Tibet under Qing rule

953:

withdrawn in 1723. Between 1723 and 1728, there were special missions to Lhasa but no permanent residence. The fact that two ambans with their Chinese garrison have been stationed in Lhasa since 1728 is significant because it shows that Manchu China had effectively taken over the position of the former Mongol protector of the lamaist regime. There was a senior and junior amban but the distinction was purely formal and they both held the same authority. Between the death of A'erxun in 1734 and 1748, there was only one amban. The first two ambans, Sengge and Mala, held office for five years, but thereafter ambans held office for a maximum of three years. During the rule of Polhané, the ambans' duties mainly consisted of commanding the Qing garrison and communications with Beijing on the actions of the Tibetan ruler. During the initial period they sometimes intervened in matters of foreign relations but they never interfered with the Tibetan government at that time. In 1751, the power of the ambans was increased. Besides their former duties, their directions also had to be taken by the Kashag on every important matter, giving them broad supervision over the Tibetan government. Direct intervention by the ambans was still a rare occurrence until after the Sino-Nepalese War in 1792. By 1793, the ambans were accorded the same rank as the Dalai and

4694:, p. 26: "The invasion of Tibet and the Lhasa Convention of 1904 dramatically altered Chinese policy toward Tibet. Until then, the Qing dynasty had shown no interest in directly administering or sinicizing Tibet. The British thrusts now suggested to Beijing that unless it took prompt action, its position as overlord in Tibet might be lost, and with Tibet under the British sphere of influence the English would be looking down from the Tibetan plateau on Sichuan, one of China's most important provinces. The Qing dynasty, although enfeebled and on the brink of collapse, responded with surprising vigor. Beijing got the British troops to leave Tibetan soil quickly by paying the indemnity to Britain itself and began to take a more active role in day-to-day Tibetan affairs. Britain's casual invasion of Tibet, therefore, stimulated China to protect its national interests by beginning a program of closer cultural, economic, and political integration of Tibet with the rest of China." 940:(civil administrator/regent) with the Kashag. The council was to govern Tibet under the close supervision of the Chinese garrison commander stationed in Lhasa, who quite often interfered with the decisions of the Kashag, especially when Chinese interests were involved. However, its members were composed of Tibetan nobles whose territorial ambitions caused the council to stop functioning, resulting in civil war in 1727–1728. The council was reconstituted again in 1728 as the executive organ of the regent. Each kalön was directly responsible to the regent. In the latter part of Polhané's reign they ceased to have meetings. After the Lhasa riot of 1750, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army to Tibet and reorganized the Tibetan government in 1751 with the 1601:

the urn's usage to highlight Tibetan autonomy when the Qing powers were strong, but Qing emperors had the final say in recognizing new incarnations through the system of the Golden Urn. At times, the selection was approved after the fact by the Emperor. The Emperor's urn was formally used at other times, and there was suggestion that the Tibetans were more willing to employ the urn to maintain a semblance of Qing's protection when the imperial power was weaker. The 11th Dalai Lama was selected by the Golden Urn method. While the 12th Dalai Lama was recognized by traditional Tibetan methods, he was confirmed by the urn. There was an open pretense that the urn was used for the 10th Dalai Lama, when it was actually not used.

1951:"Currently, Tibet is in the cramp-like hands of China's government. The Chinese realize that if they leave Tibet for the Europeans, it will end its isolation in the East. That is why the Chinese prevent those who wish to enter Tibet. The Dalai Lama is currently also in the hands of the Chinese Government"... "Mongols are fanatics. They adore the Dalai Lama and obey him blindly. If he tomorrow orders them go to war against the Chinese, if he urges them to a bloody revolution, they will all like one man follow him as their ruler. China's government, which fears the Mongols, hooks on to the Dalai Lama."... "There is calm in Tibet. No ferment of any kind is perceptible" (translated from Swedish). 3882:, p. 500. Shakabka reads this event as illustrating the Preceptor-Patron relationship between China and Tibet. The Emperor wrote a letter which read: 'The wheel of doctrine will be turned throughout the world through the powerful scripture foretold to endure as long as the sky. Next year, you will come to honor the day of by birth, enhancing my state of mind. I am enjoying thinking about your swiftly impending arrival. On the way, Panchen Ertini, you will bring about happiness through spreading Buddhism and affecting the welfare of Tibet and Mongolia. I am presently learning the Tibetan language. When we meet directly, I will speak with you with great joy.' 1093:. According to Chinese sources, the emperor received the Dalai Lama in the South Park and gave him a seat and a feast. They Dalai Lama offered gifts involving local products. The visit was not characterized as a court summon. According to the autobiography of the 5th Dalai Lama, the emperor descended from his throne and took his hand. The Dalai Lama sat on a seat close to the emperor and at nearly the same height. The emperor requested the Dalai Lama drink first but they drank together after some deliberation. The emperor bestowed upon him gifts fit for a "Teacher of the Emperor". The Dalai Lama was "recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire". 1817:

This essentially removed Tibet from the so-called "Great Game". The Dalai Lama received a dispatch from Lhasa, and was about to return there from Amdo in the summer of 1908 when he decided to go Beijing instead, where he was received with a ceremony appropriately "accorded to any independent sovereign", as witnessed by U.S. Ambassador to China William Rockwell. Tibetan affairs were discussed directly with Qing Dowager Empress Cixi, then together with the young Emperor. Cixi died in November 1908 during the state visit, and the Dalai Lama performed the funeral rituals. The Dalai Lama also made contacts with Japanese diplomats and military advisors.

8331: 3736:, "New Left Review" 14, March–April 2002:'"Tibetan local affairs were left to the willful actions of the Dalai Lama and the shapes ", he said. "The Commissioners were not only unable to take charge, they were also kept uninformed. This reduced the post of the Residential Commissioner in Tibet to name only." In response, the Qing court issued in 1793 an imperial decree, the Twenty-Nine Articles on the Reconstruction of Tibetan Domestic Affairs, which consolidated the Commissioner’s authority over administrative, military and religious appointments, foreign affairs, finance, taxation and the criminal justice system.' 1071: 957:, and these two high-ranking Lamas were denied the traditional right of communicating directly with the Emperor; they could only do so via the ambans. By this time the ambans were also above the Kashag and regents in regards to Tibetan political affairs. Over a period of 184 years, the amban's status changed from consultative to supervisory and finally to commanding official in Lhasa. The staff of the ambans included one or two military officers and several clerics. The clerics' function was probably similar to that of secretaries. After 1751, a number of Manchu banner officers were added. 453: 1872: 1626:). In order to learn more about what had occurred, Qing China dispatched an imperial high commissioner to Tibet in charge of a small military force. When the Qing imperial commissioner discovered the truth, he declined to aid Nepal and instead restricted himself to expressing his desire that the Indian government could decide it was time to withdraw its resident from Kathmandu. The Qing imperial commissioner let the matter go and left for China proper in 1817 after the British said they would do so if China sent a resident to Nepal to stop Anglo-Nepalese tensions. 442: 1880:

monastery in the Chiefdom of Batang. Tibetan control of the Batang region of Kham in eastern Tibet appears to have continued uncontested following a 1726-1727 treaty. In Batang's uprising, Feng Quan was killed, as were Chinese farmers and their fields were burned. The British invasion through Sikkim triggered a Khampa reaction, where chieftains attacked and French missionaries, Manchu and Han Qing officials, and Christian converts were killed. French Catholic missionaries Père Pierre-Marie Bourdonnec and Père Jules Dubernard were killed around the

801:

Dalai Lama the title of "Loyally Submissive Vice-Regent", and ordered to follow Qing commands and communicate with the emperor only through the Manchu amban in Lhasa; but opinions vary as to whether these titles and commands reflected actual political power, or symbolic gestures ignored by Tibetans. Some authors claim that kneeling before the Emperor followed the 17th-century precedent in the case of the 5th Dalai Lama. Other historians indicate that the emperor treated the Dalai Lama as an equal.

1806:. Then in 1901, Dorjiev had delivered letters from Tibet to the Tzar, namely a formal letter of appreciation from the Dalai Lama, and another from the Kashak directly soliciting support against the British. Dorjiev's journey to Russia was seen as a threat by British interests in India, despite Russian statements they would not intervene. After realizing the Qing lacked any real authority in Tibet, a British expedition was dispatched in 1904, officially to resolve border disputes between Tibet and 1376: 1533: 1176:

the Dalai Lama himself. Lha-bzang Khan and the regent engaged in a power struggle that resulted in the khan's victory. In 1705–1706, Lha-bzang entered Lhasa, killed the regent, and deposed the 6th Dalai Lama using his hedonous lifestyle as an excuse. Lha-bzang sought the support of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty, who requested that he send the 6th Dalai Lama to Beijing. However the Dalai Lama fell ill soon after leaving Lhasa and died on the way in Amdo on 14 November 1706.

1250: 42: 1757:, which Tibet disregarded as it did "all agreements signed between China and Britain regarding Tibet, taking the position that it was for Lhasa alone to negotiate with foreign powers on Tibet's behalf". Qing China and Britain had also concluded an earlier treaty in 1886, the "Convention Relating to Burmah and Thibet" as well as a later treaty in 1893. Regardless of those treaties, Tibet continued to bar British envoys from its territory. 1235: 737:(1788–1792), Tibet's subordination to the Qing was "beyond dispute" and that one of the memoirs of a Tibetan minister involved in the war states unambiguously that he was a subject of the Qing emperor. The Golden Urn system of selecting reincarnations was instituted by the Qing, and real authority over Tibet was wielded by its offices and officials. However, for most of the 19th century this authority was weak. After the death of the 1112:. The Dalai Lama refused to send troops, and advised Kangxi to resolve the conflict in Yunnan by dividing China with Wu Sangui. The Dalai Lama openly professed neutrality but he exchanged gifts and letters with Wu Sangui during the war further deepening the Qing's suspicions and angering them against the Dalai Lama. This was a turning point for Kangxi, who began to deal with the Mongols directly, rather than through the Dalai Lama. 1372:) to Lhasa. A stone monument regarding the boundary between Tibet and neighbouring Chinese provinces, agreed upon by Lhasa and Beijing in 1726, was placed atop a mountain, and survived into at least the 19th century. This boundary, which was used until 1865, delineated the Dri River in Kham as the frontier between Tibet and Qing China. Territory east of the boundary was governed by Tibetan chiefs who were answerable to China. 320: 264: 1411:. The powers of the Qing ambans in Lhasa were greatly increased. The ambans by this time had a broad right of supervision on the actions of the government, although the Qianlong Emperor was later disappointed with their performance and decided to further enhance their status. The number of soldiers in Tibet was kept at about 2,000. The defensive duties were partly helped out by a local force which was reorganized by the 1856:, by which the "Government of Great Britain engages not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet. The Government of China also undertakes not to permit any other foreign State to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet." Moreover, Beijing agreed to pay London 2.5 million rupees which Lhasa was forced to agree upon in the Anglo-Tibetan treaty of 1904. 1286:, the official representative of Qing in Tibet. Another Khalkha directed the military. The Dalai Lama's role at this time may have been purely symbolic in China's eyes, but it wasn't to the Dalai Lama nor to the Ganden Phodrang government or the Tibetan people, who viewed the Qing as a "patron". The Dalai Lama was also still highly influential because of the Mongols' religious beliefs. 4718:, p. 47: "The ambans also set out to transform the government in Tibet and to sinicize the elite. Plans were laid to train a large army and secularize the Tibetan government by creating lay governmental boards. Roads and telegraph lines were planned, and resource exploitation was considered; a Chinese school was opened in Lhasa in 1907, and a military college in 1908." 1330:, after 1728 the Qing used Green Standard troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than Bannermen. According to Evelyn S. Rawski, both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet. According to Sabine Dabringhaus, Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000-strong Tibetan army. 1919:. After obtaining the departure of the British troops in return for an indemnity payment, the Qing dynasty, although weakened, decided to play a more active role in the conduct of Tibetan affairs. To preserve its interests, it implemented, from 1905 to 1911, a program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China at the political, economic and cultural levels. 1046:, in 1657. This is implied by descriptions in other sources of an increase in "day-to-day control of... his government" by the 5th Dalai Lama after the deaths of Sonam Rapten and Güshi. One interpretation describes the granting of all temporal powers over Tibet to the Dalai Lama, but he did not possess the power to actually administrate. An office called 2181:, p. ix: "The status of Tibet is at the core of the dispute, as it has been for all parties drawn into it over the past century. China maintains that Tibet is an inalienable part of China. Tibetans maintain that Tibet has historically been an independent country. In reality, the conflict over Tibet's status has been a conflict over history." 1596::金瓶). According to Warren Smith, the 29-article decree's directives were either never fully implemented, or quickly discarded, as the Qing were more interested in a symbolic gesture of authority than actual sovereignty; the relationship between Qing and Tibet was one between states, or between an empire and a semi-autonomous state. However, 810:

Tibet, and the goal of cultural preservation increasingly centered discussion of Tibet around its religious and spiritual significance. This impetus to formulate a Tibetan identity based primarily on religion has made understanding the political realities of Tibet's relationship to the Yuan and Qing dynasties difficult.

4756:: "For approximately two years, five Chinese Post Offices operated in Central Tibet and a Chinese Post Office at Chambo (Eastern Tibet) was open in 1913 and 1914. Initially the Post Office used regular Chinese Imperial stamps, but in 1911 a set of eleven stamps (surcharged in three languages) was introduced for Tibet." 1730:, a community of Chinese troops from Sichuan that had married Tibetan women settled down in the Lubu neighborhood of Lhasa, where their descendants established a community and assimilated into Tibetan culture. Another community, Hebalin, was where Chinese Muslim troops and their wives and offspring lived. 1037:, was set up as a Gelug led government of Tibet in 1642. However, there are various interpretations of the nature of the Khoshut Khanate's relationship with the government of Tibet under the Gelug. Some sources say that the khan had very little to do with the administration of Tibet and only maintained a 4823:, 1971, UBC Press, 2011, 304 p., pp. 9-10: "With hindsight, the series of reforms launched by Zhao Erfeng in the final days of the Qing can be regarded as modern China's first state-building attempt in its southwest border regions. This effort was suspended as a result of the collapse of the Qing court." 1933:, the first of its kind, was printed in Lhasa on presses imported from Calcutta. It appeared every ten days and each issue was printed in 300 or 400 copies. Its objective, at the same time educational and of propaganda, was to facilitate the administrative reforms engaged by Lian Yu and Zhang Yintang. 1946:

returned in 1909 from a three-year-long expedition to Tibet, having mapped and described a large part of inner Tibet. During his travels, he visited the 9th Panchen Lama. For some of the time, Hedin had to camouflage himself as a Tibetan shepherd (because he was European). In an interview following a

1661:

under the umbrella of the Qing Empire. Qing China sent troops in against Namgyal in 1849 but the campaign was unsuccessful. They tried to negotiate and additional troops were not dispatched. Qing military posts were present along the historic trading route between Beijing and Lhasa, but "did not have

1600:

states that the subordination place of Tibet within the Qing Empire by this time was beyond dispute. Despite this attempt to further control Tibet's secular and spiritual ruling classes, the Emperor's urn was not always used or politely ignored in such cases. The Tibetans left some question regarding

1175:

Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut rose to power under uncertain circumstances. Differing accounts ascribe his rise to the poisoning of his elder brother and killing the Tibetan regent or that his position was requested by the Dalai Lama because the elder brother was sickly while the regent was removed by

860:

When the Qing dynasty installed the 7th Dalai Lama in 1720, his religious supremacy was recognized by the Tibetan government, but the Qing ignored his theoretical rights. After 1720, the government was appointed by the Qing but due to distance and bad organization, retained a large amount of internal

1922:

Plans were laid to build a railway line connecting Sichuan to Tibet, to form an army of six thousand men and to secularise the Tibetan government by creating non-ecclesiastical governmental commissions. A mint was to be established, roads and telephone lines were to be built and local resources were

1134:

Mongols and went on to battle Qing forces. This contributed to the loss of Tibet's role as mediator between the Mongols and the Qing emperor. Several Khalkha tribes formally submitted directly to Kangxi. Galdan retreated to Dzungaria. When Sangye Gyatso complained to Kangxi that he could not control

741:

in 1804, the Dalai Lamas did not exercise any real power for the next 70 years, during which monk regents reigned with the support of the Qing. In terms of foreign recognition, Britain and Russia formally acknowledged Chinese authority over Tibet in treaties of 1906 and 1907. This was after the 1904

1816:

Before the British invasion force arrived in Lhasa, the 13th Dalai Lama escaped to seek alliances for Tibet. The Dalai Lama travelled first to Mongolia and requested help from Russia against China and Britain, and learned in 1907 that Britain and Russia signed a non-interference in Tibet agreement.

1741:

increased their interest in Tibet, and a number of Indians entered the region, first as explorers and then as traders. The British sent a mission with a military escort through Sikkim in 1885, whose entry was refused by Tibet and the British withdrew. Tibet then organized an army to be stationed at

1465:

agents in India, was invited to Peking for the celebration of the Emperor's 70th birthday. The "priest and patron" relationship between Tibet and Qing China was underscored by Emperor prostrating "to his spiritual father". In the final stages of his visit, after instructing the Emperor, the Panchen

1355:

Qing troops arrived in Lhasa in September, and punished the anti-Qing faction by executing entire families, including women and children. The Dalai Lama was sent to Lithang Monastery in Kham. The Panchen Lama was brought to Lhasa and was given temporal authority over central Tsang and western Ngari

1347:

to Gelug. This persecution created a rift between Polhanas, who had been a Nyingma monk, and Kangchennas. Both of these officials, who represented Qing interests, were opposed by the Lhasa nobility, who had been allied with the Dzungars and were anti-Qing. They killed Kangchennas and took control

847:

rulers of Tibet who exercised power in their own name and authority without reference to the Dalai Lama. Their post was hereditary. The Kashag was merely an executive organ and provincial administration was controlled by the nominees of the rulers. Compulsory transport service was a monopoly of the

919:

in 1904. With the resulting treaty in 1906 recognizing China's suzerainty over Tibet, the 13th Dalai Lama visited Beijing in 1908 where he tried unsuccessfully to gain a greater degree of independence for Tibet. The Qing forces occupied Lhasa in 1910 and the 13th Dalai Lama fled to India. The Qing

1524:

s' status, and ordered them to control border inspections, and serve as conduits through which the Dalai Lama and his cabinet were to communicate. Imperial China seized more power from the Tibetan authorities with each intervention on behalf of the Dalai Lama, and with this decree China created a

1500:

in Lhasa spirited away to safety both the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, but otherwise made no attempt to defend the country, though urgent dispatches to Beijing warned that alien powers had designs on the region, and threatened Qing Manchu interests. At that time, the Qing army found that the

809:

and Qing dynasties, despite Tibetan exile commentators having come to believe that this political subordination was a misunderstanding. Sperling describes this as a "cultural notion at work as a national idea is defined anew." Tibetan interaction with the West, assimilation of modern ideals about

804:

According to Sperling, the description of a "priest-patron" religious relationship governing Sino-Tibetan relations that excluded concrete political subordination is a recent phenomenon and not substantiated. The priest and patron relationship coexisted with Tibet's political subordination to the

800:

and the young Emperor while he delivered his petition in Beijing. Chinese sources emphasize the submission of kneeling; Tibetan sources emphasize the lack of the kowtow. Titles and commands given to Tibetans by the Chinese, likewise, are variously interpreted. The Qing authorities gave the 13th

773:, a Tibetan political theory that the relationship between Tibet and China was a symbiotic link between a spiritual leader and a lay patron, such as the relationship between the Dalai Lama and the Qing emperor. They were respectively spiritual teacher and lay patron, rather than subject and lord. 1879:

Soon after the British invasion of Tibet, the Qing rulers in China were alarmed. They sent the imperial official Feng Quan (凤全) to Kham to begin reasserting Qing control. Feng Quan's initiatives in Kham of land reforms and reductions to the number of monks led to an uprising by monks at a Batang

1395:

The Dalai Lama stepped in and restored order in Lhasa, while it was thought that further uprisings would result in harsh retaliation from China. The Qianlong Emperor (Yongzheng's successor) sent a force of 800, which executed Gyurme Namgyal's family and seven members of the group that allegedly

1199:

as the reincarnation of the 6th Dalai Lama. In 1712, the youngest son of Güshi Khan, Trashi Batur Taiji, and the third son of Boshugtu Jinong, Cagan Danjin, declared their support for the boy. Lha-bzang's efforts to invalidate the Lithang reincarnation failed. The Khoshut chiefs asked the Kangxi

952:

The office of the two Ambans was set up in 1728. They were imperial residents of the Qing dynasty and reported to the Qing government agency known as the Lifan Yuan. Prior to that there were no permanent representatives of the Qing emperor in Tibet and the temporary representative after 1720 was

1820:

The Dalai Lama returned from his search for support against China and Britain to Lhasa in 1909, and initiated reforms to establish a standing Tibetan army while consulting with Japanese advisors. Treaties were signed between the British and the Tibetans, then between China and Britain. The 1904

1501:

Nepalese forces had melted away, and no fighting was necessary. After the second Gorka incursion in 1791, another force of Manchus and Mongols joined by a strong contingents of Tibetan soldiers (10,000 of 13,000) supplied by local chieftains, repelled the invasion and pursued the Gorkhas to the

1360:

were established in Lhasa, with increased numbers of Qing troops. Over the 1730s, Qing troops were again reduced, and Polhanas gained more power and authority. The Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1735, but temporal power remained with Polhanas. The Qing found Polhanas to be a loyal agent and an

657:

The political status of Tibet during the Qing period has been described as a "Chinese protectorate," a "Qing protectorate," a "Manchu protectorate," a "subordinate place... within the Qing Empire," a "part of an empire," a "vassal state," a "dependent state," and a "tributary or a dependency."

4793:

Bai Runsheng, op. cit.: "But in Tibet the old customs had taken such a deep root that it was difficult to get effective results through administrative reformation. So Lian Yu and Zhang Yintang thought that to publish a newspaper in the vernacular language would get better results than to make

1041:

with the Dalai Lama. Other sources describe Mongol representatives of the khan in Tibet while he ruled in Kokonor and treated Tibet as a protectorate. One source states that Güshi sat on a lower level than the Dalai Lama during the enthronement ceremony in 1642 but the Dalai Lama was merely a

4706:, p. 7: "During this period three Chinese proposals threatened radically to transform the status of Tibet: the construction of a railroad from Szechuan to Tibet, the enrolment and instruction of Tibetans into the Chinese army, and the transformation of Tibet into a Chinese province." 1159:, public. He was enthroned in 1697. Tsangyang Gyatso enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing poetry. In 1702, he refused to take the vows of a Buddhist monk. The regent, under pressure from Kangxi and Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut, resigned in 1703. 2076:, p. 78: "Professor Luciano Petech, who wrote a definitive history of Sino—Tibetan relations in eighteenth century, terms Tibet's status during this time as a Chinese "protectorate". This may be a fairly value-neutral description of Tibet's status during the eighteenth century..." 1168: 1617:

because the Nepalese, in an effort to obtain aids from Qing China, gave false information to the Qing government, claiming that the British demanded free passage through Nepalese territory to Tibet and that they were ordering Nepal to transfer her tribute from China to the

1849:-Tibet border and prevented Tibet from entering into relations with other foreign powers. As a result, British economic influence expanded further in Tibet, while at the same time Tibet remained under the first claim in 1904 of "sovereignty" by the Qing dynasty of China. 1387:

became convinced that he was going to lead a rebellion, so they assassinated him independently from Beijing's authority. News of the murders leaked out and an uprising broke out in the city during which the residents of Lhasa avenged the regent's death by killing both

1579:

in Lhasa. The Emperor wanted to control the recognition process of incarnate lamas because the Gelug school of the Dalai Lamas was the official religion of his Qing court. Another purpose was to have the Mongol grand-lama Qubilγan found in Tibet rather than from the

1975:. After the Dalai Lama was told he was to be "arrested", he escaped from Lhasa to India and remained for three months. Reports arrived of Lhasa's sacking, and the arrests of government officials. He was later informed by letter that Qing China had "deposed" him. 2169:, pp. 2–3: "From the outset, it became apparent that a major problem lay in the nature of Tibet's international status. Was Tibet part of China? Neither the Tibetans nor the Chinese were willing to provide a satisfactory answer to this question." 1768:

and a secret mission led by Sherab Chonpel (shes rab chos 'phel, d.u.) was sent directly to Beijing with a demand for the withdrawal of Chinese forces. The Qing Guangxu Emperor agreed, and the "territory was returned to the direct rule of Lhasa".

1430:

The 7th Dalai Lama died in 1757. Afterwards, an assembly of lamas decided to institute the office of regent, to be held by an incarnate lama "until the new Dalai Lama attained his majority and could assume his official duties". The Seventh Demo,

789:, the 13th Dalai Lama's negotiators cited the priest and patron relationship to explain the lack of any clearly demarcated boundary between Tibet and the rest of China (i.e. as a religious benefactor, the Qing did not need to be hedged against). 3877:

In regard to kowtowing, Shakabpa writes: 'As they were leaving, the emperor came to visit the all-seeing Rimpoché. As the Emperor was to remain there for three days, he went to prostrate to his spiritual father at a place called Tungling.'

1293:, liberators of Tibet from the Dzungar, and supporters of the Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso, but when they tried to replace the Khoshut as rulers of Kokonor and Tibet, they earned the resentment of the Khoshut and also the Tibetans of Kokonor. 1219:

of joint Qing and Tibetan forces (led by Polhané Sönam Topgyé the governor of Western Tibet) expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought the boy with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.

888:, the Dalai Lama's powers after 1751 included overseeing important decisions by ministers and appointing district governors, provincial governors, and officers based on the recommendations of the council with the approval of the ambans. 4798:." Aiming at educating people in patriotism and intelligence. The paper took "Xun Bao", a newspaper of Sichuan, and other government-funded newspaper of other provinces as its models, It was the first modern newspaper in Tibetan areas." 1143:

in eastern Kham at this time. When Kangxi finally destroyed Galdan in 1696, a Qing ruse involving the name of the Dalai Lama was involved; Galdan blamed the Dalai Lama for his ruin, still not aware of his death fourteen years earlier.

1551:

above the Kashag and above the regents in regards to Tibetan political affairs. The decree prohibited the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama from petitioning the Chinese Emperor directly whereas petitions were decreed to pass through the

1342:

in 1722. In 1725, amidst a series of Qing transitions reducing Qing forces in Tibet and consolidating control of Amdo and Kham, Kangchennas received the title of Prime Minister. The Emperor ordered the conversion of all

1265:

At that time, a Qing protectorate in Tibet (described by Stein as "sufficiently mild and flexible to be accepted by the Tibetan government") was initiated with a garrison at Lhasa. The area of Kham east of the Dri River

1211:, killed Lha-bzang Khan, and looted Lhasa. The Dzungars did not bring the boy to Lhasa and terrorized the populace, losing them the support of the Gelugpa. A Qing invasion in 1718 was annihilated by the Dzungars in the 877:, granting the 7th Dalai Lama secular power. At the same time, the powers of the Qing ambans in Lhasa were also greatly increased. The 7th Dalai Lama then conducted government with some degree of control by the Qing. 1439:, was born in 1758 in Tsang. The Panchen Lama helped in the identification process, while Jampal Gyatso was recognized in 1761, then brought to Lhasa for his enthronement, presided over by the Panchen Lama, in 1762. 1013:

sects. The Oirats had already supported the Gelug since 1616 so Güshi was able to utilize their religious affiliation as call to arms. Shortly following a visit to Tibet in 1635, Güshi led a 10,000 strong army into

610:

of Tibet and pledged to abstain from Tibetan affairs, thus fixing the status of "Chinese suzerainty" in an international document, although Qing China did not accept the term "suzerainty" and instead used the term

2683:: ', as a Buddhist government, the Ganden Phodrang's choice to relinquish... the military defence of its territory to foreign troops, first Mongol and later Sino-Manchu, in the framework of “patron-preceptor” ( 586:

or regents. Qing authorities engaged in occasional military interventions in Tibet, intervened in Tibetan frontier defense, collected tribute, stationed troops, and influenced reincarnation selection through the

7257: 6053: 1734: 920:

dynasty fell the next year and its forces withdrew from Tibet. In 1913, the 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa and declared himself sovereign of an independent Tibet which he ruled until his death in 1933.

1674:, the Tibetan authorities sent an army in 1863, and defeated Namgyal then killed him at his Nyarong fort by 1865. Afterward, Lhasa asserted its authority over parts of northern Kham and established the 1560:

were to take control of Tibetan frontier defense and foreign affairs. Tibetan authorities' foreign correspondence, even with the Mongols of Kokonor (present-day Qinghai), were to be approved by the

1675: 1564:, whom were decreed as commanders of the Qing garrison, and the Tibetan army whose strength was set at 3000 men. Trade was also decreed as restricted and travel documents were to be issued by the 1191:. This was not accepted by most of the Gelug school and it also annoyed the Khoshut chiefs. On 10 April 1710, the Kangxi Emperor recognized the new Dalai Lama by granting him a title and seal. In 2301:, p. 26: "The ambans were not viceroys or administrators, but were essentially ambassadors appointed to look after Manchu interests, and to protect the Dalai Lama on behalf of the emperor." 1207:

Three Gelug abbots in Lhasa invited the Dzungars to help them. In 1717, the Dzungar prince Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate, deposed Yeshe Gyatso,installed the boy from Lithang as the

936:

the Kashag had little power and was composed of only Mongols to the exclusion of Tibetans. In 1721, the Qing removed the indigenous civil government that had existed in Lhasa and replaced the

1308:. The Qing called in troops from Sichuan and suppressed the rebellion in less than a year. Polhané blocked the rebels' retreat from Qing retaliation. The rebellion was brutally suppressed. 861:

authority. After the civil war of 1727–1728, the 7th Dalai Lama was suspected of complicity in the murder of Khangchenné, who led the Tibetan cabinet, and was exiled to Gartar Monastery in

591:. About half of the Tibetan lands were exempted from Lhasa's administrative rule and annexed into neighboring Chinese provinces, although most were only nominally subordinated to Beijing. 7321: 4563: 852:) became temporary offices again. They were appointed to oversee the government, under the supervision of the ambans, before the Dalai Lama reached the age of majority in his 18th year. 1697:, in Lhasa which later allowed Nepal to claim a diplomatic relationship with Tibet in its application for United Nations membership in 1949. However, the status of Nepalese mission as 1575:

The 29-article decree also controlled the traditional methods used to recognize and enthrone both the incarnate Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama, by means of a lottery administered by the

1547:

The 29-article decree instituted the Golden Urn system which contradicted the traditional Tibetan method of locating and recognizing incarnate lamas. The same decree also elevated

7877: 4810:, p. 7: "This Chinese forward movement disintegrated with he outbreak of the 1911 revolution in China and the subsequent public execution of Chao Ehr-feng in December 1911." 4550: 746:

stirred China into becoming more directly involved in Tibetan affairs and working to integrate Tibet with "the rest of China." In 1910, the Qing reasserted control over Tibet by

4325:

Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Between Great Britain and China Relating to Sikkim and Tibet (1890) ...

6018: 6013: 1517: 1509: 1404: 941: 874: 6668: 1432: 7155: 5371: 1997:

and China's military were expelled, and all Chinese residents in Tibet were given a required departure limit of three years. All remaining Qing forces left Tibet by 1913.

5089: 1813:

For the first time and in response to the invasion, the Chinese foreign ministry asserted that China was sovereign over Tibet, the first clear statement of such a claim.

7916: 6043: 4588: 1853: 2088:, p. 3: "During that time the Qing Dynasty sent armies into Tibet on four occasions, reorganized the administration of Tibet and established a loose protectorate." 556:. In 1653, the Dalai Lama travelled on a state visit to the Qing court, and was received in Beijing and "recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire". The 278: 239: 1368:

in 1724, and a treaty of 1727 led to the incorporation of eastern Kham into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728. The Qing government sent a resident commissioner (

1939:

For Hsaio-ting Lin, the series of reforms initiated by Chao Ehr-feng can be seen as the first attempt at state-building by modern China in its southwestern marches.

1936:

This program was however reduced to nothing by the outbreak of the Chinese revolution in 1911, the collapse of the Qing empire and the elimination of Chao Ehr-feng.

4356: 1314:

troops were garrisoned at multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, throughout the Dzungar war. Green Standard troops and Manchu

792:

There are also different interpretations of titles and symbolic gestures between Tibetan and Qing authorities. The 13th Dalai Lama, for example, knelt, but did not

5828: 1903:, and an early form of "sinicization" of the region began. Later, around the time of the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, Zhao's soldiers mutinied and beheaded him. 2785:

accounts agree that the Dalai Lama was exempt from the traditional kowtow symbolizing total subservience; he was, however, required to kneel before the emperor.

8673: 2671:

read: "Tibet and China have never been under each other and will never associate with each other in future. It is decided that Tibet is an independent state."

1926:

A Chinese postal service with five post offices was established in central Tibet and the first stamps were issued (with inscriptions in Chinese and Tibetan).

1863:

of China over Tibet", (from 1904), both nations "engage not to enter into negotiations with Tibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government."

1742:

the border, led by Dapon Lhading (mda' dpon lha sding, d.u.) and Tsedron Sonam Gyeltsen (rtse mgron bsod nams rgyal mtshan, d.u.) with soldiers from southern

725:

According to Jaques Gernet, the Qing gained a firm hold over Tibet in 1751, although as a protectorate, Tibet retained a large amount of internal authority.

2697:

Chang, Simon T. (2011). "A 'realist' hypocrisy? Scripting sovereignty in Sino–Tibetan relations and the changing posture of Britain and the United States".

1859:

As the Dalai Lama had learned during his travels for support, in 1907 Britain and Russia agreed that in "conformity with the admitted principle of the 1904

1572:

were to review all judicial decisions. The Tibetan currency, which had been the source of trouble with Nepal, was to be taken under Beijing's supervision.

7250: 4183:

Ashley Eden, British Envoy and Special Commissioner to Sikkim, dispatch to the Secretary of the Government of Bengal, April 1861, quoted in Taraknath Das,

509:, although the actual extent of the Qing dynasty's control over Tibet during this period has been the subject of political debate. The Qing called Tibet a 8668: 7921: 7757: 5526:

Yeh, Emily T. (13 January 2009), "Living together in Lhasa: Ethnic relations, coercive amity, and subaltern cosmopolitanism", in Mayaram, Shail (ed.),

8499: 6368: 1356:

Prefecture, creating a territorial division between the two high lamas that was to become a long-lasting feature of Chinese policy toward Tibet. Two

754:

lacked the ability to continue the occupation. The 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1913 and ruled an independent Tibet until his death in 1933.

7596: 6274: 1294: 831:

under close supervision of the Chinese garrison commander stationed in Lhasa. From 1728 to 1750, Tibet was a monarchy led by the princes or kings

7336: 5491:"Introduction: The Ganden Phodrang's Military Institutions and Culture between the 17th and the 20th Centu-ries, at a Crossroads of Influences" 4769: 4345:

Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Relating to Burmah and Thibet (1886)

2687:) relationships, created a structural situation involving long-term contacts and cooperation between Tibetans and "foreign" military cultures.' 1761: 5362:

Spencer, Haines R. (2018), "Charismatic Authority in Context: An Explanation of Guushi Khan's Swift Rise to Power in the Early 17th Century",

7741: 7712: 7331: 6787: 5985: 1671: 598:, which Tibet disregarded. The British concluded in 1903 that Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was a "constitutional fiction", and proceeded to 533:, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control over Tibet, while granting it a degree of political autonomy. 7413: 6373: 1961: 1584:. With the decreed lottery system, the names of candidates were written on folded slips of paper which were placed in a golden urn (Mongol 1200:

Emperor to officially recognize the boy but the emperor left the matter undecided. Kangxi ordered the boy and his father to be interned in

993:. The Khoshut chief Toro-Baikhu won a power struggle against his uterine brother Chöükür in 1630, after which he named himself "Dai Güshi" 1799:", a period of rivalry between Russia and Britain, the British desired a representative in Lhasa to monitor and offset Russian influence. 6952: 5200:

The McMahon Line and After: A Study of the Triangular Contest on India's North-eastern Frontier Between Britain, China and Tibet, 1904-47

1670:. The Kingdom of Derge and another had appealed to both the Lhasa and the Qing imperial governments for help against Namgyal. During the 1326:) entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the "Sichuan route" seized Lhasa. According to 729:

states there is "no question" that Tibet was subordinate to the Qing dynasty following the first decades of the 18th century. Meanwhile,

6401: 5965: 869:

in which the 7th Dalai Lama managed to quell the riots caused by the death of Polhané's successor at the hands of the Qing ambans, the

481: 7294: 1689:, Tibet and Nepal agreed to "regard the Chinese Emperor as heretofore with respect." Michael van Walt van Praag, legal advisor to the 8330: 7401: 7386: 6249: 5833: 1747: 1151:

informed Kangxi that the 5th Dalai Lama had long since died. He sent envoys to Lhasa to inquire. This prompted Sangye Gyatso to make

8400: 8386: 7088: 5950: 5634: 1760:

Then in 1896, the Qing Governor of Sichuan attempted to gain control of the Nyarong valley in Kham during a military attack led by

1667: 430: 5691: 8410: 8390: 1403:

Temporal power was reasserted by the Dalai Lama in 1750. But the Qing Emperor re-organized the Tibetan government again with the

5390: 4743:, p. 28: "A Chinese postal service was established and Tibet's first stamps were produced (in Chinese and Tibetan script)." 1062:

administrator of civil affairs, Sonam Rapten, was selected by the khan while the Dalai Lama was relegated to religious affairs.

944:. The council was reconstituted as a collective administration where all decisions were to be taken only with common agreement. 8124: 7463: 6631: 5742: 5588: 3332: 2649: 1989:

On 13 February 1913, the Dalai Lama declared Tibet an independent state, and announced that what he described as the historic "

1022:

Mongol to claim the title. A mass migration of 100,000 Oirats to Kokonor ensued. By 1642, Güshi had defeated the king of Beri,

1058:. In this interpretation, the Khoshut khans had no say in government until the coup of 1705–6. Another source claims that the 8366: 8155: 7396: 5557: 5537: 5517: 5462: 5384: 5342: 5304: 5275: 5255: 5137: 5099: 5036: 4964: 4944: 4389: 3819: 3465: 2806: 4225: 1419:

to have four Kalöns in it. He also used Tibetan Buddhist iconography to try and bolster support among Tibetans, whereby six

8198: 7625: 7376: 7289: 7013: 6313: 1030:, uniting Tibet under the Gelug. On 13 April 1642, The 5th Dalai Lama proclaimed Güshi the khan of Tibet on 13 April 1642. 271: 658:

Western historians such as Goldstein, Elliot Sperling, and Jaques Gernet have described Tibet during the Qing period as a

8592: 8361: 7198: 7028: 5823: 4360: 1978:

After the Dalai Lama's return to Tibet at a location outside of Lhasa, the collapse of the Qing dynasty began due to the

1473:

The following year, the 8th Dalai Lama assumed political power in Tibet. Problematic relations with Nepal led in 1788 to

1115:

In 1677, the Tibetan government formalized the frontier between Tibet and China with Kham ascribed to Tibet's authority.

399: 1352:. Polhanas gathered an army and retook Lhasa in July 1728 against opposition from the Lhasa nobility and their allies. 7841: 7210: 7083: 6907: 5928: 5883: 4590:

Travels of a consular officer in eastern Tibet: together with a history of the relations between China, Tibet and India

3215: 3186: 2752: 2377: 2152: 1972: 1229: 1216: 747: 722:. Chinese authorities referred to Tibet as a vassal state up until the 1950s, and then as an "integral" part of China. 616: 594:

By the late 19th century, Chinese hegemony over Tibet only existed in theory. In 1890, the Qing and Britain signed the

561: 181: 119: 5164: 1705:

stayed in Tibet until the 1960s when Tibet had been annexed by the People's Republic of China for more than a decade.

8130: 7971: 7846: 7203: 6780: 5955: 5480: 5227: 5208: 5188: 5155: 5056: 4916: 4598: 4491: 4146: 4121: 4033: 3729: 3525: 2428: 2324: 2249: 2223: 1662:

any authority over the native chiefs". By 1862, Namgyal blocked trade routes from China to Lhasa, and sent troops to

751: 7941: 3835: 1050:

was created to carry out government while the Dalai Lama was restricted to appealing the judicial decisions of the

6008: 1678:

to govern. Lhasa reclaimed Nyarong, Degé and the Hor States north of Nyarong. China recalled the imperial forces.

750:

and deposing the 13th Dalai Lama. The Qing dynasty was overthrown in the Xinhai revolution the next year, and the

8058: 7301: 6988: 6874: 6745: 6626: 6460: 5908: 5868: 5601: 5284:

Petech, Luciano (2013), "23. The Administration of Tibet During the First Half-Century of Chinese Protectorate",

1895:, to "reintegrate" Tibet into China. Known of as "the Butcher of Kham" Zhao was sent in either 1905 or 1908 on a 1184: 1105: 8688: 8683: 8678: 7642: 7508: 7276: 7023: 6962: 6932: 6922: 6303: 6269: 6078: 5681: 5075: 5046: 4528: 3274: 3245: 1990: 1436: 1196: 1038: 770: 762: 738: 707: 474: 8076: 7851: 7707: 7391: 7381: 7366: 7361: 7193: 7143: 7123: 7063: 6897: 6318: 6119: 2289:

Emblems of Empire: Selections from the Mactaggart Art Collection, by John E. Vollmer, Jacqueline Simcox, p154

1916: 1802:

Years earlier, the Dalai Lama had developed an interest in Russia through his debating partner, Buriyat Lama

1318:

were both part of the Qing force that fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars. The Sichuan commander

985:

Tibet had been ruled by a joint Gelug Yellow Hat sect and Khoshut Khanate government since 1642. The Khoshut

699: 6363: 1750:. At a pass between Sikkim and Tibet, which Tibet considered a part of Tibet, the British attacked in 1888. 839:

under the supervision of the Qing ambans. The regents of Tibet after 1727 were recognized by the Chinese as

7835: 7613: 7480: 7346: 7240: 6850: 6840: 6773: 6719: 6323: 6165: 5975: 5804: 1733:

In 1879, the 13th Dalai Lama was enthroned, but did not assume full temporal control until 1895, after the

1415:, and the Tibetan government continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before. The Emperor reorganized the 1278:

in 1726-1727 through a treaty. In 1721, the Qing expanded their protectorate in Lhasa with a council (the

652: 832: 7752: 7735: 7245: 7220: 7183: 7093: 7053: 6805: 6126: 5918: 5878: 5624: 4984:"The rise of the Five Hor States of Northern Kham. Religion and politics in the Sino-Tibetan borderlands" 3753: 1778: 1212: 916: 743: 599: 521:, which has usually been translated as "vassal", "vassal state", or "borderlands", along with areas like 415: 168: 997:. A few years later, the Gelug Yellow Hat sect's 5th Dalai Lama called him to come to their aid against 8524: 8491: 8453: 8378: 8135: 7581: 6406: 6335: 6328: 6286: 6068: 5853: 5581: 2016: 1911:

From 1905, China temporarily took back the control of Tibet as suzerain power, until the revolution of

1623: 506: 5357:(Doctor of Philosophy). Department of History and Politics, Faculty of Arts, University of Wollongong. 4189:

Nepal is tributary to China, Tibet is tributary to China, and Sikkim and Bhutan are tributary to Tibet

911:

Dalai Lamas from 1758 to 1875 were unimportant or died young. The 13th Dalai Lama (1875–1933) fled to

8556: 8509: 8466: 8348: 8145: 7864: 7793: 7586: 7118: 7043: 6912: 6830: 6411: 6345: 6198: 6189: 6073: 6063: 5863: 5686: 5639: 2021: 1581: 1018:

and killed Choghtu. In 1637, the 5th Dalai Lama bestowed upon Güshi the title of khan, the first non-

467: 420: 299: 4766: 615:" to describe its status in Tibet since 1905. The Qing began taking steps to reassert control, then 8571: 8561: 8514: 8504: 8471: 8395: 8281: 8254: 8249: 8191: 8066: 7886: 7620: 7591: 7341: 6535: 6048: 5754: 5724: 5696: 2031: 2026: 2011: 1327: 719: 603: 384: 4289: 8259: 7662: 7128: 7113: 6947: 6845: 6702: 6261: 6114: 6109: 5629: 4621: 4478: 4452: 3749: 2046: 1070: 932:. The council existed between 1642 and 1705/6 but very little is known about its activity. Under 757:

The de facto independent Tibetan government (1912–1951) and Tibetan exiles promote the status of

425: 4344: 4324: 4209: 1304:, a grandson of Güshi Khan, led a rebellion in 1723, when 200,000 Tibetans and Mongols attacked 1054:, although eventually the Dalai Lama did assert his power over the government by appointing the 8244: 8043: 7931: 7812: 7637: 6855: 6033: 5992: 2036: 1754: 595: 5454:

Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911

5265: 4894: 4753: 2239: 2142: 8532: 8476: 8117: 7976: 7936: 7565: 7453: 7433: 7351: 7150: 7133: 6998: 6967: 6902: 6696: 6552: 6547: 6524: 6291: 5970: 5943: 5903: 5858: 5811: 5734: 5574: 4880:, Department of Information and International Relations, Central Tibetan Administration, 1994 4518: 3757: 3645: 3453: 3203: 3174: 2668: 2418: 2312: 2213: 2006: 1619: 1478: 1254: 1239: 1139:

in 1693, Kangxi annexed Kokonor, giving it the name it bears today, Qinghai. He also annexed

1033:

A governing body known as the Ganden Phodrang, named after the 5th Dalai Lama's residence in

781:, "that which is worthy of being given gifts and alms" (for example, a lama or a deity), and 636: 394: 354: 257: 2647:

Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question by Melvyn C. Goldstein

1737:(tshongs 'du rgyas 'dzom) unanimously called for him to assume power. Before that time, the 8598: 8461: 8405: 8048: 8015: 7981: 7926: 7806: 7788: 7498: 7428: 7235: 7018: 6296: 6028: 5933: 5706: 5424: 4213: 3151: 2272: 2041: 1923:

to be exploited. In Lhasa, a Chinese school opened in 1907 and a military college in 1908.

1686: 1682: 1123: 998: 975: 797: 624: 349: 194: 3232: 8: 8356: 8291: 8184: 8101: 7951: 7891: 7823: 7503: 7356: 7311: 7058: 6937: 6917: 6825: 6507: 6340: 6038: 5980: 5749: 5490: 4884: 4568:. Published for the Royal Horticultural Society by New Perspectives Pub. Ltd. p. 274 1896: 1654: 1642: 1311: 1183:

as the true reincarnation of the 5th Dalai Lama. In 1707, this monk was installed by the

786: 359: 5428: 1871: 865:. All temporal authority was wielded by Polhané Sönam Topgyé in the meantime. After the 7986: 7697: 7692: 7518: 7458: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7262: 7108: 6927: 6683: 6648: 6465: 6435: 6281: 6150: 6093: 5893: 5888: 5873: 5440: 5005: 4926: 4922: 4435: 4427: 2722: 1610: 1462: 1299: 1119: 866: 758: 142: 1361:

effective ruler over a stable Tibet, so he remained dominant until his death in 1747.

8631: 7996: 7991: 7966: 7911: 7906: 7829: 7777: 7682: 7513: 7418: 7316: 7215: 7178: 7103: 7033: 7003: 6957: 6658: 6445: 6440: 6023: 5913: 5898: 5553: 5533: 5513: 5476: 5458: 5380: 5338: 5300: 5271: 5251: 5233: 5223: 5204: 5184: 5151: 5133: 5110:

Chronology of Major Events: With Particular Attention to the Sino-Tibetan Borderlands

5095: 5052: 5032: 5009: 4960: 4940: 4912: 4594: 4524: 4439: 4419: 4385: 4142: 4117: 4029: 3815: 3521: 3461: 3270: 3241: 3211: 3182: 2802: 2726: 2714: 2424: 2320: 2245: 2219: 2148: 2111: 1650: 1448: 1339: 1034: 734: 620: 319: 155: 5509:

China's Last Imperial Frontier: Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan's Tibetan Borderlands

2646: 1845:

ceded to Britain until the imdenity was received. Further provisions recognised the

8537: 8306: 8276: 8234: 8150: 8033: 7956: 7896: 7702: 7423: 7284: 7230: 7073: 7038: 6942: 6867: 6835: 6738: 6638: 6589: 6572: 6455: 6389: 6229: 6058: 5960: 5938: 5609: 5432: 4995: 4902: 4784:

was a publication appearing once every ten days, with 300 to 400 copies per issue."

4411: 2706: 2051: 1979: 1906: 1646: 1502: 1349: 1152: 870: 726: 687: 675: 308: 82: 2404:

Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World

635:

in the summer of 1912. The 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1913 and ruled an

578:, a Qing government body that oversaw the empire's frontier. During the Qing era, 8627: 8620: 8610: 8320: 8165: 8111: 7961: 7946: 7770: 7225: 7188: 7138: 7098: 7048: 6993: 6862: 6653: 6643: 6540: 6179: 6174: 6160: 5923: 5786: 5774: 5668: 5655: 5547: 5527: 5507: 5452: 5332: 5294: 5245: 5178: 5127: 5026: 4954: 4934: 4875: 4773: 4229: 3809: 3733: 3520:. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48–9. Shambhala. Boston & London. 3290: 3262: 2710: 2653: 2383: 1822: 1782: 1690: 1597: 1243: 1127: 1086: 1078: 971: 908: 904: 900: 730: 667: 632: 557: 553: 541: 505:

from 1720 to 1912. The Qing rulers incorporated Tibet into the empire along with

441: 379: 374: 339: 329: 244: 1986:

submitted a formal letter of surrender to the Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912.

1282:) of three Tibetan ministers, headed by Kangchennas. A Khalkha prince was made 619:

and occupied Lhasa in 1910. However, the Qing dynasty was overthrown during the

8339: 8315: 8266: 8216: 8028: 7901: 7667: 7630: 7078: 7068: 7008: 6754: 6709: 6689: 6615: 6557: 5673: 2753:"A wall painting showing the 13th Dalai Lama kneeling before the Dowager Queen" 2420:

Greater Tibet: An Examination of Borders, Ethnic Boundaries, and Cultural Areas

2315:

Greater Tibet: An Examination of Borders, Ethnic Boundaries, and Cultural Areas

1796: 1792: 1788: 1738: 1536: 1474: 1208: 1156: 1097: 1027: 1002: 933: 896: 892: 836: 545: 344: 4983: 4907: 4402:

Alexandrowicz-Alexander, Charles Henry (1954). "The Legal Position of Tibet".

3724: 843:(prince) but as "king" by European missionaries. Both Polhané and Gyurme were 824: 8662: 8647: 8481: 8433: 8301: 8296: 8239: 8140: 8106: 8071: 7687: 7677: 7493: 6884: 6663: 6131: 5198: 5148:

Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793

4622:

L’Inde des britanniques à Nehru : un acteur clé du conflit sino-tibétain

4498:. fifth series (3). Tokyo: John Bray & The Asian Society of Japan: 93–118 4492:"Sacred Words and Earthly Powers: Christian Missionary Engagement with Tibet" 4423: 2718: 2446:

Reviews on Tibetan Political History: A Compilation of Tibet Journal Articles

1966: 1947:

meeting with the Russian czar he described the situation in 1909 as follows:

1842: 1803: 1720: 1712: 1637:, began expanding his control regionally and launched offensives against the 1532: 1526: 1315: 1258: 1192: 1074: 8176: 5237: 4956:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

4821:

Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49

2756: 1383:

Polhanas' son Gyurme Namgyal took over upon his father's death in 1747. The

1375: 1253:

Boundary pillar between Tibet and China at Bum La (Ningching Shan), west of

537: 8637: 8603: 8438: 8420: 8160: 7857: 7799: 7488: 7470: 7326: 6796: 6621: 6577: 6567: 6519: 6514: 6497: 6145: 5816: 5334:

Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism And Sino-Tibetan Relations

4561: 3720: 1630: 1505:. Nepal conceded defeat and returned all the treasure they had plundered. 1267: 1188: 1043: 994: 954: 806: 785:, "he who gives gifts to that which is worthy" (a patron). During the 1913 766: 663: 659: 530: 498: 457: 93: 85: 28: 5549:

Taming Tibet: Landscape Transformation and the Gift of Chinese Development

4026:

Religious Revival in the Tibetan Borderlands: The Premi of Southwest China

3177:

Religious Revival in the Tibetan Borderlands: The Premi of Southwest China

1899:. His troops executed monks destroyed a number of monasteries in Kham and 714:), which has usually been translated as "vassal" or "vassal state". As a 8428: 8096: 7817: 7538: 7533: 6602: 6597: 1915:

which marked the collapse of the Qing Empire and the installation of the

1888: 1493:

Monastery, the seat of the Panchen Lamas which was sacked and destroyed.

1490: 1319: 1249: 1023: 912: 612: 446: 41: 6355: 5315:

Revolution and Its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History

5000: 4975:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 10, Late Ch'ing 1800-1911, Part 1

4523:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 45. 4171: 8642: 8544: 8443: 8207: 7764: 7608: 7558: 7528: 7371: 6714: 6502: 6308: 5799: 5663: 5444: 4431: 4382:

The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law

4251:

The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law

2742:

edited by Alex McKay, London and New York: Routledge Curzon (2003), p.9

1943: 1860: 1810:. The expedition quickly turned into an invasion which captured Lhasa. 1638: 588: 583: 575: 334: 89: 6765: 6224: 1716: 1609:

The Qing government was alarmed by the British defeat of Nepal in the

848:

regent. After 1750, the hereditary office was abolished, and regents (

544:

had reunified Tibet under the spiritual and temporal authority of the

7553: 7543: 6470: 6184: 6019:

29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1793)

6014:

13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1751)

5764: 5048:

A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State

5028:

A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State

1614: 1379:

The Qing Empire, at the time when the Qing began to rule these areas.

1140: 1101: 1019: 718:

it fell under the jurisdiction of the Lifan Yuan, which also oversaw

364: 5436: 5180:

Tibet, China & India, 1914-1950: A history of imperial diplomacy

4415: 1234: 8038: 7783: 7730: 7672: 7548: 7523: 6140: 5719: 5352: 5163: 4936:

The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing

3206:

The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing

2389: 1486: 1467: 1424: 1180: 1148: 607: 526: 522: 66: 6044:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)

5296:

One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet

5083:, The Atlantic Council – via Case Western Reserve University 4453:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)

4172:"Taming the Khampas: The Republican Construction of Eastern Tibet" 1693:, claims that 1856 treaty provided for a Nepalese mission, namely 1613:

and the re-establishment of a British resident in Nepal's capital

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(1995), 4635:Kleine Geschichte Tibets 3373:Kleine Geschichte Tibets 2032:Xinjiang under Qing rule 2027:Mongolia under Qing rule 1657:, which were considered 1215:, not far from Lhasa. A 947: 604:Anglo-Russian Convention 395:13th and 14th Dalai Lama 8260:Second Turkic Khaganate 7663:Chengde Mountain Resort 7464:Three Eastern Provinces 7114:First Sino-Japanese War 7089:Northern Chinese Famine 6948:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 6846:Qing invasion of Joseon 6369:TAR People's Government 6329:Serfs' Emancipation Day 5869:Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war 5213:– via archive.org 5177:Lamb, Alastair (1989), 5117:Grousset, René (1970), 5108:Gros, Stephane (2019), 5016:Gernet, Jaques (1972), 4973:Fairbank, John (2008), 4927:10.1163/j.ctt1w8h2x3.12 4637:, München 2006, p. 140f 4137:Wouters, Jelle (2022). 2900:. Springer. p. 38. 2047:List of rulers of Tibet 1867:Qing in Kham, 1904-1911 602:. However, in the 1907 574:, that reported to the 8245:First Turkic Khaganate 8044:Great Qing Copper Coin 7932:Convention of Tientsin 7865:Annotated Bibliography 7813:Qing official headwear 6856:Battle of Shanhai Pass 6039:Treaty of Lhasa (1904) 5993:Special Frontier Force 5473:The High Road to China 5331:Smith, Warren (1996), 4933:Dai, Yingcong (2009), 4835:The Swedish newspaper 4587:Eric Teichman (1922). 4565:The Garden, Volume 121 4200:Wang 2001, pp. 239–240 4024:Wellens, Koen (2010). 3202:Dai, Yingcong (2011). 3173:Wellens, Koen (2011). 2797:Laird, Thomas (2006), 2444:Dolma, Tenzin (2020). 2215:Siting Postcoloniality 2212:Hau, Caroline (2022), 2037:Taiwan under Qing rule 1953: 1876: 1746:and those from Kham's 1544: 1525:much stricter form of 1380: 1262: 1246: 1172: 1147:About this time, some 1082: 143:Lhasa uprising of 1750 8689:19th century in Tibet 8684:18th century in Tibet 8679:Tibet under Qing rule 8387:against Western Turks 8118:Draft History of Qing 7977:Treaty of Shimonoseki 7758:performance criticism 7362:Imperial Commissioner 7352:Great Qing Legal Code 7151:Eight-Nation Alliance 7134:Third plague pandemic 7044:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 6968:White Lotus Rebellion 6412:Qinghai–Tibet railway 6407:Qinghai-Tibet Highway 6374:TAR People's Congress 6346:India–Tibet relations 6319:Independence movement 5971:1959 Tibetan uprising 5859:Battle of Dafei River 5707:Era of Fragmentation 5529:The Other Global City 5337:, Avalon Publishing, 4982:Garri, Irina (2020), 4517:Tuttle, Gray (2005). 4112:Li, Jianglin (2022). 3518:Tibet and its History 2783:(Tibetan and Chinese) 2669:1914 Simla Conference 2402:Ray, Jayanta (2007). 2007:Tibet under Yuan rule 1949: 1874: 1535: 1378: 1252: 1237: 1170: 1073: 529:. Like the preceding 495:Tibet under Qing rule 22:Tibet under Qing rule 8599:Greater Central Asia 8049:Great Qing Gold Coin 7982:Treaty of Tarbagatai 7927:Convention of Peking 7807:Pentaglot Dictionary 7789:Literary inquisition 7499:Ever Victorious Army 7332:Deliberative Council 7236:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 7189:1905 Batang uprising 7129:Hundred Days' Reform 7019:Small Swords Society 6720:Traditional medicine 5934:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 5755:Relations with Ming 5725:Relations with Song 5697:Relations with Tang 5635:European exploration 5267:China's Tibet Policy 5264:Norbu, Dawa (2001), 4357:"Project South Asia" 4214:Tibet Justice Center 3798:Wang 2001, pp. 170–3 3775:Lhasa: The Holy City 3726:Reflections on Tibet 3456:Tibetan Civilization 3261:Zheng, Shan (2001). 2238:Cheng, Hong (2023), 2012:Ming–Tibet relations 1687:Nepalese-Tibetan War 1683:Treaty of Thapathali 1189:Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso 1124:Galdan Boshugtu Khan 999:Choghtu Khong Tayiji 833:Polhané Sönam Topgyé 798:Empress Dowager Cixi 733:says that after the 625:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 431:European exploration 385:Ming–Tibet relations 350:Era of Fragmentation 8102:Anti-Qing sentiment 7952:Treaty of the Bogue 7892:Treaty of Nerchinsk 7824:Complete Tang Poems 7504:Green Standard Army 7387:Provincial governor 7357:Imperial Clan Court 7337:Diplomatic missions 7312:Consultative Bureau 7059:Tongzhi Restoration 6938:Afaqi Khoja revolts 6918:Ten Great Campaigns 6826:Jurchen unification 6364:Regional Government 6341:CIA Tibetan program 6324:Serfdom controversy 6208:Traditional regions 6059:Simla Accord (1914) 5981:2008 Tibetan unrest 5805:List of Qing ambans 5750:Phagmodrupa dynasty 5512:, Lexington Books, 5429:1972GeogJ.138..501W 5250:, Clear Light Pub, 5001:10.4000/emscat.4631 4780:, 2005-07-01: "The 4658:Hilton 2000, p. 115 4490:Bray, John (2011). 4335:Powers 2004, pg. 80 4102:, pp. 396–397. 4078:, pp. 369–370. 3975:, p. 44, n.13. 3922:, pp. 486–487. 3898:, pp. 244–246. 3868:, pp. 208–226. 3750:Huc, Évariste Régis 1897:punitive expedition 1655:Chiefdom of Bathang 1643:Chiefdom of Lithang 1312:Green Standard Army 708:traditional Chinese 360:Phagmodrupa dynasty 7987:Treaty of Tientsin 7698:Western Qing tombs 7693:Eastern Qing tombs 7519:Peking Field Force 7263:Manchu Restoration 7156:Declaration of war 7109:Jindandao incident 6928:Lhasa riot of 1750 6678:(ceremonial scarf) 6649:Dzong architecture 6466:Imperial Preceptor 6336:Sovereignty debate 6282:Etymology of Tibet 5894:Lhasa riot of 1750 5889:Jinchuan campaigns 5874:Battle of Dartsedo 5792:Qing dynasty rule 5735:Yuan dynasty rule 5709:(9th–13th century) 4772:2015-11-17 at the 4727:Laurent Deshayes, 3934:, pp. 134–135 3732:2006-06-20 at the 3675:, pp. 126–131 3564:, pp. 328 ff. 3435:, p. 121-122. 3411:, p. 119-121. 3387:, p. 116-118. 3347:, pp. 117–120 3104:, p. 390-392. 3080:, p. 200-206. 3056:, p. 522-524. 2969:, p. 392–393. 2930:, p. 391-392. 2886:, p. 393-394. 2850:, p. 402-403. 2652:2006-11-06 at the 1891:, the Governor of 1877: 1611:Anglo-Nepalese War 1545: 1463:East India Company 1407:and appointed new 1381: 1263: 1247: 1173: 1120:Desi Sangye Gyatso 1083: 759:independent nation 700:simplified Chinese 8656: 8655: 8632:Chinese Turkestan 8580: 8579: 8401:Mongolian Plateau 8174: 8173: 8085: 8084: 7997:Treaty of Whampoa 7992:Treaty of Wanghia 7967:Treaty of Nanking 7937:Li–Lobanov Treaty 7912:Chefoo Convention 7907:Burlingame Treaty 7778:Kangxi Dictionary 7683:Old Summer Palace 7514:Firearm Battalion 7317:Cup of Solid Gold 7271: 7270: 7216:Manchurian plague 7179:Late Qing reforms 7170:(1901–1912) 7104:Sikkim expedition 7034:Panthay Rebellion 7004:Taiping Rebellion 6980:(1801–1900) 6958:Sino-Nepalese War 6903:Dzungar–Qing Wars 6889:(1683–1799) 6817:(1616–1683) 6763: 6762: 6728: 6727: 6420: 6419: 6384: 6383: 6287:Foreign relations 6244: 6243: 6240: 6239: 6088: 6087: 5944:Qinghai–Tibet War 5914:Sikkim expedition 5904:Dogra–Tibetan War 5899:Sino-Nepalese War 5834:political leaders 5812:Post-Qing to 1950 5765:Rinpungpa dynasty 5676:(7th–9th century) 5559:978-0-8014-6978-7 5539:978-1-135-85150-7 5519:978-0-7391-6810-3 5464:978-90-5867-365-7 5386:978-1-932728-12-5 5344:978-0-8133-3155-3 5306:978-90-04-17732-1 5277:978-1-136-79793-4 5257:978-1-57416-039-0 5183:, Roxford Books, 5139:978-0-7656-3455-9 5101:978-0-520-21951-9 5038:978-0-520-06140-8 4966:978-0-8047-4684-7 4946:978-0-295-98952-5 4729:Histoire du Tibet 4390:978-0-8133-0394-9 3821:978-0-618-91506-4 3624:, pp. 81–82. 3467:978-0-8047-0901-9 2896:Li, Qing (2017). 2808:978-0-8021-1827-1 1917:Republic of China 1651:Kingdom of Chakla 1620:Indian government 1485:. Again in 1791, 1449:Sino-Nepalese War 1340:Yongzheng Emperor 1322:(a descendant of 1274:) was annexed to 1081:in Beijing, 1653. 1035:Drepung Monastery 752:Republic of China 735:Sino-Nepalese War 637:independent Tibet 621:Xinhai revolution 492: 491: 365:Rinpungpa dynasty 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 250: 249: 156:Sino-Nepalese War 92:or regents under 78: • Type 8696: 8345: 8344: 8333: 8201: 8194: 8187: 8178: 8177: 8151:New Qing History 8034:Qianlong Tongbao 8012: 8011: 7957:Treaty of Canton 7897:Unequal treaties 7703:Fuling Mausoleum 7302:Advisory Council 7231:Wuchang Uprising 7171: 7074:Tianjin Massacre 7039:Second Opium War 6981: 6943:Sino-Burmese War 6890: 6868:Battle of Penghu 6836:Seven Grievances 6818: 6811: 6810: 6790: 6783: 6776: 6767: 6766: 6748: 6741: 6679: 6456:Tibetan Buddhism 6429: 6428: 6395: 6394: 6265: 6255: 6254: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6098: 5961:Battle of Chamdo 5939:Sino-Tibetan War 5795: 5758: 5738: 5728: 5710: 5700: 5687:List of emperors 5677: 5659: 5640:Historical money 5615: 5614: 5591: 5584: 5577: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5542: 5522: 5502: 5485: 5467: 5447: 5411: 5403: 5402: 5401: 5395: 5389:, archived from 5378: 5366: 5358: 5347: 5327: 5318: 5309: 5289: 5280: 5260: 5240: 5214: 5193: 5173: 5171: 5160: 5142: 5122: 5113: 5104: 5084: 5082: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5041: 5021: 5012: 5003: 4978: 4969: 4949: 4929: 4910: 4881: 4871: 4852: 4851:, pp. 49ff. 4846: 4840: 4833: 4824: 4819:Hsaio-ting Lin, 4817: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4791: 4785: 4763: 4757: 4754:Chinese Imperial 4752:Geoffrey Flack, 4750: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4659: 4656: 4650: 4644: 4638: 4631: 4625: 4618: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4607: 4584: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4573: 4559: 4553: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4487: 4481: 4476: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4399: 4393: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4368: 4359:. Archived from 4353: 4347: 4342: 4336: 4333: 4327: 4322: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4298: 4292: 4287: 4281: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4247: 4241: 4240: 4238: 4237: 4228:. Archived from 4222: 4216: 4207: 4201: 4198: 4192: 4181: 4175: 4168: 4153: 4152: 4134: 4128: 4127: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4067: 4061: 4055: 4049: 4040: 4039: 4021: 4015: 4009: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3958: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3899: 3893: 3887: 3875: 3869: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3839: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3805: 3799: 3796: 3790: 3789:, pp. 191–2 3784: 3778: 3771: 3765: 3763: 3754:Hazlitt, William 3746: 3737: 3718: 3709: 3703: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3661: 3658:Dabringhaus 2014 3655: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3589: 3588:, pp. 125–6 3583: 3577: 3571: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3471: 3449: 3436: 3430: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3369: 3363: 3362:, pp. 120–1 3357: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3329: 3312: 3311:, pp. 116–7 3306: 3300: 3299: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3116:, p. 28-29. 3111: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3087: 3081: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3057: 3051: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3017:, p. 24-27. 3012: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2993:, p. 83-84. 2988: 2982: 2981:, p. 82-83. 2976: 2970: 2964: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2902: 2901: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2824: 2818: 2812: 2811: 2794: 2788: 2774: 2768: 2767: 2765: 2764: 2755:. Archived from 2749: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2694: 2688: 2678: 2672: 2662: 2656: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2625:, p. 27-28. 2620: 2614: 2608: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2491: 2480: 2479: 2471: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2449: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2376:Tsering Shakya, 2374: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2308: 2302: 2296: 2290: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2268: 2255: 2254: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2157: 2138: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2119: 2107: 2101: 2098:Dabringhaus 2014 2095: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2052:History of Tibet 2042:Dzungar–Qing War 1980:Wuchang Uprising 1970: 1773:Lhasa, 1900-1909 1647:Kingdom of Derge 1622:(then under the 1503:Kathmandu Valley 1481:, the Regent of 1466:Lama contracted 1303: 1185:5th Panchen Lama 1153:Tsangyang Gyatso 976:Dzungar–Qing War 871:Qianlong Emperor 787:Simla Conference 727:Melvyn Goldstein 713: 705: 693: 681: 643:Political status 484: 477: 470: 458:China portal 456: 455: 454: 445: 444: 421:Historical money 322: 312: 294: 293: 280: 279: 266: 265: 254: 253: 241: 240: 234: 233: 218: 217: 79: 44: 19: 18: 8704: 8703: 8699: 8698: 8697: 8695: 8694: 8693: 8659: 8658: 8657: 8652: 8628:Western Regions 8621:Chinese Tartary 8611:Eurasian nomads 8576: 8533:against Dzungar 8519: 8500:against Mongols 8486: 8448: 8415: 8373: 8357:against Xiongnu 8340:Chinese empires 8334: 8325: 8217:Nomadic empires 8211: 8205: 8175: 8170: 8166:Willow Palisade 8112:Chuang Guandong 8081: 8053: 8003: 7962:Treaty of Kulja 7947:Treaty of Aigun 7880: 7872: 7771:History of Ming 7723: 7717: 7655: 7649: 7575:Special regions 7570: 7509:Imperial Guards 7475: 7267: 7226:1911 Revolution 7172: 7169: 7162: 7139:Boxer Rebellion 7099:Sino-French War 7049:Amur Annexation 6994:First Opium War 6982: 6979: 6972: 6891: 6888: 6879: 6863:Great Clearance 6819: 6816: 6800: 6794: 6764: 6759: 6751: 6744: 6737: 6724: 6677: 6584: 6416: 6380: 6350: 6263: 6236: 6203: 6180:Tibetan Plateau 6175:Rongbuk Glacier 6161:Yarlung Tsangpo 6084: 5997: 5924:Batang uprising 5846: 5840: 5793: 5787:Khoshut Khanate 5775:Ganden Phodrang 5770:Tsangpa dynasty 5756: 5736: 5726: 5708: 5698: 5675: 5669:Yarlung dynasty 5657: 5644: 5604: 5595: 5565: 5560: 5540: 5520: 5483: 5465: 5437:10.2307/1795516 5399: 5397: 5393: 5387: 5376: 5345: 5307: 5278: 5258: 5230: 5211: 5191: 5169: 5158: 5140: 5132:, M.E. Sharpe, 5102: 5080: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5039: 4967: 4947: 4919: 4870:, Facts on File 4861: 4856: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4834: 4827: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4792: 4788: 4774:Wayback Machine 4764: 4760: 4751: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4726: 4722: 4714: 4710: 4702: 4698: 4690: 4686: 4678: 4674: 4670:, pp. 58f. 4666: 4662: 4657: 4653: 4649:, pp. 46f. 4645: 4641: 4632: 4628: 4619: 4615: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4585: 4581: 4571: 4569: 4560: 4556: 4549: 4545: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4499: 4488: 4484: 4477: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4451: 4447: 4416:10.2307/2194374 4400: 4396: 4379: 4375: 4366: 4364: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4343: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4323: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4284: 4273: 4269: 4261: 4257: 4248: 4244: 4235: 4233: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4187:, p12, saying " 4182: 4178: 4169: 4156: 4149: 4135: 4131: 4124: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4086: 4082: 4074: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4050: 4043: 4036: 4022: 4018: 4010: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3959: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3906: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3876: 3872: 3863: 3859: 3851: 3842: 3833: 3829: 3822: 3806: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3785: 3781: 3772: 3768: 3747: 3740: 3734:Wayback Machine 3719: 3712: 3704: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3671: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3632: 3628: 3620: 3616: 3608: 3604: 3596: 3592: 3584: 3580: 3572: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3540:, par. 28. 3536: 3532: 3515: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3450: 3439: 3431: 3427: 3419: 3415: 3407: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3383: 3379: 3370: 3366: 3358: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3330: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3277: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3237:Panchen Erdenis 3229: 3225: 3218: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3171: 3167: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3100: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3076: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3052: 3045: 3041:, par. 24. 3037: 3033: 3025: 3021: 3013: 3009: 3001: 2997: 2989: 2985: 2977: 2973: 2965: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2905: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2846: 2842: 2834: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2809: 2795: 2791: 2775: 2771: 2762: 2760: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2738: 2734: 2699:Asian Ethnicity 2695: 2691: 2679: 2675: 2663: 2659: 2654:Wayback Machine 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2609: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2578: 2570: 2566: 2558: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2512: 2504: 2500: 2492: 2483: 2474:Rai, C (2022). 2472: 2465: 2459:India Quarterly 2457: 2453: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2415: 2411: 2400: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2375: 2346: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2309: 2305: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2284: 2269: 2258: 2252: 2236: 2232: 2226: 2210: 2206: 2198: 2185: 2177: 2173: 2165: 2161: 2155: 2139: 2135: 2127: 2123: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2080: 2072: 2065: 2060: 2003: 1964: 1958: 1909: 1869: 1793:Russian Empires 1785: 1783:13th Dalai Lama 1777:Main articles: 1775: 1691:14th Dalai Lama 1607: 1598:Elliot Sperling 1510:his 1751 decree 1451: 1445: 1336: 1328:Mark C. Elliott 1297: 1244:Dzungar Khanate 1232: 1226: 1165: 1135:the Mongols of 1128:Dzungar Khanate 1087:Shunzhi Emperor 1079:Shunzhi Emperor 1068: 983: 981:Khoshut Khanate 978: 972:Ganden Phodrang 968: 963: 950: 926: 858: 821: 816: 748:occupying Lhasa 731:Elliot Sperling 655: 645: 633:13th Dalai Lama 558:Dzungar Khanate 554:Ganden Phodrang 542:Khoshut Khanate 488: 452: 450: 447:Asia portal 439: 380:Ganden Phodrang 375:Khoshut Khanate 370:Tsangpa dynasty 340:Yarlung dynasty 330:Neolithic Tibet 310: 303: 277: 263: 245:Dzungar Khanate 238: 197: 184: 171: 158: 145: 132: 122: 77: 45: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8702: 8692: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8654: 8653: 8651: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8625: 8624: 8623: 8613: 8608: 8607: 8606: 8596: 8588: 8586: 8585:Related topics 8582: 8581: 8578: 8577: 8575: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8553: 8552: 8542: 8541: 8540: 8529: 8527: 8521: 8520: 8518: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8505:against Turpan 8502: 8496: 8494: 8488: 8487: 8485: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8458: 8456: 8450: 8449: 8447: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8425: 8423: 8417: 8416: 8414: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8383: 8381: 8375: 8374: 8372: 8371: 8370: 8369: 8367:Chief Official 8359: 8353: 8351: 8342: 8336: 8335: 8328: 8326: 8324: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8312: 8311: 8310: 8309: 8299: 8294: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8263: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8221: 8219: 8213: 8212: 8210:history series 8204: 8203: 8196: 8189: 8181: 8172: 8171: 8169: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8121: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8093: 8091: 8087: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8063: 8061: 8055: 8054: 8052: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8029:Kangxi Tongbao 8026: 8020: 8018: 8009: 8005: 8004: 8002: 8001: 8000: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7902:Boxer Protocol 7894: 7889: 7883: 7881: 7874: 7873: 7871: 7870: 7869: 7868: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7839: 7832: 7827: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7803: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7774: 7767: 7762: 7761: 7760: 7750: 7745: 7738: 7733: 7727: 7725: 7719: 7718: 7716: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7668:Forbidden City 7665: 7659: 7657: 7651: 7650: 7648: 7647: 7646: 7645: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7631:General of Ili 7628: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7614:List of ambans 7611: 7601: 7600: 7599: 7589: 7584: 7578: 7576: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7568: 7563: 7562: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7485: 7483: 7477: 7476: 7474: 7473: 7468: 7467: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7416: 7411: 7410: 7409: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7298: 7297: 7292: 7281: 7279: 7273: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7254: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7207: 7206: 7201: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7175: 7173: 7168: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7160: 7159: 7158: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7079:Margary Affair 7076: 7071: 7069:Mudan incident 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7009:Nian Rebellion 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6985: 6983: 6978: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6894: 6892: 6887: 6881: 6880: 6878: 6877: 6872: 6871: 6870: 6860: 6859: 6858: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6822: 6820: 6815: 6808: 6802: 6801: 6793: 6792: 6785: 6778: 6770: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6750: 6749: 6742: 6734: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6723: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6706: 6705: 6700: 6693: 6681: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6629: 6627:wall paintings 6624: 6619: 6612: 6605: 6594: 6592: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6558:Tibetan people 6555: 6553:Social classes 6550: 6545: 6544: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6527: 6517: 6512: 6511: 6510: 6500: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6474: 6473: 6468: 6453: 6443: 6438: 6432: 6426: 6422: 6421: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6398: 6392: 6386: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6366: 6360: 6358: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6332: 6331: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6300: 6299: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6267: 6258: 6252: 6246: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6232: 6222: 6217: 6211: 6209: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6201: 6196: 6195: 6194: 6193: 6192: 6190:Nature Reserve 6177: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6168: 6155: 6154: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6134: 6124: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6106: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6086: 6085: 6083: 6082: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6005: 6003: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5947: 5946: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5850: 5848: 5842: 5841: 5839: 5838: 5837: 5836: 5831: 5829:PRC annexation 5821: 5820: 5819: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5802: 5789: 5784: 5783: 5782: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5761: 5760: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5722: 5717: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5630:List of rulers 5627: 5621: 5619: 5612: 5606: 5605: 5594: 5593: 5586: 5579: 5571: 5564: 5563: 5558: 5543: 5538: 5523: 5518: 5503: 5486: 5481: 5468: 5463: 5448: 5412: 5404: 5385: 5367: 5359: 5348: 5343: 5328: 5319: 5310: 5305: 5290: 5281: 5276: 5261: 5256: 5241: 5228: 5215: 5209: 5194: 5189: 5174: 5161: 5156: 5143: 5138: 5123: 5114: 5105: 5100: 5085: 5071: 5070: 5069: 5057: 5037: 5022: 5013: 4979: 4970: 4965: 4950: 4945: 4930: 4917: 4890: 4889: 4888: 4872: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4849:Goldstein 1989 4841: 4837:Fäderneslandet 4825: 4812: 4800: 4786: 4758: 4745: 4741:Goldstein 1997 4733: 4720: 4716:Goldstein 1989 4708: 4696: 4692:Goldstein 1997 4684: 4672: 4668:Goldstein 1989 4660: 4651: 4647:Goldstein 1989 4639: 4626: 4613: 4599: 4579: 4554: 4551:Mission-Thibet 4543: 4529: 4509: 4482: 4468: 4464:Goldstein 1995 4456: 4445: 4410:(2): 265–274. 4394: 4373: 4348: 4337: 4328: 4317: 4315:, p. 283. 4305: 4293: 4282: 4267: 4265:, p. 257. 4255: 4242: 4217: 4202: 4193: 4176: 4154: 4147: 4129: 4122: 4104: 4092: 4080: 4068: 4056: 4041: 4034: 4016: 4014:, p. 102. 4001: 3989: 3977: 3973:Goldstein 1989 3965: 3948: 3946:, p. 358. 3936: 3924: 3912: 3900: 3896:Teltscher 2013 3888: 3886:, p. 497. 3870: 3866:Teltscher 2013 3857: 3855:, p. 938. 3840: 3827: 3820: 3800: 3791: 3779: 3766: 3738: 3710: 3689: 3687:, p. 293. 3677: 3662: 3660:, p. 123. 3650: 3638: 3636:, p. 412. 3626: 3614: 3602: 3590: 3578: 3566: 3562:Goldstein 1991 3554: 3552:, p. 127. 3542: 3530: 3509: 3497: 3495:, p. 290. 3485: 3483:, p. 288. 3473: 3466: 3437: 3433:Schwieger 2015 3425: 3423:, p. 285. 3413: 3409:Schwieger 2015 3401: 3399:, p. 524. 3389: 3385:Schwieger 2015 3377: 3364: 3349: 3337: 3313: 3301: 3282: 3275: 3253: 3246: 3223: 3217:978-0295800707 3216: 3194: 3188:978-0295801551 3187: 3165: 3142: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3068:, p. 200. 3058: 3043: 3031: 3029:, p. 211. 3019: 3007: 3005:, p. 404. 2995: 2983: 2971: 2956: 2944: 2942:, p. 392. 2932: 2920: 2918:, p. 403. 2903: 2888: 2876: 2872:Teltscher 2013 2864: 2852: 2840: 2825: 2813: 2807: 2789: 2769: 2744: 2732: 2705:(3): 323–335. 2689: 2673: 2657: 2639: 2627: 2615: 2611:Goldstein 1991 2600: 2588: 2584:Goldstein 1995 2576: 2564: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2523:, p. 481. 2510: 2498: 2496:, p. 325. 2481: 2463: 2451: 2436: 2429: 2409: 2394: 2382: 2344: 2342:, p. 324. 2332: 2325: 2303: 2291: 2282: 2256: 2250: 2230: 2224: 2204: 2183: 2171: 2159: 2154:978-1118725375 2153: 2133: 2131:, p. 357. 2121: 2102: 2090: 2086:Goldstein 1995 2078: 2062: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2055: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2039: 2034: 2029: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2009: 2002: 1999: 1957: 1954: 1908: 1905: 1868: 1865: 1797:the Great Game 1789:British Empire 1774: 1771: 1739:British Empire 1606: 1603: 1537:Lungtok Gyatso 1475:Gorkha Kingdom 1447:Main article: 1444: 1441: 1335: 1332: 1295:Lobsang Danjin 1228:Main article: 1225: 1222: 1209:7th Dalai Lama 1171:Lha-bzang Khan 1164: 1163:Lha-bzang Khan 1161: 1157:6th Dalai Lama 1098:Kangxi Emperor 1067: 1064: 1028:Karma Tenkyong 1003:Khalkha Mongol 982: 979: 967: 964: 962: 959: 949: 946: 934:Lha-bzang Khan 925: 922: 886:Weizang tuzhi 867:events of 1750 857: 854: 837:Gyurme Namgyal 820: 817: 815: 812: 761:, with only a 644: 641: 546:5th Dalai Lama 497:refers to the 490: 489: 487: 486: 479: 472: 464: 461: 460: 436: 435: 434: 433: 428: 426:List of rulers 423: 418: 410: 409: 405: 404: 403: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 345:Tibetan Empire 342: 337: 332: 324: 323: 315: 314: 305: 304: 297: 290: 289: 286: 285: 282: 281: 274: 268: 267: 260: 251: 248: 247: 242: 230: 229: 224: 214: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 202: 201: 198: 192: 189: 188: 185: 179: 176: 175: 172: 166: 163: 162: 159: 153: 150: 149: 146: 140: 137: 136: 133: 130: 127: 126: 123: 117: 114: 113: 110: 109: 106: 102: 101: 98: 97: 80: 74: 73: 70: 69: 64: 58: 57: 52: 48: 47: 37: 36: 32: 31: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8701: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8670: 8667: 8666: 8664: 8649: 8648:Greater China 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8594: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8583: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8551: 8548: 8547: 8546: 8543: 8539: 8536: 8535: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8528: 8526: 8522: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8497: 8495: 8493: 8489: 8483: 8482:Northern Yuan 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8459: 8457: 8455: 8451: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8434:Northern Liao 8432: 8430: 8427: 8426: 8424: 8422: 8418: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8396:against Tibet 8394: 8392: 8391:Eastern Turks 8388: 8385: 8384: 8382: 8380: 8376: 8368: 8365: 8364: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8354: 8352: 8350: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8337: 8332: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8308: 8305: 8304: 8303: 8302:Mongol Empire 8300: 8298: 8297:Khamag Mongol 8295: 8293: 8290: 8289: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8242: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8222: 8220: 8218: 8214: 8209: 8202: 8197: 8195: 8190: 8188: 8183: 8182: 8179: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8141:Manchu people 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8126: 8122: 8120: 8119: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8107:Canton System 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8088: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8072:Hubu Guanpiao 8070: 8068: 8065: 8064: 8062: 8060: 8056: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8017: 8013: 8010: 8006: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7899: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7875: 7867: 7866: 7862: 7861: 7860: 7859: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7837: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7825: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7808: 7804: 7802: 7801: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7779: 7775: 7773: 7772: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7759: 7756: 7755: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7743: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7728: 7726: 7722:Society & 7720: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7688:Summer Palace 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7678:Mukden Palace 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7660: 7658: 7654:Palaces & 7652: 7644: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7636: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7619: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7606: 7605: 7602: 7598: 7595: 7594: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7579: 7577: 7573: 7567: 7564: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7546: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7494:Eight Banners 7492: 7490: 7487: 7486: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7472: 7469: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7408: 7405: 7404: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7347:Grand Council 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7287: 7286: 7283: 7282: 7280: 7278: 7274: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7196: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7176: 7174: 7167:20th century 7165: 7157: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7149: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6977:19th century 6975: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6895: 6893: 6886: 6882: 6876: 6873: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6864: 6861: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6803: 6798: 6791: 6786: 6784: 6779: 6777: 6772: 6771: 6768: 6756: 6753: 6752: 6747: 6743: 6740: 6736: 6735: 6731: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6698: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6687: 6686: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6617: 6613: 6611: 6610: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6600: 6599: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6587: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6495: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6463: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6430: 6427: 6423: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6399: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6387: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6361: 6359: 6357: 6353: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6327: 6326: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6298: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6276: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6260: 6259: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6247: 6231: 6228: 6227: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6210: 6206: 6200: 6197: 6191: 6188: 6187: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6163: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6129: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5843: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5822: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5813: 5810: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5781: 5778: 5777: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5759: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5744: 5741: 5740: 5739: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5712: 5711: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5678: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5592: 5587: 5585: 5580: 5578: 5573: 5572: 5569: 5561: 5555: 5551: 5550: 5544: 5541: 5535: 5532:, Routledge, 5531: 5530: 5524: 5521: 5515: 5511: 5510: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5487: 5484: 5482:9781408846759 5478: 5474: 5469: 5466: 5460: 5456: 5455: 5449: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5410: 5405: 5396:on 2019-02-03 5392: 5388: 5382: 5375: 5374: 5368: 5365: 5360: 5356: 5355: 5349: 5346: 5340: 5336: 5335: 5329: 5325: 5320: 5316: 5311: 5308: 5302: 5298: 5297: 5291: 5287: 5282: 5279: 5273: 5270:, Routledge, 5269: 5268: 5262: 5259: 5253: 5249: 5248: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5229:9780674012127 5225: 5221: 5216: 5212: 5210:9780333157374 5206: 5203:, Macmillan, 5202: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5190:9780907129035 5186: 5182: 5181: 5175: 5168: 5167: 5162: 5159: 5157:9780822316374 5153: 5149: 5144: 5141: 5135: 5131: 5130: 5124: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5106: 5103: 5097: 5093: 5092: 5086: 5079: 5078: 5072: 5060: 5058:9780520911765 5054: 5050: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5034: 5030: 5029: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5011: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4968: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4951: 4948: 4942: 4938: 4937: 4931: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4918:9789004272095 4914: 4909: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4873: 4869: 4864: 4863: 4850: 4845: 4838: 4832: 4830: 4822: 4816: 4809: 4804: 4797: 4790: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4765:Bai Rusheng, 4762: 4755: 4749: 4742: 4737: 4730: 4724: 4717: 4712: 4705: 4700: 4693: 4688: 4681: 4676: 4669: 4664: 4655: 4648: 4643: 4636: 4630: 4623: 4617: 4602: 4600:9780598963802 4596: 4592: 4591: 4583: 4567: 4566: 4558: 4552: 4547: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4521: 4513: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4480: 4475: 4473: 4465: 4460: 4454: 4449: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4377: 4363:on 2008-11-22 4362: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4341: 4332: 4326: 4321: 4314: 4309: 4303:, p. 60. 4302: 4297: 4291: 4286: 4280: 4277: 4271: 4264: 4263:Grunfeld 1996 4259: 4252: 4246: 4232:on 2009-09-11 4231: 4227: 4221: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4197: 4190: 4186: 4180: 4173: 4170:Yudru Tsomu, 4167: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4150: 4148:9781000598582 4144: 4140: 4133: 4125: 4123:9781503629790 4119: 4115: 4108: 4101: 4100:Fairbank 2008 4096: 4090:, p. 138 4089: 4084: 4077: 4072: 4065: 4060: 4054:, p. 47. 4053: 4052:Grunfeld 1996 4048: 4046: 4037: 4035:9780295801551 4031: 4027: 4020: 4013: 4012:Fairbank 2008 4008: 4006: 3999:, p. 151 3998: 3993: 3987:, p. 137 3986: 3981: 3974: 3969: 3963:, p. 89. 3962: 3961:Taveirne 2004 3957: 3955: 3953: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3928: 3921: 3920:Shakabpa 2010 3916: 3910:, p. 84. 3909: 3904: 3897: 3892: 3885: 3884:Shakabpa 2010 3881: 3880:Shakabpa 2010 3874: 3867: 3861: 3854: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3837: 3834:Derek Maher, 3831: 3823: 3817: 3813: 3812: 3804: 3795: 3788: 3783: 3776: 3770: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3735: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3715: 3707: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3686: 3681: 3674: 3669: 3667: 3659: 3654: 3647: 3642: 3635: 3630: 3623: 3618: 3612:, p. 81. 3611: 3606: 3600:, p. 30. 3599: 3594: 3587: 3582: 3576:, p. 126 3575: 3570: 3563: 3558: 3551: 3546: 3539: 3534: 3527: 3526:0-87773-376-7 3523: 3519: 3513: 3507:, p. 125 3506: 3501: 3494: 3489: 3482: 3477: 3469: 3463: 3459: 3458: 3455: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3434: 3429: 3422: 3417: 3410: 3405: 3398: 3397:Grousset 1970 3393: 3386: 3381: 3374: 3368: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3310: 3305: 3297: 3296: 3292: 3286: 3278: 3272: 3268: 3267: 3264: 3257: 3249: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3219: 3213: 3209: 3208: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3184: 3180: 3179: 3176: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3155: 3146: 3140:, p. 45. 3139: 3134: 3128:, p. 83. 3127: 3122: 3115: 3110: 3103: 3098: 3092:, p. 11. 3091: 3086: 3079: 3074: 3067: 3062: 3055: 3054:Grousset 1970 3050: 3048: 3040: 3035: 3028: 3023: 3016: 3011: 3004: 2999: 2992: 2987: 2980: 2975: 2968: 2963: 2961: 2954:, p. 89. 2953: 2948: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2917: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2899: 2892: 2885: 2880: 2874:, p. 15. 2873: 2868: 2862:, p. 83. 2861: 2856: 2849: 2844: 2838:, p. 76. 2837: 2832: 2830: 2823:, p. 30. 2822: 2821:Sperling 2004 2817: 2810: 2804: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2777:Grunfeld 1996 2773: 2759:on 2001-04-25 2758: 2754: 2748: 2741: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2693: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2643: 2637:, p. 24. 2636: 2631: 2624: 2623:Sperling 2004 2619: 2613:, p. 44. 2612: 2607: 2605: 2597: 2596:Sperling 2004 2592: 2585: 2580: 2574:, p. 28. 2573: 2572:Sperling 2009 2568: 2562:, p. 27. 2561: 2560:Sperling 2004 2556: 2554: 2547:, p. 19. 2546: 2541: 2535:, p. 83. 2534: 2529: 2522: 2517: 2515: 2508:, p. 33. 2507: 2502: 2495: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2477: 2470: 2468: 2460: 2455: 2447: 2440: 2432: 2430:9781498506458 2426: 2422: 2421: 2413: 2405: 2398: 2392:, p. 80. 2391: 2386: 2379: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2341: 2336: 2328: 2326:9781498506458 2322: 2318: 2317: 2314: 2307: 2300: 2295: 2286: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2253: 2251:9781527592025 2247: 2243: 2242: 2234: 2227: 2225:9781478023951 2221: 2217: 2216: 2208: 2202:, p. 29. 2201: 2200:Sperling 2004 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2180: 2179:Sperling 2004 2175: 2168: 2163: 2156: 2150: 2146: 2145: 2137: 2130: 2125: 2117: 2113: 2106: 2099: 2094: 2087: 2082: 2075: 2070: 2068: 2063: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2004: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1974: 1968: 1963: 1952: 1948: 1945: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1927: 1924: 1920: 1918: 1914: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1883: 1873: 1864: 1862: 1857: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1843:Chumbi Valley 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1804:Agvan Dorjiev 1800: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1784: 1780: 1770: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1724: 1723:(1841–1842). 1722: 1721:Sino-Sikh War 1718: 1714: 1713:Dogra dynasty 1711: 1708:In 1841, the 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1631:Gompo Namgyal 1627: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1550: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1528: 1527:indirect rule 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1450: 1440: 1438: 1434: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1399: 1393: 1391: 1386: 1377: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1359: 1353: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1307: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1287: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1169: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1130:defeated the 1129: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1096:In 1674, the 1094: 1092: 1088: 1080: 1076: 1075:Potala Palace 1072: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 977: 973: 958: 956: 955:Panchen Lamas 945: 943: 939: 935: 931: 921: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 889: 887: 883: 880:According to 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 853: 851: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 811: 808: 802: 799: 796:, before the 795: 790: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 755: 753: 749: 745: 740: 736: 732: 728: 723: 721: 717: 709: 701: 697: 689: 685: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 654: 650: 640: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 609: 605: 601: 597: 592: 590: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 568: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 501:'s rule over 500: 496: 485: 480: 478: 473: 471: 466: 465: 463: 462: 459: 448: 443: 438: 437: 432: 429: 427: 424: 422: 419: 417: 414: 413: 412: 411: 407: 406: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 327: 326: 325: 321: 317: 316: 313: 307: 306: 301: 296: 295: 275: 273: 270: 269: 261: 259: 256: 255: 252: 246: 243: 236: 235: 232: 231: 228: 225: 223: 220: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 196: 190: 186: 183: 177: 173: 170: 164: 160: 157: 151: 147: 144: 138: 134: 128: 124: 121: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 84: 81: 75: 71: 68: 65: 63: 59: 56: 53: 49: 43: 38: 33: 30: 25: 20: 8638:China proper 8604:Central Asia 8591: 8566: 8439:Eastern Liao 8429:Western Liao 8161:Treaty ports 8123: 8116: 8090:Other topics 7863: 7856: 7834: 7822: 7805: 7800:Peiwen Yunfu 7798: 7776: 7769: 7740: 7603: 7489:Beiyang Army 7471:Zongli Yamen 7327:Da-Qing Bank 7144:Red Lanterns 6797:Qing dynasty 6695: 6688: 6674: 6622:sand mandala 6614: 6607: 6548:Sinicization 6520:Panchen Lama 6515:Lhamo La-tso 6498:Ganden Tripa 6292:Human rights 6166:Grand Canyon 6146:Namcha Barwa 6139: / 5817:Tibetan Army 5791: 5715:Guge kingdom 5548: 5528: 5508: 5501:, CNRS: 7–28 5498: 5494: 5472: 5453: 5420: 5416: 5408: 5398:, retrieved 5391:the original 5372: 5363: 5353: 5333: 5323: 5314: 5295: 5285: 5266: 5246: 5219: 5199: 5179: 5165: 5147: 5128: 5118: 5109: 5090: 5076: 5062:, retrieved 5047: 5027: 5017: 4991: 4987: 4974: 4955: 4935: 4898: 4876: 4867: 4859:Bibliography 4844: 4839:, 1909-01-16 4836: 4820: 4815: 4803: 4795: 4789: 4781: 4777: 4761: 4748: 4736: 4728: 4723: 4711: 4699: 4687: 4682:, p. 7. 4675: 4663: 4654: 4642: 4634: 4629: 4616: 4604:. Retrieved 4589: 4582: 4570:. Retrieved 4564: 4557: 4546: 4534:. Retrieved 4519: 4512: 4500:. Retrieved 4495: 4485: 4459: 4448: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4381: 4376: 4365:. Retrieved 4361:the original 4351: 4340: 4331: 4320: 4308: 4296: 4285: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4258: 4250: 4245: 4234:. 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Retrieved 2757:the original 2747: 2739: 2735: 2702: 2698: 2692: 2684: 2676: 2660: 2642: 2630: 2618: 2598:, p. x. 2591: 2586:, p. 3. 2579: 2567: 2540: 2528: 2506:Schoppa 2020 2501: 2494:Schoppa 2020 2475: 2458: 2454: 2445: 2439: 2419: 2412: 2403: 2397: 2385: 2340:Schoppa 2020 2335: 2316: 2313: 2306: 2294: 2285: 2276: 2240: 2233: 2214: 2207: 2174: 2162: 2144:The Tibetans 2143: 2136: 2129:Elliott 2001 2124: 2115: 2105: 2093: 2081: 1994: 1988: 1983: 1977: 1959: 1950: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1910: 1886: 1878: 1858: 1851: 1819: 1815: 1812: 1801: 1786: 1765: 1762:Zhou Wanshun 1759: 1752: 1732: 1727: 1725: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1680: 1628: 1608: 1605:19th century 1593: 1589: 1585: 1576: 1574: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1540: 1521: 1513: 1507: 1497: 1495: 1479:Bahadur Shah 1472: 1452: 1429: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1402: 1397: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1382: 1369: 1363: 1357: 1354: 1337: 1310: 1288: 1283: 1279: 1268:Jinsha River 1264: 1238:Map showing 1206: 1178: 1174: 1146: 1117: 1114: 1095: 1084: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1044:Sonam Rapten 1032: 984: 951: 937: 929: 927: 890: 885: 881: 879: 859: 849: 844: 840: 822: 803: 791: 782: 778: 774: 767:Qing emperor 756: 724: 715: 695: 683: 671: 664:vassal state 660:protectorate 656: 628: 593: 565: 535: 531:Yuan dynasty 518: 514: 510: 499:Qing dynasty 494: 493: 389: 227:Succeeded by 226: 221: 29:Qing dynasty 8411:Tarim Basin 8097:Aisin Gioro 8059:Paper money 7818:Qing poetry 7539:Wuwei Corps 7534:Shuishiying 7295:Family tree 6632:wall murals 6536:Catholicism 6120:Environment 5794:(1720–1912) 5757:(1368–1644) 5737:(1270–1350) 5658:(Neolithic) 5656:Prehistory 5317:, Routledge 4808:Spence 1993 4704:Spence 1993 4680:Spence 1993 4076:Mullin 2001 3944:Mullin 2001 3685:Mullin 2001 3646:Rawski 1998 3493:Mullin 2001 3481:Mullin 2001 3421:Mullin 2001 3102:Petech 2013 3078:Mullin 2001 3066:Mullin 2001 3027:Atwood 2004 3003:Petech 2013 2967:Petech 2013 2940:Petech 2013 2928:Petech 2013 2916:Petech 2013 2884:Petech 2013 2848:Petech 2013 2521:Gernet 1972 1965: [ 1889:Zhao Erfeng 1672:Nyarong War 1586:altan bumba 1491:Tashilhunpo 1396:killed the 1320:Yue Zhongqi 1298: [ 1024:Donyo Dorje 915:during the 884:and in the 825:Khangchenné 613:sovereignty 584:Dalai Lamas 309:History of 222:Preceded by 8663:Categories 8643:Sinosphere 8545:Lifan Yuan 8444:Later Liao 8208:Inner Asia 7765:Four Wangs 7656:mausoleums 7609:Golden Urn 7582:Inner Asia 7559:Xiang Army 7529:Hushenying 7454:Liangguang 7434:Liangjiang 7372:Lifan Yuan 7277:Government 6715:Tibetology 6684:Literature 6503:Dalai Lama 6356:Government 6314:Tibet Area 6309:Golden Urn 6275:Parliament 5800:Lifan Yuan 5727:(960–1279) 5664:Zhangzhung 5649:Chronology 5400:2021-05-15 4606:2011-06-28 4572:2011-06-28 4530:0231134460 4367:2015-02-25 4274:Li, T.T., 4236:2015-02-25 4088:Smith 1996 4064:Smith 1996 3997:Smith 1996 3985:Smith 1996 3932:Smith 1996 3908:Norbu 2001 3787:Smith 1996 3706:Garri 2020 3673:Smith 1996 3586:Smith 1996 3574:Smith 1996 3550:Smith 1996 3538:Garri 2020 3505:Smith 1996 3360:Smith 1996 3345:Smith 1996 3309:Smith 1996 3276:7119018655 3247:7119016873 3138:Hevia 1995 3126:Stein 1972 3039:Garri 2020 2991:Norbu 2001 2979:Norbu 2001 2952:Stein 1972 2860:Norbu 2001 2836:Norbu 2001 2763:2008-04-09 2665:Mehra 1974 2074:Norbu 2001 2058:References 1962:Zhong Ying 1944:Sven Hedin 1861:suzerainty 1699:diplomatic 1639:Hor States 1588:; 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