength of a material is an
79:
2401:Agnarsson, I; Kuntner, M; Blackledge, TA (2010).
3352:
1922:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
247:Figure 2: "Engineering" (red) and "true" (blue)
2838:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from
383:Round bar specimen after tensile stress testing
3249:
2968:
390:Aluminium tensile test samples after breakage
3180:(10). The Company of Biologists: 1937–1949.
3070:
2969:Barber, A. H.; Lu, D.; Pugno, N. M. (2015).
463:Typical tensile strengths of some materials
457:
3226:A.M. Howatson, P. G. Lund, and J. D. Todd,
2971:"Extreme strength observed in limpet teeth"
2829:
1858:"Generic MMPDS Mechanical Properties Table"
337:materials, such as steel, deformations are
164:Some materials break very sharply, without
3246:(2000). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
3167:
2195:
2193:
2120:"Stainless Steel - Grade 302 (UNS S30200)"
446:testers. This practical correlation helps
3100:
2996:
2890:
2880:
2613:. University of Tennessee. Archived from
2485:
2436:
2426:
2377:
2219:
378:
242:
213:
31:
3071:Li, F.; Cheng, H. M.; Bai, S.; Su, G.;
2776:
2341:from the original on 28 September 2017.
2190:
1569:Typical properties of annealed elements
14:
3353:
2976:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
2848:
2825:from the original on 19 February 2009.
1419:
2570:from the original on 21 February 2015
2233:from the original on 24 February 2015
2178:from the original on 21 February 2015
2152:from the original on 21 February 2015
2087:strictly speaking this figure is the
1994:from the original on 21 February 2015
1968:from the original on 21 February 2015
1942:from the original on 15 December 2013
1885:
1883:
1513:
480:
475:
470:
3208:from the original on 1 February 2009
2725:
1868:from the original on 1 December 2017
209:
2854:
2770:
2715:from the original on 13 April 2017.
24:
3236:
3140:
3130:from the original on 12 June 2010.
3115:
2661:from the original on 19 July 2011.
2227:"Properties of Carbon Fiber Tubes"
2020:from the original on 28 March 2017
1880:
1479:High-strength carbon nanotube film
864:10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, balance Cu
317:Many materials can display linear
25:
3377:
1915:E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, "
1027:(the strongest human-made fibres)
3168:Blackledge; et al. (2005).
2643:from the original on 3 May 2015.
2552:from the original on 3 May 2007.
2259:from the original on 3 July 2011
1487:
1481:
1473:
1467:
1453:
1416:
1384:
1323:
1306:
1290:
1282:
1276:
1011:
995:
981:
965:
949:
931:
615:Steel, high strength alloy ASTM
410:
396:
194:); or, equivalently to pascals,
3260:Journal of Experimental Zoology
3220:
3174:Journal of Experimental Biology
3161:
3134:
3109:
3064:
3013:
2962:
2919:
2907:
2719:
2697:
2665:
2647:
2629:
2603:
2582:
2556:
2534:
2502:
2453:
2394:
2345:
2323:
2297:
2271:
2245:
2164:
2138:
2112:
2098:
2081:
650:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
2077:Typical Properties of Acrylics
2058:
2032:
2006:
1980:
1954:
1928:
1909:
1850:
1557:
1546:
1535:
1525:
783:Polyester resin (unreinforced)
236:Offset strain (typically 0.2%)
13:
1:
2777:Lee, C.; et al. (2008).
1844:
181:International System of Units
152:
80:{\displaystyle F_{\text{tu}}}
3314:10.1126/science.287.5453.637
3042:10.1126/science.287.5453.637
2948:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03863
2832:"World's Strongest Material"
2830:Phil Schewe (28 July 2008).
2542:"Mechanical Properties Data"
2428:10.1371/journal.pone.0011234
2358:Journal of Biomedical Optics
265:Yield strength (yield point)
200:United States customary unit
88:in notation) is the maximum
7:
3228:Engineering Tables and Data
2836:Inside Science News Service
2590:"Material Properties Chart"
2305:"Toray Properties Document"
1802:
1025:Carbon fiber (Toray T1100G)
119:. The highest point of the
10:
3382:
2882:10.1038/s41467-019-14130-0
2478:10.1016/j.arth.2005.07.009
2279:"Basalt Continuous Fibers"
1559:
1548:
1537:
1527:
1465:Carbon nanotube composites
452:universal testing machines
437:When testing some metals,
423:
374:
323:stress–strain relationship
198:per square metre (N/m). A
3254:(Araneae, Araneidae) and
2462:"PubMed Central, Table 3"
1422:engineering 50,000–60,000
1339:glass fiber-optic strands
699:Steel, stainless AISI 302
667:High-density polyethylene
635:, clear cast sheet (PMMA)
476:Ultimate tensile strength
458:Typical tensile strengths
230:Proportional limit stress
41:Ultimate tensile strength
3258:(Araneae, Uloboridae)".
1404:~80–90 GPa at microscale
1321:, monocrystalline (m-Si)
3347:(1988). McGraw-Hill, UK
3081:Applied Physics Letters
2803:10.1126/science.1157996
2748:10.1126/science.abc4174
2709:space.stackexchange.com
1574:Typical properties for
815:S-Glass epoxy composite
520:Chromium-vanadium steel
488:Steel, structural ASTM
3272:10.1002/jez.1402710102
3256:Uloboris walckenaerius
2989:10.1098/rsif.2014.1326
2331:"Tensile Testing Hair"
1925:, 17:6 (December 2008)
1381:Boron nitride nanotube
1246:Nylon, molded, 6PLA/6M
1017:4,137 for fibers alone
937:3,450 for fibers alone
384:
321:, defined by a linear
314:
240:
204:pounds per square inch
183:(SI), the unit is the
149:, plastics, and wood.
81:
37:
3345:Mechanical Metallurgy
3145:. JOM. Archived from
2861:Nature Communications
2070:23 March 2014 at the
1814:Strength of materials
935:1,500 for laminates,
382:
246:
217:
82:
35:
3366:Elasticity (physics)
3141:Elices; et al.
2842:on 25 February 2009.
2311:on 17 September 2018
1891:"Tensile Properties"
1369:345 at 1,000 °C
1165:(Dyneema or Spectra)
1091:Darwin's bark spider
1015:1,600 for laminates,
439:indentation hardness
125:compressive strength
64:
3306:2000Sci...287..637Y
3280:Life without metals
3242:Giancoli, Douglas,
3093:2000ApPhL..77.3161L
3034:2000Sci...287..637Y
2940:2016NanoL..16..946X
2873:2020NatCo..11..284C
2795:2008Sci...321..385L
2740:2021Sci...371...76D
2637:"Comparing aramids"
2419:2010PLoSO...511234A
2207:on 16 February 2015
1897:on 16 February 2014
1864:. 6 December 2014.
1579:
1367:275 at 500 °C,
1215:(parallel to grain)
464:
249:stress–strain curve
166:plastic deformation
143:composite materials
121:stress–strain curve
3343:George E. Dieter,
3252:Araneus diadematus
3149:on 15 January 2009
3073:Dresselhaus, M. S.
2285:on 3 November 2009
2126:. 25 February 2013
2093:modulus of rupture
1573:
1420:intrinsic 130,000;
1365:400 at 25 °C,
1259:Nylon fiber, drawn
462:
385:
350:engineering stress
315:
241:
159:intensive property
113:engineering stress
111:and recording the
77:
38:
3361:Materials science
3300:(5453): 637–640.
3186:10.1242/jeb.01597
3102:10.1063/1.1324984
3028:(5453): 637–640.
2639:. Teijin Aramid.
2370:10.1117/1.3184444
2089:flexural strength
1834:Tension (physics)
1819:Tensile structure
1809:Flexural strength
1800:
1799:
1522:
1521:
1033:7,000 fibre alone
716:4.5% C, ASTM A-48
601:Steel, API 5L X65
585:Steel, AISI 4130,
448:quality assurance
444:Rockwell hardness
288:Apparent stress (
260:Ultimate strength
222:Ultimate strength
210:Ductile materials
172:before fracture.
74:
57:ultimate strength
16:(Redirected from
3373:
3340:
3339:on 4 March 2011.
3338:
3332:. Archived from
3291:
3275:
3231:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3122:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3000:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2894:
2884:
2855:Cao, K. (2020).
2852:
2846:
2843:
2826:
2774:
2768:
2767:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2684:
2678:. Archived from
2677:
2669:
2663:
2662:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2617:on 19 April 2015
2607:
2601:
2600:
2594:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2521:
2515:. Archived from
2514:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2489:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2440:
2430:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2381:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2307:. Archived from
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2281:. Archived from
2275:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2203:. Archived from
2197:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2142:
2136:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2085:
2079:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2042:. Archived from
2040:"USStubular.com"
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2010:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1932:
1926:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1893:. Archived from
1887:
1878:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1854:
1580:
1572:
1563:
1552:
1541:
1531:
1451:(see note below)
1076:(see note below)
465:
461:
414:
400:
319:elastic behavior
273:Strain hardening
253:structural steel
86:
84:
83:
78:
76:
75:
72:
49:tensile strength
21:
18:Tensile strength
3381:
3380:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3370:
3351:
3350:
3336:
3289:
3239:
3237:Further reading
3234:
3225:
3221:
3211:
3209:
3166:
3162:
3152:
3150:
3139:
3135:
3127:
3120:
3114:
3110:
3069:
3065:
3018:
3014:
2967:
2963:
2924:
2920:
2912:
2908:
2853:
2849:
2789:(5887): 385–8.
2775:
2771:
2734:(6524): 76–78.
2724:
2720:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2685:on 25 July 2011
2682:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2635:
2634:
2630:
2620:
2618:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2597:Advanced Nylons
2592:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2562:
2561:
2557:
2546:www.mse.mtu.edu
2540:
2539:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2522:on 28 June 2007
2519:
2512:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2458:
2454:
2399:
2395:
2350:
2346:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2314:
2312:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2288:
2286:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2262:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2225:
2224:
2220:
2210:
2208:
2199:
2198:
2191:
2181:
2179:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2155:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2129:
2127:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2086:
2082:
2072:Wayback Machine
2063:
2059:
2049:
2047:
2046:on 13 July 2009
2038:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2021:
2012:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1969:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1914:
1910:
1900:
1898:
1889:
1888:
1881:
1871:
1869:
1862:stressebook.com
1856:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1839:Young's modulus
1805:
1603:
1601:
1596:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1571:
1515:
1496:Patella vulgata
1449:Carbon nanotube
1432:carbon nanotube
1421:
1403:
1368:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1195:Polybenzoxazole
1026:
1016:
936:
847:Copper 99.9% Cu
831:Aluminium alloy
766:Aluminium alloy
586:
482:
477:
472:
460:
428:
426:Tensile testing
422:
421:
420:
419:
418:
415:
406:
405:
404:
401:
392:
391:
377:
313:
302:Actual stress (
298:
284:
239:
212:
155:
71:
67:
65:
62:
61:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3379:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3349:
3348:
3341:
3282:
3276:
3247:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3219:
3160:
3133:
3108:
3063:
3012:
2961:
2934:(2): 946–952.
2918:
2906:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2769:
2718:
2696:
2664:
2646:
2628:
2611:"Nylon Fibers"
2602:
2581:
2555:
2533:
2501:
2466:J Arthroplasty
2452:
2393:
2344:
2322:
2296:
2270:
2244:
2218:
2189:
2163:
2137:
2111:
2097:
2080:
2057:
2031:
2005:
1979:
1953:
1927:
1908:
1879:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1598:
1591:
1584:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1555:
1544:
1533:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1490:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1445:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1427:
1426:
1423:
1418:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1332:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1273:Epoxy adhesive
1269:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1118:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1101:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1010:
1004:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
990:
989:
986:
983:
980:
974:
973:
970:
967:
964:
958:
957:
954:
951:
948:
942:
941:
938:
933:
930:
924:
923:
920:
917:
914:
907:
906:
903:
900:
897:
891:
890:
887:
884:
881:
875:
874:
871:
868:
865:
858:
857:
854:
851:
848:
844:
843:
840:
837:
834:
827:
826:
823:
820:
817:
811:
810:
807:
804:
801:
795:
794:
791:
788:
785:
779:
778:
775:
772:
769:
762:
761:
758:
755:
752:
745:
744:
741:
738:
735:
727:
726:
723:
720:
717:
710:
709:
706:
703:
700:
696:
695:
692:
689:
686:
680:
679:
676:
673:
670:
663:
662:
659:
656:
653:
646:
645:
642:
639:
636:
629:
628:
625:
622:
619:
612:
611:
608:
605:
602:
598:
597:
594:
591:
588:
582:
581:
578:
575:
572:
568:
567:
564:
561:
558:
550:
549:
546:
543:
540:
538:Maraging steel
533:
532:
529:
526:
523:
516:
515:
512:
509:
506:
502:
501:
498:
495:
492:
485:
484:
479:
474:
471:Yield strength
469:
459:
456:
424:Main article:
416:
409:
408:
407:
402:
395:
394:
393:
389:
388:
387:
386:
376:
373:
312:
311:
300:
296:
285:
283:
282:
276:
270:
267:
262:
256:
238:
237:
234:
231:
228:
226:Yield strength
223:
219:
211:
208:
154:
151:
70:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3378:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3346:
3342:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3288:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3240:
3229:
3223:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3067:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3008:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2972:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2915:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2773:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2700:
2681:
2674:
2668:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2632:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2598:
2591:
2585:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2537:
2518:
2511:
2505:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2472:(4): 580–91.
2471:
2467:
2463:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2413:(9): e11234.
2412:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2364:(4): 044019.
2363:
2359:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2206:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2107:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2061:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2019:
2015:
2009:
1993:
1989:
1983:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1912:
1896:
1892:
1886:
1884:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1849:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1599:
1592:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1562:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1511:
1508:
1507:nanocomposite
1505:
1502:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1457:11,000–63,000
1456:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1364:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1279:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1163:UHMWPE fibers
1161:
1160:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:Spider silk,
1088:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1001:
998:
992:
991:
987:
984:
979:
976:
975:
971:
968:
963:
960:
959:
955:
952:
947:
944:
943:
939:
934:
929:
926:
925:
921:
918:
915:
912:
909:
908:
904:
901:
898:
896:
893:
892:
888:
885:
882:
880:
877:
876:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
859:
855:
852:
849:
846:
845:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
828:
824:
821:
818:
816:
813:
812:
808:
805:
802:
800:
797:
796:
792:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
763:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
746:
742:
739:
736:
733:
729:
728:
724:
721:
718:
715:
712:
711:
707:
704:
701:
698:
697:
693:
690:
687:
685:
684:Polypropylene
682:
681:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
664:
660:
657:
654:
651:
648:
647:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
630:
626:
623:
620:
618:
614:
613:
609:
606:
603:
600:
599:
595:
592:
589:
584:
583:
579:
576:
573:
570:
569:
565:
562:
559:
556:
552:
551:
547:
544:
541:
539:
535:
534:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
517:
513:
510:
507:
504:
503:
499:
496:
493:
491:
487:
486:
467:
466:
455:
453:
449:
445:
440:
435:
433:
427:
413:
399:
381:
372:
370:
365:
363:
359:
354:
351:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
309:
305:
301:
295:
291:
287:
286:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
257:
254:
250:
245:
235:
232:
229:
227:
224:
221:
220:
216:
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
190:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
162:
160:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
105:
103:
100:, whereas in
99:
95:
91:
87:
68:
58:
54:
50:
46:
43:(also called
42:
34:
30:
19:
3344:
3334:the original
3297:
3293:
3279:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3243:
3227:
3222:
3210:. Retrieved
3177:
3173:
3163:
3151:. Retrieved
3147:the original
3136:
3111:
3087:(20): 3161.
3084:
3080:
3066:
3025:
3021:
3015:
2983:(105): 105.
2980:
2974:
2964:
2931:
2928:Nano Letters
2927:
2921:
2909:
2867:(284): 284.
2864:
2860:
2850:
2840:the original
2835:
2786:
2782:
2772:
2731:
2727:
2721:
2708:
2699:
2687:. Retrieved
2680:the original
2667:
2649:
2631:
2619:. Retrieved
2615:the original
2605:
2596:
2584:
2572:. Retrieved
2558:
2545:
2536:
2524:. Retrieved
2517:the original
2504:
2469:
2465:
2455:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2361:
2357:
2347:
2334:
2325:
2315:17 September
2313:. Retrieved
2309:the original
2299:
2287:. Retrieved
2283:the original
2273:
2261:. Retrieved
2247:
2235:. Retrieved
2221:
2209:. Retrieved
2205:the original
2180:. Retrieved
2166:
2154:. Retrieved
2140:
2128:. Retrieved
2123:
2114:
2100:
2092:
2083:
2064:
2060:
2048:. Retrieved
2044:the original
2034:
2022:. Retrieved
2008:
1996:. Retrieved
1982:
1970:. Retrieved
1956:
1944:. Retrieved
1930:
1920:
1911:
1899:. Retrieved
1895:the original
1870:. Retrieved
1861:
1852:
1619:5,000–9,000
1558:
1547:
1536:
1526:
1516:3,000–6,500
1494:
1058:Bamboo fiber
1008:Carbon fiber
962:Basalt fiber
536:Steel, 2800
436:
429:
366:
362:yield stress
355:
349:
343:
327:deformations
316:
307:
303:
293:
289:
259:
191:
174:
163:
156:
129:
109:tensile test
106:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
39:
29:
3278:T Follett,
2689:1 September
2574:20 February
2289:29 December
2263:20 February
2237:20 February
2211:20 February
2182:20 February
2156:20 February
2024:20 February
1998:20 February
1972:20 February
1946:20 February
1901:20 February
1460:0.037–1.34
1335:Ultra-pure
1186:2,850–3,340
1170:2,300–3,500
1074:Spider silk
862:Cupronickel
732:Liquidmetal
505:Steel, 1090
369:yield point
251:typical of
98:yield point
3355:Categories
3212:23 January
3153:23 January
2673:"Fols.org"
2335:instron.us
2130:2 February
1845:References
1042:Human hair
913:, annealed
432:tensometer
153:Definition
2819:206512830
2764:229935085
1824:Toughness
1774:Aluminium
1578:elements
749:Beryllium
740:550–1,600
714:Cast iron
661:0.9–1.53
522:AISI 6150
490:A36 steel
468:Material
189:SI prefix
3330:10758240
3322:10649994
3266:: 1–17.
3206:Archived
3194:15879074
3125:Archived
3116:K.Hata.
3075:(2000).
3058:10758240
3050:10649994
3007:25694539
2956:26757031
2901:31941941
2823:Archived
2811:18635798
2756:33384375
2713:Archived
2659:Archived
2641:Archived
2621:25 April
2568:Archived
2550:Archived
2496:16781413
2447:20856804
2407:PLOS ONE
2388:19725730
2339:Archived
2257:Archived
2231:Archived
2176:Archived
2150:Archived
2124:AZoM.com
2068:Archived
2018:Archived
1992:Archived
1966:Archived
1940:Archived
1872:27 April
1866:Archived
1803:See also
1743:140–195
1727:200–400
1685:Tantalum
1665:246–370
1655:Titanium
1635:550–620
1625:Tungsten
1602:strength
1600:Ultimate
1595:strength
1583:Element
1576:annealed
1501:goethite
1413:Graphene
1375:3.9–4.1
1352:Sapphire
1105:Silkworm
1068:0.4–0.8
993:Concrete
895:Tungsten
751:99.9% Be
233:Fracture
147:ceramics
3302:Bibcode
3294:Science
3230:, p. 41
3202:9678391
3089:Bibcode
3030:Bibcode
3022:Science
2998:4387522
2936:Bibcode
2914:IOP.org
2892:6962388
2869:Bibcode
2791:Bibcode
2783:Science
2736:Bibcode
2728:Science
2487:2716092
2438:2939878
2415:Bibcode
2379:2872558
2050:27 June
1829:Failure
1740:140–350
1724:200–400
1711:15–200
1662:100–225
1610:Silicon
1588:modulus
1586:Young's
1504:whisker
1499:teeth (
1493:Limpet
1396:Diamond
1319:Silicon
1297:
1235:104–121
1224:
1197:(Zylon)
1179:Vectran
1065:350–500
1049:200–250
1046:140–160
946:S-Glass
928:E-Glass
833:6061-T6
825:
809:
793:
768:2014-T6
734:" alloy
691:19.7–80
633:Acrylic
553:Steel,
497:400–550
483:(g/cm)
481:Density
375:Testing
339:plastic
335:ductile
331:tension
279:Necking
269:Rupture
196:newtons
170:necking
135:ductile
131:Tensile
115:versus
102:ductile
94:brittle
3328:
3320:
3200:
3192:
3056:
3048:
3005:
2995:
2954:
2899:
2889:
2817:
2809:
2762:
2754:
2526:11 May
2494:
2484:
2445:
2435:
2386:
2376:
1783:40–50
1748:Silver
1733:Nickel
1721:85–105
1670:Copper
1646:80–100
1604:(MPa)
1597:(MPa)
1593:Yield
1590:(GPa)
1430:First
1388:33,000
1337:silica
1288:Rubber
1232:(limb)
1218:
1211:Wood,
1183:
1147:UHMWPE
1130:Twaron
1126:Kevlar
1122:Aramid
1113:
1062:
1030:
978:Marble
916:
905:19.25
669:(HDPE)
555:AerMet
478:(MPa)
473:(MPa)
358:static
281:region
275:region
185:pascal
139:alloys
117:strain
90:stress
3337:(PDF)
3326:S2CID
3290:(PDF)
3198:S2CID
3128:(PDF)
3121:(PDF)
3054:S2CID
2815:S2CID
2760:S2CID
2683:(PDF)
2676:(PDF)
2593:(PDF)
2520:(PDF)
2513:(PDF)
1780:15–20
1514:4,900
1485:9,600
1471:1,200
1440:3,600
1434:ropes
1402:2,800
1399:1,600
1391:2.62
1372:1,900
1344:4,100
1330:2.33
1327:7,000
1313:2.46
1310:3,100
1303:Boron
1280:12–30
1267:1.13
1254:1.15
1251:75-85
1206:1.56
1203:5,800
1200:2,700
1173:0.97
1157:0.97
1141:1.44
1138:3,757
1135:3,620
1095:1,652
1081:1,000
1052:1.32
1036:1.79
1020:1.75
969:4,840
956:2.48
953:4,710
940:2.57
922:2.53
911:Glass
902:1,510
889:8.73
883:200 +
879:Brass
873:8.94
856:8.92
822:2,358
819:2,358
760:1.84
737:1,723
708:7.86
694:0.91
688:12–43
678:0.85
672:26–33
652:(ABS)
644:1.16
596:7.85
593:1,110
580:8.00
577:2,070
574:1,758
566:7.86
563:2,430
560:2,160
548:8.00
545:2,693
542:2,617
514:7.58
255:.
177:force
3318:PMID
3214:2009
3190:PMID
3155:2009
3046:PMID
3003:PMID
2952:PMID
2897:PMID
2807:PMID
2752:PMID
2691:2010
2623:2015
2576:2015
2528:2007
2492:PMID
2443:PMID
2384:PMID
2317:2018
2291:2009
2265:2015
2239:2015
2213:2015
2184:2015
2158:2015
2132:2023
2091:(or
2075:IAPD
2052:2009
2026:2015
2000:2015
1974:2015
1948:2015
1903:2015
1874:2018
1788:Lead
1769:100
1761:Gold
1756:170
1717:Zinc
1708:9–14
1695:200
1679:210
1649:350
1640:Iron
1443:1.3
1425:1.0
1407:3.5
1241:1.6
1230:Bone
1213:pine
1189:1.4
1116:1.3
1107:silk
1084:1.3
1002:2.7
988:2.6
972:2.7
842:2.7
777:2.8
743:6.1
725:7.3
627:7.8
617:A514
610:7.8
531:7.8
500:7.8
346:neck
192:mega
3310:doi
3298:287
3268:doi
3264:271
3182:doi
3178:208
3097:doi
3038:doi
3026:287
2993:PMC
2985:doi
2944:doi
2887:PMC
2877:doi
2799:doi
2787:321
2744:doi
2732:371
2482:PMC
2474:doi
2433:PMC
2423:doi
2374:PMC
2366:doi
1919:",
1796:12
1737:170
1701:Tin
1692:180
1689:186
1676:117
1673:130
1659:120
1643:211
1632:550
1629:411
1614:107
1354:(Al
1264:900
1238:130
1128:or
1110:500
999:2–5
899:941
886:500
870:350
867:130
853:220
839:300
836:241
806:100
803:100
774:483
771:414
757:448
754:345
722:200
719:130
705:620
702:275
624:760
621:690
607:531
604:448
590:951
557:340
528:940
525:620
511:841
508:247
494:250
202:is
59:or
45:UTS
3357::
3324:.
3316:.
3308:.
3296:.
3292:.
3262:.
3204:.
3196:.
3188:.
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3079:.
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1560:^d
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1528:^a
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1283:—
1221:40
1154:52
1151:24
985:15
919:41
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790:55
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675:37
658:43
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641:87
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297:0
294:A
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