669:
2051:
2959:
stainless steel, aluminum, copper brass or plastic and configurations include threaded (NPT, etc.), flanged (with mounting holes for ease of installation) and straight (flat tip, pointed tip, radius tip, etc.). Thermistor probe assemblies are very rugged and are highly customizable to fit the application needs. Probe assemblies have gained in popularity over the years as improvements in research, engineering and manufacturing techniques have been made.
220:
stability. NTC thermistor elements come in many styles such as axial-leaded glass-encapsulated (DO-35, DO-34 and DO-41 diodes), glass-coated chips, epoxy-coated with bare or insulated lead wire and surface-mount, as well as thin film versions. The typical operating temperature range of a thermistor is −55 °C to +150 °C, though some glass-body thermistors have a maximal operating temperature of +300 °C.
25:
179:
2384:(a thermally sensitive silicon resistor). Silistors employ silicon as the semiconductive component material. Unlike ceramic PTC thermistors, silistors have an almost linear resistance-temperature characteristic. Silicon PTC thermistors have a much smaller drift than an NTC thermistor. They are stable devices which are hermetically sealed in an axial leaded glass encapsulated package.
2845:
For effective degaussing, it is necessary that the magnitude of the alternating magnetic field produced by the degaussing coil decreases smoothly and continuously, rather than sharply switching off or decreasing in steps; the PTC thermistor accomplishes this naturally as it heats up. A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and inexpensive.
135:
227:(RTDs) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C.
2873:
Many electric motors and dry type power transformers incorporate PTC thermistors in their windings. When used in conjunction with a monitoring relay they provide overtemperature protection to prevent insulation damage. The equipment manufacturer selects a thermistor with a highly non-linear response
2844:
circuit of most CRT displays. When the display unit is initially switched on, current flows through the thermistor and degaussing coil. The coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the current flow will heat the thermistor to the point that the degaussing coil shuts off in under a second.
2817:
The dissipation constant is a measure of the thermal connection of the thermistor to its surroundings. It is generally given for the thermistor in still air and in well-stirred oil. Typical values for a small glass-bead thermistor are 1.5 mW/°C in still air and 6.0 mW/°C in stirred oil. If
2396:
circuits of many CRT monitors and televisions an appropriately chosen thermistor is connected in series with the degaussing coil. This results in a smooth current decrease for an improved degaussing effect. Some of these degaussing circuits have auxiliary heating elements to heat the thermistor (and
2376:
prevents the formation of potential barriers between the crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region the device has a small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the
1205:
2910:
As an inrush current limiter device in power supply circuits, they present a higher resistance initially, which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and then heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during normal operation. These thermistors are usually much
2962:
UL Recognized NTC thermistors in the XGPU2 category helps save equipment manufacturers time and money when applying for safety approvals for their end product. DO-35 hermetically sealed glass encapsulated thermistors can operate up to 250 °C which gives them an advantage in many applications
2892:
in electronic circuits. Current hogging can occur when electronic devices are connected in parallel. In severe cases, current hogging can cause cascading failure of all the devices. A PTC thermistor attached in series with each device can assure the current is divided reasonably evenly between the
2391:
The dynamics of PTC thermistors being powered lends to a wide range of applications. When first connected to a voltage source, a large current corresponding to the low, cold, resistance flows, but as the thermistor self-heats, the current is reduced until a limiting current (and corresponding peak
2821:
The power dissipated in a thermistor is typically maintained at a very low level to ensure insignificant temperature measurement error due to self-heating. However, some thermistor applications depend upon significant "self-heating" to raise the body temperature of the thermistor well above the
219:
Thermistors are generally produced using powdered metal oxides. With vastly improved formulas and techniques over the past 20 years, NTC thermistors can now achieve accuracies over wide temperature ranges such as ±0.1 °C or ±0.2 °C from 0 °C to 70 °C with excellent long-term
214:
thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises; usually because of increased thermal lattice agitations, particularly those of impurities and imperfections. PTC thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable
2818:
the temperature of the environment is known beforehand, then a thermistor may be used to measure the value of the dissipation constant. For example, the thermistor may be used as a flow-rate sensor, since the dissipation constant increases with the rate of flow of a fluid past the thermistor.
2958:
Thermistor Probe
Assemblies offer protection of the sensor in harsh environments. The thermistor sensing element can be packaged into a variety of enclosures for use in industries such as HVAC/R, Building Automation, Pool/Spa, Energy and Industrial Electronics. Enclosures can be made out of
2836:
As current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large enough to generate heat more quickly than the device can lose it to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing its
2328:
Over large changes in temperature, calibration is necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is used, the resistance of the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are many different semiconducting thermistors with a range from about
2449:
When a current flows through a thermistor, it generates heat, which raises the temperature of the thermistor above that of its environment. If the thermistor is being used to measure the temperature of the environment, this electrical heating may introduce a significant error (an
2896:
In crystal oscillators for temperature compensation, medical equipment temperature control, and industrial automation, silicon PTC thermistors display a nearly linear positive temperature coefficient (0.7%/°C). A linearization resistor can be added if further linearization is
1210:
The error in the
Steinhart–Hart equation is generally less than 0.02 °C in the measurement of temperature over a 200 °C range. As an example, typical values for a thermistor with a resistance of 3 kΩ at room temperature (25 °C = 298.15 K, R in Ω) are:
2425:
thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear resistance/temperature response useful for thermal or circuit control, not for temperature measurement. Besides circuit elements used to limit current, self-limiting heaters can be made in the form of wires or strips, useful for
1341:
938:
term. In practice, the equation gives good numerical results for resistances expressed in ohms or kΩ, but the coefficients a, b, and c must be stated with reference to the unit. To give resistance as a function of temperature, the above cubic equation in
2885:, draw more power as they get hotter. Commonly, such circuits contain ordinary resistors to limit the current available and prevent the device from overheating. However, in some applications, PTC thermistors allow better performance than resistors.
202:
thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises; usually because electrons are bumped up by thermal agitation from the valence band to the conduction band. An NTC is commonly used as a temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an
1594:
1061:
2822:
ambient temperature, so the sensor then detects even subtle changes in the thermal conductivity of the environment. Some of these applications include liquid-level detection, liquid-flow measurement and air-flow measurement.
2420:
path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands, forcing the carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise, which then causes increased heating and rapid resistance increase. Like the
2848:
As heaters, in the automotive industry, to provide cabin heating (in addition to heating provided by a heat pump or the waste heat of an internal combustion engine), or to heat diesel fuel in cold conditions before engine
2987:
Because early thermistors were difficult to produce and applications for the technology were limited, commercial production of thermistors did not begin until the 1930s. A commercially viable thermistor was invented by
1709:
604:
2387:
Barium titanate thermistors can be used as self-controlled heaters; for a given voltage, the ceramic will heat to a certain temperature, but the power used will depend on the heat loss from the ceramic.
2914:
As sensors in automotive applications to monitor fluid temperatures like the engine coolant, cabin air, external air or engine oil temperature, and feed the relative readings to control units like the
1217:
870:
1050:
699:
Thermistors are typically built by using metal oxides. They're typically pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.
1222:
1066:
2945:
Throughout the consumer appliance industry for measuring temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on thermistors for proper temperature control.
1911:
2812:
1840:
2530:
is the voltage drop across the thermistor. This power is converted to heat, and this heat energy is transferred to the surrounding environment. The rate of transfer is well described by
2166:
1977:
1445:
2322:
781:
In practical devices, the linear approximation model (above) is accurate only over a limited temperature range. Over wider temperature ranges, a more complex resistance–temperature
1769:
279:
2602:
2703:
The current and voltage across the thermistor depend on the particular circuit configuration. As a simple example, if the voltage across the thermistor is held fixed, then by
2698:
936:
634:
527:
2517:
333:
308:
2430:. PTC thermistors "latch" into a hot / high resistance state: once hot, they stay in that high resistance state, until cooled. The effect can be used as a primitive
2739:
2644:
2003:
1479:
963:
3155:
2938:
In the food handling and processing industry, especially for food storage systems and food preparation. Maintaining the correct temperature is critical to prevent
2031:
1505:
2280:
2258:
2236:
2214:
2192:
654:
490:
456:
406:
383:
355:
120:
NTC thermistors are widely used as inrush-current limiters and temperature sensors, while PTC thermistors are used as self-resetting overcurrent protectors and
1200:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}y&={\frac {1}{2c}}\left(a-{\frac {1}{T}}\right),\\x&=y+{\sqrt {\left({\frac {b}{3c}}\right)^{3}+y^{2}}}.\end{aligned}}}
46:
1513:
2948:
NTC thermistors come in bare and lugged forms, the former is for point sensing to achieve high accuracy for specific points, such as laser diode die, etc.
899:
is the resistance. The equation is not dimensionally correct, since a change in the units of R results in an equation with a different form, containing a
4853:
124:. An operational temperature range of a thermistor is dependent on the probe type and is typically between −100 and 300 °C (−148 and 572 °F).
3777:
2454:) if a correction is not made. Alternatively, this effect itself can be exploited. It can, for example, make a sensitive air-flow device employed in a
3815:
1631:
413:
3280:
2377:
grain boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply with temperature. At even higher temperatures, the material reverts to NTC behaviour.
2935:; they monitor the heat produced and allow the printer's control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for melting the plastic filament.
3439:
2360:) and other compounds) which have the property that their resistance rises suddenly at a certain critical temperature. Barium titanate is
2984:
sulfide decreased dramatically as temperature increased. (This was also the first documented observation of a semiconducting material.)
33:
4689:
2741:, and the equilibrium equation can be solved for the ambient temperature as a function of the measured resistance of the thermistor:
2438:
2337:
535:
2837:
resistance to increase. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, therefore limiting the current.
459:
4330:
3600:
3136:
1336:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a&=1.40\times 10^{-3},\\b&=2.37\times 10^{-4},\\c&=9.90\times 10^{-8}.\end{aligned}}}
3749:
3307:
3256:
3178:
795:
2434:, the effect being enhanced by using two PTC thermistors in series, with one thermistor cool, and the other thermistor hot.
971:
4247:
3680:
2882:
4028:
3808:
2874:
curve where resistance increases dramatically at the maximum allowable winding temperature, causing the relay to operate.
1851:
4011:
3907:
3759:
3732:
3501:
2747:
3060:
4151:
3878:
1979:. This can be used to convert the function of resistance vs. temperature of a thermistor into a linear function of
1777:
748:). these oxides form a ceramic body with terminals composed of conductive metals such as silver, nickel, and tin.
4199:
3998:
3801:
3423:
2124:
1923:
1373:
4858:
2654:, usually expressed in units of milliwatts per degree Celsius. At equilibrium, the two rates must be equal:
2285:
4230:
3982:
1720:
245:
2540:
492:
as close to 0 as possible so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range.
4034:
3971:
1367:
786:
776:
3787:
3694:
2878:
4694:
4241:
3440:"Thermal-FluidsPedia | Temperature measurements and instrumentation | Thermal-Fluids Central"
3331:
3202:
2531:
2055:
2925:
235:
Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and temperature is
4448:
4162:
4005:
3890:
2451:
3572:
74:
whose resistance is strongly dependent on temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word
4457:
4315:
4167:
4023:
3347:"Temperature measurement in dimensional metrology - Why the Steinhart-Hart equation works so well"
2660:
4468:
4188:
3987:
2915:
2431:
902:
680:
612:
505:
358:
148:
38:
4637:
4204:
4069:
4045:
3559:
3363:
3011:
3001:
2483:
224:
204:
121:
3720:
2077:. They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of active
458:
is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a
315:
290:
4868:
4706:
4658:
4479:
4295:
4210:
4141:
3977:
3346:
2088:
4780:
4524:
4419:
4193:
4086:
3940:
3901:
3832:
3824:
3622:
2710:
2622:
2417:
1982:
1450:
942:
892:
3532:
2951:
For measurement of temperature profile inside the sealed cavity of a convective (thermal)
8:
4500:
4408:
4300:
4136:
4113:
2373:
2365:
2008:
1484:
722:
711:
163:
3626:
2911:
larger than measuring type thermistors, and are purposely designed for this application.
4805:
4665:
4373:
4340:
4156:
4040:
4018:
3638:
3612:
3393:
3325:
3274:
3196:
2471:
2265:
2243:
2221:
2199:
2177:
1589:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {1}{T_{0}}}+{\frac {1}{B}}\ln {\frac {R}{R_{0}}},}
707:
639:
475:
441:
391:
368:
340:
2392:
device temperature) is reached. The current-limiting effect can replace fuses. In the
4800:
4721:
4612:
4564:
4393:
4320:
4282:
3788:"Thermistors & Thermocouples:Matching the Tool to the Task in Thermal Validation"
3755:
3728:
3642:
3497:
3419:
3377:
3313:
3303:
3262:
3252:
3184:
3174:
3133:
2939:
2033:. The average slope of this function will then yield an estimate of the value of the
782:
738:
170:
3216:
4863:
4516:
4463:
4290:
3929:
3630:
3585:
3389:
734:
726:
412:, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a
4325:
3479:
3086:
4793:
4726:
4579:
4310:
4220:
4064:
3140:
3035:
2973:
2952:
2889:
2860:
2353:
2083:
409:
3951:
887:
are called the
Steinhart–Hart parameters and must be specified for each device.
4768:
4549:
4539:
4305:
4108:
3656:
3634:
3513:
3466:
3453:
3016:
2977:
2078:
3599:
Mukherjee, Rahul; Basu, Joydeep; Mandal, Pradip; Guha, Prasanta Kumar (2017).
3266:
2054:
A failed (blown) NTC thermistor that worked as an inrush current limiter in a
4847:
4830:
4653:
4569:
4388:
4215:
4183:
3783:
Calculation of
Steinhart-Hart Coefficients for Thermistors at sourceforge.net
3188:
3036:"PTC thermistor vs. NTC thermistor for measuring the temperature of a liquid"
2361:
2112:
2066:
760:
139:
Negative-temperature-coefficient (NTC) thermistor, bead type, insulated wires
3317:
2907:
As a thermometer for low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K.
4711:
4699:
4587:
4554:
4383:
4368:
3935:
3246:
3006:
2989:
2704:
2441:
standard symbol for a PTC thermistor includes a "+t°" under the rectangle.
2427:
2340:
standard symbol for a NTC thermistor includes a "−t°" under the rectangle.
3168:
1704:{\displaystyle R=R_{0}e^{B\left({\frac {1}{T}}-{\frac {1}{T_{0}}}\right)}}
4753:
4495:
4444:
4350:
4335:
4118:
4080:
3297:
3110:
2932:
2853:
2416:
is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a
2369:
79:
3793:
3302:. Yung-Li Lee. Burlington, Mass.: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. 2005.
2050:
668:
194:
Depending on materials used, thermistors are classified into two types:
4825:
4815:
4622:
4592:
4559:
4534:
4529:
4506:
4378:
4358:
4236:
4098:
4075:
3961:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3173:. Howard D. Goodfellow, Esko Tähti. San Diego, Calif.: Academic. 2001.
2615:) is the temperature of the thermistor as a function of its resistance
2459:
2405:
2393:
2061:
Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc, rod, plate, bead or
730:
703:
4788:
4632:
4627:
4617:
4544:
4424:
4258:
4253:
4178:
4103:
2867:
2455:
2107:. In materials such as nickel oxide (NiO) with lithium (Li) doping a
2070:
756:
3782:
3586:"PTC Thermistors Guide- "Publish By Analog Electronic Technologies""
4810:
4758:
4738:
4716:
4602:
4597:
4485:
4474:
4403:
4173:
3617:
2104:
71:
3378:"Properties and Uses of Thermistors-Thermally Sensitive Resistors"
2091:
a material can conduct. In certain materials like ferric oxide (Fe
785:
provides a more faithful characterization of the performance. The
4670:
4607:
4429:
4414:
4268:
4225:
3873:
3292:
3290:
2841:
2413:
2401:
2349:
2062:
3245:
Morris, Alan S. (2020). "Chapter 14 - Temperature measurement".
24:
4743:
4434:
4398:
4363:
3923:
3895:
3868:
3843:
2981:
2928:
and to monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.
2409:
2330:
2074:
1604:
752:
236:
3287:
599:{\displaystyle \alpha _{T}={\frac {1}{R(T)}}{\frac {dR}{dT}}.}
93:
Thermistors are categorized based on their conduction models.
4820:
4731:
4490:
4263:
4056:
3918:
3913:
2881:
in electronic circuits. Many electronic devices, for example
2852:
In temperature-compensated voltage-controlled oscillators in
2467:
2463:
2408:" "Semifuse", and "Multifuse". This consists of plastic with
178:
472:. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a
4763:
4146:
4092:
3993:
3946:
3884:
134:
2333:
to 2,000 kelvins (−273.14 °C to 1,700 °C).
2348:
Most PTC thermistors are made from doped polycrystalline
2343:
2045:
16:
Type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature
3681:"ED35U UL Recognized Glass Encapsulated NTC Thermistors"
3151:
3149:
2087:. The more charge carriers that are available, the more
3598:
3299:
Fatigue testing and analysis : theory and practice
865:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{T}}=a+b\ln R+c\,(\ln R)^{3},}
430:. There are two types of PTC resistor –
3248:
Measurement and instrumentation theory and application
1045:{\displaystyle \ln R={\frac {b}{3c\,x^{1/3}}}-x^{1/3}}
3146:
2750:
2713:
2663:
2625:
2543:
2486:
2477:
The electrical power input to the thermistor is just
2288:
2268:
2246:
2224:
2202:
2180:
2127:
2011:
1985:
1926:
1854:
1780:
1723:
1634:
1516:
1487:
1453:
1376:
1220:
1064:
974:
945:
905:
798:
642:
615:
538:
508:
478:
444:
394:
371:
343:
318:
293:
248:
2103:
semiconductor is formed and the charge carriers are
702:
NTC thermistors are manufactured from oxides of the
365:
Depending on type of the thermistor in question the
3514:"PTC thermistor – Positive Temperature Coefficient"
3418:(4 ed.). Butterworths. pp. 6-29 to 6-41.
2972:The first NTC thermistor was discovered in 1833 by
1614:is the resistance of the thermistor at temperature
1358:NTC thermistors can also be characterised with the
3601:"A review of micromachined thermal accelerometers"
3366:. Agilent Application Note. Agilent Semiconductor.
2806:
2733:
2692:
2638:
2596:
2511:
2316:
2274:
2252:
2230:
2208:
2186:
2160:
2025:
1997:
1971:
1906:{\displaystyle T={\frac {B}{\ln(R/r_{\infty })}}.}
1905:
1834:
1763:
1703:
1588:
1499:
1473:
1439:
1335:
1199:
1044:
965:can be solved, the real root of which is given by
957:
930:
864:
648:
628:
598:
521:
484:
450:
400:
377:
349:
327:
302:
273:
3725:Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement
2976:, who reported on the semiconducting behavior of
4845:
3480:"What is a Thermistor? How do thermistors work?"
3087:"What is a Thermistor? How do thermistors work?"
2870:to provide the heat necessary to expand the wax.
3747:
3695:"1833 - First Semiconductor Effect is Recorded"
2807:{\displaystyle T_{0}=T(R)-{\frac {V^{2}}{KR}}.}
1621:(25 °C = 298.15 K). Solving for
1366:) parameter equation, which is essentially the
3605:Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering
2931:Thermistors are often used in the hot ends of
2404:PTC, which is sold under brand names such as "
3809:
3240:
3238:
2924:Thermistors are also commonly used in modern
1835:{\displaystyle r_{\infty }=R_{0}e^{-B/T_{0}}}
659:
3251:. Reza Langari (Third ed.). Amsterdam.
2646:is the temperature of the surroundings, and
1346:
789:is a widely used third-order approximation:
636:coefficient should not be confused with the
3687:
3413:
2963:when UL is requested for a sensing element.
2921:To monitor the temperature of an incubator.
2238:= cross-sectional area of the material (m),
1920:-parameter equation can also be written as
4854:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
3816:
3802:
3369:
3279:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3235:
770:
529:("alpha sub T") is used. It is defined as
3823:
3616:
3573:Inrush Current Limiting Power Thermistors
2980:. Faraday noticed that the resistance of
2458:rate-of-climb instrument, the electronic
2161:{\displaystyle I=n\cdot A\cdot v\cdot e,}
1972:{\displaystyle \ln R=B/T+\ln r_{\infty }}
999:
836:
261:
2049:
1845:This can be solved for the temperature:
1440:{\displaystyle a=1/T_{0}-(1/B)\ln R_{0}}
49:of all important aspects of the article.
3170:Industrial ventilation design guidebook
2444:
2397:reduce the resulting current) further.
2216:= density of charge carriers (count/m),
495:Instead of the temperature coefficient
4846:
3727:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 203.
3454:"NTC thermistor » Resistor Guide"
3375:
3244:
2400:Another type of PTC thermistor is the
2344:PTC (positive temperature coefficient)
2317:{\displaystyle e=1.602\times 10^{-19}}
2046:NTC (negative temperature coefficient)
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
3797:
3718:
3494:The Ultimate Book of Saturday Science
3416:Electronics Engineer's Reference Book
3344:
3040:Electrical Engineering Stack Exchange
1764:{\displaystyle R=r_{\infty }e^{B/T},}
501:temperature coefficient of resistance
359:temperature coefficient of resistance
274:{\displaystyle \Delta R=k\,\Delta T,}
4248:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
3530:
3407:
3364:"Practical Temperature Measurements"
2597:{\displaystyle P_{T}=K(T(R)-T_{0}),}
2260:= drift velocity of electrons (m/s),
663:
385:may be either positive or negative.
18:
4029:Programmable unijunction transistor
2368:varies with temperature. Below the
2040:
13:
3930:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
3790:– Journal of Validation Technology
3394:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1947.tb01314.x
1964:
1889:
1786:
1735:
319:
294:
262:
249:
230:
14:
4880:
3908:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
3771:
3158:. Littlefuse Technical Resources.
2118:This is described in the formula
4152:Heterostructure barrier varactor
3879:Chemical field-effect transistor
3143:. Micro-chip Technologies. 2010.
3061:"Standards for Resistor Symbols"
2412:grains embedded in it. When the
2380:Another type of thermistor is a
2111:semiconductor is created, where
667:
461:negative-temperature-coefficient
415:positive-temperature-coefficient
225:resistance temperature detectors
177:
133:
122:self-regulating heating elements
107:positive-temperature-coefficient
95:Negative-temperature-coefficient
23:
4200:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
3741:
3712:
3673:
3649:
3592:
3578:
3566:
3552:
3543:
3524:
3506:
3486:
3472:
3467:"PTC Thermistors and Silistors"
3460:
3446:
3432:
3357:
3338:
2825:
2099:) with titanium (Ti) doping an
1599:where the temperatures and the
751:PTCs are usually prepared from
37:may be too short to adequately
3778:The thermistor at bucknell.edu
3754:. Momentum Press. p. 12.
3209:
3161:
3127:
3103:
3079:
3053:
3028:
2773:
2767:
2588:
2572:
2566:
2560:
1894:
1873:
1418:
1404:
919:
906:
850:
837:
567:
561:
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
3748:Jones, Deric P., ed. (2009).
3533:"Temperature Compensated VCO"
3382:Bell System Technical Journal
3223:. Wavelength Electronics, Inc
3022:
2194:= electric current (amperes),
183:Thermistor or varistor symbol
4231:Silicon controlled rectifier
4093:Organic light-emitting diode
3983:Diffused junction transistor
2866:In an electrically actuated
2693:{\displaystyle P_{E}=P_{T}.}
7:
4035:Static induction transistor
3972:Bipolar junction transistor
3924:MOS field-effect transistor
3896:Fin field-effect transistor
2995:
2081:by promoting them into the
931:{\displaystyle (\ln R)^{2}}
629:{\displaystyle \alpha _{T}}
522:{\displaystyle \alpha _{T}}
70:is a semiconductor type of
10:
4885:
4242:Static induction thyristor
3549:Patent CN 1273423A (China)
2967:
2056:switched-mode power supply
774:
706:of metals: e.g. chromium (
660:Construction and materials
4779:
4679:
4646:
4578:
4515:
4443:
4411:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
4349:
4281:
4163:Hybrid integrated circuit
4127:
4055:
4006:Light-emitting transistor
3960:
3842:
3831:
3414:L. W Turner, ed. (1976).
2512:{\displaystyle P_{E}=IV,}
2282:= charge of an electron (
2115:are the charge carriers.
176:
169:
154:
144:
132:
4458:Backward-wave oscillator
4168:Light emitting capacitor
4024:Point-contact transistor
3994:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
3635:10.1088/1361-6439/aa964d
2470:as was formerly done in
335:, change in temperature,
328:{\displaystyle \Delta T}
303:{\displaystyle \Delta R}
223:Thermistors differ from
189:
4469:Crossed-field amplifier
3988:Field-effect transistor
3699:Computer History Museum
3560:"ED35S PTC Thermistors"
3345:Matus, Michael (2011).
2532:Newton's law of cooling
1368:Steinhart–Hart equation
787:Steinhart–Hart equation
777:Steinhart–Hart equation
771:Steinhart–Hart equation
310:, change in resistance,
109:(PTC) thermistors have
97:(NTC) thermistors have
4638:Voltage-regulator tube
4205:MOS integrated circuit
4070:Constant-current diode
4046:Unijunction transistor
3719:McGee, Thomas (1988).
3661:EI Sensor Technologies
3376:Becker, J. A. (1947).
3330:: CS1 maint: others (
3221:Wavelength Electronics
3201:: CS1 maint: others (
3156:Thermistor Terminology
3115:EI Sensor Technologies
3091:EI Sensor Technologies
3012:Iron-hydrogen resistor
3002:Resistance thermometer
2901:
2830:
2808:
2735:
2694:
2640:
2598:
2513:
2372:temperature, the high
2318:
2276:
2254:
2232:
2210:
2188:
2162:
2058:
2027:
1999:
1973:
1907:
1836:
1765:
1705:
1590:
1501:
1475:
1441:
1337:
1201:
1046:
959:
932:
866:
650:
630:
600:
523:
486:
452:
402:
379:
351:
329:
304:
275:
205:inrush current limiter
4707:Electrolytic detector
4480:Inductive output tube
4296:Low-dropout regulator
4211:Organic semiconductor
4142:Printed circuit board
3978:Darlington transistor
3825:Electronic components
2918:and to the dashboard.
2809:
2736:
2734:{\displaystyle I=V/R}
2695:
2641:
2639:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
2599:
2514:
2319:
2277:
2255:
2233:
2211:
2189:
2163:
2053:
2028:
2000:
1998:{\displaystyle \ln R}
1974:
1908:
1837:
1766:
1706:
1591:
1502:
1476:
1474:{\displaystyle b=1/B}
1442:
1338:
1202:
1047:
960:
958:{\displaystyle \ln R}
933:
867:
651:
631:
601:
524:
487:
453:
403:
380:
352:
330:
305:
276:
4859:Resistive components
4525:Beam deflection tube
4194:Metal-oxide varistor
4087:Light-emitting diode
3941:Thin-film transistor
3902:Floating-gate MOSFET
2863:protection circuits.
2748:
2711:
2661:
2652:dissipation constant
2623:
2541:
2484:
2445:Self-heating effects
2432:latch/memory circuit
2286:
2266:
2244:
2222:
2200:
2178:
2125:
2009:
1983:
1924:
1852:
1778:
1721:
1632:
1514:
1485:
1451:
1374:
1218:
1062:
972:
943:
903:
893:absolute temperature
796:
640:
613:
536:
506:
476:
442:
432:switching thermistor
392:
369:
341:
316:
291:
246:
105:temperatures, while
4501:Traveling-wave tube
4301:Switching regulator
4137:Printed electronics
4114:Step recovery diode
3891:Depletion-load NMOS
3657:"Thermistor Probes"
3627:2017JMiMi..27l3002M
3217:"Thermistor Basics"
2926:digital thermostats
2883:bipolar transistors
2472:telephone exchanges
2374:dielectric constant
2366:dielectric constant
2026:{\displaystyle 1/T}
1714:or, alternatively,
1500:{\displaystyle c=0}
721:), manganese (e.g.
164:Electric resistance
129:
4806:Crystal oscillator
4666:Variable capacitor
4341:Switched capacitor
4283:Voltage regulators
4157:Integrated circuit
4041:Tetrode transistor
4019:Pentode transistor
4012:Organic LET (OLET)
3999:Organic FET (OFET)
3751:Biomedical Sensors
3469:The Resistor Guide
3139:2017-09-22 at the
2804:
2731:
2690:
2636:
2594:
2509:
2314:
2272:
2250:
2228:
2206:
2184:
2158:
2059:
2023:
1995:
1969:
1903:
1832:
1761:
1701:
1586:
1497:
1471:
1437:
1354:parameter equation
1333:
1331:
1197:
1195:
1042:
955:
928:
862:
679:. You can help by
646:
626:
596:
519:
482:
448:
398:
375:
347:
325:
300:
271:
127:
4841:
4840:
4801:Ceramic resonator
4613:Mercury-arc valve
4565:Video camera tube
4517:Cathode-ray tubes
4277:
4276:
3885:Complementary MOS
3496:(Princeton 2012)
3492:Downie, Neil A.,
3309:978-0-08-047769-5
3258:978-0-12-817142-4
3180:978-0-12-289676-7
3134:"NTC Thermistors"
2940:foodborne illness
2840:As timers in the
2799:
2275:{\displaystyle e}
2253:{\displaystyle v}
2231:{\displaystyle A}
2209:{\displaystyle n}
2187:{\displaystyle I}
2069:material such as
1898:
1692:
1672:
1603:parameter are in
1581:
1558:
1545:
1525:
1188:
1163:
1113:
1092:
1019:
807:
783:transfer function
697:
696:
656:parameter below.
649:{\displaystyle a}
591:
571:
485:{\displaystyle k}
451:{\displaystyle k}
401:{\displaystyle k}
378:{\displaystyle k}
350:{\displaystyle k}
187:
186:
171:Electronic symbol
156:Working principle
64:
63:
4876:
4695:electrical power
4580:Gas-filled tubes
4464:Cavity magnetron
4291:Linear regulator
3840:
3839:
3818:
3811:
3804:
3795:
3794:
3766:
3765:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3705:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3620:
3596:
3590:
3589:
3582:
3576:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3556:
3550:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3537:www.oldcrows.net
3528:
3522:
3521:
3510:
3504:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3436:
3430:
3429:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3400:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3329:
3321:
3294:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3270:
3242:
3233:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3200:
3192:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3144:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3032:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2798:
2790:
2789:
2780:
2760:
2759:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2685:
2673:
2672:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2587:
2586:
2553:
2552:
2526:is current, and
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2496:
2495:
2462:, or serve as a
2323:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2185:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2041:Conduction model
2032:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1978:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1946:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1883:
1862:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1819:
1803:
1802:
1790:
1789:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1739:
1738:
1710:
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1700:
1699:
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1690:
1678:
1673:
1665:
1650:
1649:
1595:
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1592:
1587:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1567:
1559:
1551:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1531:
1526:
1518:
1506:
1504:
1503:
1498:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1414:
1400:
1399:
1390:
1342:
1340:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1325:
1324:
1289:
1288:
1253:
1252:
1206:
1204:
1203:
1198:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1186:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1162:
1151:
1144:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1106:
1093:
1091:
1080:
1051:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1012:
988:
964:
962:
961:
956:
937:
935:
934:
929:
927:
926:
871:
869:
868:
863:
858:
857:
808:
800:
692:
689:
671:
664:
655:
653:
652:
647:
635:
633:
632:
627:
625:
624:
605:
603:
602:
597:
592:
590:
582:
574:
572:
570:
553:
548:
547:
528:
526:
525:
520:
518:
517:
499:, sometimes the
491:
489:
488:
483:
457:
455:
454:
449:
407:
405:
404:
399:
384:
382:
381:
376:
356:
354:
353:
348:
334:
332:
331:
326:
309:
307:
306:
301:
280:
278:
277:
272:
181:
160:
159:
137:
130:
126:
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
4884:
4883:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4874:
4873:
4844:
4843:
4842:
4837:
4775:
4690:audio and video
4675:
4642:
4574:
4511:
4439:
4420:Photomultiplier
4345:
4273:
4221:Quantum circuit
4129:
4123:
4065:Avalanche diode
4051:
3963:
3956:
3845:
3834:
3827:
3822:
3774:
3769:
3762:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3717:
3713:
3703:
3701:
3693:
3692:
3688:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3665:
3663:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3597:
3593:
3584:
3583:
3579:
3571:
3567:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3531:Patchell, Jim.
3529:
3525:
3512:
3511:
3507:
3491:
3487:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3465:
3461:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3438:
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3433:
3426:
3412:
3408:
3398:
3396:
3374:
3370:
3362:
3358:
3343:
3339:
3323:
3322:
3310:
3296:
3295:
3288:
3272:
3271:
3259:
3243:
3236:
3226:
3224:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3194:
3193:
3181:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3154:
3147:
3141:Wayback Machine
3132:
3128:
3119:
3117:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3095:
3093:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3070:
3068:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3042:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3025:
2998:
2974:Michael Faraday
2970:
2953:inertial sensor
2904:
2890:current hogging
2879:thermal runaway
2861:lithium battery
2842:degaussing coil
2833:
2828:
2791:
2785:
2781:
2779:
2755:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2723:
2712:
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2620:
2582:
2578:
2548:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2491:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2452:observer effect
2447:
2424:
2359:
2354:barium titanate
2346:
2305:
2301:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2179:
2176:
2175:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2098:
2094:
2084:conduction band
2079:charge carriers
2048:
2043:
2015:
2010:
2007:
2006:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1963:
1959:
1942:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1866:
1861:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1794:
1785:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1641:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1620:
1613:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1550:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1486:
1483:
1482:
1463:
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1448:
1431:
1427:
1410:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1356:
1330:
1329:
1317:
1313:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1281:
1277:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1245:
1241:
1228:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1194:
1193:
1182:
1178:
1169:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1105:
1098:
1094:
1084:
1079:
1072:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1008:
1004:
1000:
992:
987:
973:
970:
969:
944:
941:
940:
922:
918:
904:
901:
900:
853:
849:
799:
797:
794:
793:
779:
773:
766:
746:
742:
733:), and nickel (
719:
715:
693:
687:
684:
677:needs expansion
662:
641:
638:
637:
620:
616:
614:
611:
610:
583:
575:
573:
557:
552:
543:
539:
537:
534:
533:
513:
509:
507:
504:
503:
477:
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473:
443:
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439:
393:
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389:
370:
367:
366:
342:
339:
338:
317:
314:
313:
292:
289:
288:
247:
244:
243:
233:
231:Basic operation
192:
182:
157:
155:
140:
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4882:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4856:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4828:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4797:
4796:
4785:
4783:
4777:
4776:
4774:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4769:Wollaston wire
4761:
4756:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4676:
4674:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4662:
4661:
4650:
4648:
4644:
4643:
4641:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4584:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4550:Selectron tube
4547:
4542:
4540:Magic eye tube
4537:
4532:
4527:
4521:
4519:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4509:
4504:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4477:
4472:
4466:
4461:
4454:
4452:
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4417:
4412:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
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4376:
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4366:
4361:
4355:
4353:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4287:
4285:
4279:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4245:
4239:
4234:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4202:
4197:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4160:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4133:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4109:Schottky diode
4106:
4101:
4096:
4090:
4084:
4078:
4073:
4067:
4061:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4049:
4043:
4038:
4032:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4003:
4002:
4001:
3996:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3968:
3966:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3938:
3933:
3927:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3888:
3882:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3850:
3848:
3837:
3829:
3828:
3821:
3820:
3813:
3806:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3785:
3780:
3773:
3772:External links
3770:
3768:
3767:
3760:
3740:
3733:
3711:
3686:
3672:
3648:
3611:(12): 123002.
3591:
3577:
3565:
3551:
3542:
3523:
3518:Resistor Guide
3505:
3485:
3471:
3459:
3445:
3431:
3424:
3406:
3368:
3356:
3337:
3308:
3286:
3257:
3234:
3208:
3179:
3160:
3145:
3126:
3102:
3078:
3067:. EETech Media
3052:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3017:Stretch sensor
3014:
3009:
3004:
2997:
2994:
2978:silver sulfide
2969:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2936:
2929:
2922:
2919:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2886:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2846:
2838:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2815:
2814:
2803:
2797:
2794:
2788:
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2775:
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2769:
2766:
2763:
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2730:
2726:
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2716:
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2700:
2689:
2684:
2680:
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2671:
2667:
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2605:
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2593:
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2585:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2520:
2519:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2446:
2443:
2422:
2357:
2345:
2342:
2326:
2325:
2311:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2271:
2261:
2249:
2239:
2227:
2217:
2205:
2195:
2183:
2169:
2168:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2096:
2092:
2067:semiconducting
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2022:
2018:
2014:
1994:
1991:
1988:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1914:
1913:
1902:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1857:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
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1760:
1755:
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1611:
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1459:
1456:
1434:
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1426:
1423:
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1417:
1413:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1355:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
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1287:
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1234:
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1185:
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1125:
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1118:
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1101:
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1090:
1087:
1083:
1078:
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1068:
1067:
1053:
1052:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
998:
995:
991:
986:
983:
980:
977:
954:
951:
948:
925:
921:
917:
914:
911:
908:
873:
872:
861:
856:
852:
848:
845:
842:
839:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
806:
803:
775:Main article:
772:
769:
764:
761:lead titanates
744:
740:
717:
713:
695:
694:
674:
672:
661:
658:
645:
623:
619:
607:
606:
595:
589:
586:
581:
578:
569:
566:
563:
560:
556:
551:
546:
542:
516:
512:
481:
447:
397:
374:
363:
362:
357:, first-order
346:
336:
324:
321:
311:
299:
296:
282:
281:
270:
267:
264:
260:
257:
254:
251:
232:
229:
217:
216:
208:
191:
188:
185:
184:
174:
173:
167:
166:
161:
152:
151:
146:
142:
141:
138:
117:temperatures.
113:resistance at
101:resistance at
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4881:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4832:
4831:mercury relay
4829:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4782:
4778:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4678:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4660:
4657:
4656:
4655:
4654:Potentiometer
4652:
4651:
4649:
4645:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4577:
4571:
4570:Williams tube
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4499:
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4476:
4473:
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4467:
4465:
4462:
4459:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4389:Fleming valve
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4348:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4284:
4280:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4216:Photodetector
4214:
4212:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4184:Memtransistor
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4132:
4126:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4094:
4091:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4036:
4033:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3959:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3931:
3928:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3886:
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3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:Semiconductor
3830:
3826:
3819:
3814:
3812:
3807:
3805:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3763:
3761:9781606500569
3757:
3753:
3752:
3744:
3736:
3734:9780471627678
3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3700:
3696:
3690:
3682:
3676:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3587:
3581:
3575:. U.S. Sensor
3574:
3569:
3561:
3555:
3546:
3538:
3534:
3527:
3519:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3502:0-691-14966-6
3499:
3495:
3489:
3481:
3475:
3468:
3463:
3455:
3449:
3441:
3435:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3365:
3360:
3352:
3348:
3341:
3333:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3305:
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3300:
3293:
3291:
3282:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3254:
3250:
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3222:
3218:
3212:
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3176:
3172:
3171:
3164:
3157:
3152:
3150:
3142:
3138:
3135:
3130:
3116:
3112:
3111:"Thermistors"
3106:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3071:September 13,
3066:
3062:
3056:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3027:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2993:
2991:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2961:
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2937:
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2927:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2906:
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2895:
2891:
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2862:
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2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
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2801:
2795:
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2776:
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2761:
2756:
2752:
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2724:
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2717:
2714:
2706:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2631:
2627:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2442:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2395:
2389:
2385:
2383:
2378:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:ferroelectric
2355:
2351:
2341:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2269:
2262:
2247:
2240:
2225:
2218:
2203:
2196:
2181:
2174:
2173:
2172:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2052:
2038:
2036:
2020:
2016:
2012:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1919:
1900:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1855:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1782:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1731:
1727:
1724:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1624:
1617:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1583:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1560:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1297:
1290:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1225:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1190:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1127:
1120:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1074:
1069:
1058:
1057:
1056:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
996:
993:
989:
984:
981:
978:
975:
968:
967:
966:
952:
949:
946:
923:
915:
912:
909:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
859:
854:
846:
843:
840:
833:
830:
827:
824:
821:
818:
815:
812:
809:
804:
801:
792:
791:
790:
788:
784:
778:
768:
762:
758:
754:
749:
747:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
709:
705:
700:
691:
682:
678:
675:This section
673:
670:
666:
665:
657:
643:
621:
617:
593:
587:
584:
579:
576:
564:
558:
554:
549:
544:
540:
532:
531:
530:
514:
510:
502:
498:
493:
479:
471:
467:
463:
462:
445:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
416:
411:
395:
386:
372:
360:
344:
337:
322:
312:
297:
287:
286:
285:
268:
265:
258:
255:
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240:
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104:
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77:
73:
69:
58:
55:February 2022
48:
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40:
35:
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26:
21:
20:
4869:Thermometers
4748:
4588:Cold cathode
4555:Storage tube
4445:Vacuum tubes
4394:Neutron tube
4369:Beam tetrode
4351:Vacuum tubes
3936:Power MOSFET
3750:
3743:
3724:
3714:
3702:. Retrieved
3698:
3689:
3675:
3664:. Retrieved
3660:
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3064:
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3039:
3030:
3007:Thermocouple
2990:Samuel Ruben
2986:
2971:
2854:synthesizers
2826:Applications
2820:
2816:
2702:
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2647:
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2606:
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4754:Transformer
4496:Sutton tube
4336:Charge pump
4189:Memory cell
4119:Zener diode
4081:Laser diode
3964:transistors
3846:transistors
3721:"Chapter 9"
3388:: 170–212.
2933:3D printers
2888:To prevent
2877:To prevent
2370:Curie point
2037:parameter.
763:(e.g. PbTiO
731:iron oxides
725:), cobalt (
80:portmanteau
4848:Categories
4826:reed relay
4816:Parametron
4749:Thermistor
4727:resettable
4686:Connector
4647:Adjustable
4623:Nixie tube
4593:Crossatron
4560:Trochotron
4535:Iconoscope
4530:Charactron
4507:X-ray tube
4379:Compactron
4359:Acorn tube
4316:Buck–boost
4237:Solaristor
4099:Photodiode
4076:Gunn diode
4072:(CLD, CRD)
3854:Transistor
3666:2019-05-13
3618:1801.07297
3425:0408001682
3351:MacroScale
3267:1196195913
3120:2019-05-13
3096:2019-05-13
3023:References
2849:injection.
2460:variometer
2418:conductive
2406:Polyswitch
2394:degaussing
2329:0.01
704:iron group
470:thermistor
424:thermistor
128:Thermistor
76:thermistor
68:thermistor
4789:Capacitor
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4628:Thyratron
4618:Neon lamp
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4425:Phototube
4409:Pentagrid
4374:Barretter
4259:Trancitor
4254:Thyristor
4179:Memristor
4104:PIN diode
3881:(ChemFET)
3643:116232359
3326:cite book
3275:cite book
3197:cite book
3189:162128694
2992:in 1930.
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2777:−
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2307:−
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2138:⋅
2105:electrons
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688:June 2021
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295:Δ
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4781:Reactive
4759:Varistor
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4717:Antifuse
4603:Ignitron
4598:Dekatron
4486:Klystron
4475:Gyrotron
4404:Nuvistor
4321:Split-pi
4207:(MOS IC)
4174:Memistor
3932:(MuGFET)
3926:(MOSFET)
3898:(FinFET)
3399:22 April
3318:56731934
3137:Archived
3045:24 April
2996:See also
2893:devices.
2707:we have
2382:silistor
2364:and its
2071:sintered
2065:chip of
436:silistor
428:posistor
410:positive
88:resistor
72:resistor
4864:Sensors
4712:Ferrite
4680:Passive
4671:Varicap
4659:digital
4608:Krytron
4430:Tetrode
4415:Pentode
4269:Varicap
4250:(3D IC)
4226:RF CMOS
4130:devices
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3835:devices
3704:24 June
3623:Bibcode
3065:EePower
2968:History
2897:needed.
2650:is the
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2402:polymer
2350:ceramic
2089:current
1625:yields
1605:kelvins
891:is the
239:, then
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4399:Nonode
4364:Audion
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4128:Other
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4057:Diodes
4008:(LET)
3990:(FET)
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875:where
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753:barium
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215:fuses.
115:higher
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4732:eFUSE
4503:(TWT)
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4311:Boost
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4196:(MOV)
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4089:(LED)
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4037:(SIT)
4031:(PUT)
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3919:LDMOS
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3639:S2CID
3613:arXiv
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2113:holes
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3952:UMOS
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3864:PMOS
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3756:ISBN
3729:ISBN
3706:2014
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3401:2022
3332:link
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