3054:
41:
2657:
2821:
1213:
318:
2921:
492:
1367:
2595:
366:
3030:. For business use these systems were less capable and in some ways less versatile than the large business computers of the day. They were designed for fun and educational purposes, not so much for practical use. And although you could use some simple office/productivity applications on them, they were generally used by computer enthusiasts for learning to
2793:. Minicomputers were consequently physically large and expensive to produce compared with later microprocessor systems. After the "computer-on-a-chip" was commercialized, the cost to produce a computer system dropped dramatically. The arithmetic, logic, and control functions that previously occupied several costly
1472:
of IBM, offering kilobits of memory on one chip. Intel coupled the RAM chip with the microprocessor, allowing fourth generation computers to be smaller and faster than prior computers. The 4004 was only capable of 60,000 instructions per second, but its successors brought ever-growing speed and power
2745:), and thus were rarely purchased by individuals. However, they were much smaller, less expensive, and generally simpler to operate than the mainframe computers of the time, and thus affordable by individual laboratories and research projects. Minicomputers largely freed these organizations from the
552:
For the purposes of this article, the term "second generation" refers to computers using discrete transistors, even when the vendors referred to them as "third-generation". By 1960 transistorized computers were replacing vacuum tube computers, offering lower cost, higher speeds, and reduced power
2628:
practical. It had a characteristic horseshoe shape to speed processing by shortening circuit paths. Vector processing uses one instruction to perform the same operation on many arguments; it has been a fundamental supercomputer processing method ever since. The Cray-1 could calculate 150 million
2916:
loaded from a paper-tape reader. Keying the loader required setting a bank of eight switches up or down and pressing the "load" button, once for each byte of the program, which was typically hundreds of bytes long. The computer could run BASIC programs once the interpreter had been loaded.
862:
became more common in the second generation, either in conjunction with index registers or instead of them. While first-generation computers typically had a small number of index registers or none, several lines of second-generation computers had large numbers of index registers, e.g.,
762:. Typically binary computers with word size up to 36 bits had one instruction per word, binary computers with 48 bits per word had two instructions per word and the CDC 60-bit machines could have two, three, or four instructions per word, depending on the instruction mix; the Burroughs
2864:, about 8500FF ($ 1300). The clock of the Intel 8008 was set at 500 kHz, the memory was 16 kilobytes. A bus, called Pluribus was introduced and allowed connection of up to 14 boards. Different boards for digital I/O, analog I/O, memory, floppy disk were available from R2E.
4073:
3034:
and for running computer games, for which the personal computers of the period were less suitable and much too expensive. For the more technical hobbyists home computers were also used for electronically interfacing to external devices, such as controlling
3002:
developed, where hobbyists met to talk about what they had done, exchange schematics and software, and demonstrate their systems. Many people built or assembled their own computers as per published designs. For example, many thousands of people built the
2709:
A different model of computer use was foreshadowed by the way in which early, pre-commercial, experimental computers were used, where one user had exclusive use of a processor. Some of the first computers that might be called "personal" were early
2678:
in the early 1970s—corporations, universities, government agencies, and the like. Users were experienced specialists who did not usually interact with the machine itself, but instead prepared tasks for the computer on off-line equipment, such as
811:
and an extension, referred to as, e.g., Upper and Lower
Accumulator, Accumulator and Multiplier-Quotient (MQ) register. In the second generation, it became common for computers to have multiple addressable accumulators. On some computers, e.g.,
3112:; much less effort was required to obtain an operating computer, and applications such as games, word processing, and spreadsheets began to proliferate. Distinct from computers used in homes, small business systems were typically based on
1310:
Third-generation computers were offered well into the 1990s; for example the IBM ES9000 9X2 announced April 1994 used 5,960 ECL chips to make a 10-way processor. Other third-generation computers offered in the 1990s included the
1480:), and the 8086/8088 family. (The IBM personal computer (PC) and compatibles use processors that are still backward-compatible with the 8086.) Other producers also made microprocessors which were widely used in microcomputers.
2687:. After the jobs had completed, users could collect the output printouts and punched cards. In some organizations, it could take hours or days between submitting a job to the computing center and receiving the output.
1350:
Microprocessor-based computers were originally very limited in their computational ability and speed and were in no way an attempt to downsize the minicomputer. They were addressing an entirely different market.
3091:
introduced around 1975 marked the release of low-cost 8-bit processor chips, which had sufficient computing power to be of interest to hobby and experimental users. By 1977 pre-assembled systems such as the
2966:
The MITS Altair 8800 effectively created a new industry of microcomputers and computer kits, with many others following, such as a wave of small business computers in the late 1970s based on the Intel 8080,
1288:, which contained discrete transistors and diodes interconnected on a substrate with printed wires and printed passive components; the S/360 M85 and M91 did use ICs for some of their circuits. IBM's 1971
1189:
was a significant innovation in the 1960s and 1970s. It brought computing power to more people, not only through more convenient physical size but also through broadening the computer vendor field.
2896:
magazine article in the
January 1975 issue, at the time set a new low price point for a computer, bringing computer ownership to an admittedly select market in the 1970s. This was followed by the
380:
1354:
Processing power and storage capacities have grown beyond all recognition since the 1970s, but the underlying technology has remained basically the same of large-scale integration (LSI) or
4506:. Columns: Manufacturer and name of computer | Solid state? | Average monthly rentals | Date of 1st installation | Number of installations | Number of unfilled orders. 1974. p. 5577.
513:
3053:
3124:, leading to mass production and consequent cost reduction throughout the 1980s. This expanded the PC's presence in homes, replacing the home computer category during the 1990s and
1125:
Computers using IC chips began to appear in the early 1960s. For example, the 1961 Semiconductor
Network Computer (Molecular Electronic Computer, Mol-E-Com), the first monolithic
2998:
Many hobbyists during the mid-1970s designed their own systems, with various degrees of success, and sometimes banded together to ease the job. Out of these house meetings, the
448:
devices to solid-state static and dynamic semiconductor memory, which greatly reduced the cost, size, and power consumption of computers. These advances led to the miniaturized
804:
were used on some second-generation machines, but advances in core technology meant they remained niche players until semiconductor memory displaced both core and thin film.
6005:
773:
First-generation computers with data channels (I/O channels) had a basic DMA interface to the channel cable. The second generation saw both simpler, e.g., channels on the
4942:
1457:
as an alternative to hardwired circuitry, but computers were developed around it, with much of their processing abilities provided by one small microprocessor chip. The
1248:
and shipped a total of 50,000 at $ 8,000 each. The popularity of 16-bit computers, such as the
Hewlett-Packard 21xx series and the Data General Nova, led the way toward
2987:. CP/M-80 was the first popular microcomputer operating system to be used by many different hardware vendors, and many software packages were written for it, such as
4443:
3822:
3125:
420:(IC) chips. Around 1953 to 1959, discrete transistors started being considered sufficiently reliable and economical that they made further vacuum tube computers
2900:
computer, with similar abilities and limitations. The Altair and IMSAI were essentially scaled-down minicomputers and were incomplete: to connect a keyboard or
1033:
configurations, including master/slave (supervisor/problem) mode, storage protection keys, limit registers, protection associated with address translation, and
4258:
217:
2904:
to them required heavy, expensive "peripherals". These machines both featured a front panel with switches and lights, which communicated with the operator in
6000:
4700:
5959:
6333:
5254:
705:
3026:, those that appeared in the late 1970s, sparked by the unexpected demand for the kit computers at the electronic hobbyist clubs, were usually known as
2738:, and others. They originated as peripheral processors for mainframe computers, taking on some routine tasks and freeing the processor for computation.
751:
4906:
Rheingold, H. (2000). Tools for thought: the history and future of mind-expanding technology (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, etc.: The MIT Press.
5954:
4792:
40:
5988:
5983:
1009:
1263:(MSI) circuits from Fairchild Semiconductor, with subsequent models using large-scale integrated (LSI) circuits. Also notable was that the entire
4071:, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., "Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion", issued 1957-08-13
347:
4489:
2789:
ancestors of the modern personal computer, processing was carried out by circuits with large numbers of components arranged on multiple large
2857:
4461:
4236:
4856:
1233:
minicomputer, one of the first commercial 16-bit computers. It used CTμL (Complementary
Transistor MicroLogic) in integrated circuits from
738:
The most common word sizes for binary mainframes were 36 and 48 bits, although entry-level and midrange machines used smaller words, e.g.,
87:
4041:
6184:
4353:
5170:
2947:
processor. It was a commercial success with 10,000 Altairs being shipped. The Altair also inspired the software development efforts of
260:
242:
59:
6496:
4334:
4288:
3083:
The advent of the microprocessor and solid-state memory made home computing affordable. Early hobby microcomputer systems such as the
723:
binary computers, although Philco, RCA, and
Honeywell, for example, had some computers that were character-based binary computers and
5971:
5942:
5136:
5036:
1178:. IBM first used ICs in computers for the logic of the System/360 Model 85 shipped in 1969 and then made extensive use of ICs in its
17:
5166:
1019:
6023:
1046:
237:
212:
97:
5161:
4969:
6457:
6326:
6205:
5247:
5206:
4708:
3853:
3644:
166:
2943:
magazine in
January 1975. It was the world's first mass-produced personal computer kit, as well as the first computer to use an
6629:
4686:"IBM ES/9000 Water-Cooled Processor Enhancements: New Ten-Way Processor, Parallel Sysplex Capability, and Additional Functions"
2741:
By today's standards, they were physically large (about the size of a refrigerator) and costly (typically tens of thousands of
290:
4946:
4484:
4589:
4220:
4189:
4162:
232:
4561:
6598:
5818:
5785:
4092:
3899:
767:
140:
5062:
1237:. Hewlett-Packard followed this with similar 16-bit computers, such as the 2115A in 1967, the 2114A in 1968, and others.
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
5010:
6639:
6624:
6619:
6319:
5240:
3747:
1156:
890:
Automatically record the next sequential instruction (NSI) in a register for all or most successful branch instructions
340:
115:
4306:
6404:
6396:
5116:
5100:
4993:
4891:
4742:
Adiletta, Matthew J.; Doucette, Richard L.; Hackenberg, John H.; Leuthold, Dale H.; Litwinetz, Denis M. (Fall 1990).
4673:
4542:
4365:
4100:
3995:
3884:
3858:
539:
425:
4266:
521:
6569:
2411:
1384:
1129:
general purpose computer (built for demonstration purposes, programmed to simulate a desk calculator) was built by
477:
135:
120:
5223:
2801:
which was very expensive to design but cheap to produce in large quantities. Concurrently, advances in developing
1358:(VLSI) microchips, so it is widely regarded that most of today's computers still belong to the fourth generation.
6409:
5176:
4725:
1335:, whereas the fourth generation's origins are fundamentally different. The basis of the fourth generation is the
227:
161:
145:
3128:
1403:(LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to
1055:
computers starting around 1966 in the commercial market. These generally relied on early (sub-1000 transistor)
693:
However, some smaller companies made significant contributions. Also, towards the end of the second generation
517:
222:
4997:
4777:
4532:
4501:
2624:, who had left Control Data in 1972 to form his own company. This machine was the first supercomputer to make
1566:
6634:
6588:
6581:
5775:
3863:
3816:
3568:
3048:
2727:
2469:
1190:
1087:
998:
966:
938:
724:
694:
333:
321:
191:
181:
5643:
5614:
4312:
3843:
2805:
2450:
1458:
1355:
1249:
307:
295:
130:
2703:
2674:
Computers were generally large, costly systems owned by large institutions before the introduction of the
5440:
5382:
4916:
4212:
3879:
3210:
2836:
In France, the company R2E (Réalisations et Etudes
Electroniques) formed by five former engineers of the
2519:
2454:
1602:
125:
5156:
2886:
was an enormous catalyst to the popularization of cheap, easy to use, and truly personal computers. The
2642:
2638:
6438:
5619:
4517:
3657:
2504:
1282:
1013:
632:
196:
3254:
3214:
5433:
3905:
2589:
1579:
1492:
1194:
1160:
1075:
821:
2856:. Originally, the computer had been designed by Gernelle, Lacombe, Beckmann and Benchitrite for the
2841:
1281:
family are sometimes called third-generation computers; however, their logic consisted primarily of
909:
Automatically record the NSI at a standard memory location following all or most successful branches
5811:
5750:
5663:
5636:
5607:
5370:
3290:
3232:
3036:
2761:
2560:
2545:
1260:
1201:
computer systems. Smaller, affordable hardware also brought about the development of important new
1149:
587:
502:
4829:
6529:
6482:
6426:
5693:
5688:
5576:
5549:
4861:
4834:
4046:
3848:
3757:
3196:
2956:
2802:
2634:
1465:
1400:
1340:
1264:
1234:
1134:
1083:
859:
808:
506:
429:
421:
409:
171:
4685:
1078:(hybrid IC), which had external wire connections, making it difficult to mass-produce. In 1959,
878:
The first generation had pioneered the use of special facilities for calling subroutines, e.g.,
4399:
3788:
2999:
2095:
1913:
1559:
1545:
1503:
1380:
1344:
1303:
supercomputer was the fastest computer in the world, using about a quarter-million small-scale
186:
4148:
3981:
2706:
to each user's jobs. This was common in business applications and in science and engineering.
6506:
5583:
4206:
4179:
3873:
3827:
3487:
3458:
3117:
2790:
2670:
character mode smart terminal pictured here, were sometimes used before the advent of the PC.
2645:
1304:
1268:
763:
711:
The second-generation computer architectures initially varied; they included character-based
572:
251:
1407:
was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete
6576:
5571:
4743:
4292:
4154:
3951:
3931:
3925:
3868:
3395:
3031:
3004:
2809:
2742:
1832:
1461:
1293:
785:
700:
Meanwhile, second-generation computers were also being developed in the USSR as, e.g., the
445:
433:
32:
5040:
2845:
2287:
1622:
1274:
Large mainframe computers used ICs to increase storage and processing abilities. The 1965
835:
8:
6564:
5804:
5445:
4381:
3832:
3153:
2939:
2892:
2752:
In addition, minicomputers were more interactive than mainframes, and soon had their own
2690:
A more interactive form of computer use developed commercially by the middle 1960s. In a
2446:
1633:
1111:
1102:, which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of
728:
720:
481:
82:
5201:
5197:
PowerSource Online: New, Used, Refurbished, Hard to Find Parts, Equipment & Services
5132:
379:
Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the
6266:
6167:
5827:
5105:
4966:
4804:
4717:
4511:
4117:
3936:
3282:
3250:
2798:
2699:
1993:
1576:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1332:
1278:
1164:
1126:
1056:
1034:
417:
176:
3022:
programming language interpreter, Microsoft's first product. The second generation of
788:
was the dominant memory technology, although there were still some new machines using
6547:
6089:
5995:
5593:
5457:
5355:
5267:
5112:
4989:
4887:
4669:
4538:
4361:
4316:
4216:
4185:
4158:
4096:
3991:
3961:
3889:
3316:
3305:
3121:
3078:
2937:, the first commercially successful microprocessor kit, was featured on the cover of
2913:
2695:
2663:
2625:
2310:
2168:
1794:
1245:
1218:
1130:
1115:
1071:
793:
701:
449:
50:
4808:
4721:
2912:
program had to be entered, without error, in binary, then a paper tape containing a
2760:(1973) was a landmark step in the development of personal computers, because of its
2369:
2144:
2079:
1780:
6286:
6190:
5916:
5428:
5319:
4796:
4129:
3987:
3956:
3894:
3837:
3558:
3419:
2984:
2909:
2753:
2746:
2684:
2333:
1951:
1477:
1202:
1153:
1026:
864:
797:
747:
743:
739:
712:
600:
457:
106:
4593:
2860:
to automate hygrometric measurements. The Micral N cost a fifth of the price of a
6292:
6280:
6125:
6113:
5976:
5947:
5904:
5898:
5588:
5566:
5529:
5477:
5297:
5292:
5284:
5227:
5220:
5096:
5067:
4973:
4607:
4424:
3473:
2683:. A number of assignments for the computer would be gathered up and processed in
1887:
1663:
1450:
1434:
1226:
1141:
1103:
932:
851:
774:
657:
582:
465:
441:
92:
2656:
1483:
The following table shows a timeline of significant microprocessor development.
886:. In the second generation, such facilities were ubiquitous; some examples are:
6274:
5653:
5554:
5324:
5307:
4943:"André Truong, père du micro-ordinateur, nous a quittés Actualité - Silicon.fr"
4800:
4463:
Programmer's
Reference Manual, Honeywell ALERT General Purpose General Computer
4068:
3946:
3647:
3530:
3405:
3340:
3246:
3224:
2883:
2837:
2769:
2735:
2675:
2473:
2234:
2059:
2028:
1936:
1873:
1824:
1805:
1715:
1644:
1548:
1473:
to computers, including the Intel 8008, 8080 (used in many computers using the
1469:
1396:
1392:
1336:
1307:
logic gate integrated circuits to make up sixty-four parallel data processors.
1289:
1285:
1275:
1179:
1099:
1060:
1030:
985:
817:
732:
716:
686:
625:
437:
6255:
5072:
4400:"Molecular Electronic Computer brochure | 102646283 | Computer History Museum"
3534:
1185:
The integrated circuit enabled the development of much smaller computers. The
6613:
6351:
5755:
5745:
5725:
5541:
5467:
5420:
5365:
5360:
5312:
5014:
4783:
4632:
4320:
4150:
Advanced
Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
3941:
3591:
3572:
3437:
3369:
3326:
3109:
3097:
3058:
3027:
3023:
2905:
2794:
2613:
2609:
2477:
2434:
2399:
2373:
2337:
2322:
2318:
2306:
2129:
1790:
1700:
1629:
1598:
1446:
991:
979:
897:
847:
828:
719:
decimal computers with a 10-digit word, sign-magnitude binary computers, and
679:
675:
668:
664:
453:
6311:
5232:
5631:
5519:
5502:
5497:
5275:
4998:
https://archive.org/download/A_History_of_the_Personal_Computer/eBook04.pdf
4444:"Section VI: Theory of Operation of the ASD Semiconductor-Network Computer"
4014:
3792:
3737:
3501:
3019:
2980:
2820:
2786:
2731:
2711:
2691:
2660:
2621:
2481:
2341:
2298:
2226:
2180:
2075:
2008:
1974:
1890:
1854:
1618:
1442:
1438:
1328:
1241:
1212:
1186:
1175:
1079:
1025:
The second generation saw the introduction of features intended to support
697:(DEC) was a serious contender in the small and medium machine marketplace.
612:
Some examples of 1960s second generation computers from those vendors are:
4575:
6044:
5730:
5698:
5601:
5561:
5524:
5492:
5334:
5181:
4382:"1962: Aerospace systems are the first applications for ICs in computers"
4181:
Makers of the Microchip: A Documentary History of Fairchild Semiconductor
3505:
3391:
3351:
3084:
2934:
2926:
2901:
2887:
2873:
2395:
2268:
2199:
2176:
2140:
2117:
2113:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2020:
2016:
1989:
1966:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1719:
1594:
1168:
1119:
1107:
922:
868:
858:, their use became much more common in the second generation. Similarly,
843:
789:
755:
639:
405:
6249:
5191:
4208:
ULSI Process Integration III: Proceedings of the International Symposium
4177:
896:
The Sequence History (SH) and Cosequence History (CSH) registers on the
807:
In the first generation, word-oriented computers typically had a single
6231:
6149:
5462:
5392:
5387:
5377:
5210:, 1971 and 1979 editions, by David Carey, illustrated by B. H. Robinson
3914:
3702:
3619:
3548:
3515:
3011:
2972:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2920:
2897:
2877:
2853:
2757:
2407:
2391:
2361:
2125:
1921:
1898:
1809:
1734:
1730:
1711:
1696:
1685:
1587:
1583:
1541:
1530:
1430:
1372:
1067:
950:
Call instructions that save the NSI in an implicit or explicit register
918:
Call instructions that save the NSI in the first word of the subroutine
839:
801:
781:
had limited computational, conditional branching and interrupt system.
413:
5217:
Stan Veit's classic work on the history of Pre-IBM personal computers.
4133:
4118:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
3134:
1395:, MOS IC chips rapidly increased in complexity at a rate predicted by
6490:
6243:
6237:
6225:
6161:
6155:
6137:
5910:
5740:
5735:
5719:
5648:
5487:
5339:
5302:
5142:
4470:
3918:
3910:
3491:
3355:
3015:
2968:
2960:
2415:
2314:
2272:
2264:
2249:
2245:
2207:
2191:
2012:
1674:
1641:
1404:
1300:
1193:
became the number two computer company behind IBM with their popular
1095:
759:
593:
4237:"1961 PICTORIAL REPORT ON THE COMPUTER FIELD: 5. Computer Component"
2768:
high-resolution screen, large internal and external memory storage,
2633:). 85 were shipped at a price of $ 5 million each. The Cray-1 had a
2612:
of the era were at the other end of the computing spectrum from the
2172:
491:
6471:
6219:
6131:
6083:
5678:
5329:
5264:
5196:
3802:
3733:
3429:
3272:
3242:
3200:
3185:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3093:
3062:
2988:
2680:
2630:
2575:
2523:
2508:
2489:
2458:
2442:
2345:
2203:
2156:
1894:
1776:
1760:
1749:
1745:
1659:
1648:
1637:
1626:
1606:
1316:
1312:
960:
954:
928:
903:
872:
842:, and automatic index register incrementing on, e.g., the RCA 601,
827:
In the second generation there was considerable development of new
778:
653:
621:
617:
73:
4741:
2594:
777:
had no DMA, and more sophisticated designs, e.g., the 7909 on the
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6119:
6077:
5966:
5841:
5512:
5450:
5404:
5186:
4857:"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip"
4699:
Rao, G. S.; Gregg, T. A.; Price, C. A.; Rao, C. L.; Repka, S. J.
4265:(260). Reed Business Information. 9 November 1961. Archived from
3767:
3723:
3713:
3667:
3640:
3615:
3286:
3088:
3066:
2765:
2616:, and they also used integrated circuit technology. In 1976, the
2403:
2349:
2302:
2260:
2222:
2148:
2083:
2024:
1970:
1877:
1850:
1843:
1813:
1667:
1454:
1425:
in 1970, each using several MOS LSI chips. On November 15, 1971,
1230:
1091:
913:
883:
646:
5146:, edited by Steve Ditlea, full text of the classic computer book
4042:"1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented"
2749:
and bureaucracy of a commercial or university computing center.
2121:
1366:
365:
6514:
6213:
6143:
6101:
6095:
6065:
6059:
5937:
5858:
5626:
5399:
5150:
3677:
3477:
3448:
3433:
3409:
3380:
3336:
3294:
3101:
3070:
2849:
2831:
2617:
2600:
2556:
2534:
2500:
2438:
2380:
2377:
2365:
2283:
2230:
2218:
2152:
2109:
2091:
2071:
1997:
1985:
1932:
1591:
1562:
973:
945:
832:
577:
461:
6465:
6446:
5881:
5875:
5796:
3681:
3601:
3365:
3268:
3258:
3181:
2992:
2861:
2719:
2667:
2564:
2195:
2098:
2032:
1955:
1902:
1847:
1671:
1426:
1422:
1315:(1989), built from ECL gate arrays and custom chips, and the
1253:
1001:
969:
941:
813:
567:
5214:
4339:
Bulletin SCA-1000: Digital Semiconductor Integrated Circuits
1453:. It was developed for a Japanese calculator company called
6107:
6071:
5703:
5597:
4744:"Semiconductor Technology in a High-performance VAX System"
4019:
3778:
3691:
3629:
3605:
3544:
3469:
3228:
3113:
3057:
The "Big Three" computers of 1977: from left to right, the
2976:
2715:
2485:
2087:
2036:
1947:
1917:
1869:
1865:
1828:
1474:
1429:
released the world's first single-chip microprocessor, the
1256:
1206:
1145:
1051:
The mass increase in the use of computers accelerated with
1006:
Implicit call with return information pushed onto the stack
893:
The Jump Address (JA) Register on the Philco TRANSAC S-2000
704:
family of general-purpose digital computers created at the
735:, two's complement became the norm for new product lines.
5683:
5507:
3519:
2723:
1388:
1198:
605:
561:
4830:"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution"
4668:, Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, 1971,
3983:
Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts
3545:
PC's Limited (renamed Dell Computer Corporation in 1988)
1106:. The planar process was developed by Noyce's colleague
432:(LSI) technology subsequently led to the development of
5107:
Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer
4822:
3823:
Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market
1433:, on a single MOS LSI chip. Its development was led by
854:
were introduced in the first generation under the name
5135:(the above article is a modified version of his work,
2666:
connected to central computers, such as the TeleVideo
1098:. The basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's
5202:
History of Computers (1989–2004) in PC World excerpts
4917:"Décès d'André Truong, inventeur du micro-ordinateur"
4432:(Technical report). 1962. pp. 67–113. AD0273850.
4178:
Christophe Lécuyer; David C. Brook; Jay Last (2010).
4448:
Silicon Semiconductor Networks Manufacturing Methods
4426:
Silicon Semiconductor Networks Manufacturing Methods
4354:"Texas Instruments Series 51 Semiconductor Networks"
2780:
1159:, the Honeywell ALERT airborne computer, and in the
953:
Branch and Load Location in Index Word (BLX) on the
4849:
4778:"The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors"
4688:. IBM. April 6, 1994. Announcement Number: 194-084.
4576:"HP: The Accidentally, On-Purpose Computer Company"
4534:
The U.S. computer industry: a study of market power
3135:
Timeline of computer systems and important hardware
2908:. To program the machine after switching it on the
1601:; National Semiconductor IMP-4, IMP-8, ISP-8A/500,
706:
Yerevan Computer Research and Development Institute
5104:
4776:
4485:"Honeywell ALERT General Purpose Digital Computer"
4352:Dummer, G. W. A.; Robertson, J. Mackenzie (2014).
4341:. Texas Instruments. Jan 1965. pp. 2–3, 9–11.
4034:
990:Call instructions that use an index register as a
404:starting at 1960 is marked by the conversion from
4793:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
4701:"IBM S/390 Parallel Enterprlse Servers G3 and G4"
3131:of architecturally identical personal computers.
2848:introduced in February 1973 a microcomputer, the
1414:The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the
754:. All but the smallest machines had asynchronous
6611:
5095:
3120:, which was quickly adopted. The PC was heavily
1292:used ICs for their logic, and later models used
816:, the same registers served as accumulators and
770:and B8500 lines are notable exceptions to this.
4351:
2808:eliminated the bulky, costly, and power-hungry
2702:processor, with the operating system assigning
2651:
1059:technology. The third generation ends with the
831:, including truncated addressing on, e.g., the
5151:Collection of old analog and digital computers
4311:. IRE International Convention. Vol. 10.
553:consumption. The marketplace was dominated by
6594:History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
6341:
6327:
5812:
5781:History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
5262:
5248:
4358:American Microelectronics Data Annual 1964–65
4067:
3840:, a technical discussion of computing history
2867:
2858:Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique
1411:could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip.
1339:, a computer processor contained on a single
912:Store P (STP) locations on RCA 301, 3301 and
341:
4967:Gernelle creator of the first micro computer
4884:Encyclopedia of Computer Science 3rd Edition
4698:
4115:
3010:The Altair was influential. It came before
520:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
6334:
6320:
5819:
5805:
5255:
5241:
4882:Anthony Ralston and edwin D. Reilly (ed),
4450:(Technical report). 1962. pp. 67–113.
2629:floating-point operations per second (150
2159:, ESA/390 G5; QED RM7000; SGI MIPS R12000
994:and push return information onto the stack
348:
334:
5192:Pictures and information on old computers
5037:"OLD-COMPUTERS.COM Museum - R2E MICRAL-N"
4556:
4554:
4146:
1331:were essentially scaled-down versions of
540:Learn how and when to remove this message
4774:
4140:
4080:
3973:
3052:
3042:
3007:home computer later in the early 1980s.
2919:
2819:
2812:used in prior generations of computers.
2655:
2593:
1365:
1211:
1047:List of early third generation computers
440:in the early 1970s. This led to primary
5111:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
4770:
4768:
4766:
4764:
4709:IBM Journal of Research and Development
4562:"History of the 2116A digital computer"
3854:History of the graphical user interface
3108:Magazine) began the era of mass-market
3039:, and other general hobbyist pursuits.
14:
6612:
4551:
4204:
4122:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
4009:
4007:
3979:
3736:; World's first desktop dual-core CPU
1464:(DRAM) chip was based on the MOS DRAM
1387:by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at
1379:The microprocessor has origins in the
1122:and Lincoln Derrick in 1955 and 1957.
731:computers. With the advent of the IBM
436:in the mid-to-late 1960s and then the
98:Free software and open-source software
6315:
5800:
5236:
5133:Stephen White's Computer history site
4530:
4093:Springer Science & Business Media
4086:
3061:(PET 2001 model shown), the standard
2698:let many people share the use of one
1174:An early commercial use was the 1965
1018:Program descriptors on the Burroughs
377:about History outside of US and USSR.
6599:List of pioneers in computer science
6052:
5786:List of pioneers in computer science
4761:
4590:"Fairchild CTμL Integrated Circuits"
4089:History of Semiconductor Engineering
3900:List of pioneers in computer science
3104:(later dubbed the "1977 Trinity" by
1872:78034; Hitachi Gmicro/200; Motorola
1322:
1110:in early 1959, based on the silicon
959:Transfer and Set indeX (TSX) on the
518:adding citations to reliable sources
485:
471:
359:
4308:IRE International Convention Record
4289:"First Integrated Circuit Computer"
4004:
2975:microprocessor chips. Most ran the
2882:The development of the single-chip
1252:lengths that were multiples of the
1094:, whereas Kilby's chip was made of
1040:
727:(DEC) and Philco, for example, had
24:
4986:A History of the Personal Computer
4537:. Ballinger Pub. Co. p. 192.
3748:Mac transition to Intel processors
2979:-80 operating system developed by
1361:
1157:intercontinental ballistic missile
978:Transfer and Set Xn (TSXn) on the
820:, making them an early example of
39:
25:
6651:
6497:Computers built 1955 through 1978
5126:
4503:TH EINDUSTRIAL REORGANIZATION ACT
4388:. 2009. pp. 26, 22 (28, 24).
4116:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
3859:Timeline of programming languages
2781:Microprocessor and cost reduction
2775:
2696:teleprinter and display terminals
2583:
2433:AMD Opteron Magny-cours; Fujitsu
1140:Some of their early uses were in
452:(PC) in the 1970s, starting with
88:Software configuration management
5071:. September 1995. Archived from
4775:Shirriff, Ken (30 August 2016).
2959:for the Altair, and then formed
2425:AMD Opteron Istanbul, Phenom II
937:Jump to Subroutine (JSR) on the
490:
478:List of transistorized computers
364:
317:
316:
5055:
5029:
5003:
4978:
4960:
4935:
4909:
4900:
4876:
4735:
4692:
4678:
4650:
4625:
4600:
4582:
4568:
4524:
4494:
4477:
4454:
4436:
4417:
4392:
4374:
4345:
4327:
4299:
4281:
4251:
4229:
2637:that was mostly constructed of
2507:; Intel Itanium Poulson; Apple
2360:AMD Opteron Barcelona; Fujitsu
1259:. The Nova was first to employ
1163:used for flight control in the
468:over the next several decades.
5826:
5167:IEEE computer history timeline
5011:"Groupe BULL chronology"
4886:, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993
4360:. Elsevier. pp. 596–650.
4198:
4171:
4147:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
4109:
4061:
2726:and larger minicomputers from
1383:(MOS IC) chip. The MOS IC was
1182:which began shipment in 1971.
965:Jump and Save PC (JSP) on the
13:
1:
6630:History of computing hardware
6589:History of computing hardware
5776:History of computing hardware
5182:A homebrew computer club site
5177:Links to all things Commodore
5089:
4184:. MIT Press. pp. 62–63.
3864:Hardware description language
3817:History of computing hardware
3049:History of personal computers
2728:Digital Equipment Corporation
2472:, Interlagos, Llano; Fujitsu
1521:Texas Instruments TMS 1802NC
1267:was contained on one 15-inch
1191:Digital Equipment Corporation
1088:monolithic integrated circuit
984:Branch and Link (BAL) on the
725:Digital Equipment Corporation
695:Digital Equipment Corporation
402:history of computing hardware
5644:Network interface controller
4664:February 1971, reprinted in
4313:Institute of Radio Engineers
3876:, how computers are designed
3844:History of operating systems
3833:History of Computer Software
3658:IBM Deep Blue chess computer
3018:which produced and sold the
2652:Mainframes and minicomputers
1356:very-large-scale integration
308:Glossary of computer science
7:
5441:Refreshable braille display
5383:Refreshable braille display
5208:How It Works – The Computer
5162:Yahoo Computers and History
5157:ZX81 Computer Online Museum
4213:The Electrochemical Society
3880:List of fictional computers
3810:
3304:Fairchild built first MOS;
3199:resistor transistor logic;
3116:, until IBM introduced the
2951:and his high school friend
2815:
1513:Texas Instruments TMX 1795
1441:MOS technology, along with
10:
6656:
6439:University of Pennsylvania
5063:"Most Important Companies"
4801:10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7551353
4315:. March 1962. p. 50.
3869:Hardware abstraction layer
3076:
3046:
2871:
2868:Altair 8800 and IMSAI 8080
2829:
2797:were now available in one
2587:
2499:Fujitsu SPARC64 IXfx; IBM
1090:(IC) chip. It was made of
1063:-based fourth generation.
1044:
685:the RCA 301, 3301 and the
475:
6640:History of Silicon Valley
6625:21st century in computing
6620:20th century in computing
6557:
6540:
6524:
6505:
6481:
6456:
6437:
6424:
6395:
6347:
6342:IBM vacuum tube computers
6309:
6302:
6265:
6204:
6177:
6043:
6036:
6016:
5933:
5926:
5891:
5868:
5851:
5834:
5768:
5712:
5671:
5662:
5540:
5476:
5419:
5348:
5283:
5274:
4896:Digital Computers History
4751:Digital Technical Journal
4666:Computers and Computation
4531:Brock, Gerald W. (1975).
3980:Saxena, Arjun N. (2009).
3906:Pirates of Silicon Valley
3885:Fifth generation computer
3308:applies for mouse patent
2590:History of supercomputing
2518:Fujitsu SPARC64 X; Intel
1808:; National Semiconductor
1161:Central Air Data Computer
1152:, by the military in the
1076:hybrid integrated circuit
997:Push jump (PUSHJ) on the
906:with the indexing feature
822:general-purpose registers
426:Metal–oxide–semiconductor
65:Hardware 1960s to present
18:Third-generation computer
5221:WWW-VL: Internet History
4988:(Alan Publishing, 2001)
4241:Computers and Automation
3967:
3383:first microprocessor PC
3291:Apollo Guidance Computer
2772:, and special software.
2762:graphical user interface
1540:Fairchild PPS-25; Intel
1261:medium-scale integration
1150:Apollo Guidance Computer
921:Return Jump (RJ) on the
588:Control Data Corporation
555:IBM and the seven dwarfs
167:Graphical user interface
6530:UNIVAC family computers
6483:Sperry Rand Corporation
6024:Soviet computer systems
5550:Central processing unit
5187:Computer History Museum
4862:Computer History Museum
4835:Computer History Museum
4404:www.computerhistory.org
4205:Claeys, Cor L. (2003).
4047:Computer History Museum
3849:History of the Internet
3758:First-generation iPhone
1729:National Semiconductor
1401:large-scale integration
1341:large-scale integration
1235:Fairchild Semiconductor
1118:processes developed by
1084:Fairchild Semiconductor
430:large-scale integration
116:Artificial intelligence
6206:University of Illinois
5153:at Old Computer Museum
4516:: CS1 maint: others (
3789:IBM zEnterprise System
3126:leading to the current
3074:
3000:Homebrew Computer Club
2955:who developed a BASIC
2930:
2842:André Truong Trong Thi
2827:
2791:printed circuit boards
2671:
2605:
2390:AMD Opteron Shanghai,
1827:; Harris Novix; Intel
1560:National Semiconductor
1391:in 1962. Due to rapid
1381:MOS integrated circuit
1376:
1345:MOS integrated circuit
1222:
375:is missing information
126:Early computer science
44:
4386:"IC at fifty" booklet
4155:John Wiley & Sons
4015:"Integrated circuits"
3874:Computer architecture
3828:Timeline of computing
3056:
3043:Microcomputer emerges
2923:
2823:
2659:
2597:
1369:
1269:printed circuit board
1215:
902:The B register on an
667:, Honeywell 400, and
633:Burroughs 5000 series
252:Timeline of computing
136:Programming languages
121:Compiler construction
43:
6635:History of computing
6577:Vacuum-tube computer
5137:used with permission
4658:The Fastest Computer
4259:"Miniature computer"
3952:Ambient intelligence
3932:Ubiquitous computing
3926:Triumph of the Nerds
3396:Data General Eclipse
2810:magnetic-core memory
2124:, ESA/390 G4; Intel
1825:MicroVAX 78032/78132
1666:; Texas Instruments
1605:; Texas Instruments
1294:semiconductor memory
927:Return Jump (RJ) on
514:improve this section
446:magnetic-core memory
434:semiconductor memory
162:General-purpose CPUs
146:Software engineering
60:Hardware before 1960
33:History of computing
6565:Transistor computer
6001:Electronika SS VLSI
5017:on 10 December 2008
4662:Scientific American
4247:(12): 85. Dec 1961.
3283:Integrated circuits
3251:IBM Data Cell Drive
2940:Popular Electronics
2893:Popular Electronics
2756:. The minicomputer
1748:; Harris 6120; IBM
1502:Four-Phase Systems
1333:mainframe computers
1112:surface passivation
1035:atomic instructions
1010:Program descriptors
860:indirect addressing
482:Transistor computer
6267:Harvard University
5226:2020-05-28 at the
4972:2002-02-09 at the
4637:HP Computer Museum
4612:HP Computer Museum
4469:(Third ed.).
4295:on 8 January 2006.
4215:. pp. 27–30.
4087:Lojek, Bo (2007).
3937:Internet of things
3819:, before the 1960s
3639:Apple switches to
3559:Tandem NonStop VLX
3075:
2931:
2890:, introduced in a
2828:
2799:integrated circuit
2700:mainframe computer
2672:
2664:computer terminals
2606:
2147:; Hewlett Packard
2090:, ESA/390 G3; MTI
2082:; Hewlett Packard
2011:; Hewlett-Packard
1969:; Hewlett-Packard
1647:; Western Digital
1640:; Rockwell PPS-8;
1621:; Hewlett Packard
1609:; Toshiba TLCS-12
1577:General Instrument
1558:Burroughs Mini-D;
1420:Garrett AiResearch
1416:Four-Phase Systems
1409:computer processor
1377:
1279:mainframe computer
1225:In November 1966,
1223:
1144:, notably used by
1127:integrated circuit
1057:integrated circuit
798:Magnetic thin film
796:during the 1960s.
418:integrated circuit
182:Personal computers
141:Prominent pioneers
45:
6607:
6606:
6548:Colossus computer
6536:
6535:
6433:
6432:
6418:
6417:
6200:
6199:
6032:
6031:
5794:
5793:
5764:
5763:
5694:Analog audio jack
5415:
5414:
5171:Archive from 2005
4996:Chapter 4 (PDF:
4222:978-1-56677-376-8
4191:978-0-262-01424-3
4164:978-0-470-50892-3
4134:10.1149/1.2428650
3962:Network on a chip
3890:Quantum computing
3808:
3807:
3569:Thinking Machines
3317:Data General Nova
3079:Personal computer
2914:BASIC interpreter
2846:François Gernelle
2754:operating systems
2694:system, multiple
2626:vector processing
2620:was developed by
2581:
2580:
2062:; IBM ESA/390 G2
1699:; Motorola 6801,
1632:; MOS Technology
1327:Third-generation
1323:Fourth generation
1265:central processor
1219:Data General Nova
1203:operating systems
1131:Texas Instruments
1116:thermal oxidation
1072:Texas Instruments
1012:on the Burroughs
713:decimal computers
550:
549:
542:
472:Second generation
458:desktop computers
450:personal computer
444:moving away from
398:
397:
358:
357:
131:Operating systems
16:(Redirected from
6647:
6336:
6329:
6322:
6313:
6312:
6307:
6306:
6287:Harvard Mark III
6050:
6049:
6041:
6040:
6009:
5992:
5980:
5963:
5951:
5931:
5930:
5821:
5814:
5807:
5798:
5797:
5669:
5668:
5320:Optical trackpad
5285:Pointing devices
5281:
5280:
5257:
5250:
5243:
5234:
5233:
5122:
5110:
5097:Freiberger, Paul
5084:
5083:
5081:
5080:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5039:. Archived from
5033:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5013:. Archived from
5007:
5001:
4982:
4976:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4954:
4945:. Archived from
4939:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4898:
4880:
4874:
4873:
4871:
4869:
4853:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4842:
4826:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4815:
4780:
4772:
4759:
4758:
4748:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4730:
4724:. Archived from
4705:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4682:
4676:
4656:D. A. Slotnick,
4654:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4629:
4623:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4604:
4598:
4597:
4592:. Archived from
4586:
4580:
4579:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4558:
4549:
4548:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4515:
4507:
4498:
4492:
4488:
4481:
4475:
4474:
4468:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4440:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4411:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4335:"Series 51 RCTL"
4331:
4325:
4324:
4303:
4297:
4296:
4291:. Archived from
4285:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4255:
4249:
4248:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4202:
4196:
4195:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4144:
4138:
4137:
4113:
4107:
4106:
4084:
4078:
4077:
4076:
4072:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4027:
4011:
4002:
4001:
3988:World Scientific
3977:
3957:System on a chip
3895:Curta calculator
3188:; Honeywell 800
3139:
3138:
3069:drives) and the
2985:Digital Research
2910:bootstrap loader
2747:batch processing
2445:; Intel Itanium
1795:Berkeley RISC-II
1759:Hewlett-Packard
1486:
1485:
1478:operating system
1418:AL1 in 1969 and
1154:LGM-30 Minuteman
1142:embedded systems
1104:printed circuits
1053:Third Generation
1041:Third generation
1027:multiprogramming
729:two's complement
721:ones' complement
601:General Electric
545:
538:
534:
531:
525:
494:
486:
466:mobile computers
412:devices such as
393:
390:
384:
368:
360:
350:
343:
336:
320:
319:
107:Computer science
29:
28:
21:
6655:
6654:
6650:
6649:
6648:
6646:
6645:
6644:
6610:
6609:
6608:
6603:
6553:
6532:
6520:
6501:
6477:
6452:
6429:
6420:
6419:
6414:
6391:
6343:
6340:
6298:
6293:Harvard Mark IV
6281:Harvard Mark II
6261:
6196:
6173:
6028:
6012:
6003:
5986:
5974:
5957:
5945:
5922:
5887:
5864:
5847:
5830:
5825:
5795:
5790:
5760:
5708:
5658:
5536:
5530:USB flash drive
5479:
5472:
5411:
5344:
5298:Game controller
5293:Graphics tablet
5270:
5261:
5228:Wayback Machine
5129:
5119:
5101:Swaine, Michael
5092:
5087:
5078:
5076:
5061:
5060:
5056:
5046:
5044:
5043:on 23 July 2023
5035:
5034:
5030:
5020:
5018:
5009:
5008:
5004:
4983:
4979:
4974:Wayback Machine
4965:
4961:
4952:
4950:
4941:
4940:
4936:
4926:
4924:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4905:
4901:
4881:
4877:
4867:
4865:
4855:
4854:
4850:
4840:
4838:
4828:
4827:
4823:
4813:
4811:
4773:
4762:
4746:
4740:
4736:
4728:
4703:
4697:
4693:
4684:
4683:
4679:
4655:
4651:
4641:
4639:
4631:
4630:
4626:
4616:
4614:
4606:
4605:
4601:
4588:
4587:
4583:
4574:
4573:
4569:
4560:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4529:
4525:
4509:
4508:
4500:
4499:
4495:
4483:
4482:
4478:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4455:
4442:
4441:
4437:
4429:
4423:
4422:
4418:
4409:
4407:
4398:
4397:
4393:
4380:
4379:
4375:
4368:
4350:
4346:
4333:
4332:
4328:
4305:
4304:
4300:
4287:
4286:
4282:
4272:
4270:
4269:on 7 April 2022
4257:
4256:
4252:
4235:
4234:
4230:
4223:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4176:
4172:
4165:
4157:. p. 168.
4145:
4141:
4114:
4110:
4103:
4095:. p. 120.
4085:
4081:
4074:
4066:
4062:
4052:
4050:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4025:
4023:
4013:
4012:
4005:
3998:
3990:. p. 140.
3978:
3974:
3970:
3813:
3474:hard disk drive
3440:; 5.25" floppy
3137:
3081:
3051:
3045:
3037:model railroads
2929:
2880:
2872:Main articles:
2870:
2852:N based on the
2834:
2826:
2818:
2783:
2778:
2722:, and later on
2654:
2604:
2592:
2586:
2143:; HAL Computer
2078:; HAL Computer
2050:; HAL Computer
2015:, PA-7200; IBM
1914:VAX DC520 Rigel
1781:Berkeley RISC-I
1493:Microprocessors
1451:Masatoshi Shima
1435:Federico Faggin
1375:
1364:
1362:Microprocessors
1325:
1286:hybrid circuits
1244:introduced the
1229:introduced the
1227:Hewlett-Packard
1221:
1049:
1043:
933:CDC 6000 series
852:index registers
818:index registers
775:CDC 6000 series
658:CDC 3000 series
546:
535:
529:
526:
511:
495:
484:
474:
442:computer memory
394:
388:
385:
378:
369:
354:
154:Modern concepts
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6653:
6643:
6642:
6637:
6632:
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6605:
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6554:
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6551:
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6541:United Kingdom
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6462:
6460:
6454:
6453:
6451:
6450:
6443:
6441:
6435:
6434:
6431:
6430:
6427:IBM mainframes
6425:
6422:
6421:
6416:
6415:
6413:
6412:
6407:
6401:
6399:
6393:
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6331:
6324:
6316:
6310:
6304:
6300:
6299:
6297:
6296:
6290:
6284:
6278:
6275:Harvard Mark I
6271:
6269:
6263:
6262:
6260:
6259:
6256:Trusted ILLIAC
6253:
6247:
6241:
6235:
6229:
6223:
6217:
6210:
6208:
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6198:
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5696:
5691:
5686:
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5673:
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5660:
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5656:
5654:Expansion card
5651:
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5641:
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5634:
5624:
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5612:
5611:
5610:
5605:
5591:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5564:
5559:
5558:
5557:
5555:Microprocessor
5546:
5544:
5538:
5537:
5535:
5534:
5533:
5532:
5527:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5510:
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5484:
5482:
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5471:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5454:
5453:
5443:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5425:
5423:
5421:Output devices
5417:
5416:
5413:
5412:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5374:
5373:
5363:
5358:
5352:
5350:
5346:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5325:Pointing stick
5322:
5317:
5316:
5315:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5289:
5287:
5278:
5272:
5271:
5260:
5259:
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5245:
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5231:
5230:
5218:
5212:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5148:
5140:
5128:
5127:External links
5125:
5124:
5123:
5117:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5054:
5028:
5002:
4977:
4959:
4934:
4923:. 6 April 2005
4908:
4899:
4875:
4848:
4821:
4760:
4734:
4731:on 2019-03-06.
4691:
4677:
4649:
4624:
4599:
4596:on 2015-09-23.
4581:
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4523:
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4453:
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4373:
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4170:
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4079:
4060:
4033:
4003:
3996:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3947:Edge computing
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3922:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
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3877:
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3566:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3551:
3542:
3538:
3537:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3522:, 3.5" floppy
3513:
3509:
3508:
3499:
3495:
3494:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3434:TRS-80 Model 1
3427:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3412:
3406:Olivetti P6060
3403:
3399:
3398:
3389:
3385:
3384:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3363:
3359:
3358:
3348:
3344:
3343:
3341:IBM System/370
3334:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3266:
3262:
3261:
3247:IBM System/360
3240:
3236:
3235:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3211:NPN transistor
3208:
3204:
3203:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3179:
3175:
3174:
3165:
3161:
3160:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3143:
3136:
3133:
3110:home computers
3077:Main article:
3047:Main article:
3044:
3041:
3028:home computers
3024:microcomputers
3012:Apple Computer
2924:
2884:microprocessor
2869:
2866:
2838:Intertechnique
2830:Main article:
2825:1973: Micral N
2824:
2817:
2814:
2795:circuit boards
2782:
2779:
2777:
2776:Microcomputers
2774:
2736:Prime Computer
2676:microprocessor
2653:
2650:
2614:microcomputers
2610:supercomputers
2598:
2588:Main article:
2585:
2584:Supercomputers
2582:
2579:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2531:
2527:
2526:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2474:SPARC64 VIIIfx
2466:
2462:
2461:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2388:
2384:
2383:
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2295:
2291:
2290:
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2275:
2257:
2253:
2252:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2235:UltraSPARC III
2215:
2211:
2210:
2206:, z900; Intel
2188:
2184:
2183:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2137:
2133:
2132:
2130:UltraSPARC IIs
2106:
2102:
2101:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2005:
2001:
2000:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1944:
1940:
1939:
1929:
1925:
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1910:
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1905:
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1519:
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1514:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1500:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1470:Robert Dennard
1393:MOSFET scaling
1370:
1363:
1360:
1337:microprocessor
1324:
1321:
1276:IBM System/360
1216:
1100:planar process
1061:microprocessor
1042:
1039:
1031:multiprocessor
1023:
1022:
1016:
1007:
1004:
995:
988:
986:IBM System/360
982:
976:
963:
957:
951:
948:
935:
925:
919:
916:
910:
907:
900:
894:
891:
836:TRANSAC S-2000
717:sign-magnitude
691:
690:
683:
672:
661:
650:
643:
636:
629:
626:IBM System/360
610:
609:
603:
598:
597:
596:
591:
585:
580:
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564:
548:
547:
498:
496:
489:
473:
470:
460:, followed by
454:home computers
438:microprocessor
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353:
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5779:
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5752:
5749:
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5726:Parallel port
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5547:
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5542:Computer case
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5468:Graphics card
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5390:
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5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5372:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5366:Graphics card
5364:
5362:
5361:Image scanner
5359:
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5347:
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5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5282:
5279:
5277:
5276:Input devices
5273:
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5258:
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5251:
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5225:
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5130:
5120:
5118:0-07-135892-7
5114:
5109:
5108:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5093:
5075:on 2008-06-18
5074:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5058:
5042:
5038:
5032:
5016:
5012:
5006:
4999:
4995:
4994:0-9689108-0-7
4991:
4987:
4984:Roy A. Allan
4981:
4975:
4971:
4968:
4963:
4949:on 2008-05-14
4948:
4944:
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4903:
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4892:0-442-27679-6
4889:
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4784:IEEE Spectrum
4779:
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4756:
4752:
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4738:
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4723:
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4715:
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4674:0-7167-0936-8
4671:
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4609:
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4367:9781483185491
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4263:New Scientist
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4102:9783540342588
4098:
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3997:9789812814456
3993:
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3976:
3972:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3942:Fog computing
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3927:
3923:
3921:'s early days
3920:
3916:
3912:
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3718:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3705:device (850)
3704:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3683:
3680:buys Tandem;
3679:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3649:
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3621:
3617:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3607:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3592:NeXT Computer
3590:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3573:Tera Computer
3570:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3539:
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3493:
3489:
3486:
3483:
3482:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3464:
3463:
3460:
3459:Atari 400/800
3457:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3438:Commodore PET
3435:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3371:
3370:Cray Research
3367:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3338:
3335:
3332:
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3328:
3327:Honeywell 316
3325:
3322:
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3318:
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3141:
3140:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3098:Commodore PET
3095:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3059:Commodore PET
3055:
3050:
3040:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3014:, as well as
3013:
3008:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2964:
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2755:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2712:minicomputers
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2608:The powerful
2603:supercomputer
2602:
2596:
2591:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2478:PowerPC e6500
2475:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2400:PowerXCell 8i
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2375:
2374:UltraSPARC T2
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2324:
2323:UltraSPARC T1
2320:
2319:UltraSPARC IV
2316:
2312:
2308:
2307:PowerPC 970MP
2304:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2266:
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2240:
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2216:
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2209:
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2201:
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2189:
2186:
2185:
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2174:
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2166:
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2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2134:
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2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2097:
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2069:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2027:G1; Motorola
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
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1941:
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1883:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1851:MB86900/86910
1849:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1791:Stanford MIPS
1789:
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1774:
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1525:
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1517:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1471:
1468:developed by
1467:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1447:Stanley Mazor
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1399:, leading to
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1368:
1359:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1329:minicomputers
1320:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1299:By 1971, the
1297:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1214:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1171:fighter jet.
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:invented the
1085:
1081:
1077:
1074:invented the
1073:
1069:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
996:
993:
992:stack pointer
989:
987:
983:
981:
980:GE-600 series
977:
975:
971:
968:
964:
962:
958:
956:
952:
949:
947:
943:
940:
936:
934:
930:
926:
924:
920:
917:
915:
911:
908:
905:
901:
899:
898:Honeywell 800
895:
892:
889:
888:
887:
885:
881:
876:
874:
870:
866:
861:
857:
853:
849:
848:GE-600 series
845:
841:
837:
834:
830:
829:address modes
825:
823:
819:
815:
810:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
786:magnetic core
782:
780:
776:
771:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
707:
703:
698:
696:
688:
684:
681:
680:GE-600 series
677:
676:GE-400 series
673:
670:
669:Honeywell 800
666:
665:Honeywell 200
662:
659:
655:
651:
648:
644:
641:
637:
634:
630:
627:
623:
622:IBM 7090/7094
619:
615:
614:
613:
607:
604:
602:
599:
595:
592:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
570:
569:
565:
563:
560:
559:
558:
556:
544:
541:
533:
523:
519:
515:
509:
508:
504:
499:This section
497:
493:
488:
487:
483:
479:
469:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
422:uncompetitive
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
392:
382:
376:
373:This article
371:
367:
362:
361:
351:
346:
344:
339:
337:
332:
331:
329:
328:
323:
315:
314:
313:
312:
309:
306:
305:
300:
298:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
258:
257:
256:
253:
250:
249:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
233:South America
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
210:
209:
208:
204:
203:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
159:
158:
157:
153:
152:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
113:
112:
111:
108:
105:
104:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
80:
79:
78:
75:
72:
71:
66:
63:
61:
58:
57:
56:
55:
52:
49:
48:
42:
38:
37:
34:
31:
30:
27:
19:
6593:
5927:Soviet Union
5780:
5632:Power MOSFET
5615:Power supply
5584:Data storage
5520:Flash memory
5498:Optical disc
5480:data storage
5207:
5144:Digital Deli
5143:
5106:
5077:. Retrieved
5073:the original
5066:
5057:
5045:. Retrieved
5041:the original
5031:
5019:. Retrieved
5015:the original
5005:
4985:
4980:
4962:
4951:. Retrieved
4947:the original
4937:
4925:. Retrieved
4921:ZDNet France
4920:
4911:
4902:
4895:
4883:
4878:
4866:. Retrieved
4860:
4851:
4839:. Retrieved
4833:
4824:
4812:. Retrieved
4788:
4782:
4754:
4750:
4737:
4726:the original
4713:
4707:
4694:
4680:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4652:
4640:. Retrieved
4636:
4627:
4615:. Retrieved
4611:
4602:
4594:the original
4584:
4570:
4533:
4526:
4502:
4496:
4479:
4473:. June 1966.
4462:
4456:
4447:
4438:
4425:
4419:
4408:. Retrieved
4403:
4394:
4385:
4376:
4357:
4347:
4338:
4329:
4307:
4301:
4293:the original
4283:
4271:. Retrieved
4267:the original
4262:
4253:
4244:
4240:
4231:
4207:
4200:
4180:
4173:
4149:
4142:
4125:
4121:
4111:
4088:
4082:
4063:
4051:. Retrieved
4045:
4036:
4024:. Retrieved
4018:
3982:
3975:
3924:
3904:
3793:Raspberry Pi
3738:Athlon 64 X2
3535:Apple Lisa 2
3502:Commodore 64
3105:
3082:
3020:Altair BASIC
3009:
2997:
2981:Gary Kildall
2965:
2938:
2932:
2891:
2881:
2835:
2787:minicomputer
2784:
2751:
2740:
2732:Data General
2714:such as the
2708:
2692:time-sharing
2689:
2681:card punches
2673:
2661:Time-sharing
2622:Seymour Cray
2607:
2482:Sandy Bridge
2476:; Freescale
2470:FX Bulldozer
2435:SPARC64 VII+
2342:Intel Core 2
2305:Athens; IBM
2299:Athlon 64 X2
2227:PowerPC 7450
2181:PowerPC 7400
2076:Alpha 21164A
2009:Alpha 21064A
1975:microSPARC I
1662:; Signetics
1482:
1439:silicon-gate
1413:
1378:
1353:
1349:
1326:
1313:DEC VAX 9000
1309:
1298:
1273:
1242:Data General
1239:
1224:
1187:minicomputer
1184:
1173:
1169:F-14A Tomcat
1139:
1135:US Air Force
1124:
1080:Robert Noyce
1065:
1052:
1050:
1024:
879:
877:
855:
826:
806:
783:
772:
756:I/O channels
737:
710:
699:
692:
611:
554:
551:
536:
527:
512:Please help
500:
401:
399:
389:January 2024
386:
374:
296:
291:2020–present
238:Soviet Union
218:Eastern Bloc
64:
26:
6004: [
5987: [
5975: [
5958: [
5946: [
5731:Serial port
5722:(IEEE 1394)
5699:DisplayPort
5689:Thunderbolt
5562:Motherboard
5525:Memory card
5493:Floppy disk
5335:Touchscreen
4273:12 November
3506:ZX Spectrum
3392:Altair 8800
3352:floppy disk
3255:UNIVAC 1108
3215:UNIVAC 1107
3154:Transistors
3129:monoculture
3085:Altair 8800
2957:interpreter
2935:MITS Altair
2927:Altair 8800
2902:teleprinter
2888:Altair 8800
2874:Altair 8800
2803:solid state
2704:time slices
2396:SPARC64 VII
2370:PowerPC BGP
2288:PowerPC BGL
2269:PowerPC 970
2229:; SGI MIPS
2225:; Motorola
2179:; Motorola
2177:Pentium III
2145:SPARC64 III
2141:Alpha 21264
2118:PowerPC 750
2114:PowerPC 620
2056:Pentium Pro
2048:Alpha 21164
2021:PowerPC 604
2017:PowerPC 603
1990:PowerPC 601
1967:Alpha 21064
1935:; Motorola
1714:; Motorola
1597:; Motorola
1466:memory cell
1397:Moore's law
1120:Carl Frosch
1108:Jean Hoerni
923:UNIVAC 1107
869:Bendix G-20
850:. Although
844:UNIVAC 1107
809:accumulator
794:delay lines
768:B6500/B7500
640:UNIVAC 1107
414:transistors
410:solid-state
406:vacuum tube
261:before 1950
187:Video games
6614:Categories
6495:See also:
6232:ILLIAC III
6150:MUSASINO-1
6045:IAS family
5828:Mainframes
5478:Removable
5463:Sound card
5393:Sound chip
5388:Sound card
5378:Microphone
5268:components
5215:PC History
5090:References
5079:2008-06-10
4953:2008-03-15
4894:, article
4814:13 October
4633:"HP 2114S"
4608:"HP 2115A"
4410:2018-03-13
4128:(9): 547.
4069:US2802760A
3915:Apple Inc.
3838:CPU design
3703:BlackBerry
3630:Intel PPGA
3620:Palmtop PC
3549:Amiga 1000
3516:Apple Lisa
3472:, Seagate
3449:DEC VAX-11
3337:DEC PDP-11
3295:DEC PDP-10
3231:patented;
3065:(with two
2973:Intel 8085
2953:Bill Gates
2949:Paul Allen
2945:Intel 8080
2898:IMSAI 8080
2878:IMSAI 8080
2854:Intel 8008
2766:bit-mapped
2758:Xerox Alto
2743:US dollars
2685:batch mode
2455:Nehalem-EX
2394:; Fujitsu
2362:SPARC64 VI
2352:Montecito
2200:SPARC64 IV
2198:; Fujitsu
2126:Pentium II
2080:SPARC64 II
2060:UltraSPARC
1996:; Hitachi
1617:Fairchild
1385:fabricated
1373:Intel 4004
1290:System/370
1180:System/370
1068:Jack Kilby
1045:See also:
1020:B6500 line
1014:B5000 line
846:, and the
840:UNIVAC III
802:rod memory
760:interrupts
733:System/360
687:Spectra 70
624:, and the
530:April 2024
476:See also:
243:Yugoslavia
205:By country
6491:UNIVAC II
6352:305 RAMAC
6238:ILLIAC IV
6226:ILLIAC II
6185:FACOM 201
6138:MANIAC II
5835:Australia
5741:PS/2 port
5736:Game port
5649:Fax modem
5488:Disk pack
5340:Trackball
5303:Light pen
5103:(2000) .
5047:11 August
5021:11 August
4927:11 August
4795:: 48–54.
4642:11 August
4617:11 August
4512:cite book
4471:Honeywell
4321:879918181
4053:13 August
4026:13 August
3919:Microsoft
3911:docudrama
3648:Local Bus
3531:Macintosh
3492:BBC Micro
3468:Sinclair
3420:Tandem/16
3368:founded;
3356:ILLIAC IV
3306:Engelbart
3269:DEC PDP-8
3259:DEC PDP-6
3197:Fairchild
3182:DEC PDP-1
3145:Hardware
3016:Microsoft
3005:Galaksija
2969:Zilog Z80
2961:Microsoft
2840:company,
2631:megaflops
2522:; Oracle
2488:; Oracle
2416:TILEPro64
2414:; Tilera
2334:Cell/B.E.
2315:Pentium D
2273:Pentium M
2265:Athlon 64
2250:Itanium 2
2246:SPARC64 V
2208:Pentium 4
2192:Athlon XP
2013:PA-7100LC
1804:Motorola
1642:Signetics
1405:computing
1301:ILLIAC IV
1240:In 1969,
1096:germanium
1066:In 1958,
784:By 1960,
594:Honeywell
573:Burroughs
501:does not
464:and then
416:and then
381:talk page
286:2010–2019
281:2000–2009
276:1990–1999
271:1980–1989
266:1950–1979
6525:See also
6507:Raytheon
6472:UNIVAC I
6410:AN/FSQ-8
6405:AN/FSQ-7
6250:ILLIAC 6
6220:ILLIAC I
6132:MANIAC I
6084:JOHNNIAC
6017:See also
5720:FireWire
5713:Obsolete
5679:Ethernet
5458:Speakers
5356:Keyboard
5330:Touchpad
5265:computer
5224:Archived
4970:Archived
4809:32003640
4722:18459824
3811:See also
3803:HoloLens
3734:Mac Mini
3575:Founded
3430:Apple II
3372:founded
3287:HP 2116A
3273:IBM 1130
3243:CDC 6600
3233:CDC 3600
3201:IBM 7080
3186:CDC 1604
3172:IBM 1401
3168:IBM 7090
3158:IBM 7070
3094:Apple II
3073:Model I.
3063:Apple II
2989:WordStar
2816:Micral N
2524:SPARC T5
2490:SPARC T4
2480:; Intel
2459:SPARC T3
2451:Westmere
2406:; Intel
2346:Core Duo
2313:; Intel
2271:; Intel
2248:; Intel
2244:Fujitsu
2221:; Intel
2175:; Intel
2173:RS64-III
2054:; Intel
1992:; Intel
1916:; Intel
1893:; Intel
1853:; Zilog
1763:; Intel
1733:; Intel
1718:; Zilog
1660:CDP 1802
1649:MCP-1600
1638:CDP 1801
1627:Intersil
1607:TMS 1000
1582:; Intel
1546:Rockwell
1443:Ted Hoff
1437:, using
1319:(1995).
1317:Cray T90
1205:such as
1148:for the
1133:for the
961:IBM 7090
955:IBM 7070
929:CDC 3600
904:IBM 1401
873:IBM 7070
779:IBM 7090
678:and the
656:and the
654:CDC 1604
618:IBM 1401
322:Category
213:Bulgaria
172:Internet
83:Software
74:Software
51:Hardware
6558:Related
6168:Cyclone
6162:EDB-2/3
6120:SILLIAC
6078:IBM 701
5972:PS-3000
5967:PS-2000
5943:ES-2701
5842:SILLIAC
5769:Related
5672:Current
5513:Blu-ray
5451:Plotter
5446:Printer
5429:Monitor
5405:Softcam
5313:Optical
4868:22 July
4841:22 July
4716:(4/5).
4490:Alt URL
4487:. 1965.
3768:USB 3.0
3724:Arduino
3668:USB 1.0
3641:PowerPC
3616:HP 95LX
3089:Apple I
3067:Disk II
3032:program
2785:In the
2730:(DEC),
2520:Haswell
2501:POWER7+
2486:Xeon E7
2447:Tukwila
2412:Core i7
2350:Itanium
2303:Opteron
2261:Opteron
2223:Itanium
2204:RS64-IV
2157:RS64-II
2149:PA-8500
2084:PA-8000
2052:SPARC64
2025:ESA/390
1994:Pentium
1971:PA-7100
1954:; MIPS
1901:; MIPS
1895:80386SX
1831:; MIPS
1668:TMS9900
1459:dynamic
1455:Busicom
1165:US Navy
1092:silicon
914:RCA 501
884:IBM 709
882:on the
752:30 bits
748:24 bits
744:18 bits
740:12 bits
689:series.
647:NCR 315
522:removed
507:sources
462:laptops
228:Romania
177:Laptops
6550:(1943)
6517:(1953)
6515:RAYDAC
6474:(1951)
6468:(1949)
6449:(1945)
6295:(1952)
6289:(1949)
6283:(1947)
6277:(1944)
6258:(2006)
6252:(2005)
6246:(1988)
6240:(1965)
6234:(1966)
6228:(1958)
6222:(1952)
6216:(1952)
6214:ORDVAC
6193:(1964)
6187:(1960)
6170:(1959)
6164:(1957)
6158:(1957)
6152:(1957)
6146:(1957)
6144:MISTIC
6140:(1956)
6134:(1956)
6128:(1956)
6122:(1956)
6116:(1957)
6110:(1955)
6104:(1955)
6102:WEIZAC
6098:(1952)
6096:ORDVAC
6092:(1953)
6090:ORACLE
6086:(1953)
6080:(1953)
6074:(1953)
6068:(1953)
6066:AVIDAC
6062:(1952)
6060:ILLIAC
5996:Elbrus
5938:BESM-6
5919:(1964)
5913:(1957)
5907:(1956)
5901:(1957)
5892:Sweden
5884:(1949)
5878:(1954)
5861:(1955)
5859:WEIZAC
5852:Israel
5844:(1956)
5627:MOSFET
5567:Memory
5434:Screen
5400:Webcam
5263:Basic
5115:
4992:
4890:
4807:
4720:
4672:
4541:
4406:. 1961
4364:
4319:
4219:
4188:
4161:
4099:
4075:
3994:
3913:about
3777:Apple
3701:First
3678:Compaq
3488:IBM PC
3478:VIC-20
3410:Cray-1
3381:Micral
3122:cloned
3118:IBM PC
3102:TRS-80
3100:, and
3071:TRS-80
2925:1975:
2906:binary
2850:Micral
2832:Micral
2806:memory
2618:Cray-1
2601:Cray-1
2599:1976:
2574:Apple
2563:; AMD
2557:POWER9
2535:POWER8
2457:; Sun
2439:POWER7
2437:; IBM
2398:; IBM
2392:Phenom
2381:TILE64
2378:Tilera
2372:; Sun
2366:POWER6
2364:; IBM
2317:; Sun
2284:POWER5
2267:; IBM
2233:; Sun
2231:R14000
2219:POWER4
2202:; IBM
2171:; IBM
2169:Athlon
2153:POWER3
2151:; IBM
2128:; Sun
2112:; IBM
2092:R10000
2086:; IBM
2074:; DEC
2058:; Sun
2035:; NEC
2031:; QED
1998:SuperH
1986:POWER2
1973:; Sun
1950:; IBM
1933:POWER1
1888:Apollo
1876:; NEC
1868:; DEC
1864:Acorn
1855:Z80000
1846:; Sun
1812:; NEC
1775:; DEC
1710:Intel
1695:Intel
1684:Intel
1636:; RCA
1592:Mostek
1580:CP1600
1565:; NEC
1563:IMP-16
1529:Intel
1371:1971:
1347:chip.
1343:(LSI)
1217:1969:
1176:SDS 92
974:PDP-10
946:PDP-10
856:B-line
838:, the
833:Philco
702:Razdan
620:, the
578:UNIVAC
428:(MOS)
223:Poland
6466:EDVAC
6447:ENIAC
6244:CEDAR
6191:TRASK
6178:1960s
6156:EDB-1
6053:1950s
6008:]
5991:]
5979:]
5962:]
5950:]
5917:TRASK
5911:EDB-1
5882:FUJIC
5876:FACOM
5869:Japan
5746:eSATA
5664:Ports
5349:Other
5308:Mouse
4805:S2CID
4791:(9).
4747:(PDF)
4729:(PDF)
4718:S2CID
4704:(PDF)
4467:(PDF)
4430:(PDF)
3968:Notes
3714:USB 2
3682:CD-RW
3602:ETA10
3583:Dell
3571:CM2;
3366:Atari
3225:Mouse
2993:dBase
2862:PDP-8
2770:mouse
2720:PDP-8
2668:ASCII
2648:ICs.
2565:Ryzen
2505:zEC12
2311:Xenon
2196:Duron
2099:R5000
2033:R4600
2029:68060
1956:R4000
1937:68040
1918:80486
1903:R3000
1891:PRISM
1874:68030
1848:SPARC
1833:R2000
1829:80386
1810:32032
1806:68020
1773:80286
1769:80188
1765:80186
1761:FOCUS
1731:16032
1720:Z8000
1716:68000
1672:Zilog
1664:8X300
1549:PPS-4
1427:Intel
1423:MP944
1254:8-bit
1231:2116A
1002:PDP-6
970:PDP-6
942:PDP-6
865:Atlas
814:PDP-6
790:drums
764:B5000
590:(CDC)
568:BUNCH
197:Cloud
6582:list
6570:list
6458:EMCC
6397:SAGE
6126:SMIL
6114:SARA
6108:DASK
6072:BESK
5955:Mars
5905:SMIL
5899:SARA
5704:HDMI
5620:SMPS
5608:SSHD
5602:NVMe
5598:SATA
5577:BIOS
5113:ISBN
5068:Byte
5049:2015
5023:2015
4990:ISBN
4929:2015
4888:ISBN
4870:2019
4843:2019
4816:2019
4757:(4).
4670:ISBN
4644:2015
4619:2015
4539:ISBN
4518:link
4362:ISBN
4317:OCLC
4275:2020
4217:ISBN
4186:ISBN
4159:ISBN
4097:ISBN
4055:2019
4028:2019
4020:NASA
3992:ISBN
3917:and
3799:2015
3785:2012
3779:iPad
3774:2010
3764:2008
3754:2007
3744:2006
3730:2005
3720:2003
3710:2000
3698:1999
3692:iMac
3688:1998
3674:1997
3664:1996
3654:1995
3645:VESA
3636:1994
3626:1993
3612:1992
3606:CD-R
3598:1990
3588:1989
3580:1988
3565:1987
3555:1986
3541:1985
3527:1984
3512:1983
3498:1982
3484:1981
3470:ZX80
3465:1980
3455:1979
3445:1978
3426:1977
3416:1976
3402:1975
3388:1974
3377:1973
3362:1972
3347:1971
3333:1970
3323:1969
3313:1969
3301:1967
3279:1966
3265:1965
3239:1964
3229:CMOS
3221:1963
3207:1962
3193:1961
3178:1960
3164:1959
3150:1958
3142:Year
3114:CP/M
3106:Byte
3087:and
2995:II.
2991:and
2977:CP/M
2971:and
2933:The
2876:and
2844:and
2718:and
2716:LINC
2641:and
2571:2020
2555:IBM
2552:2017
2544:IBM
2541:2015
2533:IBM
2530:2014
2515:2013
2496:2012
2468:AMD
2465:2011
2443:z196
2430:2010
2422:2009
2408:Atom
2387:2008
2357:2007
2332:IBM
2329:2006
2297:AMD
2294:2005
2282:IBM
2279:2004
2259:AMD
2256:2003
2241:2002
2217:IBM
2214:2001
2190:AMD
2187:2000
2167:AMD
2164:1999
2139:DEC
2136:1998
2122:RS64
2108:AMD
2105:1997
2088:P2SC
2070:AMD
2067:1996
2046:DEC
2043:1995
2037:V850
2007:DEC
2004:1994
1984:IBM
1981:1993
1965:DEC
1962:1992
1948:NVAX
1946:DEC
1943:1991
1931:IBM
1928:1990
1922:i860
1912:DEC
1909:1989
1899:i960
1884:1988
1870:CVAX
1866:ARM2
1861:1987
1842:NEC
1839:1986
1823:DEC
1820:1985
1801:1984
1787:1983
1777:J-11
1756:1982
1750:ROMP
1744:DEC
1741:1981
1735:8087
1726:1980
1712:8088
1707:1979
1701:6809
1697:8086
1692:1978
1686:8085
1681:1977
1658:RCA
1655:1976
1645:2650
1634:6502
1630:6100
1614:1975
1603:PACE
1599:6800
1595:5065
1588:8080
1584:4040
1573:1974
1567:μCOM
1555:1973
1542:8008
1537:1972
1531:4004
1526:1971
1518:1971
1510:1970
1499:1969
1489:Year
1475:CP/M
1449:and
1431:4004
1257:byte
1250:word
1246:Nova
1207:Unix
1197:and
1146:NASA
1114:and
1029:and
972:and
944:and
931:and
800:and
792:and
758:and
674:the
663:the
652:the
645:the
638:the
631:the
616:the
566:The
505:any
503:cite
480:and
456:and
400:The
93:Unix
6387:709
6382:705
6377:704
6372:702
6367:701
6362:650
6357:610
6303:IBM
5984:SVS
5756:VGA
5751:DVI
5684:USB
5637:VRM
5594:SSD
5589:HDD
5572:RAM
5508:DVD
5371:GPU
4797:doi
4130:doi
4126:104
3520:MSX
3350:8"
2983:at
2724:VAX
2646:ECL
2643:MSI
2639:SSI
2635:CPU
2561:z14
2546:z13
2404:z10
2096:QED
1952:RSC
1878:V70
1844:V60
1814:V20
1746:T11
1675:Z80
1623:BPC
1504:AL1
1462:RAM
1389:RCA
1305:ECL
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