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5152:, "Mesopotamia" p. 30: "Babylonian mathematicians did not hesitate to interpolate by proportional parts to approximate intermediate values. Linear interpolation seems to have been a commonplace procedure in ancient Mesopotamia, and the positional notation lent itself conveniently to the rile of three. a table essential in Babylonian algebra; this subject reached a considerably higher level in Mesopotamia than in Egypt. Many problem texts from the Old Babylonian period show that the solution of the complete three-term quadratic equation afforded the Babylonians no serious difficulty, for flexible algebraic operations had been developed. They could transpose terms in an equations by adding equals to equals, and they could
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1164:, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists has led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city-states have meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units. These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq.
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in the temples which they built. The
Assyrians displaced populations throughout their vast empire. This practice under the Babylonian kings was more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this does not prove that the practice ceased, or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians, since there is evidence that the city
57:
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1136:. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 15,000-square-kilometre (5,800 sq mi) region of marshes, lagoons, mudflats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the
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along the Tigris and
Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish, used both for food and fertilizer, reeds, and clay, for building materials. With irrigation, the
3330:. The unification was tenuous and failed to last, as the Akkadians conquered Sumer in 2331 BC only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see a peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short-lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations.
1157:
lacking in building stone, precious metals, and timber, and so historically has relied upon long-distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since prehistoric times and has added to the cultural mix.
2203:. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time.
2956:, or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as others, have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased.
3592:, which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He codified over 200 laws for Mesopotamia. Examination of the laws show a progressive weakening of the rights of women, and increasing severity in the treatment of slaves.
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countries. King Sargon, for example, conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with cities in modern-day Syria. Many
Assyrian and Babylonian palace walls were decorated with pictures of the successful fights and the enemy either desperately escaping or hiding amongst reeds.
3725:, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round, and five legs, so that both views seem complete. Even before dominating the region, they continued the cylinder seal tradition, with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.
3162:
weather was often hard on farmers. Crops were often ruined, so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were kept. Over time the southernmost parts of
Sumerian Mesopotamia suffered from increased salinity of the soils, leading to a slow urban decline and a centring of power in Akkad, further north.
1879:
A considerable amount of
Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries
3716:
The conquest of the whole of
Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian
3542:
The Neo-Babylonian kings used deportation as a means of control, like their predecessors, the
Assyrians. For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder, sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood, and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves
3161:
to complete farm work for them, but there were some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical, i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slaves. Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable
Mesopotamian
5293:
The clay tablet with the catalog number 322 in the G. A. Plimpton
Collection at Columbia University may be the most well known mathematical tablet, certainly the most photographed one, but it deserves even greater renown. It was scribed in the Old Babylonian period between −1900 and −1600 and shows
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evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys
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began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war—the first recording of a war occurred around 3200 BC, but was not common until
1836:
Akkadian gradually replaced
Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC. The exact dating being a matter of debate. Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st
1156:
Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent-dwelling nomads herded sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally
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The geography of southern Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and with good drainage, a fact which had a profound effect on the evolution of early Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians, and later the Akkadians, to build their cities
6577:
Winter, Irene J. (1985). "After the Battle is Over: The 'Stele of the Vultures' and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East". In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the
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Winter, Irene J. (1985). "After the Battle is Over: The 'Stele of the Vultures' and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East". In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the
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From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some
3618:
Achaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay. Little painting has survived, but what has suggests that painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes. Most sculpture was also
1973:
as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore,
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for they were familiar with many simple forms of factoring. Egyptian algebra had been much concerned with linear equations, but the Babylonians evidently found these too elementary for much attention. In another problem in an Old Babylonian text we find two simultaneous linear equations in two
3821:
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From this point forwards, warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system. At times, a neutral city acted as an arbitrator for two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states. When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign
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and from the Armenian Highlands, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the
3226:
are limited and generally restricted to analysis of classical keys due to the country's modern political instability, although lately, there have been several published studies displaying a genealogical connection between all Iraqis and the neighboring countries, across religious, ethnic and
3317:
The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities, along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretches of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed.
3298:
While other studies indicate that the Iraqi-Assyrian population was found to be significantly related to other Iraqis, especially Mesopotamian Arabs, likely due to the assimilation of indigenous Assyrians with other people groups who occupied and settled Mesopotamia after the fall of the
3227:
linguistic barriers. Studies indicate that the different ethno-religious groups of Iraq (Mesopotamia) share significant similarities in genetics and that Mesopotamian Arabs, who make up the majority of Iraqis, are more genetically similar to Iraqi Kurds than other Arab populations in the
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2481:
societies in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and
2959:
As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn
6078:
There was also an important trade route through central Asia, which coming down through Persia and Mesopotamia to the Levant, reached the sea in northern Syria . These trade routes assumed enormous importance in the earlier Middle Ages, and upon them great political issues
3415:. They all had their own governor, who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes. Governors had to call up soldiers to war and supply workers when a temple was built. He was responsible for enforcing the laws. In this way, it was easier to keep control of a large empire.
2151:
4072:). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the
2225:
times, the astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific. How much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the
1832:
script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated.
5969:
In calculating the significance of Indus contacts with Mesopotamia, it is obvious that the economic vitality of Mesopotamia is the controlling factor. Documentary evidence there vouches for vigorous commercial activity in the Sarginid and Larsa phases
1954:. The Babylonians also had theorems on how to measure the area of several shapes and solids. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if
1227:). The documented record of actual historical events — and the ancient history of lower Mesopotamia — commenced in the early-third millennium BC with cuneiform records of early dynastic kings. This entire history ends with either the arrival of the
3258:
from northern Iraq might "have stronger continuity with the original genetic stock of the Mesopotamian people, which possibly provided the basis for the ethnogenesis of various subsequent Near Eastern populations." Among northern Iraqi Assyrians,
1871:
Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the
2191:
lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of Mesopotamia.
1808:
was invented for the Sumerian language. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to have been developed from
3325:
At times, one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by
1147:
environment ranges from the northern areas of rain-fed agriculture to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melting snows from the high peaks of the northern
3731:
3012:. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them. It is assumed that these were royal graves. Rich of various periods, have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein, identified with Sumerian Dilmun.
3283:
sub-clades accounted for 11%, 30%, 12% and 24%. For Yazidis, R haplogroup subclades dominate, where R1a and R1b account for 9% and 21%, respectively. The high prevalence of R and J macrohaplogroups is attributed to
3174:
flourished as early as the third millennium BC. Cylinder seals found throughout ANE is evidence of trade between Mesopotamian cities. Starting in the 4th millennium BC, Mesopotamian civilizations also traded with
3794:
3880:
3238:
There were no significant differences in Y-DNA variation were observed among Iraqi Mesopotamian Arabs, Assyrians, or Kurds. Modern genetic studies indicate that Iraqi Mesopotamian Arabs are more related to
3755:
2051:
3784:, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name
2214:
and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.
3650:
of about 3000–2800 BC, part man and part lion. A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high, who attended temple
1160:
Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labor has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological
3871:. The king, surrounded by his royal attendants and a high-ranking official, receives a tribute from Sua, king of Gilzanu (north-west Iran), who bows and prostrates before the king. From
2465:
along with their diagnosis and prognosis. Some treatments used were likely based off the known characteristics of the ingredients used. The others were based on the symbolic qualities.
1914:
6619:
Fensham, F. Charles (19620, "Widow, Orphan, and the Poor in Ancient near Eastern Legal and Wisdom Literature" (Journal of Near Eastern Studies Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr. 1962)), pp. 129–139
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3841:
3705:, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them. The fragmentary
2296:
2257:, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used, except that he correctly theorized on tides as a result of the Moon's attraction.
3434:
became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It became one of history's greatest centers of learning.
2206:
During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early
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3717:
empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with scenes of war or hunting. The
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5223:
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guardian of the Cedar Mountain, and was later celebrated in many later poems and songs in which he was claimed to be two-thirds god and only one-third human. The later
2968:, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had
3694:
plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded.
3918:
Brick is the dominant material, as the material was freely available locally, whereas building stone had to be brought a considerable distance to most cities. The
5184:
4364:
Miquel, A.; Brice, W.C.; Sourdel, D.; Aubin, J.; Holt, P.M.; Kelidar, A.; Blanc, H.; MacKenzie, D.N.; Pellat, Ch. (2011), "ʿIrāḳ", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;
1880:
on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.
746:
from the Byzantines. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, including
6209:
1801:. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century AD.
1992:
The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonia who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an
2187:
times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when
8583:
1855:
630:
from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history, including the invention of the
4945:
It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Sumerian population became literate.
7808:
2761:
Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month was determined by at least six important factors:
6310:"A glimpse at the intricate mosaic of ethnicities from Mesopotamia: Paternal lineages of the Northern Iraqi Arabs, Kurds, Syriacs, Turkmens and Yazidis"
4850:
4786:
Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (Vol 3, Journal of World-Systems Research)
9176:
8078:
6185:"N. Al-Zahery et al. "Y-chromosome and mtDNA polymorphisms in Iraq, a crossroad of the early human dispersal and of post-Neolithic migrations" (2003)"
707:, dominating the region for a century as the final independent Mesopotamian realm until the modern era. In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the
7692:
7332:
7088:
5707:
730:
and Parthians, with western parts of the region coming under ephemeral Roman control. In 226 AD, the eastern regions of Mesopotamia fell to the
4152:
3383:, they never believed their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves "king of the universe" or "great king". Another common name was "
3207:
1097:
687:
around 2350 BC, characterized the subsequent 2,000 years of Mesopotamian history, marked by the succession of kingdoms and empires such as the
3721:
has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the human-headed
3065:
temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency. The word
5120:
1969:
was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used
1895:. The whole story is a composite product, although it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.
3352:
2769:(a waxing moon meant abundance and growth, while a waning moon was associated with decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld)
9171:
6778:
4438:
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2210:
and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the
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the Silk Road passed through central Asia and Mesopotamia. When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, trade was diverted to the sea .
5905:
5866:
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5945:. Cambridge history of India: Supplementary volume (3 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1968). p. 111.
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3000:, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and
1337:. They compared the genetic signatures to those of modern populations and found similarities with the DNA of people living in today's
1239:. In the long span of this period, Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient highly developed, and socially complex states.
1116:
of southern Mesopotamia for at least 5,000 years. A carved elevation of a typical mudhif, dating to around 3,300 BC was discovered at
7696:
571:
7296:
By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913
4800:
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Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.
2816:
2543:
was the first recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that,
9414:
8788:
5429:
Friedenwald, Julius; Morrison, Samuel (January 1940). "The History of the Enema with Some Notes on Related Procedures (Part I)".
3662:
period generally had large, staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterpieces have been found at the Royal Cemetery at
2277:
734:. The division of the region between the Roman Byzantine Empire from 395 AD and the Sassanid Empire lasted until the 7th century
3098:, which also included the Jordan River valley and that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for
5611:
Encyclopedia of Cosmology (Routledge Revivals) : Historical, Philosophical, and Scientific Foundations of Modern Cosmology
5549:
3312:
2146:{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {24}{60}}+{\frac {51}{60^{2}}}+{\frac {10}{60^{3}}}={\frac {305470}{216000}}=1.41421{\overline {296}}.}
703:
asserted control over much of the ancient Near East. Subsequently, the Babylonians, who had long been overshadowed by Assyria,
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5134:
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City-states of Mesopotamia created the first law codes, drawn from legal precedence and decisions made by kings. The codes of
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The Standard of Ur, 2600 BC, the Early Dynastic Period III. Shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood. Discovered at the
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6384:"In search of the genetic footprints of Sumerians: a survey of Y-chromosome and mtDNA variation in the Marsh Arabs of Iraq"
2559:
described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is
2473:
Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving,
1785:, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration language of first the
4622:
Wilkinson, Tony J. (2000), "Regional approaches to Mesopotamian archaeology: the contribution of archaeological surveys",
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Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused
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1891:, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of
529:
5849:
Richard Bulliet; Pamela Kyle Crossley; Daniel Headrick; Steven Hirsch; Lyman Johnson; David Northup (1 January 2010).
4476:. Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. pp. 64–67.
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4715:
Scheffler, Thomas (2003). "'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia".
1961:
The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the area of the base and the height; however, the volume of the
596:
3090:
A map of the Fertile Crescent including the location of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
2952:, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the
2571:. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the
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An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations
3318:
Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and, at times, dangerous. Thus, each Sumerian city became a
2157:
The Babylonians were not interested in exact solutions, but rather approximations, and so they would commonly use
1876:
Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.
8063:
8049:
7801:
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6150:. Volume 159 of WIT transactions on the built environment. Southampton: WIT Press (published 2016). p. 111.
6102:; Hirsch, Steven W.; Johnson, Lyman L.; Northrup, David (2009). "Interregional Patterns of Culture and Contact".
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204:
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5523:(January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World",
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from Neo-Babylonian Babylon, decorated with beasts in polychrome brick, is the most famous, now largely in the
3339:
3157:. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian region, farmers did not generally depend on
1950:
was lunisolar, with three seven-day weeks of a lunar month. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early
1824:
system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a limited number of individuals were hired as
514:
4846:
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are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.
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as an oral tradition until writing was more universal. These songs provided a means of passing on through the
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17:
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1817:, a temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators.
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31:
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Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes, p. 242
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8090:
8022:
7791:
6959:
3905:
3472:
2853:
Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many
1112:) are in the water. Mudhif structures have been one of the traditional types of structures, built by the
38:
9332:
9319:
8928:
8540:
8215:
8195:
8037:
8027:
8017:
7717:
7707:
7486:
7339:
7267:
The historians' history of the world in twenty-five volumes, volume 01: Prolegomena; Egypt, Mesopotamia
7227:. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977.
4693:
Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East
4691:
Bahrani, Z. (1998), "Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past", in Meskell, L. (ed.),
3053:
2494:
1187:
1024:
264:
3102:, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. Thus the development of
1063:
being used to describe the region after that date. It has been argued that these later euphemisms are
9003:
8818:
8167:
8012:
7582:
7377:
5679:
4390:
Sissakian, Varoujan K.; Adamo, Nasrat; Al-Ansari, Nadhir; Mukhalad, Talal; Laue, Jan (January 2020).
4259:
3560:
3291:
Many historians and anthropologists provide strong circumstantial evidence to presuppose that Iraq's
3171:
2348:
1774:
empires, but Sumerian was retained for administrative, religious, literary and scientific purposes.
1679:
1259:
1243:
1177:
944:
735:
9419:
8958:
8600:
8254:
8225:
7869:
6388:
4597:
4365:
3343:
3041:
2679:
2532:
2317:
1759:
1722:
1660:
1572:
1512:
1076:
948:, which was written in the late 2nd century AD but specifically refers to sources from the time of
557:
369:
152:
4121:
3511:
king (Ensi) of Uruk in Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), was commended for military exploits against
9268:
9201:
9095:
8948:
8866:
8861:
8482:
8230:
7894:
7627:
5113:
2846:, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the
2801:
Commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.)
2261:
1430:
1424:
289:
7326:, by Percy S. P. Handcock, 1912 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries;
6583:
6565:
6218:"Population genetic diversity in an Iraqi population and gene flow across the Arabian Peninsula"
4956:
Woods C. 2006 "Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian". In S.L. Sanders (ed)
1883:
Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was the
607:. In the broader sense, the historical region of Mesopotamia also includes parts of present-day
9384:
9299:
9151:
8910:
8185:
8044:
7914:
7889:
7759:
7511:
5848:
5228:
5189:
5060:
5027:
4392:"Sea Level Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain and Limits of the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review"
4211:
3347:
2869:
2683:
2415:
1951:
1909:
1744:
1542:
1173:
1048:
1047:
often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the
821:
497:
399:
299:
6762:
5888:
H.W.F. Saggs – Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages at University College, Cardiff (2000).
5571:
5265:
unknown quantities, called respectively the "first silver ring" and the "second silver ring.""
4450:
3071:
was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture.
8968:
8550:
8289:
8157:
7769:
7642:
7621:
7541:
7501:
7392:
6904:
6452:
6445:
6022:
5889:
5850:
4980:
4916:
4596:
Canard, M. (2011), "al-ḎJazīra, Ḏjazīrat Aḳūr or Iḳlīm Aḳūr", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;
3706:
3516:
3300:
2899:
was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses.
2688:
2211:
1888:
1794:
1778:
1597:
704:
484:
309:
5086:
9374:
9186:
9146:
8625:
8384:
8266:
8200:
8162:
8058:
7984:
7979:
7904:
7752:
7370:
7262:
6397:
6321:
6229:
6095:
5276:
4499:
3852:
3623:
3607:
3574:
3477:
3457:
3285:
3264:
3260:
2825:
2811:
2672:
2523:
2490:
2368:
2360:
2238:
2178:
2158:
1782:
1388:
1101:
1067:
terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.
627:
7041:
Stager, L. E. (1996). "The fury of Babylon: Ashkelon and the archaeology of destruction".
6365:
6360:
5983:
4796:
3937:
The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at
3020:
2200:
1693:
8:
9273:
9181:
9156:
8963:
8938:
8326:
8284:
8210:
8085:
8007:
7536:
7506:
7491:
6924:
6578:
Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV. 16. Washington DC: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32.
6560:
Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV. 16. Washington DC: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32.
5163:
3950:
3832:
2949:
2584:
2572:
2246:
2166:
1850:
1846:
1786:
1605:
1591:
1585:
1536:
1495:
1299:
1263:
949:
712:
700:
467:
304:
269:
6401:
6325:
6233:
6215:
6132:
Eurasia's overland trade faded, and merchants, soldiers, and explorers took to the seas.
3468:. Assyrian soldiers are on a boat, chasing fleeing enemies. Some are hiding in the reeds
2422:. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on
1709:
1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organised, and best-preserved legal text from the
1368:), the civilization of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BC was centered around the
9263:
9232:
9131:
8978:
8895:
8457:
8452:
8437:
8399:
8374:
8311:
8172:
8107:
7742:
7551:
7466:
6420:
6383:
6344:
6309:
6250:
6217:
6099:
5699:
5442:
5326:
5053:
5020:
4982:
Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East
4897:
4889:
4732:
4647:
4549:
4541:
4329:
4321:
3746:
3601:
3520:
2598:
2227:
1620:
1472:
1133:
439:
374:
329:
224:
8299:
4749:
Broadbent, G., "The Ecology of the Mudhif", in: Geoffrey Broadbent and C. A. Brebbia,
2992:
have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian
2410:
The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as
9253:
9110:
9105:
9090:
9025:
8943:
8900:
8620:
8615:
8526:
8477:
8442:
8279:
8220:
8122:
8032:
8002:
7997:
7864:
7859:
7843:
7732:
7672:
7592:
7587:
7496:
7214:
7200:
7179:
7165:
7147:
7127:
7106:
7093:
7063:
7027:
7001:
6982:
6963:
6934:
6928:
6910:
6889:
6831:
6768:
6579:
6561:
6525:
6456:
6425:
6349:
6255:
6151:
6109:
5946:
5895:
5856:
5839:
Bibby, Geoffrey and Phillips, Carl (1996), "Looking for Dilmun" (Interlink Pub Group)
5820:
5813:
5703:
5639:
5614:
5577:
5520:
5468:
5400:
5310:
5127:
5093:
5064:
5031:
4986:
4922:
4901:
4827:
4826:, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 2,
4696:
4669:
4651:
4639:
4605:
4574:
4553:
4477:
4418:
4417:, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1,
4391:
4373:
4333:
4313:
4093:
3582:
3548:
3508:
3427:
3380:
3280:
3276:
3199:
2728:
2352:
2321:
1947:
1884:
1873:
1860:
1790:
1763:
1751:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1714:
1710:
1698:
1616:
1506:
1323:
1228:
1213:
1209:
1161:
1014:
968:
917:
708:
668:, each originating from different areas, dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of
588:
519:
384:
379:
274:
7197:
Mesopotamien – Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris
7146:. Translated by Bahrani, Zainab; Van de Mieroop, Marc. University of Chicago Press.
7089:
Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: the Evolution of an Urban Landscape
6948:
Emberling, Geoff (2015). "Mesopotamian cities and urban process, 3500–1600 BCE". In
6800:
5541:
3118:
and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden
2446:, its aetiology, its future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery.
1231:
in the late 6th century BC or with the Muslim conquest and the establishment of the
9166:
9161:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9045:
9040:
9030:
8846:
8703:
8688:
8672:
8667:
8662:
8640:
8369:
8304:
8294:
7968:
7949:
7944:
7939:
7879:
7854:
7083:
7059:
7019:
6515:
6415:
6405:
6339:
6329:
6245:
6237:
5936:
5695:
5691:
5464:
5396:
4881:
4736:
4724:
4631:
4533:
4305:
4246:
4203:
4045:
3812:
Detail of Nebuchadnezzar II's Building Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate, from
3668:
3447:
3095:
2911:
2547:. They believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the
2341:
2269:
2265:
1987:
1798:
1747:
1201:
1149:
998:
853:
773:
691:. The early second millennium BC saw the polarization of Mesopotamian society into
669:
600:
389:
7253:
Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi
6826:
Dunham, Sally (2005), "Ancient Near Eastern architecture", in Daniel Snell (ed.),
6476:
6282:
1333:
from the 8,000-year-old remains of early farmers found at an ancient graveyard in
56:
9341:
9100:
9075:
9070:
9050:
8998:
8988:
8983:
8973:
8953:
8923:
8875:
8871:
8841:
8467:
8432:
8321:
8316:
8235:
8146:
7884:
7737:
7649:
7637:
7561:
7556:
7546:
7481:
7456:
7441:
7428:
7416:
7323:
7256:
6953:
6744:
6334:
6191:
6145:
6103:
6091:
6053:
5940:
5138:
5124:
4967:
4222:
4097:
3966:
3927:
3742:
3702:
3659:
3639:
3419:
3240:
2873:
Jemdet Nasr Cylinder presenting a hunting scene, with two lions and an antelope.
2741:
2709:
2592:
2506:
2493:
may have been used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the
2483:
2419:
2333:
2222:
2169:
and represents some of the most advanced mathematics prior to Greek mathematics.
1767:
1632:
1626:
1610:
1518:
1489:
1448:
1442:
1377:
1369:
1319:
1311:
1236:
1217:
1183:
1153:
development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority.
866:
829:
739:
731:
723:
716:
688:
684:
680:
657:". It is recognised as the cradle of some of the world's earliest civilizations.
509:
414:
404:
339:
334:
259:
209:
194:
161:
7140:
7116:
6520:
6503:
4728:
3922:
is the most distinctive form, and cities often had large gateways, of which the
1867:
from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature.
9358:
9080:
8447:
8422:
7702:
7632:
7289:
6241:
5153:
4446:
4128:
3911:
3718:
3495:
villages were abandoned, indicating a rise in communal violence. An early king
3375:
The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the city
3272:
3268:
2989:
2733:
2502:
2285:
1966:
1943:
1939:
1673:
1668:
1413:
504:
444:
429:
349:
119:
6884:
Beaulieu, P. A. (2005). "World Hegemony, 900–300 BCE". In Snell, D. C. (ed.).
4635:
4325:
4293:
2505:
invention of later times. Later, during the Parthian or Sasanian periods, the
2403:
along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a
2036:
digits, and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of
1032:, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to
9368:
8880:
8728:
8635:
8520:
8472:
8462:
8427:
8379:
8356:
8331:
8095:
7924:
7919:
7796:
7597:
7446:
7015:
6949:
6529:
6410:
5345:
4643:
4609:
4513:. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–187.
4504:
4377:
4317:
4143:
3687:
3635:
3412:
3244:
3203:
3176:
2922:
2528:
2509:, which may have been the world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.
2474:
2234:
2196:
1922:, mathematical, geometric-algebraic, similar to the Euclidean geometry. From
1762:, is attested in personal names, rivers and mountains and in various crafts.
1454:
1381:
1373:
1271:
1255:
881:
419:
394:
199:
134:
7279:
6981:. Pelican History of Art (4th ed.). Penguin (now Yale History of Art).
4872:
Finkelstein, J.J. (1955). "Subartu and Subarian in Old Babylonian Sources".
3395:
When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called
3094:
The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys form the northeastern portion of the
2438:
and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and
2195:
The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at mathematics and could predict
1814:
1235:
in the late 7th century AD, from which point the region came to be known as
972:
8885:
8698:
8630:
8346:
8112:
7909:
7617:
7612:
7602:
7436:
7300:
6850:
6429:
6353:
6259:
3946:
3887:
3848:
3581:, as mentioned above, who was posthumously famous for his set of laws, the
3570:
3492:
3465:
3357:
3004:. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family
2961:
2941:
2591:. Its cultural values and literary influence are especially evident in the
2588:
2568:
2281:
2162:
1460:
1353:
1267:
1137:
1064:
1037:
875:
727:
479:
474:
449:
189:
99:
6906:
Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary
5294:
the most advanced mathematics before the development of Greek mathematics.
3190:– east-west between Central Asia and the Mediterranean world (part of the
2161:
to approximate intermediate values. One of the most famous tablets is the
981:
was more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the
9346:
9304:
9294:
9085:
9017:
8890:
8778:
8530:
8492:
8341:
8177:
8102:
7461:
7266:
4089:
4057:
3978:
3923:
3679:
3674:
3500:
3292:
3228:
3187:
3080:
3032:
Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale
2847:
2836:
2821:
2766:
2697:
2650:
2622:
2400:
2395:
in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical
2392:
2025:
1942:. This is the source of the 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-
1935:
1927:
1919:
1864:
1466:
1113:
654:
646:
547:
362:
219:
87:
7314:
5446:
3780:, initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called
2501:
in the 7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a
2442:
of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's
1196:
172:
8836:
8831:
7607:
7303:, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries;
6737:
6216:
Hayder Lazim; Eida Khalaf Almohammed; Sibte Hadi; Judith Smith (2020).
5461:
Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine
5393:
Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine
4893:
4065:
4061:
3970:
3915:
also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
3691:
3654:
of the deity, but very few of these have survived. Sculptures from the
3651:
3631:
3496:
3319:
3211:
3111:
3103:
2930:
2907:
2854:
2654:
2602:
2552:
2478:
2439:
2384:
985:, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of
924:
454:
424:
409:
237:
182:
63:
8561:
7162:
Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen
5728:
Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia",
5658:
Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia",
4961:
4545:
1887:, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain
9141:
8826:
8713:
8650:
8417:
8389:
8336:
7874:
7566:
7526:
4294:"Ancient Mesopotamia and Modern Iraq in the British Press, 1980–2003"
4029:
4021:
3910:
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available
3643:
3578:
3566:
3461:
3423:
3396:
3191:
3025:
3009:
2945:
2937:
2892:
2779:
2775:
2701:
2614:
2380:
2356:
2001:
1993:
1923:
1892:
1829:
1810:
1805:
1718:
1405:
1384:
in the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region.
1315:
1232:
1125:
957:
908:, 'river') and translates to '(land) between rivers', likely being a
903:
891:
696:
665:
650:
592:
434:
284:
4885:
1306:
empires. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were
9278:
8933:
8856:
8851:
8758:
8743:
8738:
8693:
7934:
7764:
7747:
7521:
7516:
6144:
Brebbia, Carlos A.; Martinez Boquera, A., eds. (28 December 2016).
5576:. The Cosmology of Sumer & Babylon. Mohr Siebeck. p. 111.
5157:
4751:
Eco-architecture II: Harmonisation Between Architecture and Nature,
4537:
4309:
4159:
4073:
4069:
4037:
3919:
3690:
is an unusual elaborate and relatively large (20 x 15 inches)
3535:, is the oldest monument in the world that celebrates a massacre.
3524:
3408:
3384:
3327:
3086:
2973:
2795:
2664:
2626:
2618:
2548:
2458:
2423:
2337:
2313:
2254:
2245:. He supported Aristarchus of Samos' heliocentric theory where the
2242:
2218:
2207:
2005:
1828:
to be trained in its use. It was not until the widespread use of a
1821:
1644:
1580:
1555:
1307:
747:
322:
294:
279:
7282:– timeline, definition, and articles at World History Encyclopedia
6308:
Dogan, Serkan; Gurkan, Cemal; Dogan, Mustafa; et al. (2017).
5738:
4498:
1804:
Early in Mesopotamia's history, around the mid-4th millennium BC,
9035:
8763:
8753:
8718:
8708:
8394:
8351:
7531:
7476:
6658:
5329:(1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods",
4174:
4113:
4049:
4033:
4025:
4013:
3994:
3990:
3982:
3813:
3777:
3762:
3738:
3722:
3611:
3544:
3512:
3431:
3404:
3400:
3368:
3322:, independent of the others and protective of its independence.
3255:
3251:
3195:
3107:
3072:
3037:
3033:
3001:
2977:
2965:
2884:
2858:
2843:
2713:
2693:
2668:
2642:
2498:
2477:, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first
2462:
2450:
2443:
2411:
2404:
2396:
2376:
2033:
1983:
1962:
1771:
1755:
1702:
1638:
1559:
1409:
1401:
1393:
1334:
1303:
1291:
1283:
1247:
1144:
1109:
1033:
913:
751:
692:
642:
254:
95:
83:
67:
7285:
5638:(Paperback ed.). Oxford : Oxford Univ. Press. p. 312.
5348:(1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B.C.",
3800:
Assyrian ornaments and patterns, illustrated in a book from 1920
3083:
in Mesopotamia was comparable to that of the Canadian prairies.
3066:
977:
corresponded to a similar geographical concept. Later, the term
916:
term, with the Aramaic term itself likely being a calque of the
8783:
8733:
8655:
8274:
7929:
7176:
Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris.
6706:
5128:
High resolution photographs, descriptions, and analysis of the
4389:
4053:
4041:
3998:
3986:
3954:
3931:
3891:
3872:
3615:
3528:
3499:
was supposed to have built the white walls around the city. As
3232:
3158:
3139:
3127:
3062:
3005:
2993:
2969:
2888:
2749:
2737:
2717:
2646:
2634:
2610:
2606:
2556:
2544:
2301:
2300:
A medical recipe concerning poisoning. Terracotta tablet, from
2233:
The only Greek-Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a
1825:
1777:
Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the
1338:
1279:
1132:
rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the neighboring
1129:
1105:
1086:
994:
990:
982:
909:
635:
620:
612:
249:
111:
103:
91:
6601:
6108:(6 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2014). p. 279.
4439:"Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate?"
4267:
3036:. The Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial
2324:. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the
1081:
9136:
8773:
8768:
8748:
8487:
7471:
7239:
Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history
6090:
4017:
4002:
3958:
3698:
3655:
3376:
3143:
3135:
3131:
3099:
2903:
2791:
2705:
2638:
2435:
2427:
2388:
2364:
2273:
2188:
2184:
1650:
1436:
1397:
1358:
1295:
1287:
1216:
period. Therein, writing emerged with a pictographic script,
1090:
961:
897:
885:
755:
661:
631:
616:
244:
213:
75:
71:
6718:
6670:
6307:
5842:
5573:
Ancient Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology: Selected Essays
5459:
H.F.J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004),
5391:
H.F.J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004),
3149:
Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make
2609:, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly
626:
Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the
8723:
7682:
7659:
7402:
7396:
7327:
7304:
4158:
A suggested reconstruction of the appearance of a Sumerian
4006:
3974:
3938:
3647:
3627:
3532:
3488:
3481:
3267:
subclades were observed at 36% and 41% respectively, where
3223:
3154:
3150:
3123:
3119:
2896:
2630:
2551:
was born from this enormous sea. Mesopotamian religion was
2305:
2165:, created around 1900–1600 BC, which gives a table of
1342:
1275:
1274:. Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as
1251:
1117:
986:
812:
809:
803:
794:
788:
782:
638:
608:
604:
115:
107:
79:
6694:
6682:
6646:
6634:
6622:
6548:
The Story of Us Humans, from Atoms to Today's Civilization
6504:"Siegbert Uhlig (ed.): Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. Volume 1"
3610:
as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in western
3577:) have been found. The most renowned of these was that of
1294:, as well as major territorial states such as the city of
7211:
The early prehistory of Mesopotamia – 500,000 to 4,500 BC
6955:
Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE
6589:
6364: This article incorporates text available under the
4797:"Migrants from the Near East 'brought farming to Europe'"
3941:
from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the
3827:
Artist's impression of a hall in an Assyrian palace from
3399:. Each of these were named after their main cities, like
3194:), as well as north–south between the Eastern Europe and
3115:
2745:
2678:
Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early
2564:
2250:
1330:
997:
to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the
956:, Mesopotamia was used to designate the land east of the
7018:(1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In
4768:
4756:
3709:
is an early example of the inscribed type. The Assyrian
3426:'s rule. He was known as "the lawmaker" and created the
2936:
Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of
1392:
A map of 15th century BC, showing the core territory of
722:
Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the
715:
in 332 BC. After his death, it became part of the Greek
6143:
5750:
4666:
The archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and approaches
4564:
4562:
4363:
4178:
3962:
3894:
c. 870 BC, with inscription running across his midriff.
3663:
2997:
1813:. The earliest texts, 7 archaic tablets, come from the
123:
6541:
6539:
5768:
4396:
Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering
3422:
in Sumer, it grew tremendously throughout the time of
3008:. Other remains have been found buried in common city
2861:
highly important information about historical events.
2692:
contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the
2583:
The numerous civilizations of the area influenced the
2249:
around its own axis which in turn revolved around the
9330:
6001:
5231:
5192:
5166:
5132:
tablet (YBC 7289) from the Yale Babylonian Collection
4568:
4472:
Lemche, Niels Peter (2004). "Assyria and Babylonia".
4253:
3630:, saw the production of sophisticated works like the
2260:
Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of
2054:
860:
785:
776:
140:
A modern satellite view of Mesopotamia, October 2020.
37:"The Two Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see
7225:
Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization
6998:
Symbols: Encyclopedia of Western Signs and Ideograms
5815:
The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character
4569:
Foster, Benjamin R.; Polinger Foster, Karen (2009),
4559:
4240:
4229:
3855:
holding a bow instead of a ring (9th-8th century BC)
3523:
period (2600–2350 BC), commemorating the victory of
2736:(1186–1172 BC) presents his daughter to the goddess
2241:(b. 190 BC). Seleucus is known from the writings of
1934:
Mesopotamian mathematics and science was based on a
1036:. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the
873:
847:
836:
800:
791:
6738:
The Bronze Head of the Akkadian Period from Nineveh
6536:
5982:Wayne, Alexander; William, Violet (February 2012).
5428:
2457:. These include the symptoms for many varieties of
1758:, a language of the Zagros possibly related to the
806:
797:
779:
62:A map showing the extent of Mesopotamia. Shown are
7269:, Press of J. J. Little & Co. New York, U.S.A.
7139:
7103:Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien
6444:
5812:
5410:
5256:
5217:
5178:
5085:
5052:
5019:
4668:, Approaching the past, Milton Square: Routledge,
3295:share very strong links to the ancient Sumerians.
2145:
880:"(land) between the (two) rivers") comes from the
7126:, Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire »,
6477:"Cavalli-Sforza et al. Genetic tree of West Asia"
6283:"Cavalli-Sforza et al. Genetic tree of West Asia"
5478:
5143:
5114:Photograph, illustration, and description of the
4092:was constructed in about 575 BC by order of King
2720:was influenced by Babylonian cosmological ideas.
2453:and diseases and described their symptoms in his
1739:The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was
1713:. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of
934:) to translate the Hebrew and Aramaic equivalent
9366:
3737:Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in
7124:Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux
5926:Roux, Georges, (1993) "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin).
5499:"Medicine and Doctoring in Ancient Mesopotamia"
5274:
4430:
3761:Striding lions from the Processional Street of
2798:Festival (first full moon after spring equinox)
1040:and includes Kuwait and parts of western Iran.
683:in 539 BC. The rise of empires, beginning with
7190:Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne
7174:Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005.
6979:The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient
6764:A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology
6545:
5881:
4436:
4012:Iron Age palaces and temples are found at the
1008:A further distinction is usually made between
8577:
7378:
7288: – introduction to Mesopotamia from the
7142:Mesopotamia: Writing, Reasoning, and the Gods
7026:. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137.
6011:(London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.
5796:
5782:
5055:An Introduction to the History of Mathematics
5022:An Introduction to the History of Mathematics
4615:
3666:(c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a
3250:Dogan et. al (2017) states that contemporary
3186:For much of history, Mesopotamia served as a
2671:axioms. Logic was employed to some extent in
2351:, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of
1124:Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the
1001:are also often included under the wider term
603:. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day
565:
7232:Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was
5981:
5613:. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 399.
5608:
4979:Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (28 December 2004).
4824:Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was
4657:
4415:Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was
4383:
4359:
4357:
4355:
4235:
3949:valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the
3387:", as kings had to look after their people.
3367:669–631 BC, and three royal attendants in a
3222:Genetic studies on the modern day people of
3044:, but with a more "anything goes" approach.
2948:, across its history became more and more a
2895:feature frequently in art, and some form of
1766:came to be the dominant language during the
1318:(who established the Old Babylonian state),
842:
9172:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
6962:. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press.
6105:The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History
5852:The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History
4871:
4523:
3444:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
3040:. It was comparable in some ways to modern
1089:river flowing through the region of modern
8584:
8570:
7385:
7371:
6902:
6793:
5804:
5744:
5387:
5385:
5307:Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology
5118:tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection
4686:
4684:
4600:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
4368:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
2772:The phase of the annual agricultural cycle
2512:
2340:, during the reign of the Babylonian king
938:. An even earlier Greek usage of the name
572:
558:
7693:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
6976:
6947:
6724:
6712:
6700:
6688:
6676:
6664:
6652:
6640:
6628:
6519:
6419:
6409:
6381:
6343:
6333:
6249:
6179:
6177:
5991:Journal of Business and Behavior Sciences
5673:
5671:
4774:
4762:
4714:
4621:
4591:
4589:
4573:, Princeton: Princeton University Press,
4524:Finkelstein, J.J. (1962), "Mesopotamia",
4352:
3491:phase, walled cities grew. Many isolated
2902:They also played a board game similar to
2605:can be traced back to early Mesopotamian
1898:
7517:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire
7234:. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
6995:
6883:
6595:
6469:
6054:"The Relations of History and Geography"
6014:
5756:
5730:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5680:"Axioms and Babylonian thought: A reply"
5660:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5350:Journal of the American Oriental Society
5156:both sides by like quantities to remove
4663:
3471:
3451:
3351:
3085:
3019:
2921:
2868:
2815:
2727:
2660:Babylonian thought was also based on an
2522:
2449:Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of
2295:
1913:
1854:
1692:
1387:
1352:
1195:
1096:
1080:
8591:
7137:
7014:
6933:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
6830:, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 266–280,
6501:
6442:
6382:Al-Zahery; et al. (October 2011).
6275:
6029:. Archaeological Institute of America.
5935:
5636:Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia
5633:
5569:
5382:
5377:
4847:"Ancient History in depth: Mesopotamia"
4821:
4695:, London: Routledge, pp. 159–174,
4690:
4681:
4474:Historical dictionary of ancient Israel
4412:
4291:
3614:, from the 4th millennium BC until the
2784:The local mythos and its divine Patrons
2740:. The crescent moon represents the god
1754:were also spoken in early Mesopotamia.
1688:
1326:(who established the Assyrian Empire).
1314:(who established the Akkadian Empire),
1104:at night, southern Iraq. A reed house (
1028:. Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the
726:. It became a battleground between the
14:
9367:
7040:
6903:Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).
6825:
6607:
6451:. Twenty-First Century Books. p.
6447:Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict
6377:
6375:
6174:
5984:"Trade and Traders of Mesopotamian Ur"
5810:
5668:
5371:
5083:
5059:. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p.
5026:. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p.
4978:
4958:Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture
4602:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
4595:
4586:
4471:
4370:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
3313:History of institutions in Mesopotamia
2489:According to a recent hypothesis, the
699:in the south. From 900 to 612 BC, the
8565:
8252:
8144:
7966:
7841:
7414:
7366:
6923:
6781:from the original on 21 November 2021
6760:
6754:
6051:
6033:from the original on 27 December 2012
5539:
5496:
5299:
5149:
4950:
4803:from the original on 13 December 2010
4437:Milton-Edwards, Beverley (May 2003).
3741:in 1931, presumably depicting either
2686:. In particular, the Babylonian text
8546:
8488:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)
7053:
6886:A Companion to the Ancient Near East
6828:A Companion to the Ancient Near East
6020:
5533:
5484:
5416:
5364:William P.D. Wightman (1951, 1953),
5050:
5017:
4789:
4496:
4263:
3531:over the neighbouring rival city of
2976:and, if they had good reason, get a
2015:–1600 BC) gives an approximation of
870:
8536:
7000:. Lidingö, Sweden: HME Publishing.
6502:Tubiana, Joseph (22 October 2012).
6372:
5684:Journal of Post Keynesian Economics
5677:
5542:"Open media to connect communities"
5431:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
5160:or to eliminate factors. By adding
4914:
4250:
4236:
4226:
3973:remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of
3456:A relief showing a campaign in the
3418:Although Babylon was quite a small
3110:of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian
2787:The success of the reigning Monarch
1629:Mesopotamia (4th to 3rd century BC)
1192:Chronology of the ancient Near East
1043:In modern academic usage, the term
857:
843:
833:
24:
7077:
6861:from the original on 10 April 2021
6266:
6122:from the original on 11 April 2021
6068:from the original on 11 April 2021
6007:Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul,
5959:from the original on 10 April 2021
5908:from the original on 14 April 2021
5894:. University of California Press.
5869:from the original on 14 April 2021
5710:from the original on 3 August 2020
4935:from the original on 14 April 2021
4921:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 23.
4624:Journal of Archaeological Research
4340:from the original on 30 April 2022
3356:A 7th-century BC relief depicting
3208:sea route between India and Europe
2887:was popular among Assyrian kings.
2407:with its diagnosis and prognosis.
1641:(2nd century BC to 3rd century AD)
1635:(3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)
923:. It is used throughout the Greek
25:
9431:
7273:
7241:. Routledge: London and New York.
6483:from the original on 14 June 2011
6289:from the original on 14 June 2011
5771:Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia
5609:Hetherington, Norriss S. (2014).
5283:from the original on 8 March 2011
4853:from the original on 28 June 2017
4465:
4044:/Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis,
3206:'s pioneering (1497–1499) of the
2032:, which is accurate to about six
711:. The area was next conquered by
9352:
9340:
9310:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
8801:
8545:
8535:
8525:
8516:
8515:
7821:2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis
7395:
6807:from the original on 1 June 2014
6359:
6009:The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
5552:from the original on 17 May 2019
5092:. New York: Dover Publications.
5088:A Concise History of Mathematics
4999:from the original on 22 May 2020
4166:
4151:
4135:
4120:
4105:
4081:
3879:
3869:Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
3860:
3840:
3820:
3805:
3793:
3770:
3754:
3730:
3711:Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III
3678:and a bull's head on one of the
3606:The art of Mesopotamia rivalled
3214:in 1869 impacted on this nexus.
3114:include the control of water by
2708:, as well as a precursor to the
2426:to cleanse the patient from any
2320:period in the first half of the
1348:
772:
541:
171:
133:
55:
8300:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
7723:1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq
7713:1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes
7452:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
7092:. University of Chicago Press.
6843:
6819:
6767:. Routledge. pp. 109–110.
6730:
6613:
6571:
6553:
6495:
6436:
6301:
6137:
6084:
6064:. Boston: Littell and Co.: 70.
6045:
5975:
5929:
5920:
5833:
5799:Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia
5790:
5785:Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia
5776:
5769:Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (1998),
5762:
5722:
5652:
5627:
5602:
5590:from the original on 1 May 2022
5563:
5513:
5503:Grand Valley Journal of History
5490:
5453:
5422:
5358:
5339:
5331:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
5320:
5268:
5106:
5077:
5044:
5011:
4972:
4908:
4865:
4839:
4815:
4780:
4743:
4708:
4526:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
3899:
3362:
2312:The oldest Babylonian texts on
1380:in central Mesopotamia and the
205:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
9415:Historical regions of Anatolia
8867:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
8862:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
7583:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
7138:Bottéro, Jean (15 June 1995).
6751:Vol. 3, No. 1 (1936), 104-110.
5819:. The Univ. of Chicago Press.
5696:10.1080/01603477.2005.11051453
5540:Twist, Jo (20 November 2005),
5439:Johns Hopkins University Press
5366:The Growth of Scientific Ideas
5245:
5232:
5206:
5193:
4517:
4490:
4406:
4285:
4197:
3340:List of Mesopotamian dynasties
3126:before planting crops such as
3047:
2927:The Babylonian marriage market
2917:
2434:was based on a logical set of
2237:model of planetary motion was
1903:
1760:Hurro-Urartuan language family
599:, in the northern part of the
27:Historical region of West Asia
13:
1:
9249:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
8646:Tigris–Euphrates river system
7842:
7237:Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992.
6147:Islamic Heritage Architecture
5678:Dow, Sheila C. (April 2005).
5497:Teall, Emily (October 2014).
5368:, Yale University Press p.38.
4985:. A&C Black. p. 75.
4571:Civilizations of ancient Iraq
4185:
3993:, Late Bronze Age palaces at
3586:
3306:
2874:
2829:
2601:believes that the origins of
2578:
2541:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
2519:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
2468:
2399:and often detailed empirical
2009:
1840:
1563:
1546:
1522:
1362:
1298:, the Akkadian kingdoms, the
1250:was invented, along with the
1225: late 4th millennium BC
1221:
928:
744:Muslim conquest of the Levant
673:
597:Tigris–Euphrates river system
9390:Geography of the Middle East
8079:in ISIL-controlled territory
7967:
6909:. The British Museum Press.
6335:10.1371/journal.pone.0187408
5811:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963).
4874:Journal of Cuneiform Studies
4278:
4268:
3713:a large and solid late one.
3170:Mesopotamian trade with the
3061:In the early period down to
3024:Mining areas of the ancient
2929:by the 19th-century painter
2756:
2172:
2135:
1070:
973:
904:
892:
874:
761:
634:, the planting of the first
32:Mesopotamia (disambiguation)
7:
9315:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
9197:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
9192:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
8253:
8145:
7990:Council of Representatives
7728:Weapons of mass destruction
7415:
7263:Williams, Henry Smith (Ed.)
7043:Biblical Archaeology Review
6960:The Cambridge World History
6888:. Oxford University Press.
6521:10.15460/aethiopica.7.1.294
5112:Fowler and Robson, p. 368.
4729:10.1080/1350748032000140796
4497:Hogg, Hope Waddell (1911).
4254:
4241:
4230:
3906:Architecture of Mesopotamia
3217:
3181:Egypt–Mesopotamia relations
2291:
1659:(2nd to 7th centuries AD),
1244:four riverine civilizations
861:
848:
837:
10:
9436:
9400:Historical regions of Iraq
9395:Historical regions of Iran
9320:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
7718:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
7160:Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004.
6996:Liungman, Carl G. (2004).
6877:
6855:World History Encyclopedia
6242:10.1038/s41598-020-72283-1
6023:"Earliest Egyptian Glyphs"
4717:European Review of History
4215:
3903:
3599:
3558:
3441:
3437:
3337:
3310:
3106:became very important for
3054:Agriculture in Mesopotamia
3051:
3034:system of loans and credit
3015:
2983:
2809:
2723:
2563:, which refers to the god
2516:
2495:Hanging Gardens of Babylon
2375:introduced the methods of
2176:
1981:
1977:
1907:
1844:
1728:
1408:downstream. The states of
1396:with its two major cities
1242:The region was one of the
1188:History of the Middle East
1181:
1171:
1167:
1074:
898:
886:
825:
520:Ba'athist rule (1968–2003)
515:Republic of Iraq (1958–68)
36:
29:
9287:
9241:
9215:
9119:
9016:
8909:
8817:
8810:
8799:
8681:
8608:
8599:
8511:
8410:
8265:
8261:
8248:
8153:
8140:
7975:
7962:
7850:
7837:
7658:
7575:
7427:
7423:
7410:
7223:Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964.
7178:München 2005 (4. Aufl.),
7024:The Legacy of Mesopotamia
6977:Frankfort, Henri (1970).
6761:Leick, Gwendolyn (2002).
6443:Spencer, William (2000).
5634:Bertman, Stephen (2005).
5257:{\displaystyle (a+b)^{2}}
5218:{\displaystyle (a-b)^{2}}
4799:. BBC. 10 November 2010.
4753:WIT Press, 2008, pp 15–26
4292:Seymour, Michael (2004).
4112:The walls of Babylon, in
3561:Mesopotamian marriage law
3288:events in the Near East.
3172:Indus Valley civilisation
2748:and the star the goddess
2667:which is compatible with
1575:(12th to 11th century BC)
1539:(16th to 11th century BC)
1515:(18th to 17th century BC)
1509:(19th to 18th century BC)
1260:Indus Valley civilization
1220:, in the Uruk IV period (
1178:Prehistory of Mesopotamia
945:The Anabasis of Alexander
736:Muslim conquest of Persia
641:, and the development of
8069:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
7980:Administrative divisions
7322:15 February 2005 at the
7316:Mesopotamian Archaeology
7188:Joannès, Francis; 2001.
6930:A History of Mathematics
6610:, pp. 57–69, 76–77.
6411:10.1186/1471-2148-11-288
6389:BMC Evolutionary Biology
5747:, pp. 156, 169–170.
5275:Joyce, David E. (1995).
5084:Struik, Dirk J. (1987).
4664:Matthews, Roger (2003),
4604:, Leiden: Brill Online,
4372:, Leiden: Brill Online,
4190:
3829:The Monuments of Nineveh
3642:is an outstanding small
3390:
3344:List of kings of Babylon
3333:
3165:
3042:post-Keynesian economics
2864:
2805:
2533:First Babylonian dynasty
2347:Along with contemporary
1723:First Dynasty of Babylon
1594:(10th to 7th century BC)
1588:(11th to 7th century BC)
1573:Late Bronze Age collapse
1513:First Babylonian dynasty
1204:, a ruler around 2090 BC
1077:Geography of Mesopotamia
7628:Mandate for Mesopotamia
7502:First Babylonian Empire
7209:Matthews, Roger; 2005.
6546:Robert Dalling (2004),
4822:Pollock, Susan (1999),
4636:10.1023/A:1009487620969
4510:Encyclopædia Britannica
4413:Pollock, Susan (1999),
3554:
3480:, Dhi Qar Governorate,
3210:and the opening of the
2996:habits. In the city of
2513:Religion and philosophy
1750:. Along with Sumerian,
1676:(3rd to 7th century AD)
1653:(1st to 2nd century AD)
1647:(1st to 2nd century AD)
1623:(6th to 4th century BC)
1600:(7th to 6th century BC)
1431:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
1425:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A
290:First Babylonian Empire
9152:Babylonian mathematics
7787:Insurgency (2011–2013)
7708:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
7512:Middle Assyrian Empire
7251:Silver, Morris; 2007.
7195:Korn, Wolfgang; 2004.
6715:, pp. 66–74, 167.
5942:The Indus Civilization
5797:Rivkah Harris (2000),
5783:Rivkah Harris (2000),
5745:Black & Green 1992
5570:Lambert, W.G. (2016).
5525:Technology and Culture
5258:
5219:
5180:
4915:Guo, Rongxing (2017).
4207:
3595:
3484:
3469:
3372:
3348:List of Assyrian kings
3091:
3029:
2933:
2881:
2839:
2753:
2684:Hellenistic philosophy
2536:
2309:
2147:
1931:
1910:Babylonian mathematics
1899:Science and technology
1868:
1726:
1543:Middle Assyrian period
1421:Pre- and protohistory
1417:
1385:
1376:in the northwest, the
1357:After early starts in
1208:The prehistory of the
1205:
1174:History of Mesopotamia
1121:
1108:) and a narrow canoe (
1094:
300:Middle Assyrian Empire
126:, from north to south.
8074:in post-invasion Iraq
7780:U.S. troop withdrawal
7542:Neo-Babylonian Empire
7244:Roux, Georges; 1964.
7230:Pollock, Susan; 1999.
7056:Epilepsy in Babylonia
7054:Stol, Marten (1993).
6743:21 April 2020 at the
6096:Crossley, Pamela Kyle
6052:Bryce, James (1886).
5519:Stephanie Dalley and
5309:, Styx Publications,
5259:
5220:
5181:
5051:Eves, Howard (1969).
5018:Eves, Howard (1969).
4966:29 April 2013 at the
3943:Early Dynastic period
3851:relief of Ashur as a
3745:or Sargon's grandson
3707:Stele of the Vultures
3608:that of Ancient Egypt
3517:Stele of the Vultures
3475:
3455:
3355:
3338:Further information:
3301:Neo-Babylonian Empire
3089:
3023:
2925:
2872:
2819:
2731:
2704:, and the dialogs of
2689:Dialogue of Pessimism
2526:
2299:
2212:philosophy of science
2148:
1917:
1858:
1696:
1598:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1484:Early Dynastic period
1391:
1356:
1199:
1182:Further information:
1100:
1093:in Upper Mesopotamia.
1084:
766:The regional toponym
425:Atabegs of Azerbaijan
395:Buyid amirate of Iraq
310:Neo-Babylonian Empire
9147:Babylonian astronomy
8626:Mesopotamian Marshes
8023:Council of Ministers
7905:Mesopotamian Marshes
7333:"layered PDF format"
6736:M. E. L. Mallowan, "
6058:Littell's Living Age
5855:. Cengage Learning.
5229:
5190:
5164:
5137:12 July 2020 at the
4443:History & Policy
4298:Current Anthropology
4237:بَيْنُ ٱلْنَهْرَيْن
4227:بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن
3853:feather robed archer
3686:apparently not. The
3624:Protoliterate period
3575:Code of Lipit-Ishtar
3487:With the end of the
3478:Royal Cemetery at Ur
3464:during the reign of
3458:Mesopotamian Marshes
3286:Last Glacial Maximum
2910:, now known as the "
2826:Royal Cemetery at Ur
2812:Music of Mesopotamia
2673:Babylonian astronomy
2430:. Esagil-kin-apli's
2361:physical examination
2332:, or chief scholar,
2239:Seleucus of Seleucia
2228:history of astronomy
2179:Babylonian astronomy
2159:linear interpolation
2052:
1926:Iraq. 2003–1595 BC.
1721:, sixth king of the
1705:legal text composed
1689:Language and writing
1682:(mid-7th century AD)
1617:Achaemenid Babylonia
1329:Scientists analysed
1102:Mesopotamian Marshes
834:بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن
628:Neolithic Revolution
595:situated within the
525:Occupation (2003–11)
30:For other uses, see
9405:Geography of Kuwait
9380:Ancient Mesopotamia
9228:Destruction by ISIL
9182:Sumerian literature
9157:Akkadian literature
8593:Ancient Mesopotamia
8285:Mesopotamian Arabic
8091:Freedom of religion
7537:Neo-Assyrian Empire
7507:Old Assyrian Period
7492:Neo-Sumerian Empire
7280:Ancient Mesopotamia
6727:, pp. 141–193.
6679:, pp. 110–112.
6402:2011BMCEE..11..288A
6326:2017PLoSO..1287408D
6234:2020NatSR..1015289L
6197:on 27 December 2010
6100:Headrick, Daniel R.
5179:{\displaystyle 4ab}
4500:"Mesopotamia"
3951:Third Dynasty of Ur
3833:Austen Henry Layard
2950:patriarchal society
2585:Abrahamic religions
2455:Diagnostic Handbook
2432:Diagnostic Handbook
2373:Diagnostic Handbook
2326:Diagnostic Handbook
2167:Pythagorean triples
2163:Plimpton 322 tablet
1974:representing time.
1851:Sumerian literature
1847:Akkadian literature
1787:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1606:Classical antiquity
1592:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1586:Syro-Hittite states
1567: 1595–1155 BC
1550: 1365–1076 BC
1537:Old Assyrian period
1496:Third Dynasty of Ur
1300:Third Dynasty of Ur
1264:Indian subcontinent
993:. The neighbouring
974:biritum/birit narim
950:Alexander the Great
828:' between rivers';
713:Alexander the Great
701:Neo-Assyrian Empire
468:Early modern period
305:Neo-Assyrian Empire
270:Neo-Sumerian Empire
9410:Geography of Syria
9264:Mesopotamian myths
8216:Telecommunications
8191:Foreign Investment
8128:Wars and conflicts
8064:in pre-Saddam Iraq
8028:Presidency Council
7814:2019–2021 protests
7743:Invasion of Kuwait
7567:Sassanid Asorestan
7562:Parthian Babylonia
7557:Seleucid Babylonia
7552:Achaemenid Assyria
7467:Jemdet Nasr period
6021:Mitchell, Larkin.
5735:(1), pp. 35–47 43.
5327:Otto E. Neugebauer
5254:
5225:they could obtain
5215:
5176:
5123:2012-08-13 at the
4453:on 8 December 2010
3602:Art of Mesopotamia
3521:Early Dynastic III
3519:at the end of the
3485:
3470:
3379:, but, unlike the
3373:
3092:
3030:
2934:
2882:
2840:
2754:
2613:, in the forms of
2599:Giorgio Buccellati
2537:
2310:
2143:
1932:
1869:
1727:
1633:Parthian Babylonia
1621:Achaemenid Assyria
1503:Middle Bronze Age
1473:Jemdet Nasr period
1418:
1386:
1372:in the north, the
1302:, and the various
1206:
1134:Armenian highlands
1122:
1095:
1051:, with names like
844:بَيْن ٱلنَّهْرَيْن
440:Jalairid Sultanate
375:Rashidun Caliphate
350:Sasanian Asorestan
340:Parthian Babylonia
335:Seleucid Babylonia
330:Achaemenid Assyria
225:Jemdet Nasr Period
9328:
9327:
9279:Ziggurat (Temple)
9254:Sumerian religion
9012:
9011:
8959:Middle Babylonian
8901:Kish civilization
8797:
8796:
8621:Lower Mesopotamia
8616:Upper Mesopotamia
8559:
8558:
8507:
8506:
8503:
8502:
8493:Mandaean New Year
8244:
8243:
8136:
8135:
8118:Political parties
8013:Foreign relations
7958:
7957:
7865:Lower Mesopotamia
7860:Upper Mesopotamia
7833:
7832:
7829:
7828:
7593:Abbasid Caliphate
7588:Umayyad Caliphate
7497:Isin-Larsa period
7345:on 7 October 2005
7213:, Turnhout 2005,
7192:, Robert Laffont.
7084:Algaze, Guillermo
7033:978-0-19-814946-0
7020:Dalley, Stephanie
7007:978-91-972705-0-2
6969:978-0-521-19008-4
6940:978-0-471-54397-8
6916:978-0-7141-1705-8
6837:978-0-631-23293-3
6774:978-1-134-64102-4
6703:, pp. 71–73.
6691:, pp. 66–74.
6655:, pp. 61–66.
6643:, pp. 45–59.
6631:, pp. 24–37.
6598:, pp. 57–58.
6462:978-0-7613-1356-4
5937:Wheeler, Mortimer
5901:978-0-520-20222-1
5862:978-0-538-74438-6
5826:978-0-226-45238-8
5645:978-0-19-518364-1
5521:John Peter Oleson
5355:(3), p. 166–173 .
5305:D. Brown (2000),
5099:978-0-486-60255-4
4960:: 91–120 Chicago
4833:978-0-521-57568-3
4702:978-0-415-19655-0
4675:978-0-415-25317-8
4580:978-0-691-13722-3
4483:978-0-8108-4848-1
4424:978-0-521-57568-3
4231:Bilād ar-Rāfidayn
4094:Nebuchadnezzar II
3583:Code of Hammurabi
3549:Nebuchadnezzar II
3547:was destroyed by
3509:Early Dynastic II
3428:Code of Hammurabi
3381:ancient Egyptians
3200:Volga trade route
2972:. They could own
2820:The Queen's gold
2653:developed beyond
2587:, especially the
2491:Archimedes' screw
2349:Egyptian medicine
2322:2nd millennium BC
2316:date back to the
2138:
2122:
2109:
2089:
2069:
1958:were fixed at 3.
1948:Sumerian calendar
1885:Epic of Gilgamesh
1861:Epic of Gilgamesh
1791:Achaemenid Empire
1752:Semitic languages
1735:Sumerian language
1731:Akkadian language
1717:, purportedly by
1711:ancient Near East
1699:Code of Hammurabi
1657:Roman Mesopotamia
1507:Isin-Larsa period
1480:Early Bronze Age
1324:Tiglath-Pileser I
1229:Achaemenid Empire
1214:Lower Paleolithic
1210:Ancient Near East
1162:carrying capacity
1025:Lower Mesopotamia
1015:Upper Mesopotamia
989:and southeastern
838:Bilād ar-Rāfidayn
732:Sassanid Persians
709:Achaemenid Empire
695:in the north and
589:historical region
582:
581:
385:Abbasid Caliphate
380:Umayyad Caliphate
345:Roman Mesopotamia
275:Isin-Larsa period
16:(Redirected from
9427:
9357:
9356:
9355:
9345:
9344:
9336:
9177:Sumerian cuisine
9167:Warfare in Sumer
9162:Economy of Sumer
8815:
8814:
8805:
8689:Fertile Crescent
8673:Sinjar Mountains
8668:Hamrin Mountains
8663:Zagros Mountains
8641:Taurus Mountains
8606:
8605:
8586:
8579:
8572:
8563:
8562:
8549:
8548:
8539:
8538:
8529:
8519:
8518:
8263:
8262:
8250:
8249:
8181:
8142:
8141:
7993:
7964:
7963:
7950:Sinjar Mountains
7940:Zagros Mountains
7880:Hamrin Mountains
7839:
7838:
7802:Mosul liberation
7775:Iraqi insurgency
7697:National Command
7686:
7522:Simurrum culture
7425:
7424:
7412:
7411:
7401:
7400:
7399:
7387:
7380:
7373:
7364:
7363:
7358:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7344:
7338:. Archived from
7337:
7248:, Penguin Books.
7157:
7145:
7122:
7105:, Brepols, 1996
7073:
7060:Brill Publishers
7050:
7037:
7011:
6992:
6973:
6944:
6920:
6899:
6871:
6870:
6868:
6866:
6847:
6841:
6840:
6823:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6812:
6797:
6791:
6790:
6788:
6786:
6758:
6752:
6734:
6728:
6722:
6716:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6692:
6686:
6680:
6674:
6668:
6662:
6656:
6650:
6644:
6638:
6632:
6626:
6620:
6617:
6611:
6605:
6599:
6593:
6587:
6575:
6569:
6557:
6551:
6550:
6543:
6534:
6533:
6523:
6499:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6488:
6473:
6467:
6466:
6450:
6440:
6434:
6433:
6423:
6413:
6379:
6370:
6363:
6357:
6347:
6337:
6320:(11): e0187408.
6305:
6299:
6298:
6296:
6294:
6279:
6273:
6270:
6264:
6263:
6253:
6213:
6207:
6206:
6204:
6202:
6196:
6190:. Archived from
6189:
6181:
6172:
6171:
6166:
6164:
6141:
6135:
6134:
6129:
6127:
6092:Bulliet, Richard
6088:
6082:
6081:
6075:
6073:
6049:
6043:
6042:
6040:
6038:
6018:
6012:
6005:
5999:
5998:
5988:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5966:
5964:
5933:
5927:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5885:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5846:
5840:
5837:
5831:
5830:
5818:
5808:
5802:
5801:
5794:
5788:
5787:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5726:
5720:
5719:
5717:
5715:
5675:
5666:
5656:
5650:
5649:
5631:
5625:
5624:
5606:
5600:
5599:
5597:
5595:
5567:
5561:
5560:
5559:
5557:
5537:
5531:
5517:
5511:
5510:
5494:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5465:Brill Publishers
5457:
5451:
5450:
5426:
5420:
5414:
5408:
5397:Brill Publishers
5389:
5380:
5375:
5369:
5362:
5356:
5343:
5337:
5324:
5318:
5303:
5297:
5296:
5290:
5288:
5272:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5253:
5252:
5224:
5222:
5221:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5185:
5183:
5182:
5177:
5147:
5141:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5091:
5081:
5075:
5074:
5058:
5048:
5042:
5041:
5025:
5015:
5009:
5008:
5006:
5004:
4976:
4970:
4954:
4948:
4947:
4942:
4940:
4912:
4906:
4905:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4843:
4837:
4836:
4819:
4813:
4812:
4810:
4808:
4793:
4787:
4784:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4747:
4741:
4740:
4712:
4706:
4705:
4688:
4679:
4678:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4619:
4613:
4612:
4593:
4584:
4583:
4566:
4557:
4556:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4502:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4469:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4449:. Archived from
4434:
4428:
4427:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4361:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4345:
4289:
4272:
4271:
4265:
4260:Classical Syriac
4257:
4252:
4244:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4217:
4201:
4170:
4155:
4142:The ziggurat of
4139:
4124:
4109:
4085:
3883:
3864:
3844:
3824:
3809:
3797:
3774:
3758:
3734:
3703:votive offerings
3669:Ram in a Thicket
3591:
3588:
3504:about 2500 BC.
3448:Warfare in Sumer
3366:
3364:
3096:Fertile Crescent
2912:Royal Game of Ur
2879:
2876:
2834:
2831:
2567:and the goddess
2535:, around 1800 BC
2344:(1069–1046 BC).
2342:Adad-apla-iddina
2286:Western European
2278:medieval Islamic
2266:classical Indian
2152:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2131:
2123:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2075:
2070:
2062:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2031:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2011:
1988:Square root of 2
1972:
1957:
1889:Sîn-lēqi-unninni
1799:Imperial Aramaic
1748:language isolate
1708:
1663:(2nd century AD)
1613:(6th century BC)
1568:
1565:
1551:
1548:
1533:Late Bronze Age
1527:
1524:
1427:(10,000–8700 BC)
1367:
1364:
1226:
1223:
1202:Statues of Gudea
1150:Zagros Mountains
1049:Muslim conquests
999:Zagros Mountains
976:
942:is evident from
933:
930:
907:
901:
900:
896:, 'middle') and
895:
889:
888:
879:
872:
864:
859:
851:
846:
845:
840:
835:
827:
819:
818:
815:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
784:
781:
778:
678:
675:
670:recorded history
601:Fertile Crescent
574:
567:
560:
546:
545:
544:
370:Islamic conquest
175:
165:
147:
146:
137:
59:
21:
9435:
9434:
9430:
9429:
9428:
9426:
9425:
9424:
9420:Regions of Asia
9365:
9364:
9363:
9353:
9351:
9339:
9331:
9329:
9324:
9283:
9237:
9211:
9120:Culture/society
9115:
9008:
9004:Muslim conquest
8974:Fall of Babylon
8905:
8806:
8793:
8677:
8595:
8590:
8560:
8555:
8499:
8483:Public holidays
8406:
8257:
8240:
8179:
8149:
8132:
7991:
7971:
7954:
7885:Iraqi Kurdistan
7875:Euphrates river
7846:
7825:
7792:War (2014–2017)
7738:Operation Opera
7684:
7654:
7650:Arab Federation
7638:Kingdom of Iraq
7571:
7547:Fall of Babylon
7482:Akkadian Empire
7457:Samarra culture
7442:Hassuna culture
7419:
7406:
7394:
7393:
7391:
7356:
7348:
7346:
7342:
7335:
7331:
7324:Wayback Machine
7299:, by Sir E. A.
7276:
7257:Antiguo Oriente
7154:
7120:
7080:
7078:Further reading
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7034:
7008:
6989:
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6707:
6699:
6695:
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6683:
6675:
6671:
6667:, Chapters 2–5.
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5669:
5665:(1), pp. 35–47.
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4849:. BBC History.
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4242:Bayn ul-Nahrayn
4202:
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3640:Guennol Lioness
3626:, dominated by
3604:
3598:
3589:
3563:
3557:
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3440:
3393:
3361:
3350:
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3315:
3309:
3241:Iraqi-Assyrians
3220:
3168:
3056:
3050:
3018:
2986:
2920:
2877:
2867:
2832:
2814:
2808:
2759:
2726:
2710:Socratic method
2593:Book of Genesis
2581:
2555:. Although the
2521:
2515:
2507:Baghdad Battery
2471:
2383:and the use of
2334:Esagil-kin-apli
2328:written by the
2294:
2253:. According to
2181:
2175:
2156:
2130:
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2103:
2099:
2094:
2083:
2079:
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2061:
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2037:
2029:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2012:
1999:
1990:
1982:Main articles:
1980:
1970:
1965:of a cone or a
1955:
1912:
1906:
1901:
1853:
1845:Main articles:
1843:
1793:: the official
1789:, and then the
1768:Akkadian Empire
1737:
1729:Main articles:
1706:
1691:
1680:Muslim conquest
1611:Fall of Babylon
1566:
1549:
1525:
1519:Minoan eruption
1492:(~2350–2100 BC)
1490:Akkadian Empire
1486:(~2900–2350 BC)
1475:(~3100–2900 BC)
1469:(~4000–3100 BC)
1463:(~6500–4000 BC)
1457:(~6000–5300 BC)
1451:(~5700–4900 BC)
1404:wedged between
1378:Samarra culture
1370:Hassuna culture
1365:
1351:
1320:Ashur-uballit I
1312:Sargon of Akkad
1224:
1218:Proto-cuneiform
1194:
1184:History of Iraq
1180:
1172:Main articles:
1170:
1079:
1073:
931:
849:Bayn an-Nahrayn
775:
771:
764:
740:Sasanian Empire
724:Parthian Empire
717:Seleucid Empire
689:Akkadian Empire
685:Sargon of Akkad
681:fall of Babylon
676:
578:
548:Iraq portal
542:
540:
535:
534:
510:Kingdom of Iraq
500:
490:
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470:
460:
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365:
355:
354:
325:
315:
314:
260:Akkadian Empire
240:
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210:Samarra culture
195:Hassuna culture
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60:
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35:
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11:
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9300:Assyriologists
9297:
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9207:List of rulers
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9108:
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9093:
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9081:Middle Persian
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8969:Neo-Babylonian
8966:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8949:Old Babylonian
8946:
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8936:
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8919:Early Dynastic
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8221:Transportation
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8208:
8206:Reconstruction
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8198:
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8186:Infrastructure
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8071:
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8056:
8055:
8054:
8053:
8052:
8045:Prime Minister
8042:
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8015:
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8000:
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7753:1991 uprisings
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7703:Saddam Hussein
7700:
7689:
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7662:
7656:
7655:
7653:
7652:
7647:
7646:
7645:
7635:
7633:Mandatory Iraq
7630:
7625:
7622:Mamluk dynasty
7615:
7610:
7605:
7600:
7595:
7590:
7585:
7579:
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7509:
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7494:
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7487:Gutian dynasty
7484:
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7459:
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7444:
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7431:
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7390:
7389:
7382:
7375:
7367:
7361:
7360:
7357:(12.8 MB)
7312:
7292:
7290:British Museum
7283:
7275:
7274:External links
7272:
7271:
7270:
7260:
7249:
7242:
7235:
7228:
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7207:
7193:
7186:
7172:
7158:
7153:978-0226067278
7152:
7135:
7114:
7100:
7079:
7076:
7075:
7074:
7068:
7051:
7038:
7032:
7016:Pingree, David
7012:
7006:
6993:
6987:
6974:
6968:
6950:Yoffee, Norman
6945:
6939:
6925:Boyer, Carl B.
6921:
6915:
6900:
6895:978-1405160018
6894:
6879:
6876:
6873:
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6842:
6836:
6818:
6792:
6773:
6753:
6729:
6725:Frankfort 1970
6717:
6713:Frankfort 1970
6705:
6701:Frankfort 1970
6693:
6689:Frankfort 1970
6681:
6677:Frankfort 1970
6669:
6665:Frankfort 1970
6657:
6653:Frankfort 1970
6645:
6641:Frankfort 1970
6633:
6629:Frankfort 1970
6621:
6612:
6600:
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6535:
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6013:
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5951:
5928:
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5900:
5880:
5861:
5841:
5832:
5825:
5803:
5789:
5775:
5761:
5759:, p. 228.
5749:
5737:
5721:
5690:(3): 385–391.
5667:
5651:
5644:
5626:
5619:
5601:
5583:978-3161536748
5582:
5562:
5532:
5512:
5489:
5477:
5452:
5421:
5409:
5381:
5378:Pingree (1998)
5370:
5357:
5338:
5319:
5298:
5277:"Plimpton 322"
5267:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5240:
5237:
5234:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5201:
5198:
5195:
5175:
5172:
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5142:
5105:
5098:
5076:
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5043:
5036:
5010:
4991:
4971:
4949:
4927:
4907:
4864:
4838:
4832:
4814:
4788:
4779:
4777:, p. 256.
4775:Emberling 2015
4767:
4765:, p. 255.
4763:Emberling 2015
4755:
4742:
4723:(2): 253–272.
4707:
4701:
4680:
4674:
4656:
4630:(3): 219–267,
4614:
4598:Bosworth, C.E.
4585:
4579:
4558:
4538:10.1086/371676
4516:
4505:Chisholm, Hugh
4489:
4482:
4464:
4447:United Kingdom
4429:
4423:
4405:
4382:
4366:Bosworth, C.E.
4351:
4326:10.1086/383004
4310:10.1086/383004
4304:(3): 351–368.
4283:
4282:
4280:
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4274:
4273:
4195:
4194:
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4189:
4187:
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4183:
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4165:
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4157:
4150:
4148:
4144:Dur-kuriagalzu
4141:
4134:
4132:
4129:Ziggurat of Ur
4126:
4119:
4117:
4111:
4104:
4102:
4087:
4080:
3965:(Sanctuary of
3957:(Sanctuary of
3912:archaeological
3904:Main article:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3885:
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3799:
3792:
3790:
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3769:
3767:
3760:
3753:
3751:
3736:
3729:
3719:British Museum
3636:cylinder seals
3600:Main article:
3597:
3594:
3590: 1780 BC
3556:
3553:
3439:
3436:
3392:
3389:
3335:
3332:
3311:Main article:
3308:
3305:
3219:
3216:
3167:
3164:
3122:to soften the
3052:Main article:
3049:
3046:
3017:
3014:
2985:
2982:
2919:
2916:
2866:
2863:
2833: 2500 BC
2810:Main article:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2773:
2770:
2758:
2755:
2744:, the sun the
2725:
2722:
2675:and medicine.
2580:
2577:
2517:Main article:
2514:
2511:
2470:
2467:
2318:Old Babylonian
2293:
2290:
2177:Main article:
2174:
2171:
2154:
2153:
2142:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2126:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2065:
2060:
2057:
1979:
1976:
1967:square pyramid
1940:numeral system
1908:Main article:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1842:
1839:
1779:Neo-Babylonian
1690:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1683:
1677:
1669:Late Antiquity
1666:
1665:
1664:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1614:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1553:
1540:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1526: 1620 BC
1516:
1510:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1498:(2112–2004 BC)
1493:
1487:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1455:Halaf cultures
1452:
1446:
1440:
1439:(7500–5000 BC)
1434:
1433:(8700–6800 BC)
1428:
1366: 7500 BC
1350:
1347:
1310:(king of Ur),
1212:begins in the
1169:
1166:
1075:Main article:
1072:
1069:
763:
760:
677: 3100 BC
580:
579:
577:
576:
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562:
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551:
550:
537:
536:
533:
532:
530:Recent history
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
505:Mandatory Iraq
501:
496:
495:
492:
491:
488:
487:
485:Mamluk dynasty
482:
477:
471:
466:
465:
462:
461:
458:
457:
452:
447:
445:Timurid Empire
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
372:
366:
361:
360:
357:
356:
353:
352:
347:
342:
337:
332:
326:
321:
320:
317:
316:
313:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
265:Gutian Dynasty
262:
257:
252:
247:
241:
236:
235:
232:
231:
228:
227:
222:
217:
207:
202:
197:
192:
186:
181:
180:
177:
176:
168:
167:
158:
157:
150:
139:
132:
131:
130:
120:Charax Spasinu
61:
54:
53:
52:
48:
47:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9432:
9421:
9418:
9416:
9413:
9411:
9408:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9393:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9385:Ancient Syria
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9372:
9370:
9360:
9350:
9348:
9343:
9338:
9337:
9334:
9321:
9318:
9316:
9313:
9311:
9308:
9306:
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9292:
9290:
9286:
9280:
9277:
9275:
9272:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9260:
9257:
9255:
9252:
9250:
9247:
9246:
9244:
9240:
9234:
9231:
9229:
9226:
9224:
9221:
9220:
9218:
9214:
9208:
9205:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9178:
9175:
9173:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9158:
9155:
9153:
9150:
9148:
9145:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9133:
9130:
9128:
9125:
9124:
9122:
9118:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9089:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9052:
9049:
9047:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9023:
9021:
9019:
9015:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8985:
8982:
8980:
8977:
8975:
8972:
8970:
8967:
8965:
8962:
8960:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8940:
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8916:
8914:
8912:
8908:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8840:
8838:
8835:
8833:
8830:
8828:
8825:
8824:
8822:
8820:
8816:
8813:
8809:
8804:
8790:
8787:
8785:
8782:
8780:
8777:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8767:
8765:
8762:
8760:
8757:
8755:
8752:
8750:
8747:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8732:
8730:
8727:
8725:
8722:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8702:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8686:
8684:
8680:
8674:
8671:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8661:
8657:
8654:
8652:
8649:
8648:
8647:
8644:
8642:
8639:
8637:
8636:Syrian Desert
8634:
8632:
8629:
8627:
8624:
8622:
8619:
8617:
8614:
8613:
8611:
8607:
8604:
8602:
8598:
8594:
8587:
8582:
8580:
8575:
8573:
8568:
8567:
8564:
8552:
8544:
8542:
8534:
8532:
8528:
8524:
8522:
8514:
8513:
8510:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8486:
8485:
8484:
8481:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8461:
8459:
8456:
8454:
8451:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8415:
8413:
8409:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8388:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8377:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8364:
8361:
8358:
8357:Iraqi Turkmen
8355:
8353:
8350:
8348:
8345:
8343:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8318:
8315:
8314:
8313:
8310:
8306:
8303:
8301:
8298:
8296:
8293:
8291:
8288:
8286:
8283:
8282:
8281:
8278:
8276:
8273:
8272:
8270:
8268:
8264:
8260:
8256:
8251:
8247:
8237:
8234:
8232:
8229:
8227:
8224:
8222:
8219:
8217:
8214:
8212:
8209:
8207:
8204:
8202:
8199:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8189:
8187:
8184:
8182:
8176:
8174:
8171:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8161:
8159:
8156:
8155:
8152:
8148:
8143:
8139:
8129:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8114:
8111:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8097:
8094:
8092:
8089:
8087:
8084:
8080:
8077:
8076:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8061:
8060:
8057:
8051:
8048:
8047:
8046:
8043:
8039:
8036:
8035:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8020:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7992:(legislative)
7988:
7986:
7983:
7981:
7978:
7977:
7974:
7970:
7965:
7961:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7933:
7931:
7928:
7926:
7925:Syrian Desert
7923:
7921:
7920:Shatt al-Arab
7918:
7916:
7913:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7855:Faw peninsula
7853:
7852:
7849:
7845:
7840:
7836:
7822:
7819:
7815:
7812:
7811:
7810:
7807:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7797:Fall of Mosul
7795:
7794:
7793:
7790:
7788:
7785:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7770:U.S. invasion
7768:
7767:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7754:
7751:
7750:
7749:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7739:
7736:
7734:
7733:Iran–Iraq War
7731:
7729:
7726:
7724:
7721:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7701:
7698:
7694:
7691:
7690:
7687:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7665:
7663:
7661:
7657:
7651:
7648:
7644:
7641:
7640:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7623:
7619:
7616:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7601:
7599:
7598:Buyid dynasty
7596:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7580:
7578:
7574:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
7447:Halaf culture
7445:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7434:
7432:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7418:
7413:
7409:
7404:
7398:
7388:
7383:
7381:
7376:
7374:
7369:
7368:
7365:
7341:
7334:
7329:
7325:
7321:
7318:
7317:
7313:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7297:
7293:
7291:
7287:
7284:
7281:
7278:
7277:
7268:
7264:
7261:
7258:
7254:
7250:
7247:
7243:
7240:
7236:
7233:
7229:
7226:
7222:
7220:
7219:2-503-50729-8
7216:
7212:
7208:
7206:
7205:3-8062-1851-X
7202:
7199:, Stuttgart,
7198:
7194:
7191:
7187:
7185:
7184:3-406-46530-7
7181:
7177:
7173:
7171:
7170:3-406-51664-5
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7149:
7144:
7143:
7136:
7133:
7132:2-07-040308-4
7129:
7125:
7118:
7117:Bottéro, Jean
7115:
7112:
7111:2-503-50046-3
7108:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7098:9780226013770
7095:
7091:
7090:
7085:
7082:
7081:
7071:
7069:90-72371-63-1
7065:
7061:
7057:
7052:
7048:
7044:
7039:
7035:
7029:
7025:
7021:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7003:
6999:
6994:
6990:
6988:0-14-056107-2
6984:
6980:
6975:
6971:
6965:
6961:
6957:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6942:
6936:
6932:
6931:
6926:
6922:
6918:
6912:
6908:
6907:
6901:
6897:
6891:
6887:
6882:
6881:
6860:
6856:
6852:
6851:"Mesopotamia"
6846:
6839:
6833:
6829:
6822:
6806:
6802:
6796:
6780:
6776:
6770:
6766:
6765:
6757:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6739:
6733:
6726:
6721:
6714:
6709:
6702:
6697:
6690:
6685:
6678:
6673:
6666:
6661:
6654:
6649:
6642:
6637:
6630:
6625:
6616:
6609:
6604:
6597:
6596:Beaulieu 2005
6592:
6585:
6581:
6574:
6567:
6563:
6556:
6549:
6542:
6540:
6531:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6513:
6509:
6505:
6498:
6482:
6478:
6472:
6464:
6458:
6454:
6449:
6448:
6439:
6431:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6412:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6391:
6390:
6385:
6378:
6376:
6369:
6367:
6362:
6355:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6304:
6288:
6284:
6278:
6269:
6261:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6212:
6193:
6186:
6180:
6178:
6170:
6159:
6157:9781784662370
6153:
6149:
6148:
6140:
6133:
6121:
6117:
6115:9781305147096
6111:
6107:
6106:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6087:
6080:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6048:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6017:
6010:
6004:
5996:
5992:
5985:
5978:
5971:
5958:
5954:
5952:9780521069588
5948:
5944:
5943:
5938:
5932:
5923:
5907:
5903:
5897:
5893:
5892:
5884:
5868:
5864:
5858:
5854:
5853:
5845:
5836:
5828:
5822:
5817:
5816:
5807:
5800:
5793:
5786:
5779:
5772:
5765:
5758:
5757:Liungman 2004
5753:
5746:
5741:
5734:
5731:
5725:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5674:
5672:
5664:
5661:
5655:
5647:
5641:
5637:
5630:
5622:
5620:9781317677666
5616:
5612:
5605:
5589:
5585:
5579:
5575:
5574:
5566:
5551:
5547:
5543:
5536:
5529:
5526:
5522:
5516:
5508:
5504:
5500:
5493:
5486:
5481:
5474:
5473:90-04-13666-5
5470:
5466:
5463:, pp. 97–98,
5462:
5456:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5425:
5419:, p. 55.
5418:
5413:
5406:
5405:90-04-13666-5
5402:
5398:
5394:
5388:
5386:
5379:
5374:
5367:
5361:
5354:
5351:
5347:
5346:George Sarton
5342:
5336:(1), p. 1–38.
5335:
5332:
5328:
5323:
5316:
5315:90-5693-036-2
5312:
5308:
5302:
5295:
5282:
5278:
5271:
5249:
5241:
5238:
5235:
5210:
5202:
5199:
5196:
5173:
5170:
5167:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5146:
5140:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5126:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5109:
5101:
5095:
5090:
5089:
5080:
5072:
5070:9780030745508
5066:
5062:
5057:
5056:
5047:
5039:
5037:9780030745508
5033:
5029:
5024:
5023:
5014:
4998:
4994:
4992:9780826416285
4988:
4984:
4983:
4975:
4969:
4965:
4962:
4959:
4953:
4946:
4934:
4930:
4928:9783319487724
4924:
4920:
4919:
4911:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4868:
4852:
4848:
4842:
4835:
4829:
4825:
4818:
4802:
4798:
4792:
4783:
4776:
4771:
4764:
4759:
4752:
4746:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4711:
4704:
4698:
4694:
4687:
4685:
4677:
4671:
4667:
4660:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4618:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4592:
4590:
4582:
4576:
4572:
4565:
4563:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4520:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4493:
4485:
4479:
4475:
4468:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4420:
4416:
4409:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4386:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4360:
4358:
4356:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4288:
4284:
4270:
4261:
4256:
4248:
4243:
4232:
4224:
4220:
4213:
4212:Ancient Greek
4209:
4205:
4200:
4196:
4180:
4176:
4169:
4164:
4161:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4138:
4133:
4130:
4123:
4118:
4115:
4108:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4010:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3945:sites in the
3944:
3940:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3913:
3907:
3893:
3889:
3882:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3843:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3823:
3818:
3815:
3808:
3803:
3796:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3733:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3688:Burney Relief
3683:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3670:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3593:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3562:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3483:
3479:
3474:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3445:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3416:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3370:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3329:
3323:
3321:
3314:
3304:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3289:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3246:
3242:
3236:
3234:
3230:
3225:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3204:Vasco da Gama
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3177:ancient Egypt
3173:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3088:
3084:
3082:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3027:
3022:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2871:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2827:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2734:Meli-shipak I
2730:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2680:Ancient Greek
2676:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2658:
2657:observation.
2656:
2652:
2648:
2645:. Babylonian
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2529:Burney Relief
2525:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2475:flood control
2466:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2369:prescriptions
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2282:Central Asian
2279:
2275:
2271:
2268:, Sassanian,
2267:
2263:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2247:Earth rotated
2244:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2140:
2132:
2127:
2124:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2063:
2058:
2055:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2035:
2027:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1995:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1875:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1746:
1745:agglutinative
1742:
1736:
1732:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1662:
1661:Roman Assyria
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1571:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1532:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1419:
1416:are upstream.
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1383:
1382:Ubaid culture
1379:
1375:
1374:Halaf culture
1371:
1360:
1355:
1349:Periodization
1346:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1272:Ancient China
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1256:Ancient Egypt
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1165:
1163:
1158:
1154:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
975:
970:
965:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
946:
941:
937:
932: 250 BC
926:
922:
919:
915:
912:of the older
911:
906:
894:
883:
882:ancient Greek
878:
877:
868:
863:
855:
850:
839:
831:
823:
822:Ancient Greek
817:
769:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
720:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
671:
667:
663:
658:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
637:
633:
629:
624:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
575:
570:
568:
563:
561:
556:
555:
553:
552:
549:
539:
538:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
502:
499:
494:
493:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
472:
469:
464:
463:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
420:Seljuk Empire
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
367:
364:
359:
358:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
327:
324:
319:
318:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
242:
239:
234:
233:
226:
223:
221:
218:
215:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
200:Halaf culture
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
187:
184:
179:
178:
174:
170:
169:
166:
160:
159:
154:
149:
148:
136:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
58:
44:
40:
33:
19:
18:Tigris Valley
9202:Royal titles
9127:Architecture
8964:Neo-Assyrian
8811:(Pre)history
8631:Persian Gulf
8592:
8385:Christianity
8267:Demographics
8201:Oil reserves
8196:Oil Industry
8163:Central Bank
8059:Human rights
7985:Constitution
7930:Tigris river
7910:Persian Gulf
7899:
7618:Ottoman Iraq
7603:Qara Qoyunlu
7437:Ubaid period
7349:19 September
7347:. Retrieved
7340:the original
7315:
7301:Wallis Budge
7295:
7252:
7246:Ancient Iraq
7245:
7238:
7231:
7224:
7210:
7196:
7189:
7175:
7161:
7141:
7123:
7102:
7087:
7055:
7046:
7042:
7023:
6997:
6978:
6954:
6929:
6905:
6885:
6863:. Retrieved
6854:
6845:
6827:
6821:
6809:. Retrieved
6801:"Livius.org"
6795:
6783:. Retrieved
6763:
6756:
6748:
6732:
6720:
6708:
6696:
6684:
6672:
6660:
6648:
6636:
6624:
6615:
6603:
6591:
6573:
6555:
6547:
6511:
6507:
6497:
6485:. Retrieved
6471:
6446:
6438:
6393:
6387:
6358:
6317:
6313:
6303:
6291:. Retrieved
6277:
6268:
6228:(1): 15289.
6225:
6221:
6211:
6199:. Retrieved
6192:the original
6168:
6161:. Retrieved
6146:
6139:
6131:
6124:. Retrieved
6104:
6086:
6077:
6070:. Retrieved
6061:
6057:
6047:
6035:. Retrieved
6026:
6016:
6008:
6003:
5994:
5990:
5977:
5968:
5961:. Retrieved
5941:
5931:
5922:
5910:. Retrieved
5890:
5883:
5871:. Retrieved
5851:
5844:
5835:
5814:
5806:
5798:
5792:
5784:
5778:
5770:
5764:
5752:
5740:
5732:
5729:
5724:
5712:. Retrieved
5687:
5683:
5662:
5659:
5654:
5635:
5629:
5610:
5604:
5592:. Retrieved
5572:
5565:
5554:, retrieved
5545:
5535:
5527:
5524:
5515:
5506:
5502:
5492:
5487:, p. 5.
5480:
5460:
5455:
5434:
5430:
5424:
5412:
5392:
5373:
5365:
5360:
5352:
5349:
5341:
5333:
5330:
5322:
5306:
5301:
5292:
5285:. Retrieved
5270:
5145:
5129:
5115:
5108:
5087:
5079:
5054:
5046:
5021:
5013:
5001:. Retrieved
4981:
4974:
4957:
4952:
4944:
4937:. Retrieved
4917:
4910:
4877:
4873:
4867:
4855:. Retrieved
4841:
4823:
4817:
4805:. Retrieved
4791:
4782:
4770:
4758:
4750:
4745:
4720:
4716:
4710:
4692:
4665:
4659:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4601:
4570:
4532:(2): 73–92,
4529:
4525:
4519:
4508:
4492:
4473:
4467:
4455:. Retrieved
4451:the original
4442:
4432:
4414:
4408:
4402:(4): 88–110.
4399:
4395:
4385:
4369:
4342:. Retrieved
4301:
4297:
4287:
4218:
4199:
4173:The alleged
4011:
3947:Diyala River
3936:
3917:
3909:
3900:Architecture
3888:Winged genie
3849:Neo-Assyrian
3828:
3785:
3781:
3715:
3696:
3684:
3673:
3667:
3646:figure from
3621:
3605:
3571:Lipit-Ishtar
3564:
3541:
3537:
3506:
3486:
3466:Ashurbanipal
3460:of southern
3417:
3394:
3374:
3358:Ashurbanipal
3324:
3316:
3297:
3290:
3249:
3237:
3221:
3185:
3169:
3148:
3093:
3077:
3067:
3060:
3057:
3031:
2988:Hundreds of
2987:
2962:housekeeping
2958:
2953:
2942:Lipit Ishtar
2935:
2926:
2901:
2883:
2880:to 2900 BC.
2852:
2848:marketplaces
2841:
2760:
2716:philosopher
2700:doctrine of
2687:
2677:
2662:open-systems
2659:
2597:
2589:Hebrew Bible
2582:
2560:
2553:polytheistic
2538:
2488:
2472:
2461:and related
2454:
2448:
2431:
2409:
2401:observations
2372:
2346:
2329:
2325:
2311:
2259:
2235:heliocentric
2232:
2216:
2205:
2194:
2182:
2155:
2004:clay tablet
1998:
1991:
1960:
1946:circle. The
1933:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1837:century AD.
1835:
1819:
1803:
1776:
1738:
1461:Ubaid period
1328:
1268:Yellow River
1241:
1207:
1159:
1155:
1142:
1138:Persian Gulf
1123:
1114:Marsh people
1060:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1042:
1038:Persian Gulf
1029:
1023:
1019:
1013:
1009:
1007:
1002:
978:
966:
953:
943:
939:
935:
920:
876:Beth Nahrain
767:
765:
721:
705:seized power
659:
625:
584:
583:
480:Ottoman Iraq
450:Kara Koyunlu
190:Ubaid period
43:
9375:Mesopotamia
9305:Hittitology
9295:Assyriology
9216:Archaeology
9086:Old Persian
8896:Jemdet Nasr
8541:WikiProject
8342:Marsh Arabs
8327:Circassians
8008:Foreign aid
7900:Mesopotamia
7462:Uruk period
7309:layered PDF
7286:Mesopotamia
7164:, München,
7121:(in French)
6608:Stager 1996
6514:: 194–211.
6487:10 December
6293:10 December
6201:10 December
6037:29 February
6027:Archaeology
5891:Babylonians
4807:10 December
4255:miyân rudân
4219:Mesopotamíā
4216:Μεσοποταμία
4208:Mezopotamya
4090:Ishtar gate
4058:Neo-Hittite
3953:remains at
3924:Ishtar Gate
3680:Lyres of Ur
3675:Copper Bull
3652:cult images
3551:in 604 BC.
3501:city-states
3293:Marsh Arabs
3245:Iraqi Kurds
3229:Middle East
3188:trade nexus
3112:innovations
3081:food supply
3048:Agriculture
2918:Family life
2878: 3100
2855:generations
2837:Iraq Museum
2767:Lunar phase
2698:Heraclitean
2651:rationality
2641:works, and
2623:epic poetry
2393:rationality
2288:astronomy.
2026:sexagesimal
2013: 1800
1994:algorithmic
1936:sexagesimal
1928:Iraq Museum
1920:clay tablet
1904:Mathematics
1822:logographic
1783:Old Aramaic
1467:Uruk period
1065:Eurocentric
1045:Mesopotamia
1003:Mesopotamia
979:Mesopotamia
940:Mesopotamia
921:birit narim
884:root words
862:miyân rudân
826:Μεσοποταμία
768:Mesopotamia
655:agriculture
647:mathematics
585:Mesopotamia
498:Modern Iraq
363:Middle Ages
220:Uruk period
162:History of
49:Mesopotamia
9369:Categories
9269:Divination
8979:Achaemenid
8944:Isin-Larsa
8837:Trialetian
8832:Mousterian
8819:Prehistory
8458:Television
8438:Literature
8400:Irreligion
8375:Secularism
8312:Minorities
8180:(currency)
8173:Corruption
8018:Government
7809:Insurgency
7608:Aq Qoyunlu
7429:Chronology
7259:5: 89–112.
6508:Aethiopica
6396:(1): 288.
5997:(2012): 2.
5714:7 December
5150:Boyer 1991
4880:(1): 1–7.
4457:9 December
4269:Bēṯ Nahrēn
4264:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ
4251:میانرودان
4186:References
4066:Tell Halaf
4030:Babylonian
3971:Bronze Age
3969:), Middle
3692:terracotta
3632:Warka Vase
3585:, created
3559:See also:
3497:Lugalbanda
3442:See also:
3320:city-state
3307:Government
3212:Suez Canal
3104:irrigation
3010:graveyards
2931:Edwin Long
2908:backgammon
2603:philosophy
2579:Philosophy
2479:Bronze Age
2469:Technology
2440:inspection
2385:empiricism
2030:1 24 51 10
2002:Babylonian
1996:fashion.
1952:map-making
1938:(base 60)
1841:Literature
1820:The early
1811:pictograms
1797:is called
1703:Babylonian
1445:(~6000 BC)
1361:(red dot,
1266:, and the
1254:valley in
1200:One of 18
925:Septuagint
871:ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ
858:میانرودان
455:Aq Qoyunlu
410:Al-Mazeedi
238:Bronze Age
183:Prehistory
64:Washukanni
39:Two Rivers
9142:Cuneiform
9018:Languages
8827:Acheulean
8714:Babylonia
8651:Euphrates
8601:Geography
8478:Squatting
8443:Education
8390:Mandaeism
8359:/Turkoman
8337:Mandaeans
8322:Assyrians
8317:Armenians
8280:Languages
8168:Companies
8123:Judiciary
8033:President
8003:Elections
7998:Democracy
7844:Geography
7760:Sanctions
7678:2003–2011
7673:1968–2003
7668:1958–1968
7527:Babylonia
6584:0091-7338
6566:0091-7338
6530:2194-4024
6366:CC BY 4.0
5704:153637070
5485:Stol 1993
5417:Stol 1993
5395:, p. 99,
5200:−
5158:fractions
4902:163484083
4652:140771958
4644:1573-7756
4610:624382576
4554:222432558
4378:624382576
4334:224788984
4318:0011-3204
4279:Citations
4177:house in
4022:Khorsabad
4020:/Nimrud,
3747:Naram-Sin
3644:limestone
3619:painted.
3579:Hammurabi
3567:Urukagina
3462:Babylonia
3424:Hammurabi
3397:provinces
3192:Silk Road
3026:West Asia
2946:Hammurabi
2938:Urukagina
2893:wrestling
2859:centuries
2824:from the
2780:solstices
2776:Equinoxes
2757:Festivals
2702:dialectic
2655:empirical
2619:dialogues
2615:dialectic
2451:illnesses
2381:aetiology
2357:prognosis
2353:diagnosis
2270:Byzantine
2201:solstices
2173:Astronomy
2136:¯
2028:figures,
1924:Shaduppum
1893:Gilgamesh
1865:epic poem
1806:cuneiform
1756:Subartuan
1719:Hammurabi
1674:Asōristān
1406:Babylonia
1316:Hammurabi
1233:Caliphate
1126:Euphrates
1071:Geography
960:in north
958:Euphrates
952:. In the
762:Etymology
697:Babylonia
679:) to the
666:Akkadians
662:Sumerians
651:astronomy
593:West Asia
435:Ilkhanate
400:Marwanids
390:Hamdanids
285:Babylonia
9288:Academia
9242:Religion
9111:Urartian
9106:Sumerian
9091:Parthian
9026:Akkadian
8999:Sasanian
8989:Parthian
8984:Seleucid
8934:Simurrum
8924:Akkadian
8857:Khiamian
8847:Natufian
8759:Simurrum
8744:Kassites
8739:Hittites
8694:Adiabene
8521:Category
8370:Religion
8347:Persians
8231:Railways
8226:Airlines
8108:Military
7969:Politics
7945:Wildlife
7935:Umm Qasr
7765:Iraq War
7748:Gulf War
7660:Republic
7613:Safavids
7576:638–1958
7320:Archived
7119:; 1987.
6927:(1991).
6859:Archived
6811:10 March
6805:Archived
6785:10 March
6779:Archived
6741:Archived
6481:Archived
6430:21970613
6368:license.
6354:29099847
6314:PLOS ONE
6287:Archived
6260:32943725
6163:10 April
6126:10 April
6120:Archived
6072:10 April
6066:Archived
6031:Archived
5963:10 April
5957:Archived
5939:(1953).
5906:Archived
5867:Archived
5708:Archived
5588:Archived
5556:6 August
5550:archived
5546:BBC News
5447:44442727
5281:Archived
5154:multiply
5135:Archived
5121:Archived
4997:Archived
4964:Archived
4933:Archived
4851:Archived
4801:Archived
4344:30 April
4338:Archived
4160:ziggurat
4100:, Berlin
4074:Iron Age
4070:Karatepe
4062:Karkamis
4038:Urartian
4014:Assyrian
3920:ziggurat
3660:Akkadian
3656:Sumerian
3525:Eannatum
3409:Damascus
3385:shepherd
3328:Eannatum
3252:Assyrian
3218:Genetics
3108:settlers
3073:Villeins
2974:property
2796:New Year
2694:Sophists
2665:ontology
2643:proverbs
2627:folklore
2573:pantheon
2549:universe
2463:ailments
2459:epilepsy
2424:exorcism
2412:bandages
2397:symptoms
2338:Borsippa
2314:medicine
2292:Medicine
2255:Plutarch
2243:Plutarch
2223:Parthian
2219:Seleucid
2208:universe
2197:eclipses
2185:Sumerian
2024:in four
2006:YBC 7289
1830:syllabic
1781:period.
1772:Assyrian
1770:and the
1764:Akkadian
1741:Sumerian
1715:Akkadian
1645:Adiabene
1627:Seleucid
1581:Iron Age
1556:Kassites
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1304:Assyrian
1020:Southern
1010:Northern
969:Akkadian
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936:Naharaim
918:Akkadian
748:Adiabene
742:and the
645:script,
475:Safavids
415:Ayyubids
405:Uqaylids
323:Iron Age
295:Kassites
280:Simurrum
153:a series
151:Part of
9359:History
9333:Portals
9274:Prayers
9259:Deities
9223:Looting
9066:Kassite
9061:Hurrian
9056:Hittite
9046:Elamite
9041:Eblaite
9036:Aramaic
9031:Amorite
8954:Kassite
8929:Gutians
8911:History
8876:Samarra
8872:Hassuna
8842:Zarzian
8764:Subartu
8754:Mitanni
8719:Chaldea
8709:Assyria
8682:Ancient
8551:Commons
8468:Smoking
8433:Culture
8428:Cuisine
8411:General
8395:Yazidis
8352:Solluba
8305:Persian
8295:Kurdish
8290:Aramaic
8255:Society
8236:Tourism
8147:Economy
7895:Islands
7870:Borders
7695: (
7685:present
7620:(incl.
7532:Assyria
7477:Subartu
7417:History
7311:format)
7022:(ed.).
6952:(ed.).
6878:Sources
6865:21 July
6421:3215667
6398:Bibcode
6345:5669434
6322:Bibcode
6251:7499422
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5116:root(2)
5003:20 June
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4507:(ed.).
4247:Persian
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4175:Abraham
4146:in 2010
4114:Babylon
4060:sites (
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4046:Armavir
4034:Babylon
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3995:Hattusa
3991:Kultepe
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3778:Lamassu
3763:Babylon
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3723:lamassu
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3612:Eurasia
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3513:Humbaba
3438:Warfare
3432:Babylon
3430:. Soon
3405:Samaria
3401:Nineveh
3369:chariot
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3196:Baghdad
3140:turnips
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3016:Economy
3002:carpets
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2978:divorce
2966:cooking
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2746:Shamash
2738:Nannaya
2724:Culture
2669:ergodic
2557:beliefs
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2405:patient
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1978:Algebra
1963:frustum
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1826:scribes
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632:wheel
617:Syria
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245:Sumer
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8086:LGBT
8050:List
8038:List
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7351:2005
7328:DjVu
7305:DjVu
7215:ISBN
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6580:ISSN
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6350:PMID
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6256:PMID
6203:2010
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6110:ISBN
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6039:2012
5965:2021
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4809:2010
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34:.
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