Nuclear fission - Knowledge

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had shown much earlier that neutrons were far more effectively captured by atoms if they were of low energy (so-called "slow" or "thermal" neutrons), because for quantum reasons it made the atoms look like much larger targets to the neutrons. Thus to slow down the secondary neutrons released by the fissioning uranium nuclei, Fermi and Szilard proposed a graphite "moderator", against which the fast, high-energy secondary neutrons would collide, effectively slowing them down. With enough uranium, and with sufficiently pure graphite, their "pile" could theoretically sustain a slow-neutron chain reaction. This would result in the production of heat, as well as the creation of radioactive fission products.

1809:(image below), and noting that the average binding energy of the actinide nuclides beginning with uranium is around 7.6 MeV per nucleon. Looking further left on the curve of binding energy, where the fission products cluster, it is easily observed that the binding energy of the fission products tends to center around 8.5 MeV per nucleon. Thus, in any fission event of an isotope in the actinide mass range, roughly 0.9 MeV are released per nucleon of the starting element. The fission of U by a slow neutron yields nearly identical energy to the fission of U by a fast neutron. This energy release profile holds for thorium and the various minor actinides as well. 2612:

blowing away." Rearrangement of the core material's subcritical components would need to proceed as fast as possible to ensure effective detonation. Additionally, a third basic component was necessary, "...an initiator—a Ra + Be source or, better, a Po + Be source, with the radium or polonium attached perhaps to one piece of the core and the beryllium to the other, to smash together and spray neutrons when the parts mated to start the chain reaction." However, any bomb would "necessitate locating, mining and processing hundreds of tons of uranium ore...", while U-235 separation or the production of Pu-239 would require additional industrial capacity.

1883: 2896:(uranium fission) for the first time, and predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction. The 11 February 1939 paper by Meitner and Frisch compared the process to the division of a liquid drop and estimated the energy released at 200 MeV. The 1 September 1939 paper by Bohr and Wheeler used this liquid drop model to quantify fission details, including the energy released, estimated the cross section for neutron-induced fission, and deduced 2632: 2361: 1284: 8811: 7890: 6897: 869: 2971: 8835: 2749:. In Chadwick's words, "...In order to explain the great penetrating power of the radiation we must further assume that the particle has no net charge..." The existence of the neutron was first postulated by Rutherford in 1920, and in the words of Chadwick, "...how on earth were you going to build up a big nucleus with a large positive charge? And the answer was a neutral particle." Subsequently, he communicated his findings in more detail. 3321: 84: 45: 2352:

reactor. However, many fission fragments are neutron-rich and decay via β emissions. According to Lilley, "The radioactive decay energy from the fission chains is the second release of energy due to fission. It is much less than the prompt energy, but it is a significant amount and is why reactors must continue to be cooled after they have been shut down and why the waste products must be handled with great care and stored safely."

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fission' in that paper. Placzek was sceptical; couldn't I do some experiments to show the existence of those fast-moving fragments of the uranium nucleus? Oddly enough that thought hadn't occurred to me, but now I quickly set to work, and the experiment (which was really very easy) was done in two days, and a short note about it was sent off to Nature together with the other note I had composed over the telephone with Lise Meitner.

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of equilibrium." The negative contribution of Coulomb energy arises from the repulsive electric force of the protons. The symmetry term arises from the fact that effective forces in the nucleus are stronger for unlike neutron-proton pairs, rather than like neutron–neutron or proton–proton pairs. The pairing term arises from the fact that like nucleons form spin-zero pairs in the same spatial state. The pairing is positive if

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long in a tank of manganese solution, they were able to confirm more neutrons were emitted than absorbed. However, the hydrogen within the water absorbed the slow neutrons necessary for fission. Carbon in the form of graphite, was then considered, because of its smaller capture cross section. In April 1940, Fermi was able to confirm carbon's potential for a slow-neutron chain reaction, after receiving

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Hahn's ability as a chemist. Marie Curie had been separating barium from radium for many years, and the techniques were well-known. Meitner and Frisch then correctly interpreted Hahn's results to mean that the nucleus of uranium had split roughly in half. Frisch suggested the process be named "nuclear fission", by analogy to the process of living cell division into two cells, which was then called

3147:. In August and September, the Columbia team enlarged upon the cross section measurements by making a series of exponential "piles". The first piles consisted of a uranium-graphite lattice, consisting of 288 cans, each containing 60 pounds of uranium oxide, surrounded by graphite bricks. Fermi's goal was to determine critical mass necessary to sustain neutron generation. Fermi defined the 1275: 1845:. The latter figure means that a nuclear fission explosion or criticality accident emits about 3.5% of its energy as gamma rays, less than 2.5% of its energy as fast neutrons (total of both types of radiation ~6%), and the rest as kinetic energy of fission fragments (this appears almost immediately when the fragments impact surrounding matter, as simple heat). 1891:

energy ratios of a deformed nucleus relative to a spherical form for the surface and Coulomb terms. Additional terms can be included such as symmetry, pairing, the finite range of the nuclear force, and charge distribution within the nuclei to improve the estimate. Normally binding energy is referred to and plotted as average binding energy per nucleon.

1744:, allowing an extra neutron to occupy the same nuclear orbital as the last neutron in the nucleus. In such isotopes, therefore, no neutron kinetic energy is needed, for all the necessary energy is supplied by absorption of any neutron, either of the slow or fast variety (the former are used in moderated nuclear reactors, and the latter are used in 1532: 2255: 3177:'s "eggs". Starting on 16 November 1942, Fermi had Anderson and Zinn working in two twelve-hours shifts, constructing a pile that eventually reached 57 layers by 1 Dec. The final pile consisted of 771,000 pounds of graphite, 80,590 pounds of uranium oxide, and 12,400 pounds of uranium metal, with ten cadmium 1354:. However, the binary process happens merely because it is the most probable. In anywhere from two to four fissions per 1000 in a nuclear reactor, ternary fission can produce three positively charged fragments (plus neutrons) and the smallest of these may range from so small a charge and mass as a proton ( 3294:

in 1956. Large-scale natural uranium fission chain reactions, moderated by normal water, had occurred far in the past and would not be possible now. This ancient process was able to use normal water as a moderator only because 2 billion years before the present, natural uranium was richer in the

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The curve of binding energy is characterized by a broad maximum near mass number 60 at 8.6 MeV, then gradually decreases to 7.6 MeV at the highest mass numbers. Mass numbers higher than 238 are rare. At the lighter end of the scale, peaks are noted for helium-4, and the multiples such as beryllium-8,

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k for assessing the chain reaction, with a value of 1.0 denoting a sustained chain reaction. In September 1941, Fermi's team was only able to achieve a k value of 0.87. In April 1942, before the project was centralized in Chicago, they had achieved 0.918 by removing moisture from the oxide. In May

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not yet determined, but which was assumed to be much larger than that of natural uranium. They calculated only a pound or two in a volume less than a golf ball, would result in a chain reaction faster than vaporization, and the resultant explosion would generate temperature greater than the interior

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realized that the neutron-driven fission of heavy atoms could be used to create a nuclear chain reaction. Such a reaction using neutrons was an idea he had first formulated in 1933, upon reading Rutherford's disparaging remarks about generating power from neutron collisions. However, Szilárd had not

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In nuclear fission events the nuclei may break into any combination of lighter nuclei, but the most common event is not fission to equal mass nuclei of about mass 120; the most common event (depending on isotope and process) is a slightly unequal fission in which one daughter nucleus has a mass

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With the news of fission neutrons from uranium fission, Szilárd immediately understood the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction using uranium. In the summer, Fermi and Szilard proposed the idea of a nuclear reactor (pile) to mediate this process. The pile would use natural uranium as fuel. Fermi

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It was clear to a number of scientists at Columbia that they should try to detect the energy released in the nuclear fission of uranium from neutron bombardment. On 25 January 1939, a Columbia University team conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States, which was done in the

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News spread quickly of the new discovery, which was correctly seen as an entirely novel physical effect with great scientific—and potentially practical—possibilities. Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation of the discovery of Hahn and Strassmann crossed the Atlantic Ocean with Niels Bohr, who was to

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noted in 1915, Rutherford attempted to "break up the atom." Rutherford was able to accomplish the first artificial transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p. Rutherford stated, "...we must conclude that the nitrogen atom is disintegrated,"

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would completely fission less than 1 percent of its nuclear material before it expanded enough to stop the chain reaction from proceeding. Tamper always increased efficiency: it reflected neutrons back into the core and its inertia...slowed the core's expansion and helped keep the core surface from

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where the nuclear binding energy is proportional to the nuclear volume, while nucleons near the surface interact with fewer nucleons, reducing the effect of the volume term. According to Lilley, "For all naturally occurring nuclei, the surface-energy term dominates and the nucleus exists in a state

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The binding energy of the nucleus is the difference between the rest-mass energy of the nucleus and the rest-mass energy of the neutron and proton nucleons. The binding energy formula includes volume, surface and Coulomb energy terms that include empirically derived coefficients for all three, plus

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Some processes involving neutrons are notable for absorbing or finally yielding energy — for example neutron kinetic energy does not yield heat immediately if the neutron is captured by a uranium-238 atom to breed plutonium-239, but this energy is emitted if the plutonium-239 is later fissioned. On

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After an incident particle has fused with a parent nucleus, if the excitation energy is sufficient, the nucleus breaks into fragments. This is called scission, and occurs at about 10 seconds. The fragments can emit prompt neutrons at between 10 and 10 seconds. At about 10 seconds, the fragments can

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elements, however, those isotopes that have an odd number of neutrons (such as U with 143 neutrons) bind an extra neutron with an additional 1 to 2 MeV of energy over an isotope of the same element with an even number of neutrons (such as U with 146 neutrons). This extra binding energy is made

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In April 1939, creating a chain reaction in natural uranium became the goal of Fermi and Szilard, as opposed to isotope separation. Their first efforts involved five hundred pounds of uranium oxide from the Eldorado Radium Corporation. Packed into fifty-two cans two inches in diameter and two feet

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notably suggested in 1934 that instead of creating a new, heavier element 93, that "it is conceivable that the nucleus breaks up into several large fragments." However, the quoted objection comes some distance down, and was but one of several gaps she noted in Fermi's claim. Although Noddack was a

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Critical fission reactors are the most common type of nuclear reactor. In a critical fission reactor, neutrons produced by fission of fuel atoms are used to induce yet more fissions, to sustain a controllable amount of energy release. Devices that produce engineered but non-self-sustaining fission

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nucleus fissions into two daughter nuclei fragments, about 0.1 percent of the mass of the uranium nucleus appears as the fission energy of ~200 MeV. For uranium-235 (total mean fission energy 202.79 MeV), typically ~169 MeV appears as the kinetic energy of the daughter nuclei, which

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in opposition. Plotting the sum of these two energies as a function of elongated shape, they determined the resultant energy surface had a saddle shape. The saddle provided an energy barrier called the critical energy barrier. Energy of about 6 MeV provided by the incident neutron was necessary to

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counter, with the control rods removed, after the end of each shift. On 2 Dec. 1942, with k approaching 1.0, Fermi had all but one of the control rod removed, and gradually removed the last one. The neutron counter clicks increased, as did the pen recorder, when Fermi announced "The pile has gone

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reported on the "strong indications that Pu undergoes fission with slow neutrons." This meant chemical separation was an alternative to uranium isotope separation. Instead, a nuclear reactor fueled with ordinary uranium could produce a plutonium isotope as a nuclear explosive substitute for U. In

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About 6 MeV of the fission-input energy is supplied by the simple binding of an extra neutron to the heavy nucleus via the strong force; however, in many fissionable isotopes, this amount of energy is not enough for fission. Uranium-238, for example, has a near-zero fission cross section for

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of the nucleus, but he was unsure of what the physical basis for the results were. Barium had an atomic mass 40% less than uranium, and no previously known methods of radioactive decay could account for such a large difference in the mass of the nucleus. Frisch was skeptical, but Meitner trusted

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and does not continue the reaction. Another neutron is simply lost and does not collide with anything, also not continuing the reaction. However, the one neutron does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions and releases two neutrons and some binding energy. 3. Both of those

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Neutron-induced fission of U-235 emits a total energy of 207 MeV, of which about 200 MeV is recoverable, Prompt fission fragments amount to 168 MeV, which are easily stopped with a fraction of a millimeter. Prompt neutrons total 5 MeV, and this energy is recovered as heat via scattering in the

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The paper was composed by several long-distance telephone calls, Lise Meitner having returned to Stockholm in the meantime. I asked an American biologist who was working with Hevesy what they call the process by which single cells divide in two; 'fission', he said, so I used the term 'nuclear

2892:. There, the news on nuclear fission was spread even further, which fostered many more experimental demonstrations. The 6 January 1939 Hahn and Strassman paper announced the discover of fission. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann used the term 1805:(200 MeV) of energy, the equivalent of roughly >2 trillion kelvin, for each fission event. The exact isotope which is fissioned, and whether or not it is fissionable or fissile, has only a small impact on the amount of energy released. This can be easily seen by examining the curve of 1278:

A visual representation of an induced nuclear fission event where a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which fissions into two fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and additional neutrons. Most of the energy released is in the form of the kinetic

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moving at about the speed of sound...produces nuclear reactions in many materials much more easily than a beam of protons...traveling thousands of times faster." According to Rhodes, "Slowing down a neutron gave it more time in the vicinity of the nucleus, and that gave it more time to be

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then used alpha particles to "disintegrate" boron, fluorine, sodium, aluminum, and phosphorus before reaching a limitation associated with the energy of his alpha particle source. Eventually, in 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's

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is exactly unity, the reactions proceed at a steady rate and the reactor is said to be critical. It is possible to achieve criticality in a reactor using natural uranium as fuel, provided that the neutrons have been efficiently moderated to thermal energies." Moderators include light water,

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and increase in size faster than it could be controlled by human intervention. In this case, the first experimental atomic reactors would have run away to a dangerous and messy "prompt critical reaction" before their operators could have manually shut them down (for this reason, designer

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physicists working at Princeton, heard the news and carried it back to Columbia. Rabi said he told Enrico Fermi; Fermi gave credit to Lamb. Bohr soon thereafter went from Princeton to Columbia to see Fermi. Not finding Fermi in his office, Bohr went down to the cyclotron area and found

2344:, while the heavier nuclei require additional neutrons to remain stable. Nuclei that are neutron- or proton-rich have excessive binding energy for stability, and the excess energy may convert a neutron to a proton or a proton to a neutron via the weak nuclear force, a process known as 1330:

During induced fission, a compound system is formed after an incident particle fuses with a target. The resultant excitation energy may be sufficient to emit neutrons, or gamma-rays, and nuclear scission. Fission into two fragments is called binary fission, and is the most common

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The objective of an atomic bomb is to produce a device, according to Serber, "...in which energy is released by a fast neutron chain reaction in one or more of the materials known to show nuclear fission." According to Rhodes, "Untamped, a bomb core even as large as twice the

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for application, where the fast neutrons are supplied by nuclear fusion). However, this process cannot happen to a great extent in a nuclear reactor, as too small a fraction of the fission neutrons produced by any type of fission have enough energy to efficiently fission

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captured." Fermi's team, studying radiative capture which is the emission of gamma radiation after the nucleus captures a neutron, studied sixty elements, inducing radioactivity in forty. In the process, they discovered the ability of hydrogen to slow down the neutrons.

2084: 2940:, that during the fission of uranium, "the energy released in this new reaction must be very much higher than all previously known cases...," which might lead to "large-scale production of energy and radioactive elements, unfortunately also perhaps to atomic bombs." 2543:

While, in principle, all fission reactors can act in all three capacities, in practice the tasks lead to conflicting engineering goals and most reactors have been built with only one of the above tasks in mind. (There are several early counter-examples, such as the

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In October 1941, MAUD released its final report to the U.S. Government. The report stated, "We have now reached the conclusion that it will be possible to make an effective uranium bomb...The material for the first bomb could be ready by the end of 1943..."

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attraction distance, and are then pushed apart and away by their electrical charge. In the liquid drop model, the two fission fragments are predicted to be the same size. The nuclear shell model allows for them to differ in size, as usually experimentally

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A schematic nuclear fission chain reaction. 1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments), releasing three new neutrons and some binding energy. 2. One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom of

2880:. The experiment involved placing uranium oxide inside of an ionization chamber and irradiating it with neutrons, and measuring the energy thus released. The results confirmed that fission was occurring and hinted strongly that it was the isotope 1254:

collective motion that results in the division of a parent nucleus into two or more fragment nuclei. The fission process can occur spontaneously, or it can be induced by an incident particle." The energy from a fission reaction is produced by its

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scientists discussed seven possible ways to extract plutonium from irradiated uranium, and decided to pursue investigation of all seven. On 17 June, the first batch of uranium nitrate hexahydrate (UNH) was undergoing neutron bombardment in the

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Younes and Loveland define fission as, "...a collective motion of the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus, and as such it is distinguishable from other phenomena that break up the nucleus. Nuclear fission is an extreme example of

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Apart from fission induced by a neutron, harnessed and exploited by humans, a natural form of spontaneous radioactive decay (not requiring a neutron) is also referred to as fission, and occurs especially in very high-mass-number isotopes.

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is emitted by means of the repulsive electrostatic energy between the 2 daughter nuclei, which takes the form of the "kinetic energy" of the fission products, this kinetic energy results in both later blast and thermal effects.

1191:) whose radiotoxicity is far higher than that of the long lived fission products. Concerns over nuclear waste accumulation and the destructive potential of nuclear weapons are a counterbalance to the peaceful desire to use 3791: 2730:, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split this nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom", and would win them the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for 2717:. This was the first observation of a nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. It also offered a new way to study the nucleus. Rutherford and 1861:" zone which deliberately relies on these neutrons for a supercritical chain-reaction (one in which each fission cycle yields more neutrons than it absorbs). Without their existence, the nuclear chain-reaction would be 965:. Hahn and Strassmann proved that a fission reaction had taken place on 19 December 1938, and Meitner and her nephew Frisch explained it theoretically in January 1939. Frisch named the process "fission" by analogy with 3164:

built sixteen exponential piles. Acquisition of purer forms of graphite, without traces of boron and its large cross section, became paramount. Also important was the acquisition of highly purified forms of oxide from

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May, they demonstrated the cross section of plutonium was 1.7 times that of U235. When plutonium's cross section for fast fission was measured to be ten times that of U238, plutonium became a viable option for a bomb.

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Critical fission reactors are built for three primary purposes, which typically involve different engineering trade-offs to take advantage of either the heat or the neutrons produced by the fission chain reaction:

1414: ≈ 240. It is found that the activation energy decreases as A increases. Eventually, a point is reached where activation energy disappears altogether...it would undergo very rapid spontaneous fission." 3064:

in two parts, "On the construction of a 'super-bomb; based on a nuclear chain reaction in uranium," and "Memorandum on the properties of a radioactive 'super-bomb.' ". On 10 April 1940, the first meeting of the

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for his "demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons". The German chemist

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John Lilley states, "...neutron-induced fission generates extra neutrons which can induce further fissions in the next generation and so on in a chain reaction. The chain reaction is characterized by the

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The stages of binary fission in a liquid drop model. Energy input deforms the nucleus into a fat "cigar" shape, then a "peanut" shape, followed by binary fission as the two lobes exceed the short-range

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report to Roosevelt. The report, amongst other things, called for parallel development of all isotope-separation systems. On 6 December, Bush and Conant reorganized the Uranium Committee's tasks, with

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of the sun, and pressures greater than the center of the earth. Additionally, the costs of isotope separation "would be insignificant compared to the cost of the war." By March 1940, encouraged by

1459:. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, the overwhelming majority of fission events are induced by bombardment with another particle, a neutron, which is itself produced by prior fission events. 2439:

is by definition a reactor that produces more fissile material than it consumes and needs a minimum of two neutrons produced for each neutron absorbed in a fissile nucleus. Thus, in general, the

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as the original parent atom. The two (or more) nuclei produced are most often of comparable but slightly different sizes, typically with a mass ratio of products of about 3 to 2, for common

1368: = 18). The most common small fragments, however, are composed of 90% helium-4 nuclei with more energy than alpha particles from alpha decay (so-called "long range alphas" at ~16 1903: 1689:. The remaining energy to initiate fission can be supplied by two other mechanisms: one of these is more kinetic energy of the incoming neutron, which is increasingly able to fission a 5660: 2250:{\displaystyle B=a_{v}\mathbf {A} -a_{s}\mathbf {A} ^{2/3}-a_{c}{\frac {\mathbf {Z} ^{2}}{\mathbf {A} ^{1/3}}}-a_{a}{\frac {(\mathbf {N} -\mathbf {Z} )^{2}}{\mathbf {A} }}\pm \Delta } 1667:

neutrons of less than 1 MeV energy. If no additional energy is supplied by any other mechanism, the nucleus will not fission, but will merely absorb the neutron, as happens when

2602:. An estimated 39,000 people were killed by the atomic bomb, of whom 23,145–28,113 were Japanese factory workers, 2,000 were Korean slave laborers, and 150 were Japanese combatants. 2947:(in Paris) to refrain from publishing on the possibility of a chain reaction, lest the Nazi government become aware of the possibilities on the eve of what would later be known as 2040:. Thus, the mass of an atom is less than the mass of its constituent protons and neutrons, assuming the average binding energy of its electrons is negligible. The binding energy 1232:

to both enable uranium (and thorium) supplies to last longer and to reduce the amount of "waste". The industry term for a process that fissions all or nearly all actinides is a "

6246: 4673:(February 1939). "Nachweis der Entstehung aktiver Bariumisotope aus Uran und Thorium durch Neutronenbestrahlung; Nachweis weiterer aktiver Bruchstücke bei der Uranspaltung". 2775:

studied the results of bombarding uranium with neutrons in 1934. Fermi concluded that his experiments had created new elements with 93 and 94 protons, which the group dubbed

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may be used to express the binding energy as the sum of five terms, which are the volume energy, a surface correction, Coulomb energy, a symmetry term, and a pairing term:

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are a measurable property related to the probability that fission will occur in a nuclear reaction. Cross sections are a function of incident neutron energy, and those for

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level of color is proportional to (larger) nuclei charge. Electrons (smaller) on this time-scale are seen only stroboscopically and the hue level is their kinetic energy.

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neutron, such an element, if assembled in sufficiently large mass, could sustain a nuclear chain reaction." On 25 January 1939, after learning of Hahn's discovery from

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shorter-lived fissile isotope U (about 3%), than natural uranium available today (which is only 0.7%, and must be enriched to 3% to be usable in light-water reactors).

3013:. Roosevelt quickly understood the implications, stating, "Alex, what you are after is to see that the Nazis don't blow us up." Roosevelt ordered the formation of the 2920:

been able to achieve a neutron-driven chain reaction using beryllium. Szilard stated, "...if we could find an element which is split by neutrons and which would emit

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proposed a model of the atom in which a very small, dense and positively charged nucleus of protons was surrounded by orbiting, negatively charged electrons (the

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found "...the number of neutrons emitted by fission to be about two." Fermi and Anderson estimated "a yield of about two neutrons per each neutron captured."

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of living cells. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional

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overcome this barrier and cause the nucleus to fission. According to John Lilley, "The energy required to overcome the barrier to fission is called the

5670: 2393:> 1, the reactor is supercritical and the chain reaction diverges. This is the situation in a fission bomb where growth is at an explosive rate. If 1376:). Though less common than binary fission, it still produces significant helium-4 and tritium gas buildup in the fuel rods of modern nuclear reactors. 7528: 4028: 2447:(BR)...U offers a superior breeding potential for both thermal and fast reactors, while Pu offers a superior breeding potential for fast reactors." 6551: 2932:, Szilard noted, "...if enough neutrons are emitted...then it should be, of course, possible to sustain a chain reaction. All of the things which 2370:

neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions and releases between one and three neutrons, which can then continue the reaction.

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The unpredictable composition of the products (which vary in a broad probabilistic and somewhat chaotic manner) distinguishes fission from purely

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are not, meaning it can never achieve criticality. While there is a very small (albeit nonzero) chance of a thermal neutron inducing fission in

64:. The uranium-236, in turn, splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and releases several free neutrons, one or more "prompt 4496:

Hook, Ernest B. (2002). "Interdisciplinary Dissonance and Prematurity: Ida Noddack's Suggestion of Nuclear Fission". In Hook, Ernest B. (ed.).

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at the University of Chicago, played important contributing roles. Overall scientific direction of the project was managed by the physicist

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heavy nucleus as it exceeds a kinetic energy of 1 MeV or more (so-called fast neutrons). Such high energy neutrons are able to fission

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critical." They had achieved a k of 1.0006, which meant neutron intensity doubled every two minutes, in addition to breeding plutonium.

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are intended to produce neutrons and/or activate radioactive sources for scientific, medical, engineering, or other research purposes.

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kinetic energy per neutron of ~2 MeV (total of 4.8 MeV). The fission reaction also releases ~7 MeV in prompt gamma ray

7773: 7750: 7670: 5946: 5052: 3956:, interact readily with matter. They transfer their energy quickly to the surrounding weapon materials, which rapidly become heated"" 3260: 2847:. Just as the term nuclear "chain reaction" would later be borrowed from chemistry, so the term "fission" was borrowed from biology. 2591: 900: 814: 7682: 6185: 3286:) have been discovered at which self-sustaining nuclear fission took place approximately 2 billion years ago. French physicist 1857:, because they give a characteristic "reaction" time for the total nuclear reaction to double in size, if the reaction is run in a " 7611: 1870:

included radiation-counter-triggered control rods, suspended by electromagnets, which could automatically drop into the center of

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needs a fast neutron to supply the additional 1 MeV needed to cross the critical energy barrier for fission. In the case of

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E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, O. D'Agostino, F. Rasetti, and E. Segrè (1934) "Radioattività provocata da bombardamento di neutroni III",

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and were spurred to attempt to attract the attention of the United States government to the issue. Towards this, they persuaded

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at lower neutron energy levels. Absorption of any neutron makes available to the nucleus binding energy of about 5.3 MeV.

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undergo fission when struck by fission neutrons, and in turn emit neutrons when they break apart. This makes a self-sustaining

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were able to demonstrate the enrichment of uranium through gaseous barrier diffusion. On 27 November, Bush delivered to third

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carbon-12, oxygen-16, neon-20 and magnesium-24. Binding energy due to the nuclear force approaches a constant value for large

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than the heavy elements which are normally fissioned as fuel, and remain so for significant amounts of time, giving rise to a

8588: 8263: 7405: 5370: 4820: 4505: 4226: 4200: 4148: 3962: 3825: 3421: 2951:. With some hesitation Fermi agreed to self-censor. But Joliot-Curie did not, and in April 1939 his team in Paris, including 2872:. Bohr grabbed him by the shoulder and said: "Young man, let me explain to you about something new and exciting in physics." 17: 3051:, who had been working on a critical mass formula. assuming isotope separation was possible, they considered U, which had a 7805: 7600: 7314: 7283: 7228: 6192: 1853:

emitted as radioactive decay products with half-lives up to several minutes, from fission-daughters, are very important to

3443:(1989). "Как было открыто спонтанное деление" [How spontaneous fission was discovered]. In Черникова, Вера (ed.). 3200:

In the United States, an all-out effort for making atomic weapons was begun in late 1942. This work was taken over by the

2792: 8730: 6947: 6913: 6109: 5655: 5620: 5068: 2745:

to observe protons knocked out of several elements by beryllium radiation, following up on earlier observations made by

2435:

Lee states, "One important comparison for the three major fissile nuclides, U, U, and Pu, is their breeding potential. A

1391:

formula. The stimulation of the nucleus after neutron bombardment was analogous to the vibrations of a liquid drop, with

163: 2789:

renowned analytical chemist, she lacked the background in physics to appreciate the enormity of what she was proposing.

1026:. Most fissions are binary fissions (producing two charged fragments), but occasionally (2 to 4 times per 1000 events), 7783: 7778: 7633: 7538: 7473: 7263: 6807: 6391: 4613:

H. L. Anderson; E. T. Booth; J. R. Dunning; E. Fermi; G. N. Glasoe & F. G. Slack (1939). "The Fission of Uranium".

3952:

of the fission energy is released as kinetic energy of the two large fission fragments. These fragments, being massive

3128: 2889: 2963:

that the number of neutrons emitted with nuclear fission of uranium was then reported at 3.5 per fission. Szilard and

1737: 61: 7799: 7768: 7628: 7557: 5471: 5350: 4656: 4600: 4572: 4130: 3729: 3568: 3502: 3456: 3394: 3349: 2389:

is less than unity, the reactor is subcritical, the number of neutrons decreases and the chain reaction dies out. If

1318:

Nuclear fission can occur without neutron bombardment as a type of radioactive decay. This type of fission is called

4529: 3247:

In July 1945, the first atomic explosive device, dubbed "The Gadget", was detonated in the New Mexico desert in the

3232:, in New Mexico, which was the scientific hub for research on bomb development and design. Other sites, notably the 2936:

predicted appeared suddenly real to me." After the Hahn-Strassman paper was published, Szilard noted in a letter to

8671: 7660: 7329: 6701: 6566: 5101: 3933:

These fission neutrons have a wide energy spectrum, ranging from 0 to 14 MeV, with a mean of 2 MeV and a

2470: 2300: 467: 4296: 2756:, referring to the neutron, "It would therefore serve as a new nuclear probe of surpassing power of penetration." 855: 7562: 6644: 6478: 6080: 5958: 5615: 5476: 5059:

Historical account complete with audio and teacher's guides from the American Institute of Physics History Center

3271: 2884:

in particular that was fissioning. The next day, the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics began in

659: 3881:

V, Kopeikin; L, Mikaelyan and; V, Sinev (2004). "Reactor as a Source of Antineutrinos: Thermal Fission Energy".

8681: 7860: 6634: 6483: 5941: 4173: 3596: 3229: 2994: 2283:, which is called the odd–even effect on the fragments' charge distribution. This can be seen in the empirical 364: 7698: 4011: 3006: 7493: 7395: 6408: 6241: 5665: 5593: 4102: 3233: 3061: 3014: 893: 4370: 3152:

1942, Fermi planned a full-scale chain reacting pile, Chicago Pile-1, after one of the exponential piles at

2701:, "conveyed the tremendous and inevitable conclusion that the element thorium was slowly and spontaneously 8913: 8851: 8211: 7654: 7468: 6751: 6488: 6197: 5951: 5448: 4166:

Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons (The Contemporary anthology series)

3201: 3104: 2626: 2479: 1058:

in Moscow, in an experiment intended to confirm that, without bombardment by neutrons, the fission rate of

946: 4032: 2532: 2293:

have higher yield values. However, no odd–even effect is observed on fragment distribution based on their

1615:

adjusts from an odd to an even mass. In the words of Younes and Lovelace, "...the neutron absorption on a

8770: 8029: 7917: 7588: 7151: 6901: 6814: 6786: 6743: 6708: 6546: 6373: 6311: 6136: 6040: 5926: 5394: 5094: 2076: 677: 647: 148: 3036:. Subsequently, Dunning, bombarding the U-235 sample with neutrons generated by the Columbia University 2060:, while the Coulomb acts over a larger distance so that electrical potential energy per proton grows as 8903: 8883: 7666: 7594: 7383: 7238: 7211: 6735: 6594: 6273: 5791: 5748: 5600: 3287: 2944: 2559: 1143: 724: 274: 4544:"Entdeckung der Kernspaltung 1938, Versuchsaufbau, Deutsches Museum München | Faszination Museum" 2050:

relationship. The binding energy also provides an estimate of the total energy released from fission.

8676: 8534: 8196: 8141: 8121: 8116: 7884: 7820: 7729: 7463: 7268: 7121: 6889: 6571: 6180: 5963: 4939: 3843: 3312: 2651: 1741: 1109: 989: 610: 3135:'s team. On 20 August, using ultramicrochemistry techniques, they successfully extracted plutonium. 2779:. However, not all were convinced by Fermi's analysis of his results, though he would win the 1938 8898: 8888: 8878: 8873: 8605: 7949: 7206: 7116: 6980: 6819: 6661: 6561: 6473: 5682: 5568: 5528: 5340: 3344: 3237: 3123: 3044: 1991:{\displaystyle m(\mathbf {A} ,\mathbf {Z} )=\mathbf {Z} m_{H}+\mathbf {N} m_{n}-\mathbf {B} /c^{2}} 1440:). Most nuclear fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very slowly, decaying instead mainly via an 886: 873: 605: 309: 2409:

According to John C. Lee, "For all nuclear reactors in operation and those under development, the

8827: 8765: 8750: 8146: 8126: 7845: 7835: 7146: 6940: 6724: 6691: 6666: 6280: 6057: 5863: 5786: 5743: 5726: 5687: 5610: 3140: 2567: 2456: 2047: 1874:). If these delayed neutrons are captured without producing fissions, they produce heat as well. 1854: 1388: 1384: 600: 497: 462: 158: 6649: 3746: 3656: 3251:

test. It was fueled by plutonium created at Hanford. In August 1945, two more atomic devices – "

1637:

nucleus with excitation energy greater than the critical fission energy, whereas in the case of

1424:

for the nucleus. The nuclides that can sustain a fission chain reaction are suitable for use as

1263:, while about 6 percent each comes from initial neutrons and gamma rays and those emitted after 8893: 8278: 8174: 8101: 8091: 7972: 7910: 7840: 7641: 7387: 7298: 6972: 6556: 5843: 5387: 2780: 2776: 2647: 2563: 2500: 2375: 1820:

in the case of a cluster of positively charged nuclei, akin to a cluster of fission fragments.

1098: 1005: 974: 654: 304: 269: 7435: 3591:

J. Kliman, M. G. Itkis, S. Gmuca (eds.). World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. Singapore.

3584: 3384: 8218: 8009: 7391: 7126: 6850: 6586: 6541: 6003: 5931: 5858: 5853: 5818: 5605: 5573: 5360: 5287: 4192:

Nagasaki 1945: the first full-length eyewitness account of the atomic bomb attack on Nagasaki

4096: 3864: 3610: 3411: 3241: 3052: 3029: 2804:. The table and instruments are originals, but would not have been together in the same room. 2702: 2284: 2072:

is larger than 120 nucleus fragments. Fusion energy is released when lighter nuclei combine.

1546: 1470: 1287: 1012: 779: 664: 556: 4970: 4943: 4243: 2746: 2658:

and the elaboration of new nuclear physics that described the components of atoms. In 1911,

2441:

conversion ratio (CR) is defined as the ratio of fissile material produced to that destroyed

719: 8666: 8639: 8617: 8524: 8457: 8206: 8136: 8081: 7830: 7692: 7248: 7136: 7093: 7043: 6761: 6536: 6521: 5838: 5796: 5632: 5538: 5466: 5011: 4901: 4849: 4783: 4729: 4682: 4622: 4470: 4416: 4382: 4333: 4258: 4069: 3900: 3758: 3668: 3622: 3283: 3221: 2852: 2528: 2483: 2417:

materials, U, U, and Pu, and the associated isotopic chains. For the current generation of

1745: 1705: 1417: 1225: 1221: 789: 764: 581: 60:

nucleus, with the excitation energy provided by the kinetic energy of the neutron plus the

5049: 4458: 1034:. The smallest of these fragments in ternary processes ranges in size from a proton to an 8: 8745: 8688: 8610: 8583: 8268: 8131: 8106: 7815: 7365: 7243: 7156: 6860: 6671: 6456: 6050: 5918: 5896: 5721: 5578: 5345: 5307: 5140: 3440: 3157: 3148: 2869: 2864: 2555: 2495: 1882: 1858: 1421: 1319: 1128: 1051: 1043: 985: 684: 563: 457: 400: 393: 383: 324: 319: 153: 7617: 7324: 5015: 4905: 4853: 4787: 4733: 4686: 4626: 4474: 4420: 4386: 4337: 4262: 4145: 4073: 3904: 3762: 3747:"Resonance in Uranium and Thorium Disintegrations and the Phenomenon of Nuclear Fission" 3672: 3626: 3076:

at Oxford wrote his Estimate of the size of an actual separation plant." Simon proposed

1886:

The "curve of binding energy": A graph of binding energy per nucleon of common isotopes.

1762:

that fission easily following the absorption of a thermal (0.25 meV) neutron are called

8725: 8703: 8693: 8529: 7723: 7686: 7623: 7360: 7181: 7161: 7141: 7025: 6933: 6840: 6576: 6413: 6340: 6151: 5801: 5771: 5755: 5738: 5382: 5272: 5220: 5170: 5117: 5001: 4867: 4745: 4698: 4351: 4274: 3916: 3890: 3359: 3225: 3144: 3002: 2831: 2742: 2734:, although it was not the nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements. 2536: 2410: 1515: 1343:. Since in nuclear fission, the nucleus emits more neutrons than the one it absorbs, a 1229: 1196: 1147: 962: 627: 622: 437: 5062: 4055:"Microscopic calculations of potential energy surfaces: Fission and fusion properties" 3589:

Dynamical aspects of nuclear fission: proceedings of the 6th International Conference.

1728:

of only 0.75 MeV, meaning half of them have less than this insufficient energy).

8834: 8627: 8452: 8313: 8273: 8243: 8228: 8201: 8111: 8014: 7954: 7944: 7825: 7788: 7253: 7131: 7068: 7033: 5908: 5701: 5588: 5563: 5501: 5458: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5135: 4816: 4652: 4596: 4568: 4511: 4501: 4278: 4222: 4196: 4169: 4126: 3934: 3821: 3725: 3592: 3585:"Comparative study of the ternary particle emission in 243-Cm (nth,f) and 244-Cm(SF)" 3564: 3498: 3452: 3417: 3390: 3205: 3195: 3182: 3077: 3033: 3025: 2856: 2844: 2679: 2659: 2504: 1817: 1721: 1380: 1233: 1139: 1070: 966: 940: 799: 794: 754: 632: 371: 359: 342: 314: 284: 125: 4702: 3920: 8786: 8760: 8755: 8735: 8720: 8561: 8551: 8331: 8258: 7994: 7711: 7258: 6756: 5811: 5776: 5533: 5523: 5411: 5399: 5240: 5235: 5225: 5215: 5210: 5081: 5039: 5019: 4909: 4871: 4857: 4791: 4749: 4737: 4690: 4670: 4630: 4478: 4424: 4390: 4355: 4341: 4266: 4077: 3908: 3766: 3676: 3630: 3339: 3209: 3132: 3112: 2916: 2885: 2817: 2797: 2663: 2531:

makes Pu (a nuclear fuel) from the naturally very abundant U (not a nuclear fuel).

2511: 2274: 1850: 1834: 1437: 1369: 1332: 1256: 1217: 1213: 1016: 954: 917: 819: 809: 739: 492: 410: 378: 198: 130: 4318: 3216:

in Washington, which had the first industrial-scale nuclear reactors and produced

1900:

is the energy required to separate it into its constituent neutrons and protons."

1212:- or rather its decay products - are a major gamma ray emitter. All actinides are 8815: 8796: 8710: 8477: 8392: 8248: 8238: 8223: 8181: 8086: 8036: 7987: 7370: 7355: 7171: 7083: 6925: 6654: 6614: 6068: 5882: 5806: 5781: 5627: 5420: 5322: 5312: 5277: 5145: 5075: 5056: 4270: 4216: 4190: 3100: 3021: 3010: 2998: 2952: 2761: 2757: 2694: 2686: 2670:

improved upon this in 1913 by reconciling the quantum behavior of electrons (the

2595: 2519: 1862: 1791: 1392: 1336: 1291: 1102: 1074: 1031: 804: 784: 759: 689: 576: 504: 415: 75: 6146: 4530:"Originalgeräte zur Entdeckung der Kernspaltung, "Hahn-Meitner-Straßmann-Tisch"" 3948:"NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute..."approximately 3084: 8791: 8740: 8715: 8519: 8484: 8417: 8407: 8323: 8303: 8298: 8283: 8253: 8233: 8191: 8169: 8151: 8051: 8041: 7977: 7850: 7717: 7676: 7218: 7176: 7166: 7088: 7078: 7048: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6349: 6256: 6225: 6207: 5731: 5637: 5583: 5548: 5481: 5428: 5282: 5175: 5160: 5150: 3354: 3174: 3116: 3066: 3048: 2975: 2753: 2738: 2727: 2718: 2709: 2587: 2571: 2037: 1871: 1806: 1441: 1344: 1340: 1260: 1166: 1090: 1055: 1047: 1001: 993: 921: 860: 714: 709: 588: 521: 329: 264: 241: 228: 215: 115: 93: 38: 31: 6629: 4612: 4543: 4500:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 124–148. 3111:

developing gaseous diffusion, Lawrence developing electromagnetic separation,

2554:

As of 2019, the 448 nuclear power plants worldwide provided a capacity of 398

1085:, which give the same products each time. Nuclear fission produces energy for 8867: 8839: 8698: 8658: 8622: 8578: 8504: 8467: 8385: 8308: 8076: 8071: 8024: 8004: 7293: 7053: 7038: 6794: 6085: 5491: 5332: 4886: 4634: 4515: 4482: 4244:"The scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom" 4152: 3770: 3680: 3326: 3057: 3040:, confirmed "U-235 was responsible for the slow neutron fission of uranium." 2990: 2986: 2937: 2929: 2732:"Transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles" 2723: 2655: 2608: 2574:, and the resultant generated steam is used to drive a turbine or generator. 2566:. Energy from fission is transmitted through conduction or convection to the 2466: 2015: 1795: 1537: 1456: 1445: 1433: 1396: 1355: 1351: 1307: 1299: 1192: 1086: 1082: 1008:

of the resulting elements must be greater than that of the starting element.

839: 834: 829: 824: 774: 432: 405: 249: 188: 141: 120: 5024: 4989: 1350:

Binary fission may produce any of the fission products, at 95±15 and 135±15

8595: 8539: 8489: 8472: 8293: 8066: 7999: 7793: 7739: 7734: 7273: 7233: 7098: 6360: 5496: 5438: 5365: 5317: 5187: 4796: 4771: 4717: 4429: 4404: 4395: 3364: 3334: 3248: 3213: 3170: 3166: 3088: 2956: 2948: 2813: 2768: 2675: 2639: 2631: 2545: 2307:

of about 90 to 100 daltons and the other the remaining 130 to 140 daltons.

1867: 1802: 1466: 1425: 1339:, in which a third particle is emitted. This third particle is commonly an 1094: 958: 928:

splits into two or more smaller nuclei. The fission process often produces

769: 744: 729: 474: 422: 279: 7437:

Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites

3634: 2907:

was the major contributor to that cross section and slow-neutron fission.

2646:

The discovery of nuclear fission occurred in 1938 in the buildings of the

1302:, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, and 8600: 8566: 8440: 8430: 8373: 8356: 8341: 8288: 8186: 7865: 7015: 6771: 6418: 6008: 5515: 5486: 5045:

Annotated bibliography for nuclear fission from the Alsos Digital Library

3291: 3178: 3161: 3153: 3108: 3073: 2964: 2933: 2881: 2860: 2785: 2690: 2599: 2598:, on 9 August 1945 rose over 18 kilometres (11 mi) above the bomb's 2399: 2366: 2360: 2005: 1777:

that do not easily fission when they absorb a thermal neutron are called

1690: 1462: 1448: 1429: 1409: 1303: 1295: 1201: 1135: 1078: 734: 427: 349: 202: 57: 53: 4293:"Cockcroft and Walton split lithium with high energy protons April 1932" 1259:, though a large majority of it, about 85 percent, is found in fragment 8634: 8556: 8494: 8462: 8402: 8096: 7855: 7063: 7010: 6124: 4718:"Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction" 4694: 3895: 3252: 2877: 2671: 2667: 2345: 1452: 1264: 1063: 704: 694: 551: 531: 354: 224: 4963:

DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory Volume 2

4932:

DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory Volume 1

4913: 4081: 3912: 3290:

discovered the Oklo Fossil Reactors in 1972, but it was postulated by

3204:

in 1943, and known as the Manhattan Engineer District. The top-secret

2970: 1283: 8644: 8571: 8445: 8425: 8397: 8336: 7647: 7350: 7223: 7058: 7005: 6995: 6956: 6766: 6129: 6119: 5247: 5200: 5165: 5086: 4862: 4837: 4741: 4346: 3217: 3037: 2888:

under the joint auspices of the George Washington University and the

2826: 2809: 2635: 2548: 2311: 1663:

nucleus has an excitation energy below the critical fission energy."

1251: 1151: 1015:

because the resulting fragments (or daughter atoms) are not the same

950: 929: 749: 699: 526: 514: 509: 388: 65: 6624: 4188: 2499:

are intended to produce heat for nuclear power, either as part of a

68:" (not shown) and a (proportionally) large amount of kinetic energy. 8380: 8361: 8346: 8046: 7518: 7000: 6985: 6855: 6498: 6493: 6433: 6102: 6030: 6013: 5998: 5973: 5716: 5205: 5006: 3724:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 7–9, 13–14, 38–43, 265–267. 2824:. Meitner, an Austrian Jew, lost her Austrian citizenship with the 2682:, which became essential to understanding the physics of fission. 2524: 2429: 2403: 1732: 1465:

isotopes such as uranium-238 require additional energy provided by

1428:. The most common nuclear fuels are U (the isotope of uranium with 1268: 1199:

produces virtually no plutonium and much less minor actinides, but

1134:

The products of nuclear fission, however, are on average far more

83: 44: 8514: 8056: 7278: 6824: 6776: 6639: 6619: 6018: 5993: 5433: 5264: 5252: 5230: 5195: 4835: 4548: 3320: 3256: 2698: 2523:

are intended to produce nuclear fuels in bulk from more abundant

1829: 1373: 1124: 1059: 1023: 1020: 981: 970: 211: 184: 176: 108: 98: 49: 4838:"Number of Neutrons Liberated in the Nuclear Fission of Uranium" 2461: 1678:

absorbs slow and even some fraction of fast neutrons, to become

1123:

is a million times more than that released in the combustion of

8061: 7982: 7933: 6428: 6423: 6403: 6383: 6368: 6251: 5988: 5968: 5936: 4168:. The Spirit That Moves Us Press. May 1, 1984. pp. 22–29. 3563:. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. pp. 135–138. 3169:

Chemical Works. Finally, acquiring pure uranium metal from the

2835: 2821: 2801: 2582: 1842: 1725: 936: 932: 103: 4498:

Prematurity in Scientific Discovery: On Resistance and Neglect

30:"Split the atom" redirects here. For the album by Noisia, see 7103: 6990: 6845: 6802: 6465: 6321: 6114: 5978: 3449:

Brief Moment of Triumph — About making scientific discoveries

3279: 1361: 1035: 4990:"Nuclear Fission Dynamics: Past, Present, Needs, and Future" 3445:Краткий Миг Торжества — О том, как делаются научные открытия 3156:

reached a k of 0.995. Between 15 September and 15 November,

1837:. Also, an average of 2.5 neutrons are emitted, with a 1224:

can fission them all albeit only in certain configurations.

973:

during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a

8435: 8368: 8351: 8019: 7704: 6326: 6215: 6025: 5983: 4887:"On the Nuclear Physical Stability of the Uranium Minerals" 3275: 2772: 2558:, with about 85% being light-water cooled reactors such as 2535:

previously tested using Th to breed the fissile isotope U (

2422: 1838: 1274: 1105:

or at a very rapid, uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon.

1093:. Both uses are possible because certain substances called 997: 925: 3266: 3261:

used against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

7902: 6299: 6163: 4969:. U.S. Department of Energy. January 1993. Archived from 4218:

The Impact of the A-bomb, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1945–85

2418: 1821: 1812: 1801:

Typical fission events release about two hundred million

1531: 1372:(MeV)), plus helium-6 nuclei, and tritons (the nuclei of 3131:

cyclotron. On 27 July, the irradiated UNH was ready for

2654:, following over four decades of work on the science of 4029:"Nuclear Fission and Fusion, and Nuclear Interactions" 1894:

According to Lilley, "The binding energy of a nucleus

27:

Nuclear reaction splitting an atom into multiple parts

4189:

Tatsuichirō Akizuki; Gordon Honeycombe (March 1982).

4125:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 324, 327–329. 3984:

The various energies emitted per fission event pg 4.

2443:...when the CR is greater than 1.0, it is called the 2287:

data for each fission product, as products with even

2087: 1906: 1101:

possible, releasing energy at a controlled rate in a

4295:. Outreach.phy.cam.ac.uk. 1932-04-14. Archived from 4052: 3302: 3173:, meant the replacement of oxide pseudospheres with 2995:

Germans might make use of the fission chain reaction

1833:

fly apart at about 3% of the speed of light, due to

1279:

velocities of the fission products and the neutrons.

4836:H. Von Halban; F. Joliot & L. Kowarski (1939). 3382: 3208:, as it was colloquially known, was led by General 3080:as the best method for uranium isotope separation. 3001:to lend his name to a letter directed to President 2697:, investigating the radioactive gas emanating from 1146:make up only a small fraction of fission products. 1112:released in the fission of an equivalent amount of 1000:the bulk material where fission takes place). Like 6955: 5849:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 4221:. Iwanami Shoten. 1 January 1985. pp. 56–78. 4084:. Archived from the original on September 29, 2006 4005:in beta decay and gamma decay(residual radiation)" 3993:is released in prompt or initial gamma radiation, 2910: 2310:Stable nuclei, and unstable nuclei with very long 2249: 1990: 1751:According to Younes and Loveland, "Actinides like 988:which can release large amounts of energy both as 3435: 3433: 2741:discovered the neutron in 1932. Chadwick used an 8865: 4567:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 114–117. 3837: 3119:responsible for theoretical studies and design. 1030:positively charged fragments are produced, in a 4988:Bulgac, Aurel; Jin, Shi; Stetcu, Ionel (2020). 4987: 3997:in prompt neutron radiation (99.36% of total), 3189: 2620: 2046:is expressed in energy units, using Einstein's 7683:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll 4668: 4447:, vol. 5, no. 1, pages 452–453. 4031:. National Physical Laboratory. Archived from 3492: 3430: 2693:named, radioactivity. In 1900, Rutherford and 7918: 7484:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll 7479:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 7421: 6941: 6552:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 5102: 4715: 4241: 4146:The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 4010:. Technical University Vienna. Archived from 3874: 3451:] (in Russian). Наука. pp. 108–112. 3409: 2270:are both even, adding to the binding energy. 2066:increases. Fission energy is released when a 1488:are fast enough to induce another fission in 1477:of the neutrons released from the fission of 1469:(such as those produced by nuclear fusion in 894: 4884: 4402: 4368: 3857: 3657:"On the Shape and Stability of Heavy Nuclei" 3212:. Among the project's dozens of sites were: 2708:In 1919, following up on an earlier anomaly 1604:however, that extra energy is provided when 56:nucleus, turning it briefly into an excited 7606:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident 7489:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country 4769: 4456: 4316: 3820:, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY, p. 259, 3722:Nuclear Physics: Principles and Application 2915:During this period the Hungarian physicist 2314:, follow a trend of stability evident when 1360: = 1), to as large a fragment as 1004:, for fission to produce energy, the total 7925: 7911: 7428: 7414: 6948: 6934: 5109: 5095: 3842:. European Nuclear Society. Archived from 3028:was able to separate U-235 and U-238 from 3020:In February 1940, encouraged by Fermi and 2943:Szilard now urged Fermi (in New York) and 1790:emit gamma rays. At 10 seconds β decay, β- 1736:available as a result of the mechanism of 901: 887: 7774:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack 7751:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 7671:Three Mile Island accident health effects 5023: 5005: 4861: 4795: 4428: 4394: 4345: 3894: 3757:(4). American Physical Society: 418–419. 3667:(5). American Physical Society: 504–505. 3611:"The Atomic Masses of the Heavy Elements" 2974:Drawing of the first artificial reactor, 7769:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) 7612:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 6464: 4810: 3654: 3608: 3493:Younes, Walid; Loveland, Walter (2021). 3181:. Neutron intensity was measured with a 2969: 2820:began performing similar experiments in 2791: 2630: 2581: 2482:. Such devices use radioactive decay or 2460: 2359: 1881: 1811: 1530: 1432:235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and 1282: 1273: 1150:which does not lead to fission produces 43: 7811:International Day against Nuclear Tests 7459:Crimes involving radioactive substances 4123:Nuclear Reactor Physics and Engineering 3621:(1). American Physical Society: 64–75. 3439: 3267:Natural fission chain-reactors on Earth 2539:) continue to be studied and developed. 2025:is the atomic mass of a hydrogen atom, 14: 8866: 8545:Integrated gasification combined cycle 7601:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident 7289:Wireless electronic devices and health 6479:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 5116: 4562: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4001:in delayed neutron energy (0.64%) and 3937:of 0.75 MeV. See Byrne, op. cite. 3719: 3558: 3274:is uncommon. At three ore deposits at 1794:, and gamma rays are emitted from the 935:, and releases a very large amount of 8589:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 8264:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy 7906: 7409: 6929: 6721: 6484:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5893: 5880: 5090: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3488: 3224:, which was primarily concerned with 2273:In fission there is a preference for 1228:aims to recover usable material from 8909:German inventions of the Nazi period 8822: 7806:History of the anti-nuclear movement 7315:List of civilian radiation accidents 7284:Wireless device radiation and health 7279:Biological dose units and quantities 7229:Electromagnetic radiation and health 6908: 5881: 4716:Meitner, Lisa; Frisch, O.R. (1939). 4495: 3744: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 1518:is orders of magnitude more likely. 1313: 1239: 8846: 8731:World energy supply and consumption 7464:Criticality accidents and incidents 6489:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 4770:Bohr, Niels; Wheeler, John (1939). 4651:, Simon and Schuster, pp. 267–270, 4405:"The Bakerian Lecture: The neutron" 4195:. Quartet Books. pp. 134–137. 4120: 4109: 3880: 3831: 3389:. Anmol Publications. p. 202. 3383:M. G. Arora & M. Singh (1994). 3099:In November 1941, John Dunning and 2796:The nuclear fission display at the 2713:while the newspapers stated he had 2450: 1325: 939:even by the energetic standards of 24: 7568:Nuclear power accidents by country 7264:Radioactivity in the life sciences 6298: 5449:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 4923: 4815:. Viking Penguin. pp. 28–30. 4804: 4772:"The Mechanism of Nuclear Fission" 4409:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 4375:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 3495:An Introduction to Nuclear Fission 3129:Washington University in St. Louis 2890:Carnegie Institution of Washington 2503:or a local power system such as a 2432:and loaded into fuel assemblies." 2421:, the enriched U contains 2.5~4.5 2355: 2244: 1322:, and was first observed in 1940. 25: 8925: 7800:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 5472:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 5371:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 5033: 4463:Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 4319:"Possible Existence of a Neutron" 3869:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3694: 3511: 3465: 3410:Gopal B. Saha (1 November 2010). 2650:for Chemistry, today part of the 2425:of U, which is fabricated into UO 1877: 8845: 8833: 8821: 8810: 8809: 7889: 7888: 7878: 7661:Kramatorsk radiological accident 6907: 6896: 6895: 6883: 6572:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 5050:The Discovery of Nuclear Fission 3413:Fundamentals of Nuclear Pharmacy 3319: 3305: 2577: 2471:Philippsburg Nuclear Power Plant 2235: 2219: 2211: 2171: 2159: 2124: 2105: 2075:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker's 1969: 1951: 1933: 1922: 1914: 1740:, which itself is caused by the 1571:are a million times higher than 1383:, the packing fraction curve of 1335:. Occurring least frequently is 1062:was negligible, as predicted by 868: 867: 854: 82: 7563:List of orphan source incidents 5661:Historical stockpiles and tests 4894:The Journal of Chemical Physics 4878: 4829: 4763: 4709: 4662: 4641: 4606: 4585: 4556: 4536: 4522: 4489: 4450: 4437: 4362: 4310: 4285: 4235: 4209: 4182: 4158: 4139: 4053:L. Bonneau; P. Quentin (2005). 4046: 4021: 3972: 3940: 3927: 3810: 3784: 3738: 3282:, sixteen sites (the so-called 2911:Fission chain reaction realized 2383:neutron multiplication factor k 2326:. For lighter nuclei less than 2299:. This result is attributed to 6562:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 5444:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 5040:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 4942:. January 1993. Archived from 4595:, Simon and Schuster, p. 268, 3648: 3602: 3577: 3403: 3376: 2224: 2207: 2032:is the mass of a neutron, and 1926: 1910: 1271:as the product of such decay. 947:Nuclear fission was discovered 13: 1: 7885:Nuclear technology portal 6890:Nuclear technology portal 4649:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 4593:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 3561:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 3370: 3234:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory 3015:Advisory Committee on Uranium 2808:After the Fermi publication, 2332:= 20, the line has the slope 1521: 7655:Andreev Bay nuclear accident 7642:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 6752:Field-reversed configuration 6362:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 4563:Frisch, Otto Robert (1980). 4371:"The existence of a neutron" 4271:10.1080/14786435.2011.617037 3982:Nuclear Engineering Overview 3954:and highly charged particles 3863:Hans A. Bethe (April 1950), 3818:Neutrons, Nuclei, and Matter 3497:. Springer. pp. 28–30. 3255:", a uranium-235 bomb, and " 3202:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 3190:Manhattan Project and beyond 3143:'s graphite bricks at their 3115:developing centrifuges, and 3105:National Academy of Sciences 2627:Discovery of nuclear fission 2621:Discovery of nuclear fission 2480:subcritical fission reactors 1724:energy of 2 MeV, but a 1379:Bohr and Wheeler used their 1267:, plus about 3 percent from 1244: 1142:problem. However, the seven 1089:and drives the explosion of 62:forces that bind the neutron 48:Induced fission reaction. A 7: 7589:Nyonoksa radiation accident 7152:Cosmic background radiation 6709:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5894: 5656:States with nuclear weapons 3298: 3259:", a plutonium bomb – were 2077:semi-empirical mass formula 1193:fission as an energy source 1144:long-lived fission products 648:High-energy nuclear physics 10: 8930: 7932: 7861:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 7784:Films about nuclear issues 7779:Books about nuclear issues 7667:Three Mile Island accident 7595:Fukushima nuclear accident 7474:Military nuclear accidents 7469:Nuclear meltdown accidents 7381: 7239:Lasers and aviation safety 6722: 6547:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5671:Tests in the United States 4062:AIP Conference Proceedings 3792:"Essential cross sections" 3583:S. Vermote, et al. (2008) 3416:. Springer. pp. 11–. 3193: 2959:, reported in the journal 2624: 2615: 2560:pressurized water reactors 2454: 2373: 1849:the other hand, so-called 1046:was discovered in 1940 by 36: 29: 8805: 8779: 8655: 8535:Fossil fuel power station 8503: 8416: 8322: 8197:Electric potential energy 8162: 8142:Thermodynamic temperature 8122:Thermodynamic free energy 8117:Thermodynamic equilibrium 7963: 7940: 7874: 7821:Nuclear-Free Future Award 7759: 7730:Totskoye nuclear exercise 7576: 7558:Sunken nuclear submarines 7443: 7379: 7343: 7307: 7269:Radioactive contamination 7194: 7122:Electromagnetic radiation 7112: 7024: 6971: 6964: 6877: 6833: 6785: 6742: 6732: 6684: 6672:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6585: 6567:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6532: 6515: 6455: 6382: 6374:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 6348: 6339: 6291: 6271: 6224: 6206: 6162: 6067: 6049: 5917: 5904: 5889: 5876: 5831: 5764: 5709: 5700: 5648: 5556: 5547: 5514: 5457: 5419: 5410: 5331: 5263: 5186: 5128: 5124: 5082:Nuclear Fission Animation 5065:Nuclear Fission Explained 4940:U.S. Department of Energy 4101:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3655:Feenberg, eugene (1939). 3313:Nuclear technology portal 3062:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 2985:In August 1939, Szilard, 2924:neutrons when it absorbs 2652:Free University of Berlin 2413:is based on one of three 1784: 1742:Pauli exclusion principle 1720:(fission neutrons have a 1066:; it was not negligible. 990:electromagnetic radiation 8606:Concentrated solar power 7382:See also the categories 7320:1996 Costa Rica accident 6981:Acoustic radiation force 6577:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6193:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5529:Electron-beam processing 5078:What is Nuclear Fission? 4635:10.1103/PhysRev.55.511.2 4483:10.1002/ange.19340473707 3883:Physics of Atomic Nuclei 3771:10.1103/PhysRev.55.418.2 3681:10.1103/PhysRev.55.504.2 3559:Rhodes, Richard (1986). 3345:Fission fragment reactor 3238:Metallurgical Laboratory 3047:, Frisch teamed up with 3045:University of Birmingham 2705:itself into argon gas!" 2533:Thermal breeder reactors 1526: 37:Not to be confused with 8147:Volume (thermodynamics) 8127:Thermodynamic potential 8030:Mass–energy equivalence 7836:Nuclear power phase-out 7294:Radiation heat-transfer 7147:Gravitational radiation 6692:Organic nuclear reactor 5864:Nuclear power phase-out 5787:Nuclear decommissioning 5727:Reactor-grade plutonium 5477:Targeted alpha-particle 5356:Accidents and incidents 5025:10.3389/fphy.2020.00063 4647:Richard Rhodes (1986). 4591:Richard Rhodes. (1986) 3609:Dempster, A.J. (1938). 3141:National Carbon Company 3034:glass mass spectrometer 3007:Einstein–Szilárd letter 2568:nuclear reactor coolant 2551:, now decommissioned). 2457:Nuclear reactor physics 2048:mass-energy equivalence 1738:neutron pairing effects 1408:and is about 6 MeV for 1389:mass-energy equivalence 1385:Arthur Jeffrey Dempster 159:Interacting boson model 8102:Quantum thermodynamics 8092:Laws of thermodynamics 7973:Conservation of energy 7841:Nuclear weapons debate 7335:1990 Zaragoza accident 7330:1984 Moroccan accident 7299:Linear energy transfer 6973:Non-ionizing radiation 4811:Zoellner, Tom (2009). 4797:10.1103/PhysRev.56.426 4565:What Little I Remember 4445:La Ricerca Scientifica 4430:10.1098/rspa.1933.0152 4396:10.1098/rspa.1932.0112 4251:Philosophical Magazine 4242:E. Rutherford (1911). 3838:Marion Brünglinghaus. 2978: 2805: 2781:Nobel Prize in Physics 2777:ausenium and hesperium 2771:and his colleagues in 2648:Kaiser Wilhelm Society 2643: 2603: 2564:boiling water reactors 2474: 2376:Nuclear chain reaction 2371: 2251: 1992: 1887: 1825: 1542: 1310: 1288:Fission product yields 1280: 1099:nuclear chain reaction 975:nuclear chain reaction 69: 8219:Interatomic potential 8010:Energy transformation 7699:K-19 nuclear accident 7494:Nuclear weapons tests 7325:1987 Goiânia accident 7127:Synchrotron radiation 7117:Earth's energy budget 7099:Radioactive materials 7094:Particle accelerators 5854:Anti-nuclear movement 4885:P. K. Kuroda (1956). 4459:"Über das Element 93" 4403:Chadwick, J. (1933). 4369:Chadwick, J. (1932). 4121:Lee, John C. (2020). 3720:Lilley, John (2001). 3635:10.1103/PhysRev.53.64 3350:Hybrid fusion/fission 3272:Criticality in nature 3242:J. Robert Oppenheimer 3030:uranium tetrachloride 3005:. On 11 October, the 2973: 2945:Frédéric Joliot-Curie 2795: 2634: 2585: 2486:to trigger fissions. 2484:particle accelerators 2464: 2363: 2301:nucleon pair breaking 2252: 1993: 1885: 1815: 1766:, whereas those like 1746:fast-neutron reactors 1534: 1471:thermonuclear weapons 1286: 1277: 1222:fast breeder reactors 1013:nuclear transmutation 1011:Fission is a form of 546:High-energy processes 244:– equal all the above 142:Models of the nucleus 47: 18:Thermonuclear fission 8667:Efficient energy use 8640:Airborne wind energy 8618:Solar thermal energy 8525:Electricity delivery 8137:Thermodynamic system 8082:Irreversible process 7831:Nuclear power debate 7693:Cuban Missile Crisis 7544:in the United States 7396:Radiation protection 7249:Radiation protection 7137:Black-body radiation 7044:Background radiation 6959:(physics and health) 6762:Reversed field pinch 6557:Traveling-wave (TWR) 6041:Supercritical (SCWR) 5539:Gemstone irradiation 4994:Frontiers in Physics 4457:Ida Noddack (1934). 4317:J. Chadwick (1932). 3284:Oklo Fossil Reactors 3222:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 2853:Princeton University 2529:fast breeder reactor 2085: 1904: 1706:thermonuclear weapon 1418:Maria Goeppert Mayer 1226:Nuclear reprocessing 582:nuclear astrophysics 8914:Austrian inventions 8689:Energy conservation 8611:Photovoltaic system 8584:Nuclear power plant 8269:Quantum fluctuation 8132:Thermodynamic state 8107:Thermal equilibrium 7816:Nuclear close calls 7366:Radiation hardening 7308:Radiation incidents 7244:Medical radiography 7203:Radiation syndrome 7157:Cherenkov radiation 5927:Aqueous homogeneous 5722:Reprocessed uranium 5395:Safety and security 5016:2020FrP.....8...63B 4906:1956JChPh..25..781K 4854:1939Natur.143..680V 4788:1939PhRv...56..426B 4734:1939Natur.143..239M 4687:1939NW.....27...89H 4675:Naturwissenschaften 4627:1939PhRv...55..511A 4475:1934AngCh..47..653N 4421:1933RSPSA.142....1C 4387:1932RSPSA.136..692C 4338:1932Natur.129Q.312C 4263:2012PMag...92..379R 4155:. atomicarchive.com 4074:2005AIPC..798...77B 3968:on 25 January 2017. 3905:2004PAN....67.1892K 3865:"The Hydrogen Bomb" 3763:1939PhRv...55..418B 3673:1939PhRv...55..504F 3627:1938PhRv...53...64D 3441:Петржак, Константин 3158:Herbert L. Anderson 3149:reproduction factor 2870:Herbert L. Anderson 2865:Columbia University 2838:. Hahn suggested a 2760:stated, "A beam of 2592:atomic bomb dropped 2527:. The better known 2320:is plotted against 1748:, and in weapons). 1422:nuclear shell model 1420:later proposed the 1320:spontaneous fission 1129:hydrogen fuel cells 1044:Spontaneous fission 986:exothermic reaction 564:Photodisintegration 487:Capturing processes 401:Spontaneous fission 394:Internal conversion 325:Valley of stability 320:Island of stability 154:Nuclear shell model 8726:Sustainable energy 8704:Energy development 8694:Energy consumption 8530:Energy engineering 7724:Operation Plumbbob 7687:Operation Fishbowl 7624:Chernobyl disaster 7361:Radioactive source 7182:Radiation exposure 7162:Askaryan radiation 7142:Particle radiation 7026:Ionizing radiation 6841:Dense plasma focus 5756:Actinide chemistry 5221:Isotope separation 5118:Nuclear technology 5074:2018-03-08 at the 5055:2010-02-16 at the 4695:10.1007/BF01488988 3796:LibreTexts Library 3360:Nuclear propulsion 3226:uranium enrichment 3145:Pupin Laboratories 3122:On 23 April 1942, 3083:On 28 March 1941, 3072:In December 1940, 3009:was delivered via 3003:Franklin Roosevelt 2979: 2832:Otto Robert Frisch 2806: 2743:ionization chamber 2737:English physicist 2644: 2604: 2537:thorium fuel cycle 2501:generating station 2475: 2411:nuclear fuel cycle 2372: 2247: 1988: 1888: 1826: 1543: 1516:neutron absorption 1311: 1281: 1230:spent nuclear fuel 1197:thorium fuel cycle 1148:Neutron absorption 1073:processes such as 996:of the fragments ( 967:biological fission 963:Otto Robert Frisch 861:Physics portal 655:Quark–gluon plasma 438:Radiogenic nuclide 70: 8904:German inventions 8884:Nuclear chemistry 8861: 8860: 8628:Solar power tower 8274:Quantum potential 8112:Thermal reservoir 8015:Energy transition 7900: 7899: 7826:Nuclear-free zone 7789:Anti-war movement 7745:Rocky Flats Plant 7403: 7402: 7384:Radiation effects 7254:Radiation therapy 7190: 7189: 7132:Thermal radiation 7069:Neutron radiation 7034:Radioactive decay 6923: 6922: 6873: 6872: 6869: 6868: 6820:Magnetized-target 6717: 6716: 6680: 6679: 6511: 6510: 6507: 6506: 6451: 6450: 6335: 6334: 6267: 6266: 5872: 5871: 5827: 5826: 5696: 5695: 5683:Weapon-free zones 5510: 5509: 5502:Radiopharmacology 5069:Nuclear Files.org 5063:atomicarchive.com 4914:10.1063/1.1743058 4822:978-0-670-02064-5 4728:(3615): 239–240. 4507:978-0-520-23106-1 4228:978-4-00-009766-6 4202:978-0-7043-3382-6 4082:10.1063/1.2137231 3913:10.1134/1.1811196 3840:"Nuclear fission" 3826:978-0-486-48238-5 3745:Bohr, N. (1939). 3423:978-1-4419-5860-0 3386:Nuclear Chemistry 3206:Manhattan Project 3196:Manhattan Project 3183:boron trifluoride 3078:gaseous diffusion 3060:, they wrote the 3026:Alfred O. C. Nier 2993:thought that the 2680:Liquid drop model 2660:Ernest Rutherford 2512:research reactors 2505:nuclear submarine 2275:fission fragments 2239: 2189: 1835:Coulomb repulsion 1818:Coulomb explosion 1402:activation energy 1381:liquid drop model 1370:megaelectronvolts 1314:Radioactive decay 1240:Physical overview 1234:closed fuel cycle 1071:quantum tunneling 941:radioactive decay 911: 910: 597: 343:Radioactive decay 299:Nuclear stability 126:Nuclear structure 52:is absorbed by a 16:(Redirected from 8921: 8849: 8848: 8837: 8825: 8824: 8813: 8812: 8787:Carbon footprint 8721:Renewable energy 8562:Hydroelectricity 8552:Geothermal power 7995:Energy condition 7927: 7920: 7913: 7904: 7903: 7892: 7891: 7883: 7882: 7881: 7712:Kyshtym disaster 7707:nuclear meltdown 7634:Related articles 7618:Goiânia accident 7430: 7423: 7416: 7407: 7406: 7344:Related articles 7259:Radiation damage 7084:Nuclear reactors 6969: 6968: 6950: 6943: 6936: 6927: 6926: 6911: 6910: 6899: 6898: 6888: 6887: 6886: 6798: 6757:Levitated dipole 6727: 6719: 6718: 6667:Helium gas (GFR) 6530: 6529: 6525: 6462: 6461: 6346: 6345: 6296: 6295: 6289: 6288: 6284: 6283: 6065: 6064: 6061: 6060: 5899: 5891: 5890: 5883:Nuclear reactors 5878: 5877: 5777:High-level (HLW) 5707: 5706: 5554: 5553: 5534:Food irradiation 5524:Atomic gardening 5417: 5416: 5400:Nuclear meltdown 5226:Nuclear material 5216:Fissile material 5211:Fertile material 5126: 5125: 5111: 5104: 5097: 5088: 5087: 5029: 5027: 5009: 4984: 4982: 4981: 4975: 4968: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4948: 4937: 4918: 4917: 4891: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4865: 4863:10.1038/143680a0 4833: 4827: 4826: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4767: 4761: 4760: 4758: 4756: 4742:10.1038/143239a0 4713: 4707: 4706: 4666: 4660: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4610: 4604: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4560: 4554: 4553: 4540: 4534: 4533: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4454: 4448: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4400: 4398: 4381:(830): 692–708. 4366: 4360: 4359: 4349: 4347:10.1038/129312a0 4323: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4304: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4248: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4162: 4156: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4118: 4107: 4106: 4100: 4092: 4090: 4089: 4059: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4040: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4017:on May 15, 2018. 4016: 4009: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3967: 3961:. Archived from 3960: 3944: 3938: 3931: 3925: 3924: 3898: 3878: 3872: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3851: 3835: 3829: 3816:J. Byrne (2011) 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3717: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3652: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3606: 3600: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3556: 3509: 3508: 3490: 3463: 3462: 3437: 3428: 3427: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3380: 3340:Fissile material 3329: 3324: 3323: 3315: 3310: 3309: 3308: 3210:Leslie R. Groves 3133:Glenn T. Seaborg 3113:Eger V. Murphree 2906: 2904: 2903: 2886:Washington, D.C. 2818:Fritz Strassmann 2798:Deutsches Museum 2762:thermal neutrons 2752:In the words of 2664:Rutherford model 2520:breeder reactors 2451:Fission reactors 2343: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2298: 2292: 2282: 2269: 2263: 2256: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2240: 2238: 2233: 2232: 2231: 2222: 2214: 2205: 2203: 2202: 2190: 2188: 2187: 2183: 2174: 2168: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2154: 2153: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2127: 2121: 2120: 2108: 2103: 2102: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2045: 2035: 2031: 2024: 2013: 2003: 1997: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1986: 1977: 1972: 1964: 1963: 1954: 1946: 1945: 1936: 1925: 1917: 1899: 1859:delayed-critical 1851:delayed neutrons 1792:delayed neutrons 1776: 1774: 1773: 1761: 1759: 1758: 1731:Among the heavy 1719: 1717: 1716: 1703: 1701: 1700: 1688: 1686: 1685: 1677: 1675: 1674: 1662: 1660: 1659: 1652:, the resulting 1651: 1649: 1648: 1636: 1634: 1633: 1625: 1623: 1622: 1614: 1612: 1611: 1603: 1601: 1600: 1592: 1590: 1589: 1581: 1579: 1578: 1570: 1568: 1567: 1559: 1557: 1556: 1513: 1511: 1510: 1498: 1496: 1495: 1487: 1485: 1484: 1451:over periods of 1438:fission products 1333:nuclear reaction 1326:Nuclear reaction 1257:fission products 1211: 1208: 1207: 1190: 1188: 1187: 1179: 1177: 1176: 1164: 1162: 1161: 1122: 1120: 1119: 955:Fritz Strassmann 903: 896: 889: 876: 871: 870: 863: 859: 858: 735:Skłodowska-Curie 595: 411:Neutron emission 179:' classification 131:Nuclear reaction 86: 72: 71: 21: 8929: 8928: 8924: 8923: 8922: 8920: 8919: 8918: 8899:1938 in science 8889:Neutron sources 8879:Nuclear physics 8874:Nuclear fission 8864: 8863: 8862: 8857: 8801: 8797:Waste-to-energy 8775: 8711:Energy security 8657: 8651: 8507: 8499: 8478:Natural uranium 8412: 8393:Mechanical wave 8324:Energy carriers 8318: 8158: 8087:Isolated system 7965: 7959: 7936: 7931: 7901: 7896: 7879: 7877: 7870: 7846:Peace activists 7761: 7755: 7580: 7578: 7572: 7450: 7448: 7446: 7439: 7434: 7404: 7399: 7398: 7375: 7371:Havana syndrome 7356:Nuclear physics 7339: 7303: 7196: 7186: 7172:Unruh radiation 7108: 7089:Nuclear weapons 7074:Nuclear fission 7020: 6960: 6954: 6924: 6919: 6884: 6882: 6865: 6829: 6796: 6781: 6738: 6728: 6723: 6713: 6676: 6581: 6526: 6519: 6518: 6503: 6447: 6378: 6353: 6331: 6303: 6285: 6278: 6277: 6276: 6263: 6229: 6220: 6202: 6167: 6158: 6072: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6045: 5959:Natural fission 5913: 5912: 5900: 5895: 5885: 5868: 5844:Nuclear weapons 5823: 5782:Low-level (LLW) 5760: 5692: 5644: 5543: 5506: 5453: 5406: 5327: 5259: 5182: 5120: 5115: 5076:Wayback Machine 5057:Wayback Machine 5036: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4966: 4960: 4952: 4950: 4946: 4935: 4929: 4926: 4924:Further reading 4921: 4889: 4883: 4879: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4809: 4805: 4776:Physical Review 4768: 4764: 4754: 4752: 4714: 4710: 4667: 4663: 4646: 4642: 4615:Physical Review 4611: 4607: 4590: 4586: 4575: 4561: 4557: 4542: 4541: 4537: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4508: 4494: 4490: 4455: 4451: 4442: 4438: 4367: 4363: 4321: 4315: 4311: 4302: 4300: 4291: 4290: 4286: 4246: 4240: 4236: 4229: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4119: 4110: 4094: 4093: 4087: 4085: 4057: 4051: 4047: 4038: 4036: 4027: 4026: 4022: 4014: 4007: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3965: 3958: 3946: 3945: 3941: 3932: 3928: 3879: 3875: 3862: 3858: 3849: 3847: 3836: 3832: 3815: 3811: 3801: 3799: 3790: 3789: 3785: 3775: 3773: 3751:Physical Review 3743: 3739: 3732: 3718: 3695: 3685: 3683: 3661:Physical Review 3653: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3615:Physical Review 3607: 3603: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3557: 3512: 3505: 3491: 3466: 3459: 3438: 3431: 3424: 3408: 3404: 3397: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3325: 3318: 3311: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3269: 3198: 3192: 3101:Eugene T. Booth 3022:John R. Dunning 3011:Alexander Sachs 2999:Albert Einstein 2953:Hans von Halban 2913: 2902: 2900: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2758:Philip Morrison 2695:Frederick Soddy 2689:had found, and 2687:Henri Becquerel 2629: 2623: 2618: 2596:Nagasaki, Japan 2580: 2459: 2453: 2428: 2378: 2358: 2356:Chain reactions 2339: 2333: 2327: 2321: 2315: 2294: 2288: 2278: 2265: 2259: 2234: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2210: 2206: 2204: 2198: 2194: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2169: 2163: 2158: 2157: 2155: 2149: 2145: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2122: 2116: 2112: 2104: 2098: 2094: 2086: 2083: 2082: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2041: 2033: 2030: 2026: 2023: 2019: 2009: 1999: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1921: 1913: 1905: 1902: 1901: 1895: 1880: 1863:prompt critical 1855:reactor control 1816:Animation of a 1787: 1772: 1770: 1769: 1768: 1767: 1757: 1755: 1754: 1753: 1752: 1715: 1713: 1712: 1711: 1710: 1699: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1694: 1684: 1682: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1673: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1668: 1658: 1656: 1655: 1654: 1653: 1647: 1645: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1632: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1627: 1626:target forms a 1621: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1616: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1599: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1594: 1588: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1583: 1577: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1572: 1566: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1561: 1555: 1553: 1552: 1551: 1550: 1529: 1524: 1509: 1507: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1494: 1492: 1491: 1490: 1489: 1483: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1406:fission barrier 1393:surface tension 1337:ternary fission 1328: 1316: 1292:thermal neutron 1247: 1242: 1206: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1200: 1186: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1181: 1175: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1167:minor actinides 1160: 1158: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1118: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1113: 1103:nuclear reactor 1091:nuclear weapons 1075:proton emission 1032:ternary fission 957:and physicists 914:Nuclear fission 907: 866: 853: 852: 845: 844: 680: 670: 669: 650: 640: 639: 584: 580: 577:Nucleosynthesis 569: 568: 547: 539: 538: 488: 480: 479: 453: 451:Nuclear fission 443: 442: 416:Proton emission 345: 335: 334: 300: 292: 291: 193: 180: 169: 168: 144: 76:Nuclear physics 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8927: 8917: 8916: 8911: 8906: 8901: 8896: 8891: 8886: 8881: 8876: 8859: 8858: 8856: 8855: 8843: 8831: 8819: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8800: 8799: 8794: 8792:Jevons paradox 8789: 8783: 8781: 8777: 8776: 8774: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8716:Energy storage 8713: 8708: 8707: 8706: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8685: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8663: 8661: 8653: 8652: 8650: 8649: 8648: 8647: 8642: 8632: 8631: 8630: 8625: 8615: 8614: 8613: 8608: 8598: 8593: 8592: 8591: 8586: 8576: 8575: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8554: 8549: 8548: 8547: 8542: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8520:Electric power 8517: 8511: 8509: 8501: 8500: 8498: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8481: 8480: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8449: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8428: 8422: 8420: 8418:Primary energy 8414: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8389: 8388: 8378: 8377: 8376: 8366: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8328: 8326: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8215: 8214: 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8178: 8177: 8166: 8164: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8156: 8155: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8052:Entropic force 8049: 8042:Thermodynamics 8039: 8034: 8033: 8032: 8027: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7980: 7975: 7969: 7967: 7961: 7960: 7958: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7941: 7938: 7937: 7930: 7929: 7922: 7915: 7907: 7898: 7897: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7869: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7851:Peace movement 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7765: 7763: 7757: 7756: 7754: 7753: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7726: 7720: 7718:Windscale fire 7714: 7708: 7701: 7695: 7689: 7679: 7677:Lucens reactor 7673: 7663: 7657: 7651: 7644: 7638: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7620: 7614: 7608: 7603: 7597: 7591: 7584: 7582: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7554: 7553: 7548: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7534:United Kingdom 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7455: 7453: 7441: 7440: 7433: 7432: 7425: 7418: 7410: 7401: 7400: 7380: 7377: 7376: 7374: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7347: 7345: 7341: 7340: 7338: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7311: 7309: 7305: 7304: 7302: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7219:Health physics 7216: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7200: 7198: 7192: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7184: 7179: 7177:Dark radiation 7174: 7169: 7167:Bremsstrahlung 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7113: 7110: 7109: 7107: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7079:Nuclear fusion 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7049:Alpha particle 7046: 7041: 7036: 7030: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6977: 6975: 6966: 6962: 6961: 6953: 6952: 6945: 6938: 6930: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6917: 6905: 6893: 6878: 6875: 6874: 6871: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6851:Muon-catalyzed 6848: 6843: 6837: 6835: 6831: 6830: 6828: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6811: 6810: 6800: 6791: 6789: 6783: 6782: 6780: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6748: 6746: 6740: 6739: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6715: 6714: 6712: 6711: 6706: 6705: 6704: 6699: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6681: 6678: 6677: 6675: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6658: 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6591: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6542:Integral (IFR) 6539: 6533: 6527: 6516: 6513: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6502: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6470: 6468: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6406: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6388: 6386: 6380: 6379: 6377: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6357: 6355: 6351: 6343: 6337: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6308: 6306: 6301: 6293: 6286: 6272: 6269: 6268: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6218: 6212: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6189: 6188: 6183: 6172: 6170: 6165: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6112: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6100: 6097: 6094: 6091: 6077: 6075: 6070: 6062: 6047: 6046: 6044: 6043: 6038: 6037: 6036: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6016: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5961: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5929: 5923: 5921: 5915: 5914: 5906: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5887: 5886: 5874: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5861: 5859:Uranium mining 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5822: 5821: 5816: 5815: 5814: 5809: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5768: 5766: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5758: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5741: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5732:Minor actinide 5729: 5724: 5713: 5711: 5704: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5674: 5673: 5668: 5658: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5618: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5560: 5558: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5463: 5461: 5455: 5454: 5452: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5429:Autoradiograph 5425: 5423: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5392: 5391: 5390: 5380: 5379: 5378: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5337: 5335: 5329: 5328: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5269: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5257: 5256: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5244: 5243: 5238: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5192: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5151:Atomic nucleus 5148: 5143: 5138: 5132: 5130: 5122: 5121: 5114: 5113: 5106: 5099: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5066: 5060: 5047: 5042: 5035: 5034:External links 5032: 5031: 5030: 4985: 4958: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4919: 4877: 4828: 4821: 4803: 4782:(5): 426–450. 4762: 4708: 4671:Strassmann, F. 4661: 4640: 4605: 4584: 4573: 4555: 4552:. 7 July 2015. 4535: 4521: 4506: 4488: 4449: 4436: 4361: 4309: 4284: 4257:(4): 669–688. 4234: 4227: 4208: 4201: 4181: 4174: 4157: 4151:2002-10-07 at 4138: 4131: 4108: 4045: 4020: 3986:"167 MeV" 3971: 3939: 3926: 3896:hep-ph/0410100 3873: 3856: 3830: 3809: 3783: 3737: 3730: 3693: 3647: 3601: 3576: 3569: 3510: 3503: 3464: 3457: 3429: 3422: 3402: 3395: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3355:Nuclear fusion 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3316: 3300: 3297: 3288:Francis Perrin 3268: 3265: 3191: 3188: 3175:Frank Spedding 3117:Arthur Compton 3067:MAUD Committee 2976:Chicago Pile-1 2912: 2909: 2901: 2845:binary fission 2754:Richard Rhodes 2739:James Chadwick 2728:John Cockcroft 2719:James Chadwick 2715:split the atom 2710:Ernest Marsden 2625:Main article: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2588:mushroom cloud 2579: 2576: 2572:heat exchanger 2541: 2540: 2516: 2508: 2496:power reactors 2478:reactions are 2467:cooling towers 2452: 2449: 2445:breeding ratio 2426: 2374:Main article: 2357: 2354: 2285:fragment yield 2246: 2243: 2237: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2166: 2161: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2090: 2038:speed of light 2028: 2021: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1909: 1879: 1878:Binding energy 1876: 1872:Chicago Pile-1 1807:binding energy 1796:decay products 1786: 1783: 1771: 1756: 1714: 1704:directly (see 1698: 1683: 1672: 1657: 1646: 1631: 1620: 1609: 1598: 1587: 1576: 1565: 1554: 1547:cross sections 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1508: 1493: 1482: 1345:chain reaction 1327: 1324: 1315: 1312: 1306:, used in the 1261:kinetic energy 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1205: 1185: 1174: 1159: 1117: 1108:The amount of 1006:binding energy 1002:nuclear fusion 994:kinetic energy 909: 908: 906: 905: 898: 891: 883: 880: 879: 878: 877: 864: 847: 846: 843: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 692: 687: 681: 676: 675: 672: 671: 668: 667: 662: 657: 651: 646: 645: 642: 641: 638: 637: 636: 635: 630: 625: 616: 615: 614: 613: 608: 603: 592: 591: 589:Nuclear fusion 585: 575: 574: 571: 570: 567: 566: 561: 560: 559: 548: 545: 544: 541: 540: 537: 536: 535: 534: 529: 519: 518: 517: 512: 502: 501: 500: 489: 486: 485: 482: 481: 478: 477: 472: 471: 470: 460: 454: 449: 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 435: 430: 425: 419: 418: 413: 408: 403: 398: 397: 396: 391: 381: 376: 375: 374: 369: 368: 367: 352: 346: 341: 340: 337: 336: 333: 332: 330:Stable nuclide 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 305:Binding energy 301: 298: 297: 294: 293: 290: 289: 288: 287: 277: 272: 267: 261: 260: 246: 245: 238: 237: 221: 220: 208: 207: 195: 194: 181: 175: 174: 171: 170: 167: 166: 161: 156: 151: 145: 140: 139: 136: 135: 134: 133: 128: 123: 118: 116:Nuclear matter 113: 112: 111: 106: 96: 88: 87: 79: 78: 39:Nuclear fusion 32:Split the Atom 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8926: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8894:Radioactivity 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8871: 8869: 8854: 8853: 8844: 8842: 8841: 8836: 8832: 8830: 8829: 8820: 8818: 8817: 8808: 8807: 8804: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8784: 8782: 8778: 8772: 8771:United States 8769: 8767: 8766:South America 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8705: 8702: 8701: 8700: 8699:Energy policy 8697: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8669: 8668: 8665: 8664: 8662: 8660: 8654: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8637: 8636: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8623:Solar furnace 8621: 8620: 8619: 8616: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8581: 8580: 8579:Nuclear power 8577: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8559: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8538: 8537: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8512: 8510: 8506: 8505:Energy system 8502: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8479: 8476: 8475: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8458:Gravitational 8456: 8454: 8451: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8433: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8423: 8421: 8419: 8415: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8387: 8386:Hydrogen fuel 8384: 8383: 8382: 8379: 8375: 8372: 8371: 8370: 8367: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8354: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8327: 8325: 8321: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8213: 8210: 8209: 8208: 8207:Gravitational 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8176: 8173: 8172: 8171: 8168: 8167: 8165: 8161: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8077:Heat transfer 8075: 8073: 8072:Heat capacity 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8044: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8025:Negative mass 8023: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8005:Energy system 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7989: 7986: 7985: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7968: 7962: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7939: 7935: 7928: 7923: 7921: 7916: 7914: 7909: 7908: 7905: 7895: 7887: 7886: 7873: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7801: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7758: 7752: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7727: 7725: 7721: 7719: 7715: 7713: 7709: 7706: 7702: 7700: 7696: 7694: 7690: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7678: 7674: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7656: 7652: 7649: 7645: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7626: 7625: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7613: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7598: 7596: 7592: 7590: 7586: 7585: 7583: 7575: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7552: 7551:United States 7549: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7442: 7438: 7431: 7426: 7424: 7419: 7417: 7412: 7411: 7408: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7388:Radioactivity 7385: 7378: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7342: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7312: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7202: 7201: 7199: 7193: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7054:Beta particle 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7039:Cluster decay 7037: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6967: 6965:Main articles 6963: 6958: 6951: 6946: 6944: 6939: 6937: 6932: 6931: 6928: 6916: 6915: 6906: 6904: 6903: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6880: 6879: 6876: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6838: 6836: 6832: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6809: 6808:electrostatic 6806: 6805: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6788: 6784: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6731: 6726: 6720: 6710: 6707: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6687: 6683: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6588: 6587:Generation IV 6584: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6537:Breeder (FBR) 6535: 6534: 6531: 6528: 6523: 6514: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6471: 6469: 6467: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6442: 6439: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6393: 6390: 6389: 6387: 6385: 6381: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6354: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6309: 6307: 6305: 6297: 6294: 6290: 6287: 6282: 6275: 6270: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6239: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6223: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6205: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6178: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6161: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6117: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6104: 6101: 6098: 6095: 6092: 6089: 6088: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6066: 6063: 6059: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6039: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5934: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5920: 5916: 5911: 5910: 5903: 5898: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5839:Nuclear power 5837: 5836: 5834: 5830: 5820: 5819:Transmutation 5817: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5804: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5757: 5754: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5699: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5616:high-altitude 5614: 5613: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5606:Proliferation 5604: 5602: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5546: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5492:Brachytherapy 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5460: 5456: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5426: 5424: 5422: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5409: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5384: 5381: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5334: 5330: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5288:Cross section 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5262: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5229: 5228: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5112: 5107: 5105: 5100: 5098: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5083: 5080: 5077: 5073: 5070: 5067: 5064: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5026: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4986: 4976:on 2013-12-03 4972: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4949:on 2014-03-19 4945: 4941: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4927: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4888: 4881: 4873: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4848:(3625): 680. 4847: 4843: 4839: 4832: 4824: 4818: 4814: 4807: 4798: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4766: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4712: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4665: 4658: 4657:0-671-44133-7 4654: 4650: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4601:0-671-44133-7 4598: 4594: 4588: 4581: 4576: 4574:0-52-128010-9 4570: 4566: 4559: 4551: 4550: 4545: 4539: 4531: 4525: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4446: 4440: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4415:(846): 1–25. 4414: 4410: 4406: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4332:(3252): 312. 4331: 4327: 4320: 4313: 4299:on 2012-09-02 4298: 4294: 4288: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4238: 4230: 4224: 4220: 4219: 4212: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4185: 4177: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4154: 4153:archive.today 4150: 4147: 4142: 4134: 4132:9781119582328 4128: 4124: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4104: 4098: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4049: 4035:on 2010-03-05 4034: 4030: 4024: 4013: 4006: 4004: 4003:"13 MeV" 4000: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3983: 3975: 3964: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3943: 3936: 3930: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3870: 3866: 3860: 3846:on 2013-01-17 3845: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3813: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3733: 3731:9780471979364 3727: 3723: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3651: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3605: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3580: 3572: 3570:9781451677614 3566: 3562: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3506: 3504:9783030845940 3500: 3496: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3460: 3458:5-02-007779-8 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3434: 3425: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3406: 3398: 3396:81-261-1763-X 3392: 3388: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3332: 3328: 3327:Energy portal 3322: 3317: 3314: 3303: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3264: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3245: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3187: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3136: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3068: 3063: 3059: 3058:Mark Oliphant 3054: 3053:cross section 3050: 3046: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2977: 2972: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2939: 2938:Lewis Strauss 2935: 2931: 2930:Eugene Wigner 2927: 2923: 2918: 2908: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2848: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2790: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2748: 2747:Joliot-Curies 2744: 2740: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2724:Ernest Walton 2720: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2683: 2681: 2678:proposed the 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2656:radioactivity 2653: 2649: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2613: 2610: 2609:critical mass 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2578:Fission bombs 2575: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2514: 2513: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2497: 2493: 2492: 2491: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2458: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2368: 2362: 2353: 2349: 2347: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2302: 2297: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2268: 2262: 2241: 2228: 2215: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2164: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2088: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2070: 2064: 2058: 2051: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2017: 2016:atomic number 2012: 2007: 2002: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1947: 1942: 1938: 1929: 1918: 1907: 1898: 1892: 1884: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1831: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1782: 1780: 1765: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1707: 1692: 1664: 1640: 1548: 1539: 1538:nuclear force 1533: 1519: 1517: 1502: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1467:fast neutrons 1464: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1426:nuclear fuels 1423: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1397:Coulomb force 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1347:is possible. 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1323: 1321: 1309: 1308:thorium cycle 1305: 1301: 1300:plutonium-239 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1276: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1253: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 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