312:
572:
617:
534:
770:
699:
124:
39:
491:, the wood from which was used to build obstacles. Another 12,000 workers set about blocking or obstructing the gates to allow a minimum of traffic to pass. The openings for canals and aqueducts were blocked or closed with gratings. Dams were constructed in the Seine to allow the normally dry ditch of the wall to fill with water. A large number of redoubts, entrenchments and artillery batteries were built beyond the wall in an attempt cover any dead ground between the forts and to deny the high ground above them to the enemy. Immediately to the northeast of the wall, the area in front of
374:
458:
883:
195:
902:
31:
550:; the government was forced to withdraw to Versailles and a second siege began while the Parisians elected their own government known as the Commune. Initial fighting was over the outlying forts which had been abandoned in accordance with the peace treaty with the Prussians. On the morning of 3 April, a massed foray westwards towards Versailles by 27,000 National Guards was easily dispersed by artillery fire from
234:, who suspected that the government had ulterior political motives: that the fortifications, especially the detached forts, were intended to threaten the Parisians in case of a revolt against the monarchy. Other arguments suggested that by making Paris a fortress, it would make the city an irresistible objective for any invading army. Thiers was forced to resign over foreign policy in October, but his successor,
511:
some 240,000 men and 1,140 guns, so it was decided not to take the city by direct assault, but by bombarding the garrison into submission. Despite their numerical inferiority, the
Prussians were able to defeat several sorties by the garrison; however, supplying sufficient artillery ammunition proved problematic until late in the siege. Eventually, the loss of the
736:, had remained privately owned and although buildings of any sort were forbidden, it was quickly occupied by poor settlers, many of whom had been evicted during the improvements in central Paris. The zone was completely cleared in the siege preparations of 1870, but was reoccupied soon afterwards and several
690:
wall was made possible by the extension of the Paris boundary to the Thiers wall. The inclusion of these slum areas was initially unpopular with
Parisians; one journalist complained that "They have sewn rags onto the dress of a queen". However, the construction of new roads and other infrastructure
167:
had captured the city after a single day's fighting, there was renewed political pressure for the capital to be fortified. A royal commission for the defence of the kingdom considered the issue between 1818 and 1820, finally recommending a detailed plan of defences in the following year, but it was
557:
Once sufficient troops and guns had been gathered, the
Versailles government began a bombardment of the Thiers wall itself, concentrating on a southwestern section at Point-du-Jour on the right bank of the Seine. By 25 May the wall there was partly demolished, but there was no move to assault the
510:
When the
Prussians arrived on 2 September, they began a wide encirclement of Paris starting from the southwest which was completed a week later when they had entrenched themselves on all the commanding heights, a front of some 80 kilometres (50 mi). The Prussian force was outnumbered, having
180:
was proclaimed king of the French in 1830, there was renewed interest in the issue. A further commission on the defence of the kingdom first met in 1836 and by May 1838 began to consider the defence of Paris. After much debate, it was decided that the capital should be fortified in two ways; by a
471:
In the enthusiasm of the declaration of war against
Prussia in July 1870, there was little thought given to the defence of Paris, as it was assumed that the fighting would all be in Germany. In the thirty years since the construction of the wall and the outlying forts, the range of artillery had
818:
In 1908, the municipal council began negotiations with the war ministry, resulting in two treaties ratified in 1912 to entirely demilitarise the fortifications, the first legal step towards their demolition. On 19 April 1919, there was a vote on the laws to permit the demolition of the enceinte
185:
and would prevent infiltration or a surprise attack, and further out from that, by a chain of detached forts manned by the regular field army, which could prevent an enemy from establishing positions from which they could bombard the city and create a line so long that it would be difficult for
142:
ordered the demolition of all the walls surrounding Paris on the grounds that France was militarily secure and that a modern system of border fortifications had been constructed at great expense, and that like London and Madrid, Paris had become too large to fortify. Following the course of the
545:
resulted in a conservative and monarchist dominated government led by
Adolphe Thiers. This completely alienated the radical working class Parisians, represented by the National Guard which was still under arms in the city. This led to a clash on 18 March between the National Guard and regular
370:. The wall was also pierced in five places by rivers and canals and later, eight railway crossing points were constructed. All these access ways made the wall harder to defend, but in peacetime, there were insufficient crossings for a major commercial centre which resulted in congestion.
137:
By the mid-16th century, Paris was defended by walls which had been built and rebuilt over the preceding centuries, but apart from the latest additions were largely obsolete for modern warfare and enclosed too small an area to contain the growing suburbs. In 1670, King
334:
in the southeast of Paris, round to
Bastion No 94 which completed the circuit on the opposite bank. For command purposes, the wall was divided into nine military sectors, each sector consisting of between eight and twelve bastions. The wall was pierced by 17
261:
on which it was forbidden to erect anything except a wooden fence. Although landowners whose property was confiscated for the actual fortifications were paid compensation, there was nothing for those whose property lay within the zone and was thus devalued.
245:
for the work, including 17,970 million francs for land acquisition, 16,608 million francs for earthworks and 83,356 million francs for masonry. It was also necessary to clear an area in front of the fortifications to ensure that there was an unobstructed
302:
being built by the
Prussians at that time. The work was undertaken by military engineers and commercial contractors and used a workforce of 20,000 troops and civilians. The course of the works crossed through 13 suburbs and was completed in 1846.
562:
that followed, the
Communards fought from one street barricade to another, although Haussmann's new wide and straight avenues gave the government artillery good fields of fire and enabled the infantry to outflank fixed positions.
186:
besiegers to enforce a tight blockade. A further point in favour of this dual approach was that regular troops would not come into close contact with the notoriously rebellious
Parisians, which might lead to a loss of discipline.
653:
immediately outside the new wall quickly became a popular venue for walks and picnics by prosperous Parisians. This encouraged the development inside the walls of restaurants and dancehalls to entertain them and being beyond the
591:, ordered that the outlying forts be armed and the gates of the Thiers wall be made defensible by the addition of barbed wire and barriers of oak beams pierced with embrasures. Roadside plane trees were cut down to create an
42:
The Thiers wall and the Porte de Versailles at the turn of the 20th century. On the right is the rampart and the stone scarp wall, on the left is the counterscarp and beyond that the sloping glacis, with the slums of the
377:
Profile or cross-section of the Thiers wall. On the left is the earthen rampart with a masonry scarp wall. The ditch is in the centre and on the right is the angled counterscarp with the glacis sloping away to open
616:
434:, and were completed in their present form in 1861. In 1869, a supporting railway line was completed which also followed the course of the wall and could be requisitioned by the military in an emergency, the
410:
commission who visited in 1856 noted that the glacis, which rose 6 metres (20 ft) above the floor of the ditch, only partially protected the vulnerable masonry of the scarp wall. Originally, there was a
744:
from the provinces and neighbouring countries. The zone varied along its length from open fields and vegetable gardens to homes made from old railway carriages, sheds and masonry slums. The last outbreak of
558:
breach until a friendly civilian appeared on the parapet to tell the attackers that the National Guard sentries had all gone off to find shelter, allowing the Versailles army to pour into the city. In the
868:, which now carries 1.1 million vehicles daily, now represents a similar barrier to the integration of Paris with its suburbs as the old fortifications did and in 2016 resulted in the creation of the
507:, the new president, quipped that "We have many men but few soldiers". In all the garrison numbered about half a million men, with 3,000 cannon of various types, many manned by naval reservists.
503:) were installed and shelters were constructed to protect against plunging mortar fire. The National Guard was expanded from 24,000 in Paris at the start of the war to 350,000 men, although
406:, a ridge intended to defend the scarp wall from direct bombardment, but the slope away from the fortress was angled so as to allow the defenders to fire on any attacking troops. However, a
636:
The building of the Thiers wall caused an immense alteration to the social structure of the outer parts of the city. The legislative boundary of Paris since the 18th century had been the
603:
in early September and the removal of an imminent threat, there were popular demonstrations against the inconvenience caused by the barriers and they were dismantled by December of 1914.
686:
project, starting with the sweeping away of overcrowded slum housing in the city centre. In 1859, the start of the second phase of development extending beyond the recently demolished
472:
almost doubled, and there were many vantage points in the hills surrounding the city from which modern guns could dominate the fortifications. During August, work had commenced on a
2049:
311:
99:. However, by then it had become obsolete as a fortification and was a barrier to the expansion of the city. The area immediately outside of it, known as "the zone", had become a
211:
1964:
257:("building-free zone") of 974 metres was envisaged, which would have been laid out as public parkland; however the final solution was a zone of 250 metres beyond the
554:
which had been reoccupied by government troops. Fort d'Issy was occupied by the Communards and were only dislodged by a prolonged bombardment lasting until 8 May.
519:
which was the defender's main hope of relief and the starvation of the civil population resulted in a ceasefire on 26 January 1871 and a surrender two days later.
643:, sometimes translated as the "Farmers-General Wall", which had no defensive function being only 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) high, but served to enforce the
271:
214:
to implement the commission's recommendations to fortify Paris. Chabaud-Latour was an army officer who had worked on the commission's plans and was also a
127:
The triumphal entry into Paris of the monarchs of Austria, Russia and Prussia on 31 March 1814, an event which led to calls for the city to be refortified.
2014:
222:. Thiers obtained the backing of his cabinet for the scheme while the deputies were away on holiday, but then found there was fierce resistance from the
666:
housing and industrial sites, expanding from a population of 75,000 in 1831 to 173,000 in 1856. A few areas between the walls remained rural; the last
2044:
724:
1688:
Histoire des fortifications de Paris et leur extension en ĂŽle-de-France ("History of the fortifications of Paris and its extension in Ile-de-France)
487:
Some 80,000 men were employed in clearing fields of fire in front of the fortifications, including felling many of the trees in the parkland of the
238:, was determined to press on with the plan. Debate began in the legislature in January 1841 and the necessary legislation was passed on 3 April.
1479:
849:
753:, there were efforts to clear these slums but progress was slow due to legal disputes with land owners and was only completed during the wartime
394:
by a vertical scarp (or front face) wall of stone, topped by a broad earthen parapet. In front of this was a 25 metres (82 ft) wide dry
841:
571:
537:
At the Point-du-Jour gate, a sympathetic civilian waves a flag on the battered ramparts to show that the Communard defenders have left.
362:
for local access. The gates were closeable by barriers and acted as toll booths the collection of taxes and tariffs; some of the main
206:, when France found itself in opposition to Britain and Austria over events in Egypt. He was therefore amenable to an approach by the
280:, the inspector-general of engineers and chairman of the fortifications committee. The fortifications not only included a continuous
1400:
461:
Interior of a bastion on the Thiers wall during the Siege of Paris, showing the various emergency shelters and defence improvements.
533:
1427:
207:
839:
style of that era. In the south, the space was used to create the parkland setting for the student halls of residence of the
415:
which passed along the top of the counterscarp below the crest of the glacis, but by 1856 this had largely been eroded away.
2054:
177:
909:
769:
749:
in France in 1921 killed twenty rag pickers in the zone. By 1926, the population of the zone was more than 42,000. In the
476:
in an attempt to remedy the most obvious case, but otherwise little was done. However, once news of the French defeats at
2034:
805:
1926:
1894:
1873:
1852:
1833:
1812:
1782:
1761:
1713:
1676:
1639:
1604:
1583:
1003:
683:
587:
at the end of August 1914 showed that Paris was once again threatened. On 3 September, the military governor, General
516:
1737:
835:
built around narrow alleys and courtyards. In the west, some more expensive apartment buildings were constructed in
698:
156:
2019:
1975:
542:
436:
1542:
637:
819:
fortifications. which was only completed in 1932. Some of the space created was used to double the width of the
707:
649:, a tariff on goods entering the capital. After the construction of the Thiers wall, the open grassland of the
492:
294:
lying between 2 and 5 kilometres from the wall. Although designed for all-round defence, these forts, such as
2039:
402:
which sloped at an angle of 45° and was not revetted. Extending out from the top of the counterscarp was the
277:
2029:
466:
326:
The 33 kilometres (21 mi) long main wall, colloquially referred to as "the fortress", consisted of 94
123:
473:
2024:
1453:
112:
17:
1905:
870:
675:
1618:
792:"). A scheme to replace the fortifications with a great circular housing estate was devised in 1884 by
219:
164:
108:
894:
Despite the systematic demolition of the Thiers wall in the 1920s, some remnants have been preserved:
202:
On 1 March 1840, Adolphe Thiers returned to office as prime minister and soon war threatened over the
67:. It was an enclosure constructed between 1841 and 1846 and was proposed by the French prime minister
658:
wall, allowed food and drink to be sold tax-free. The area between the two walls became known as the
600:
559:
330:. These were numbered counting anti-clockwise from Bastion No 1 on the right (northern) bank of the
38:
933:
Bastion N° 1 in the Boulevard Ponatowski, near the Porte de Bercy interchange, 12th arrondissement.
692:
247:
1863:
1029:
580:
387:
203:
182:
1373:
426:") which passed directly behind the works; different sections of which were named after various
662:
or "little suburb", which underwent rapid development over the following decades, primarily of
318:
160:
1916:
1884:
1823:
1802:
1772:
1751:
1703:
1594:
1629:
1573:
621:
395:
383:
258:
231:
76:
1945:
796:, the director of public works for Paris. However, the grassy ramparts had become a popular
551:
1036:(in French). Ministère des Armées - Direction des patrimoines de la mémoire et des archives
1010:(in French). Ministère des Armées - Direction des patrimoines de la mémoire et des archive
512:
253:
8:
1507:"Les fortifications urbaines : une archéologie spécifique ? L'exemple de Paris"
477:
336:
215:
132:
88:
64:
373:
824:
731:
504:
427:
407:
235:
223:
151:". An ambitious scheme of fortification for Paris proposed in 1689 by France's leading
481:
1922:
1890:
1869:
1848:
1829:
1808:
1778:
1757:
1733:
1709:
1672:
1635:
1614:
1600:
1579:
913:
671:
625:
152:
391:
227:
1514:
1428:"Dirty boulevard: why Paris's ring road is a major block on the city's grand plans"
1335:
801:
750:
679:
488:
71:
but was actually implemented by his successor. The 33 kilometres (21 mi) long
1953:
1660:
Dictionnaire historique des rues de Paris (Historical Dictionary of Paris streets)
599:
was enacted by the city council but was revoked shortly afterwards. Following the
457:
115:
which was later built just outside. A few remnants of the wall can still be seen.
1727:
832:
800:
for the people of the suburbs, and were depicted romantically by artists such as
793:
588:
345:
104:
96:
56:
595:
along the edge of the ditch. An order to clear the shacks and huts built on the
1747:
746:
299:
295:
281:
72:
68:
1506:
2008:
1990:
1977:
887:
781:
741:
663:
584:
528:
500:
441:
423:
92:
84:
80:
440:("Little Belt Railway"), which in peacetime conveniently linked the various
823:
and on the rest, 40,000 new homes were built. This mostly took the form of
789:
754:
399:
291:
242:
1374:"France: French Art Deco Architecture of the 17th Arrondissement in Paris"
148:
147:
were laid out, wide tree-lined avenues whose name is the French word for "
34:
Map of Paris from 1911 showing Thiers fortifications surrounding the city.
1723:
737:
412:
382:
The enceinte wall itself was constructed following the system devised by
331:
298:, were not positioned so as to be able to support each other, unlike the
100:
1651:
Sur les traces des enceintes de Paris ("Tracing the old walls of Paris")
950:
Foundation stone dated 1842 from Bastion N° 82, in a garden outside the
882:
1918:
The Great Great Wall: Along the Borders of History from China to Mexico
1519:
547:
367:
194:
79:
made a complete circuit around the city as it stood at the time of the
499:
were cut into the parapets, traverses (embankments to protect against
484:
reached Paris at the beginning of August, work commenced in earnest.
1596:
The Halt In The Mud: French Strategic Planning From Waterloo To Sedan
857:
797:
496:
144:
139:
695:, although it was the more prosperous suburbs that benefitted most.
1792:
Lazare, FĂ©lix; Lazare, Louis (1993). Maisonneuve and Laroze (ed.).
836:
667:
286:
30:
359:
327:
784:
proposed the demolition of the wall to parliament, stating that
740:
developed, the population of which was swelled by migrants and
645:
592:
403:
111:
which originally ran just behind the fortifications and by the
1794:
Dictionnaire historique des rues et monuments de Paris en 1855
632:
and a bastion. Note the building development inside the walls.
761:" ("lad" in a pejorative sense) derives from the Paris zone.
1907:
The siege operations in the campaign against France, 1870-71
852:
was passed which finally abolished the legal status of the
1956:
The history of "fortifications" (Thiers wall) Ă Saint-Ouen
1753:
The fall of Paris : the siege and the Commune 1870-71
1620:
Report on the art of war in Europe in 1854, 1855, and 1856
874:, an administrative body for the whole Paris conurbation.
1543:"Vestige de l'enceinte de Thiers à la Cité Universitaire"
723:
outside the ditch of the wall, generally referred to as
2050:
Buildings and structures demolished in the 20th century
936:
Bastion N° 44 in Rue André Suarès, 17th arrondissement.
579:
After the outbreak of war, the French reverses in the
272:
Fortifications of Paris in the 19th and 20th centuries
1669:
Les fortifications de Paris (Fortifications of Paris)
1648:
350:
or major roads, 23 secondary road crossings (French:
1454:"Vestige de l'Enceinte de Thiers : bastion n°1"
1804:
The Fortifications of Paris: An Illustrated History
1791:
1401:"Pierre Messmer inaugure le Boulevard périphérique"
786:"la grande ville Ă©touffe dans sa camisole de force"
418:The enceinte wall was serviced and supplied by the
276:The construction of the new works were overseen by
1359:
1357:
1329:
1327:
1254:
1252:
1242:
1240:
864:, which was finally opened in 1973. However, the
2006:
1631:France at Bay, 1870–1871: The Struggle for Paris
1004:"La question des fortifications de Paris - 1840"
611:
1407:(in French). Institut national de l'audiovisuel
1354:
1324:
1249:
1237:
764:
290:around the capital, but also a line of sixteen
939:Vestiges of Bastion N° 45 in the area between
1868:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
1575:The Paris Zone: A Cultural History, 1840-1944
181:continuous wall which could be manned by the
1513:(in French) (16). Ministère de la Culture.
91:, captured by government troops during the
2015:Buildings and structures completed in 1844
1694:le Hallé, Guy, "Paris aux cent villages",
842:Cité internationale universitaire de Paris
831:or HBM, generally in austere seven-storey
674:in the south. In 1853, the appointment of
575:Digging a trench at Porte Maillot in 1914.
241:This legislation appropriated 140 million
1903:
1861:
1613:
1518:
1425:
702:View across the wall to the slums of the
2045:Former buildings and structures in Paris
1701:
1685:
1649:Gagneux, Renaud; Denis Prouvost (2004).
881:
768:
697:
628:in about 1900, showing one of the major
615:
570:
532:
456:
398:, bounded on the far side by an earthen
372:
310:
193:
159:, was not proceeded with. Following the
122:
37:
29:
1842:
1729:Fortress: A History of Military Defence
962:
848:On 17 February 1953, a law proposed by
813:The Fortifications of Paris with Houses
774:The Fortifications of Paris with Houses
714:
14:
2007:
1914:
1882:
1821:
1800:
1627:
1571:
1504:
1336:"L'histoire des "fortifs" en 10 dates"
691:brought great improvements to the new
107:; its path today can be traced by the
1845:Paris: Université de Tous les Savoirs
1770:
1756:. London: Penguin Books. p. 62.
1746:
1657:
1426:Tribillon, Justinien (26 June 2015).
1057:
877:
1886:Cities at War in Early Modern Europe
1722:
1666:
1333:
896:
546:soldiers over some cannon stored at
541:Shortly after the end of the siege,
95:and refortified at the start of the
1592:
1505:Besson, Claire (20 December 2011).
1434:. Guardian News & Media Limited
1030:"François Chabaud-Latour 1804-1885"
856:and allowed work to start on a new
788:("the great city is choking in her
447:
24:
566:
25:
2066:
1936:
1847:(in French). Paris: Odile Jacob.
886:Bastion Number 1 viewed from the
606:
495:was flooded. On the wall itself,
452:
390:was composed of packed earth and
386:nearly a century previously. The
189:
103:. The wall was demolished in the
1801:LePage, Jean-Denis G.G. (2006).
1732:. London: Macdonald and Jane's.
1340:www.laurentbaziller-graphiste.fr
952:Pavillon de la fondation Deutsch
900:
522:
437:Chemin de fer de Petite Ceinture
430:and are collectively called the
250:. Initially, an area known as a
63:) was the last of the defensive
1865:Planning Paris Before Haussmann
1671:(in French). Ă©ditions Horvath.
1535:
1498:
1472:
1446:
1419:
1393:
1384:
1366:
1315:
1306:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1228:
1219:
1210:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1093:
1084:
543:a national legislative election
265:
47:just visible in the background.
1889:. Cambridge University Press.
1698:, numbers 34 to 45 (in French)
1690:(in French). Éditions Horvath.
1549:(in French). Brèves d'Histoire
1460:(in French). Brèves d'Histoire
1075:
1066:
1048:
1022:
996:
987:
978:
969:
306:
157:SĂ©bastien Le Prestre de Vauban
27:Former defensive wall in Paris
13:
1:
1904:Tiedemann, Benno von (1877).
1828:(in French). Paris: Omnibus.
1623:. Washington DC: G.W. Bowman.
278:Guillaume Dode de la Brunerie
118:
1862:Papayanis, Nicholas (2004).
1708:. Harvard University Press.
1634:. Pen & Sword Military.
1034:www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr
1008:www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr
765:Demolition and redevelopment
143:demolished walls, the first
7:
2055:19th-century fortifications
1843:Michaud, Yves, ed. (2004).
1705:Paris: Capital of the World
1171:Tiedemann 1877, pp. 127-129
1126:Delafield 1860, pp. 197-198
1054:Papayanis 2004, pp. 105-106
984:Papayanis 2004, pp. 105-106
956:Cité Universitaire de Paris
171:
10:
2071:
2035:Military history of France
1921:. New York: Abrams Press.
1774:Paris: Biography of a City
1702:Higonnet, Patrice (2002).
1565:
776:by Vincent van Gogh, 1887.
620:A photograph taken from a
526:
464:
269:
130:
109:Boulevards of the Marshals
83:. It was bombarded by the
1825:Paris en guerre 1914-1918
1822:Mellot, Philippe (2014).
601:First Battle of the Marne
1946:Paris walls (with a map)
1653:(in French). Parigramme.
1628:Fermer, Douglas (2011).
871:MĂ©tropole du Grand Paris
829:habitations à bon marché
821:Boulevards des Maréchaux
676:Georges-Eugène Haussmann
517:Second Battle of Orléans
467:Siege of Paris (1870–71)
432:Boulevards des Maréchaux
2020:Fortifications of Paris
1883:Pollak, Martha (2010).
1267:Jones 1947, pp. 291-293
1225:Horne 2007, pp. 363-364
581:Battle of the Frontiers
212:François Chabaud-Latour
198:Adolphe Thiers in 1840.
161:Battle of Paris in 1814
1807:. McFarland & Co.
1696:La Ballade des Fortifs
1686:le Hallé, Guy (1995).
1572:Cannon, James (2015).
1162:Fermer 2011, pp. 27-28
947:, 17th arrondissement.
945:Boulevard Périphérique
891:
862:Boulevard Périphérique
807:Gate in the Paris ramp
777:
711:
633:
576:
538:
462:
379:
356:routes départementales
323:
199:
128:
113:Boulevard Périphérique
60:
48:
35:
1771:Jones, Colin (2005).
1599:. London: Routledge.
1144:Higonnet 2002, p. 191
993:Cox 2019, pp. 131-133
958:, 14th arrondissement
941:Boulevard Malesherbes
885:
772:
701:
619:
574:
536:
460:
384:Louis de Cormontaigne
376:
314:
232:Alphonse de Lamartine
197:
126:
41:
33:
2040:City walls in France
1991:48.89995°N 2.34695°E
1967:The wall in Malakoff
1915:Volner, Ian (2019).
1777:. New York: Viking.
1658:Hillairet, Jacques.
1593:Cox, Gary P (2019).
1294:Cannon 2005, pp. 4-6
963:Notes and references
914:adding missing items
854:zone non aedificandi
804:in his watercolours
757:. The French slang "
721:zone non aedificandi
651:zone non aedificandi
597:zone non aedificandi
474:redoubt at Chatillon
2030:Boulevards in Paris
1987: /
1432:www.theguardian.com
1378:www.minorsights.com
1334:Baziller, Luarent.
1312:Michaud pp. 105-106
1258:Mellot 2014, p. 142
1246:Cannon 2015, p. 116
1207:LePage 2006, p. 198
1198:LePage 2006, p. 197
1180:LePage 2006, p. 199
1153:Volner 2019, p. 134
1135:LePage 2006, p. 180
1117:LePage 2006, p. 181
1081:LePage 2006, p. 178
1063:Lazare 1993, p. 132
975:Pollak 2010, p. 190
684:renovation of Paris
612:The "little suburb"
583:and the subsequent
168:never implemented.
133:City walls of Paris
89:Franco-Prussian War
2025:Geography of Paris
1667:Hall, Guy (1986).
1615:Delafield, Richard
1547:breves-histoire.fr
1520:10.4000/insitu.140
1484:www.paristoric.com
1458:breves-histoire.fr
1390:Jones 2005, p. 441
1363:Jones 2005, p. 395
1285:Jones 1947, p. 317
1276:Jones 1947, p. 312
1234:Horne 2007, p. 375
1216:Horne 2007, p. 342
1108:Jones 2005, p. 292
1099:Cannon 2015, p. 16
1072:Cannon 2015, p. 16
912:; you can help by
892:
878:Surviving remnants
825:affordable housing
778:
712:
634:
577:
552:Fort Mont-Valérien
539:
505:Louis-Jules Trochu
463:
428:Marshals of France
408:United States Army
380:
324:
200:
129:
61:Enceinte de Thiers
49:
36:
1996:48.89995; 2.34695
1189:Horne 2007, p. 62
930:
929:
672:Butte-aux-Cailles
670:in Paris were at
626:Henry de La Vaulx
513:Armée de la Loire
366:were fitted with
346:routes nationales
220:National Assembly
153:military engineer
16:(Redirected from
2062:
2002:
2001:
1999:
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1965:Malakoff Infos,
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1091:
1090:Hogg 1975, p. 99
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903:
897:
833:apartment blocks
802:Vincent van Gogh
751:inter-war period
735:
489:Bois de Boulogne
448:Military history
444:of the capital.
165:Coalition armies
21:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2005:
2004:
1995:
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1989:
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1981:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1961:
1950:
1942:
1939:
1929:
1910:. London: HMSO.
1897:
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1855:
1836:
1815:
1785:
1764:
1748:Horne, Alistair
1740:
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1607:
1586:
1568:
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1480:"Le bastion 44"
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880:
794:Adolphe Alphand
767:
729:
717:
693:arrondissements
682:began the huge
614:
609:
589:Joseph Gallieni
569:
567:First World War
531:
525:
469:
455:
450:
309:
300:polygonal forts
274:
268:
208:Duke of Orléans
204:Oriental Crisis
192:
174:
135:
121:
105:interwar period
97:First World War
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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5:
2068:
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2027:
2022:
2017:
1971:
1970:
1959:
1954:Guy Le Hallé,
1948:
1938:
1937:External links
1935:
1934:
1933:
1928:978-1419732829
1927:
1912:
1901:
1896:978-0521113441
1895:
1880:
1875:978-0801879302
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1814:978-0786461004
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1532:(Paragraph 31)
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1321:Michaud p. 108
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747:bubonic plague
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688:Ferme Générale
660:petit banlieue
656:Ferme Générale
640:Ferme Générale
613:
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608:
607:Social history
605:
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527:Main article:
524:
521:
465:Main article:
454:
453:Siege of Paris
451:
449:
446:
308:
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282:defensive wall
267:
264:
228:François Arago
191:
190:Implementation
188:
183:National Guard
178:Louis-Philippe
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69:Adolphe Thiers
65:walls of Paris
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908:This list is
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888:Pont National
884:
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867:
863:
859:
855:
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782:Martin Nadaud
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664:working class
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604:
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594:
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586:
585:Great Retreat
582:
573:
564:
561:
560:"Bloody Week"
555:
553:
549:
544:
535:
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529:Paris Commune
523:Paris Commune
520:
518:
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508:
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502:
501:enfilade fire
498:
494:
490:
485:
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479:
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429:
425:
424:military road
421:
420:Rue Militaire
416:
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371:
369:
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357:
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329:
322:, about 1910.
321:
320:
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304:
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293:
292:bastion forts
289:
288:
283:
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273:
263:
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248:field of fire
244:
243:French francs
239:
237:
236:Marshal Soult
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86:
85:Prussian Army
82:
81:July Monarchy
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54:
46:
40:
32:
19:
1972:
1966:
1955:
1917:
1906:
1885:
1864:
1844:
1824:
1803:
1796:(in French).
1793:
1773:
1752:
1728:
1724:Hogg, Ian V.
1704:
1695:
1687:
1668:
1662:(in French).
1659:
1650:
1630:
1619:
1595:
1574:
1551:. Retrieved
1546:
1537:
1524:. Retrieved
1510:
1500:
1488:. Retrieved
1483:
1474:
1462:. Retrieved
1457:
1448:
1436:. Retrieved
1431:
1421:
1409:. Retrieved
1404:
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1368:
1344:. Retrieved
1339:
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1033:
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1012:. Retrieved
1007:
998:
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869:
866:Périphérique
865:
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828:
820:
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806:
790:straitjacket
785:
779:
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758:
755:Vichy regime
738:shanty towns
725:
720:
718:
703:
687:
659:
655:
650:
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638:Wall of the
635:
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442:rail termini
435:
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419:
417:
400:counterscarp
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344:
340:
325:
316:
285:
275:
266:Construction
251:
240:
201:
175:
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52:
50:
44:
1994: /
1962:(in French)
1951:(in French)
1943:(in French)
1578:. Ashgate.
1486:(in French)
1342:(in French)
730: [
493:Saint-Denis
413:covered way
368:drawbridges
332:River Seine
307:Description
296:Fort d'Issy
254:aedificandi
163:, when the
101:shanty town
87:during the
53:Thiers wall
18:Thiers Wall
2009:Categories
1979:48°54′00″N
1405:www.ina.fr
910:incomplete
715:The "zone"
708:Saint-Ouen
548:Montmartre
497:embrasures
270:See also:
155:, Marshal
145:boulevards
131:See also:
119:Background
1982:2°20′49″E
1303:Hall 1986
858:ring road
827:known as
798:promenade
780:In 1882,
668:vineyards
478:Spicheren
358:, and 12
352:barrières
339:(French:
317:Porte de
252:zone non
226:, led by
140:Louis XIV
1750:(2007).
1726:(1975).
1617:(1860).
943:and the
921:May 2020
837:Art Deco
815:(1887).
392:revetted
360:posterns
328:bastions
287:enceinte
172:Planning
1566:Sources
1511:In Situ
954:of the
726:La Zone
680:prefect
622:balloon
515:at the
388:rampart
378:ground.
218:in the
149:bulwark
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1464:17 May
1438:17 May
1411:17 May
1346:17 May
860:, the
809:(1886)
759:zonard
646:octroi
630:portes
593:abatis
404:glacis
364:portes
354:) for
343:) for
341:portes
319:Sceaux
216:deputy
57:French
1040:5 May
1014:5 May
734:]
482:Wörth
396:ditch
337:gates
259:ditch
176:When
77:ditch
1923:ISBN
1891:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1849:ISBN
1830:ISBN
1809:ISBN
1779:ISBN
1758:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1710:ISBN
1673:ISBN
1636:ISBN
1601:ISBN
1580:ISBN
1555:2020
1528:2020
1492:2020
1466:2020
1440:2020
1413:2020
1348:2015
1042:2020
1016:2020
811:and
719:The
704:zone
480:and
315:The
230:and
224:left
210:and
75:and
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284:or
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