383:
2597:
45:
83:
37:
27:
2866:), where Vira Cholan wrote letters to all those who worshipped Shiva and Vishnu, seeking their help against Shalivahana. A number of people assembled at Cudatturiyur to support the three kings' campaign. When Shalivahana heard of this preparation, he marched towards the south and took possession of the strong citadel at
2707:, which is generally considered to span from 300 BCE to 1297 CE. During this period, the Cholas engaged in extensive trade both within the Indian subcontinent and with foreign regions. Their trading activities helped them amass wealth, expand their influence, and contribute to the growth of their kingdom.
2753:
The Cheras were known for their extensive trade networks and maritime activities. They had access to important ports along the
Malabar Coast, such as Muziris (modern-day Kodungallur), Tyndis (modern-day Ponnani), and Nelcynda (modern-day Cranganore). These ports served as major centers for trade,
2757:
The Cheras played a crucial role in the spice trade, which was highly lucrative during the period. They were actively involved in the export of spices like black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger. These spices were in high demand in the Roman Empire and other foreign markets, and the Cheras
2761:
Apart from spices, the Cheras also traded in other valuable commodities such as ivory, pearls, textiles, precious stones, and forest products. They had access to the rich resources of the
Western Ghats and the forests of Kerala, enabling them to export goods like timber, teak, sandalwood, and
2749:
The Cheras were another prominent dynasty during the Sangam Age in South India, alongside the Cholas and the
Pandyas. The Chera kingdom, located in present-day Kerala and Kongu Nadu, had a significant impact on trade, economy, and cultural exchange during that time.
2726:. They possessed a strong navy and used it to protect their trade routes and maintain control over the seas. Their trading activities were not limited to goods but also extended to cultural and intellectual exchanges.
2874:. From an inscription that they had earlier found at Kanchi, they realised that there was a subterranean entrance into the Tiruchirappalli fort. They sent a few soldiers who entered the fort and opened its
2842:. After failing to kill Shalivahana with a rain of fire, Shiva created three kings: Vira Cholan (Chola), Ula Cheran (Chera), and Vajranga Pandiyan (Pandya). The three kings came to bathe together at the
2846:(three-river confluence) in Thirumukkoodal, and formed an alliance against Shalivahana. Next, they went through a number of adventures at various places, including Kashi and
2365:
2737:
also traded in other valuable commodities like precious stones, pearls, textiles, ivory, and perfumes. They were known for their craftsmanship and exported exquisite
382:
2870:. The three kings sent their envoy to Shalivahana, asking him to surrender and renounce his faith. When he refused, they and their allies assembled an army at
2275:
2335:
2399:
2305:
314:
2710:
The Cholas had a well-developed maritime trade network, which allowed them to establish trade links with various regions, including
Southeast
2315:
2733:. They actively participated in the spice trade, importing and exporting various spices such as pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger. The
329:
157:
309:
304:
2691:
were recorded. The Roman and Greek writers praise Korkai (now called
Tuticorin or Thoothukudi) as the seaport of the Pandyas.
3124:
152:
2822:
manuscript of uncertain date, contains a legend about the divine origin of the three crowned kings. According to it, the
2392:
2125:
358:
2468:. They frequently waged war against one another under a period of instability and between each other, held control over
147:
602:
591:
2808:, he created the Chera, Chola and the Pandya kings as descendants of the fire, the sun and the moon, respectively.
167:
137:
2784:
ancestry of the
Pandyas. It does not mention anything about the ancestry of the Cheras. The 15th-century Tamil
2581:
2385:
634:
392:
64:
2210:
719:
324:
2959:
Buddhism among Tamils in pre-colonial
Tamilakam and Ilam: Prologue. The pre-Pallava and the Pallava period
2882:
dates
Shalivahana's defeat to the year 1443 of an uncertain calendar era (possibly from the beginning of
2320:
2190:
319:
299:
294:
102:
2370:
3016:
2340:
2300:
2290:
1765:
1359:
708:
580:
2472:
from 6th century BCE to the 13th century. After being defeated by the
Pandyas, the Cholas fled to
2225:
1139:
979:
162:
2800:
2330:
2295:
2130:
1910:
1459:
1011:
940:
351:
2596:
3143:
2245:
2220:
2170:
2110:
1695:
1631:
1429:
645:
520:
177:
107:
3114:
2794:, retaining the solar and lunar origins for the Chola and the Pandya kings, respectively. The
3095:
Examination and
Analysis of the Mackenzie Manuscripts Deposited in the Madras College Library
3093:
2804:), possibly from the 17th century, also states that when Brahma re-created the world after a
2280:
2250:
2115:
2070:
1900:
1539:
1529:
1499:
1231:
1211:
1072:
441:
403:
187:
172:
73:
3089:
2360:
2215:
2200:
2145:
1786:
8:
2535:
2511:
2464:) in southern India. They signalled a time of integration and political identity for the
2140:
1868:
1715:
1409:
1389:
801:
265:
250:
182:
3116:
Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics: Draupadi among Rajputs, Muslims, and Dalits
2476:
and are later mentioned in various texts that participated in wars in the 16th century.
3148:
2791:
2345:
2205:
2185:
1830:
1439:
1349:
1119:
1109:
1042:
991:
697:
613:
344:
117:
2741:
sculptures, pottery, and textiles, which were highly sought after in foreign markets.
3120:
2719:
2355:
2325:
2235:
2230:
2175:
2120:
1950:
1840:
1819:
1775:
1745:
1449:
1379:
1369:
1339:
821:
783:
663:
415:
245:
2703:
were a prominent dynasty in South India, and they played a significant role in the
2688:
2660:
2553:
2545:
2350:
2285:
2255:
2240:
2195:
2180:
2165:
2135:
2030:
1725:
1509:
1419:
1298:
1288:
1241:
1170:
1149:
739:
729:
568:
503:
220:
2659:
mentions the Pandya country and its capital. The large number of Roman coins from
2871:
2867:
2656:
2615:
were the earliest of the Muvendhar and were of high antiquity being mentioned by
1808:
1797:
1755:
1735:
1653:
1620:
1201:
1129:
1089:
1001:
961:
923:
841:
2974:
Pivot politics: changing cultural identities in early state formation processes
2843:
2819:
2772:
2684:
2616:
2561:
2517:
2493:
2485:
2018:
1970:
1664:
1642:
1610:
1588:
1549:
1479:
1469:
1329:
1062:
872:
374:
260:
255:
230:
225:
26:
3137:
2781:
2777:
2648:
2421:
1940:
1880:
1705:
1099:
1052:
1032:
906:
889:
851:
831:
766:
550:
540:
530:
473:
270:
240:
130:
97:
53:
44:
2647:
was declining during this period. They were famous for being patrons of the
2831:
2815:
2664:
2465:
2060:
2050:
1930:
1920:
1850:
1685:
1675:
1559:
1489:
1271:
1191:
811:
675:
623:
491:
235:
197:
192:
2847:
2827:
2786:
2723:
2549:
2541:
2449:
2441:
2417:
2080:
2040:
2000:
1399:
1261:
1251:
112:
2878:
gate. Their forces then entered the fortress, and defeated Shalivahana.
36:
2855:
2704:
2605:
2473:
2453:
2437:
1990:
1890:
1600:
275:
20:
2883:
2715:
2680:
2632:
2585:
2469:
2461:
2433:
1960:
49:
2859:
2823:
2644:
2636:
2628:
2310:
1221:
686:
463:
453:
82:
3060:
3058:
2863:
2805:
2668:
2652:
2640:
2620:
2612:
2577:
2445:
1519:
424:
2971:
2839:
2738:
2734:
2700:
2676:
2624:
2601:
2457:
2429:
1319:
202:
3070:
3055:
2972:
van Bakel, M.; Hagesteijn, Renée; van de Velde, Piet (1994).
2851:
2835:
2730:
2425:
2711:
2672:
1980:
2862:
to Vikramaditya. They then reached Cudatturiyur (possibly
2790:
of Villiputtur Alvar describes the Chera king as from the
2627:
territory is not known until the sixth century under King
40:
Areas of influence of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in 300 BC
3018:
The journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 47
2937:
2935:
2432:
who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country,
2754:
attracting merchants from different parts of the world.
2932:
30:
A close depiction of the flags of Three Crowned Kings.
3088:
3034:
History of ancient India: earliest times to 1000 A.D
2990:. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 1997.
2600:The seats of Muvendhas lie in the modern states of
2571:
2528:
2504:
2488:word for the three kings – Moovendhar (pronounced
3135:
3021:. Numismatic Society of India. 1985. p. 91.
2944:Tamil culture: religion, culture, and literature
52:which comprised that part of India south of the
3112:
3076:
3064:
2941:
3036:. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 246.
3005:. University of California Press. p. 298.
2729:One of the key commodities in Chola trade was
2830:(also known as Bhoja in this story) defeated
2393:
352:
2956:
2834:, and started persecuting the worshipers of
2758:capitalized on this demand to amass wealth.
2565:
2988:Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
2854:, they found treasure and inscriptions of
2631:who liberated the Pandya country from the
2400:
2386:
359:
345:
3031:
2595:
43:
35:
25:
3046:
3000:
2946:. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. p. 17.
2540:'king',. They are mentioned by
2436:, from their three Nadu (countries) of
3136:
2957:Peter Schalk, A. Veluppillai (2002).
3082:
13:
3098:. Asiatic Society. pp. 49–55.
3051:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 31.
2671:shows that trade flourished among
2651:which were held in their capital,
14:
3160:
2623:. However the establishment of a
3032:Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002).
381:
81:
3119:. University of Chicago Press.
3106:
3003:reconstructions from South Asia
2780:ancestry of the Cholas and the
2556:who was the first to call them
3047:Tripati, Rama Shankar (1987).
3040:
3025:
3009:
2994:
2980:
2965:
2950:
2896:
2683:. Two embassies sent from the
2584:mention three kingdoms ruling
2582:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
635:Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
1:
2961:. Uppsala University Library.
2925:
2765:
1565:
1304:
1277:
1176:
1155:
1078:
1017:
946:
929:
912:
895:
878:
857:
772:
755:
509:
16:Monarchs in Ancient Tamilakam
720:Northern Black Polished Ware
7:
2572:
2529:
2505:
2316:Influence on Southeast Asia
103:Chronology of Tamil history
10:
3165:
2904:Three Glorified by Heaven,
2591:
2479:
698:Black and Red ware culture
48:Three Crowned Kings ruled
18:
3001:Pollock, Sheldon (2003).
2744:
2694:
2566:
2558:Three Glorified by Heaven
2521:
2497:
709:Painted Grey Ware culture
581:Indus Valley Civilisation
3113:Alf Hiltebeitel (2009).
3049:History of ancient India
2942:A. Kiruṭṭin̲an̲ (2000).
2889:
2850:. With the blessings of
1360:Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
1340:Eastern Chalukya Kingdom
941:Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire
2801:Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam
1460:Western Chalukya Empire
603:Mature Harappan culture
2643:was flourishing while
2608:
2366:Science and technology
750:Three Crowned Kingdoms
592:Early Harappan culture
407:(2,500,000–250,000 BC)
108:List of Tamil monarchs
57:
41:
31:
2796:Tiruvilayatar Puranam
2599:
2484:The etymology of the
2269:Specialised histories
1540:Kalachuris of Kalyani
1530:Kalachuris of Tripuri
1212:Western Ganga Kingdom
1140:Indo-Sassanid Kingdom
1090:Western Satrap Empire
1073:Indo-Parthian Kingdom
1063:Indo-Scythian Kingdom
614:Late Harappan culture
375:History of South Asia
74:History of Tamil Nadu
47:
39:
29:
3090:William Cooke Taylor
3077:Alf Hiltebeitel 2009
3065:Alf Hiltebeitel 2009
2516:'three' and
1787:Ahmadnagar Sultanate
1589:Late medieval period
1500:Eastern Ganga Empire
1232:Vishnukundina Empire
2880:Chola Purva Patayam
2812:Chola Purva Patayam
2414:Three Crowned Kings
1869:Early modern period
1716:Vijayanagara Empire
1696:Chitradurga Kingdom
1390:Bhauma-Kara Kingdom
802:Shaishunaga dynasty
251:Vijayanagara Empire
143:Three Crowned Kings
2907:World of the Three
2902:Also known as the
2609:
2460:and some parts of
2346:Partition of India
2211:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
2159:Regional histories
2104:National histories
1991:Travancore Kingdom
1961:Thondaiman Kingdom
1831:Golkonda Sultanate
1440:Somavamshi Kingdom
1410:Rashtrakuta Empire
1350:Rashidun Caliphate
1272:Kabul Shahi Empire
1120:Nagas of Padmavati
1043:Indo-Greek Kingdom
983:(230 BC – AD 1206)
676:Vedic Civilisation
624:Vedic Civilisation
521:Ahar-Banas culture
295:Ancient Tamil Nadu
276:Thondaiman Kingdom
158:Naming conventions
58:
42:
32:
19:For the film, see
3126:978-0-226-34055-5
2762:medicinal herbs.
2720:Arabian Peninsula
2539:
2527:
2515:
2503:
2470:Greater Tamilakam
2410:
2409:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2009:
2008:
1911:Thanjavur Kingdom
1859:
1858:
1820:Bijapur Sultanate
1776:Deccan sultanates
1654:Tughlaq Sultanate
1601:Ghaznavid Dynasty
1579:
1578:
1450:Chaulukya Kingdom
1380:Mallabhum kingdom
1370:Umayyad Caliphate
1110:Bharshiva Dynasty
1006:(200 BC – AD 300)
996:(230 BC – AD 220)
992:Satavahana Empire
970:
969:
966:(247 BC – AD 224)
822:Macedonian Empire
796:(450 BC – AD 489)
784:Achaemenid Empire
654:
653:
559:
558:
482:
481:
432:
431:
416:Madrasian culture
369:
368:
246:Madurai Sultanate
118:Maritime contacts
3156:
3130:
3100:
3099:
3086:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3062:
3053:
3052:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3029:
3023:
3022:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2939:
2919:
2900:
2858:from the age of
2689:Emperor Augustus
2661:Emperor Augustus
2575:
2569:
2568:
2554:Tamil literature
2546:Edicts of Ashoka
2534:
2532:
2526:romanized:
2525:
2523:
2510:
2508:
2502:romanized:
2501:
2499:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2351:Pakistan studies
2191:Himachal Pradesh
2031:Portuguese India
2027:
2026:
2023:
1981:Sikh Confederacy
1877:
1876:
1873:
1726:Bengal Sultanate
1665:Sayyid Sultanate
1643:Khalji Sultanate
1632:Mamluk Sultanate
1597:
1596:
1593:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1510:Kakatiya Kingdom
1420:Paramara Kingdom
1313:
1309:
1306:
1282:
1279:
1222:Kamarupa Kingdom
1185:
1181:
1178:
1171:Kalabhras Empire
1164:
1160:
1157:
1083:
1080:
1067:(50 BC – AD 400)
1047:(180 BC – AD 10)
1026:
1022:
1019:
988:
987:
984:
955:
951:
948:
934:
931:
917:
914:
900:
897:
883:
880:
866:
862:
859:
777:
774:
760:
757:
740:Haryanka dynasty
730:Pradyota dynasty
672:
671:
668:
577:
576:
573:
514:
511:
504:Anarta tradition
500:
499:
496:
464:Mehrgarh culture
454:Bhirrana culture
450:
449:
446:
445:(10,800–3300 BC)
412:
411:
408:
398:
397:
385:
371:
370:
361:
354:
347:
266:Kalahasti Nayaks
215:Medieval history
85:
60:
59:
3164:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3134:
3133:
3127:
3109:
3104:
3103:
3087:
3083:
3075:
3071:
3063:
3056:
3045:
3041:
3030:
3026:
3015:
3014:
3010:
2999:
2995:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2976:. Het Spinhuis.
2970:
2966:
2955:
2951:
2940:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2922:
2910:The Tamil Kings
2901:
2897:
2892:
2872:Thiruvanaikaval
2868:Tiruchirappalli
2776:alludes to the
2768:
2747:
2697:
2594:
2567:வான்புகழ் மூவர்
2548:, and first in
2492:) – comes from
2482:
2406:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2270:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2160:
2152:
2151:
2150:
2105:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2090:
2024:
2021:
2019:Colonial states
2011:
2010:
1901:Madurai Kingdom
1874:
1871:
1861:
1860:
1809:Bidar Sultanate
1798:Berar sultanate
1766:Ladakh Kingdom
1756:Gajapati Empire
1736:Garhwal Kingdom
1621:Delhi Sultanate
1594:
1591:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1550:Chutiya Kingdom
1520:Zamorin Kingdom
1311:
1307:
1299:Maukhari Empire
1289:Chalukya Empire
1280:
1242:Maitraka Empire
1183:
1179:
1162:
1158:
1150:Vakataka Empire
1130:Sasanian Empire
1081:
1024:
1020:
1002:Kuninda Kingdom
985:
982:
980:Middle Kingdoms
972:
971:
962:Parthian Empire
953:
949:
932:
915:
898:
881:
864:
860:
775:
758:
669:
666:
656:
655:
574:
571:
561:
560:
512:
497:
494:
484:
483:
474:Edakkal culture
447:
444:
434:
433:
425:Soanian culture
409:
406:
395:
365:
336:
335:
334:
289:
281:
280:
221:Kalabhra Empire
216:
208:
207:
133:
123:
122:
93:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3162:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3132:
3131:
3125:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3081:
3079:, p. 471.
3069:
3067:, p. 472.
3054:
3039:
3024:
3008:
2993:
2979:
2964:
2949:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2844:triveni sangam
2820:Tamil language
2773:Silappatikaram
2767:
2764:
2746:
2743:
2696:
2693:
2685:Pandya dynasty
2593:
2590:
2573:Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar
2481:
2478:
2456:(present day
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2397:
2390:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2025:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2007:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1971:Maratha Empire
1967:
1966:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1951:Sikkim Kingdom
1947:
1946:
1943:
1941:Marava Kingdom
1937:
1936:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1883:
1875:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1841:Keladi Kingdom
1837:
1836:
1833:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1748:
1746:Mysore Kingdom
1742:
1741:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1676:Lodi Sultanate
1671:
1670:
1667:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1627:
1626:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1611:Ghurid Dynasty
1607:
1606:
1603:
1595:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1576:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1480:Hoysala Empire
1476:
1475:
1472:
1470:Lohara Kingdom
1466:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1330:Tibetan Empire
1326:
1325:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1202:Kadamba Empire
1198:
1197:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1004:
998:
997:
994:
986:
978:
977:
974:
973:
968:
967:
964:
958:
957:
943:
937:
936:
926:
924:Pallava Empire
920:
919:
909:
903:
902:
892:
886:
885:
875:
869:
868:
854:
848:
847:
844:
842:Seleucid India
838:
837:
834:
828:
827:
824:
818:
817:
814:
808:
807:
804:
798:
797:
794:
790:
789:
786:
780:
779:
769:
767:Maha Janapadas
763:
762:
752:
746:
745:
742:
736:
735:
732:
726:
725:
722:
715:
714:
711:
704:
703:
702:(1300–1000 BC)
700:
693:
692:
689:
682:
681:
678:
670:
662:
661:
658:
657:
652:
651:
648:
641:
640:
639:(2000–1600 BC)
637:
630:
629:
626:
620:
619:
618:(1900–1300 BC)
616:
609:
608:
607:(2600–1900 BC)
605:
598:
597:
596:(3300–2600 BC)
594:
587:
586:
585:(3300–1300 BC)
583:
575:
572:(3300–1300 BC)
567:
566:
563:
562:
557:
556:
553:
547:
546:
545:(1600–1300 BC)
543:
537:
536:
533:
527:
526:
525:(3000–1500 BC)
523:
517:
516:
506:
498:
495:(3500–1500 BC)
490:
489:
486:
485:
480:
479:
478:(5000–3000 BC)
476:
470:
469:
468:(7000–3300 BC)
466:
460:
459:
458:(7570–6200 BC)
456:
448:
440:
439:
436:
435:
430:
429:
427:
421:
420:
418:
410:
402:
401:
396:
391:
390:
387:
386:
378:
377:
367:
366:
364:
363:
356:
349:
341:
338:
337:
333:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
291:
290:
287:
286:
283:
282:
279:
278:
273:
268:
263:
261:Tanjore Nayaks
258:
256:Madurai Nayaks
253:
248:
243:
238:
233:
231:Pandyan Empire
228:
226:Pallava Empire
223:
217:
214:
213:
210:
209:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
134:
129:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
94:
91:
90:
87:
86:
78:
77:
69:
68:
56:in c. 250 BCE.
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3161:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3144:Tamil history
3142:
3141:
3139:
3128:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3085:
3078:
3073:
3066:
3061:
3059:
3050:
3043:
3035:
3028:
3020:
3019:
3012:
3004:
2997:
2989:
2983:
2975:
2968:
2960:
2953:
2945:
2938:
2936:
2931:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2649:Tamil Sangams
2646:
2642:
2639:reports that
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2444:(present day
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2391:
2389:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2266:
2265:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2226:Uttar Pradesh
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2156:
2155:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2100:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1882:
1881:Mughal Empire
1879:
1878:
1870:
1865:
1864:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1707:
1706:Reddy Kingdom
1704:
1703:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1628:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1431:
1430:Yadava Empire
1428:
1427:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1320:Harsha Empire
1318:
1317:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1189:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1100:Kushan Empire
1098:
1097:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1034:
1033:Shunga Empire
1031:
1030:
1015:
1013:
1012:Mitra Dynasty
1010:
1009:
1005:
1003:
1000:
999:
995:
993:
990:
989:
981:
976:
975:
965:
963:
960:
959:
954: AD 500
950: 250 BC
944:
942:
939:
938:
933: 250 AD
927:
925:
922:
921:
916: 300 BC
910:
908:
905:
904:
899: 300 BC
893:
891:
890:Chera Kingdom
888:
887:
882: 300 BC
876:
874:
873:Pandya Empire
871:
870:
865: 300 AD
861: 300 BC
855:
853:
852:Sangam period
850:
849:
845:
843:
840:
839:
835:
833:
832:Maurya Empire
830:
829:
825:
823:
820:
819:
815:
813:
810:
809:
805:
803:
800:
799:
795:
792:
791:
787:
785:
782:
781:
770:
768:
765:
764:
759: 600 BC
753:
751:
748:
747:
743:
741:
738:
737:
733:
731:
728:
727:
723:
721:
717:
716:
713:(1200–600 BC)
712:
710:
706:
705:
701:
699:
695:
694:
691:(1500–600 BC)
690:
688:
684:
683:
680:(1500–500 BC)
679:
677:
674:
673:
667:(1500–200 BC)
665:
660:
659:
650:(1600–500 BC)
649:
647:
643:
642:
638:
636:
632:
631:
628:(2000–500 BC)
627:
625:
622:
621:
617:
615:
611:
610:
606:
604:
600:
599:
595:
593:
589:
588:
584:
582:
579:
578:
570:
565:
564:
555:(1400–700 BC)
554:
552:
551:Jorwe culture
549:
548:
544:
542:
541:Malwa culture
539:
538:
535:(1600–750 BC)
534:
532:
531:Pandu culture
529:
528:
524:
522:
519:
518:
507:
505:
502:
501:
493:
488:
487:
477:
475:
472:
471:
467:
465:
462:
461:
457:
455:
452:
451:
443:
438:
437:
428:
426:
423:
422:
419:
417:
414:
413:
405:
400:
399:
394:
389:
388:
384:
380:
379:
376:
373:
372:
362:
357:
355:
350:
348:
343:
342:
340:
339:
331:
330:Ancient sites
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
292:
285:
284:
277:
274:
272:
271:Gingee Nayaks
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
241:Chera Kingdom
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
218:
212:
211:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
188:Early Pandyas
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
135:
132:
131:Sangam period
127:
126:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
95:
89:
88:
84:
80:
79:
76:
75:
71:
70:
66:
62:
61:
55:
54:Maurya Empire
51:
46:
38:
34:
28:
22:
3115:
3107:Bibliography
3094:
3084:
3072:
3048:
3042:
3033:
3027:
3017:
3011:
3002:
2996:
2987:
2982:
2973:
2967:
2958:
2952:
2943:
2914:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2903:
2898:
2879:
2875:
2832:Vikramaditya
2818:Record"), a
2811:
2810:
2799:
2795:
2792:fire dynasty
2785:
2771:
2769:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2728:
2709:
2698:
2665:Emperor Zeno
2610:
2557:
2489:
2483:
2466:Tamil people
2413:
2411:
2291:Demographics
2281:Architecture
2061:French India
2051:Danish India
1931:Bengal Subah
1921:Bhoi dynasty
1851:Koch Kingdom
1686:Ahom Kingdom
1560:Deva Kingdom
1252:Huna Kingdom
1192:Gupta Empire
1094:(AD 35–405 )
1053:Kanva Empire
1025: 50 BC
907:Chola Empire
846:(312–303 BC)
836:(321–184 BC)
826:(330–323 BC)
816:(380–321 BC)
812:Nanda Empire
806:(424–345 BC)
788:(550–330 BC)
749:
744:(684–424 BC)
734:(799–684 BC)
724:(700–200 BC)
646:Swat culture
492:Chalcolithic
404:Palaeolithic
320:Inscriptions
300:Architecture
236:Chola Empire
198:Early Cholas
193:Early Cheras
153:Legal system
142:
72:
33:
2856:Hindu kings
2828:Shalivahana
2787:Mahabharata
2724:East Africa
2550:Tolkappiyam
2542:Megasthenes
2450:Tirunelveli
2442:Pandya Nadu
2418:triumvirate
2416:, were the
2276:Agriculture
2246:South India
2221:Maharashtra
2171:Balochistan
2111:Afghanistan
2085:(1858–1947)
2081:British Raj
2075:(1757–1858)
2071:Company Raj
2065:(1759–1954)
2055:(1620–1869)
2045:(1605–1825)
2041:Dutch India
2035:(1510–1961)
2022:(1510–1961)
2005:(1799–1849)
2001:Sikh Empire
1995:(1729–1947)
1985:(1707–1799)
1975:(1674–1818)
1965:(1650–1948)
1955:(1642–1975)
1945:(1600–1750)
1935:(1576–1757)
1925:(1541–1804)
1915:(1532–1673)
1905:(1529–1736)
1895:(1540–1556)
1885:(1526–1858)
1872:(1526–1858)
1855:(1515–1947)
1845:(1499–1763)
1835:(1518–1687)
1824:(1492–1686)
1813:(1492–1619)
1802:(1490–1574)
1791:(1490–1636)
1780:(1490–1596)
1770:(1470–1842)
1760:(1434–1541)
1750:(1399–1947)
1740:(1358–1803)
1730:(1352–1576)
1720:(1336–1646)
1710:(1325–1448)
1700:(1300–1779)
1690:(1228–1826)
1680:(1451–1526)
1669:(1414–1451)
1658:(1320–1414)
1647:(1290–1320)
1636:(1206–1290)
1625:(1206–1526)
1615:(1170–1206)
1592:(1206–1526)
1573: 1300
1569: 1200
1554:(1187–1673)
1544:(1156–1184)
1524:(1102–1766)
1514:(1083–1323)
1504:(1078–1434)
1494:(1070–1230)
1490:Sena Empire
1484:(1040–1347)
1474:(1003–1320)
1400:Pala Empire
1262:Rai Kingdom
1104:(AD 60–240)
1037:(185–73 BC)
793:Ror Dynasty
513: 3950
113:Wootz steel
3138:Categories
2926:References
2876:Chintamani
2814:("Ancient
2766:Literature
2705:Sangam Age
2606:Tamil Nadu
2474:Devicottah
2454:Chera Nadu
2438:Chola Nadu
2356:Philosophy
2336:Metallurgy
2326:Literature
2251:Tamil Nadu
2116:Bangladesh
1891:Sur Empire
1605:(977–1186)
1571: – c.
1534:(675–1210)
1464:(973–1189)
1454:(942–1244)
1444:(882–1110)
1434:(850–1334)
1424:(800–1327)
1404:(750–1174)
1384:(694–1947)
1364:(650–1036)
1344:(624–1075)
1312: 700
1310: – c.
1308: 550
1281: 500
1226:(350–1100)
1216:(350–1000)
1184: 600
1182: – c.
1180: 250
1163: 500
1161: – c.
1159: 250
1082: 130
1057:(75–26 BC)
1023: – c.
1021: 150
952: – c.
918:– AD 1279)
901:– AD 1102)
884:– AD 1345)
863: – c.
776: 600
761:– AD 1600)
569:Bronze Age
288:Categories
163:Government
21:Moovendhar
3149:Tamilakam
2884:Kali Yuga
2716:Sri Lanka
2681:Tamilakam
2667:found in
2633:Kalabhras
2617:Kātyāyana
2586:Tamilakam
2462:Tamilnadu
2434:Tamilakam
2306:Education
2296:Dynasties
2216:Rajasthan
2201:Karnataka
2146:Sri Lanka
1414:(753–982)
1394:(736–916)
1374:(661–750)
1354:(632–661)
1334:(618–841)
1324:(606–647)
1293:(543–753)
1266:(489–632)
1256:(475–576)
1246:(475–767)
1236:(420–624)
1206:(345–525)
1196:(280–550)
1144:(230–360)
1134:(224–651)
1124:(210–340)
1114:(170–350)
1077:(AD 21 –
935:– AD 800)
687:Janapadas
515:–1900 BC)
442:Neolithic
315:Monuments
310:Economies
148:Education
98:Tamiḻakam
50:Tamilakam
3092:(1838).
2915:Muvendar
2860:Shantanu
2824:Shramana
2645:Buddhism
2637:Xuanzang
2629:Kadungon
2580:and the
2544:and the
2490:Mūvēntar
2371:Timeline
2361:Religion
2341:Military
2331:Maritime
2321:Language
2311:Indology
2141:Pakistan
2131:Maldives
1829: –
1818: –
1807: –
1796: –
1785: –
1674: –
1663: –
1652: –
1641: –
1630: –
778:–300 BC)
718: –
707: –
696: –
685: –
664:Iron Age
644: –
633: –
612: –
601: –
590: –
178:Religion
65:a series
63:Part of
2864:Uraiyur
2669:Madurai
2653:Madurai
2641:Jainism
2621:Valmiki
2613:Pandyas
2592:Pandyas
2578:Ptolemy
2564::
2538:
2522:வேந்தர்
2514:
2480:Origins
2446:Madurai
2301:Economy
2286:Coinage
2206:Kashmir
2186:Gujarat
1283:– 1026)
393:Outline
305:Culture
173:Society
168:Economy
138:Sources
3123:
2848:Kanchi
2840:Vishnu
2806:deluge
2745:Cheras
2739:bronze
2735:Cholas
2731:spices
2722:, and
2718:, the
2701:Cholas
2695:Cholas
2677:Greece
2625:Pandya
2602:Kerala
2552:among
2530:vēntar
2458:Kerala
2452:) and
2430:Pandya
2236:Odisha
2231:Punjab
2176:Bengal
2121:Bhutan
203:Velirs
2912:, or
2890:Notes
2852:Durga
2836:Shiva
2826:king
2816:Chola
2782:lunar
2778:solar
2657:Pliny
2562:Tamil
2518:Tamil
2494:Tamil
2486:Tamil
2426:Chola
2422:Chera
2256:Tibet
2241:Sindh
2196:Kabul
2181:Bihar
2166:Assam
2136:Nepal
2126:India
325:Forts
183:Music
3121:ISBN
2838:and
2798:(or
2770:The
2712:Asia
2699:The
2679:and
2673:Rome
2619:and
2611:The
2604:and
2536:lit.
2512:lit.
2448:and
2428:and
2412:The
92:Main
2886:).
2687:to
2663:to
2576:).
2420:of
3140::
3057:^
2934:^
2714:,
2675:,
2655:.
2635:.
2588:.
2570:,
2533:,
2524:,
2520::
2509:,
2506:mū
2500:,
2498:மூ
2496::
2440:,
2424:,
1566:c.
1305:c.
1278:c.
1177:c.
1156:c.
1079:c.
1018:c.
947:c.
930:c.
913:c.
896:c.
879:c.
858:c.
773:c.
756:c.
510:c.
67:on
3129:.
2918:.
2560:(
2401:e
2394:t
2387:v
1575:)
1564:(
1314:)
1303:(
1276:(
1186:)
1175:(
1165:)
1154:(
1084:)
1027:)
1016:(
956:)
945:(
928:(
911:(
894:(
877:(
867:)
856:(
771:(
754:(
508:(
360:e
353:t
346:v
23:.
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