Timeline of major famines in India during British rule

1566:(p. 497–498) Following the improvement of colonial mechanisms to identify and contain famine conditions, their scale decreased in the early twentieth century. Yet scarcities as well as outright famines continued to haunt India's agriculturalists. They were particular frequent during and in the aftermath of both world wars, when the wars' economic, social, and political repercussions increased the vulnerability of India's agricultural labourers to subsistence crises.11 It was not until the great Bengal Famine of 1943/4, however, which resulted in the death of an estimated 3 million Bengalis and displaced even more, that mass starvation again resulted in horrific sights of emaciated bodies and corpses filling the streets of urban centres of British India.12 Following the worst South Asian famine of the twentieth century, the nation's political elite prepared for independence even while the country remained on the brink of famine. 1221: 979: 1966:

the government far more responsive to local needs than it ever was under colonial or autocratic rule. One has only to contemplate the experience of China to appreciate the magnitude of this difference. There 30 million peasants died of starvation in the late 1950s and early 1960s — by far the greatest famine anywhere in the world at any time in history — as a direct resule of Mao Zedong's failed Great Leap Forward. Indeed, this ability to prevent famine may be one of democracy's greatest contributions. The Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen has written that 'no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy — be it economically rich (as in contemporary Western Europe or North America) or relatively poor (as in postindependence India, or Botswana, or Zimbabwe).'

945: 1103: 1205: 1510:(p. 497–498) In 1769/70 famine conditions surfaced in Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar, resulting in the estimated death of 10 million Indians in Bengal alone – a third of the province's population. Millions of Indians died of starvation in the south of India from 1781 to 1783, and a year later in north India as well because of the rapid succession of another major famine crisis. Droughts were frequent in the North-Western Provinces, in 1803/4, 1812/13, 1817–19, 1824–26, and 1833, often spilling over into severe subsistence crises. This spate of food crises anticipated the onset of yet another major famine in 1836/7, which threw the Doab region into havoc and caused the death of an estimated 15 to 20 per cent of the population. 1119: 1071: 1682:

grappled with widespread and prolonged food crises. But the codes produced in the 1880s do seem to have been the first serious attempts to systematize the prediction of famine, and to set down steps to ameliorate its impact before its onset. ... The codes which eventually emerged were the product of a complex process beginning with the experience of the famines of 1876-9, continuing through the investigations of the Famine Commission, and ending with the discussions of the 'draft', 'provisional', and final provincial codes. This exercise produced answers to the major questions of famine relief which, though not immutable, were to influence famine policy for the following ninety years.

1027: 1043: 1937:

most fertile regions of the country, and then distributing surplus food from these regions to those with food deficits through a centralized public distribution system. The green revolution in the late 196os/early 1970s accelerated agricultural growth at the national level and as Sen (1999) argues, 'Famines are easy to prevent if there is a serious effort to do so, and a democratic government, facing elections and criticisms from opposition partics and independent newspapers, cannot help but make such an effort.' In his opinion the establishment of a multi-party political system and a free press after independence were instrumental in preventing further famines in India.

1055: 1087: 1189: 1131: 211:.These last, consolidating in the 1880s, were the first carefully considered system for the prediction of famine and the pre-emptive mitigation of its impact; the codes were to affect famine relief well into the 1970s. The Bengal famine of 1943, the last major famine of British India occurred in part because the authorities failed to take notice of the famine codes in wartime conditions. The indignation caused by this famine accelerated the decolonization of British India. It also impelled Indian nationalists to make food security an important post-independence goal. After independence, the 829: 1177: 1151: 991: 870: 933: 1285:

while the actual increase was 7.5 million according to him. The Lancet source, contrary to McMinn claims, states that the population increased from 287,317,048 to 294,266,702 (2.42%). Adjusting for changes in census tracts, the total population increase in India was only 1.49% between 1891 and 1901, a major decline from the decadal change of 11.2% observed between 1881 and 1891, according to The Lancet article on April 13, 1901. It attributes the decrease in population change rate to excess mortality from successive famines and the plague.

508: 1007: 589: 622: 30: 1538:(p. 497–498) In the second half of the nineteenth-century famine conditions devastated Orissa in 1866/7 and ravaged the Madras Presidency, the Deccan region, and the North-Western Provinces from 1876 to 1878. Even greater in scope were the famines of 1896/7 and 1899/1900, which held almost the entire subcontinent in their grip. ... Mortality was excessive during these latter famine crises. Historians have estimated that between 12 and 29 million died between 1876 and 1902. 1390:(p. 497–498) Famines and food scarcities of various degrees accompanied colonial rule in India. Only about a dozen of them have received scholarly attention. For long, this attention has been distributed rather unevenly, with literature on famines in the second half of the nineteenth century being more extensive than research dealing with famines in the early colonial period. But, with the growth of scholarly work on the latter, the balance is shifting. 905: 2012:

recruitment conditions, besides long-term changes in disease and nutrition, influenced average height. ... The second and more general influence on recruiting patterns was the influence of famine. There were a number of substantial famines in India during the 19th century. Those which most affected the north Indian recruiting areas occurred in 1836–1836, 1866–1867, 1873–1874, 1878–1879, 1892, 1896–1897, 1899–1900.

711: 650: 761: 369: 679: 2118:

brought to a point where they would abdicate their rule without terrible destruction, thus assuring that freedom was not an empty achievement. To accomplish this he had to devise means of a moral sort, able to inspire the disciplined participation of millions of Indians, and equal to compelling the British to grant freedom, if not willingly, at least with resignation. Gandhi found his means in non-violent

1220: 415: 1204: 159:

The British era is significant because during this period a very large number of famines struck India. There is a vast literature on the famines in colonial British India. The mortality in these famines was excessively high and in some may have been increased by British policies. The mortality in the

2117:

Despite any whimsy in implementation, the clarity of Gandhi's political vision and the skill with which he carried the reforms in 1920 provided the foundation for what was to follow: twenty-five years of stewardship over the freedom movement. He knew the hazards to be negotiated. The British must be

1841:

If governments had imported limited amounts of food and taken responsibility for its distribution, prices could have been brought under control and famines could have been averted. Since independence in 1947, India has pursued such policies. Unlike what happened in China between 1958 and 1960, there

1936:

Shortly after independence, the import of food (PL-480 packages from the United States) following the severe drought in the mid-1960s was seen as a tremendous embarrassment to the pride of a young nation. Consequently, emphasis was placed on maximizing national production of food by focusing on the

1594:

All of the three interpretations - geography, manmade-as-political, and manmade-as-cultural - have been prominent in the scholarship and popular history of past Indian famines, especially for the time when detailed records of famines were kept. This starts as recently as the mid-nineteenth century,

1965:

Famine in India was endemic during the years of British rule, and given the tripling of the Indian population since independence one might have expected famines to increase. Yet there has never been a serious famine in independent India. The presence of opposition parties and a free press has made

1681:

These codes were not, of course, the first sets of administrative instructions for famine relief. Outhwaite discusses the Book of Orders issued during sixteenth century famines in England (Outhwaite 1978), and there were codes issued during the 1876-79 period in some provinces as their governments

1878:

India provides the best example of a country that has successfully averted famine since Independence in 1947, despite repeated droughts and enduring chronic poverty. ... Since 1947, the Famine Codes — now renamed Scarcity Manuals — have been continually updated and improved. Their provisions have

238:

Though Indian democracy has many imperfections, nevertheless the political incentives generated by it have been adequate to eliminate major famines right from the time of independence. The last substantial famine in India — the Bengal famine — occurred only four years before the Empire ended. The

1284:

According to the writer and retired Indian Civil Servant Charles McMinn, The Lancet's estimates were an overestimate based on a mistake in the population changes in India from 1891-1901. The Lancet, states McMinn, declared that the population increased only by 2.8 million for the whole of India,

1718:

Independence also came on the heels of a disastrous famine, that killed over one million people in Bengal in 1943. This famine occurred in part because the British authorities failed to implement the provisions of the famine code -- illustrating that the most sophisticated technical system is

1784:

Hunger had begun to emerge as a site of political contestation in the decades before independence, but it was in the wake of the Bengal famine of 1943 that Indian nationalists tied the promise of independence to the guarantee of food for all, drawing upon novel critiques of India's political

2011:

The crucial methodological questions addressed in the regression analysis of cohorts of indentured workers in this paper is the effect of recruitment year on the pattern of change in height by birth cohort. In comparing recruits for Mauritius, Natal and Fiji, we have emphasized that varying

1102: 944: 1595:

though the occurrence of famines in India has a much longer history. The years for which some systematic documentation exist were also the years when more than half of India was ruled first by the British East India Company (until 1858), and then the British Crown (1858-1947).

219:

inherited these codes, which were modernized and improved, and although there were severe food shortages in India after independence, and malnutrition continues to the present day, there were neither serious famines, nor clear and undisputed or large-scale ones. The economist

1234:, pictured in 1877. The famine ultimately covered an area of 670,000 square kilometres (257,000 sq mi) and caused distress to a population totalling 58,500,000. The death toll from this famine is estimated to be in the range of 5.5 million people. 1446:

Horrendous famines causing millions of deaths continued to scourge India's inhabitants throughout the period of colonial rule. British policies proved utterly inadequate to the task of alleviating starvation and were in many cases directly responsible for

978: 1418:(p. 510) Despite the copious literature on famines in colonial India, the history of famines still provides scholars of South Asia with new points of departure to deviate from common scales of analysis and to explore largely untouched primary sources 1907:

The independent nation has repeatedly defied gloomy predictions of outright famine. Yet India has remained in the thrall of pervasive malnutrition since independence, its citizens less food secure than those of any sub- Saharan African

1623:... an examination of the incidence of famines in India before and after the Famine Codes strongly suggests a contrast between the earlier period of famines and famine relief in India during the period on which this section will focus. 1301:, this and other famines in India between 1891 and 1901 caused 19,000,000 deaths from "starvation or to the diseases arising therefrom", an estimate criticised by the writer and retired Indian Civil Servant Charles McMinn. 1755:

The outrage caused by this famine intensified demands for immediate independence after the Second World War, and also ensured that a commitment to famine prevention would be at the top of the new government's political

1214:, "Mending the Lesson" showing Miss Prudence warning John Bull about handing out too much charity to the needy during the Bihar famine of 1873–1874, and the latter's own interpretation of the Law of Supply and Demand. 1054: 1118: 1150: 1842:

have been no large-scale famines in India in the post-war period. A relatively open society and timely identification of food shortages are the prerequisites for success of a policy aimed at preventing famines.

2895: 2772:

Bouma, Menno J.; van der Kay, Hugo J. (1996), "The El Niño Southern Oscillation and the historic malaria epidemics on the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka: an early warning system for future epidemics",

1188: 1070: 1042: 682:

Map of Rajputana consisting of the princely states of the Rajputana Agency and the British territory of Ajmer-Merwara, in 1909; the map was little changed since the year of the famine, 1869.

1026: 865:

1 to 4.5 million (in British territories). Mortality unknown for princely states. Estimated to be 3 to 10 million (in British territories according to contemporary scholars and economists)

1086: 239:

prevalence of famines, which had been a persistent feature of the long history of the British Indian Empire, ended abruptly with the establishment of a democracy after independence.

199:

The era is significant also because it is the first period for which there is systematic documentation. Major reports, such as the Report on the Upper Doab famine of 1860–1861 by

1813:

The memory of famines during the British colonial period has strongly shaped the narrative, and consequently the mental model, that underlies the framing of food policy in India.

653:

A 1907 map of Orissa, now Odisha, shown as the southwestern region of Greater Bengal. Coastal Balasore district was one of the worst-hit areas in the Odisha famine of 1866.

1920:

Spielman, Katherine A.; Aggarwal, Rimjhim M (2017), "Household- vs. National-Scale Food Storage: Perspectives on Food Security from Archaeology and Contemporary India",

1797:

Spielman, Katherine A.; Aggarwal, Rimjhim M (2017), "Household- vs. National-Scale Food Storage: Perspectives on Food Security from Archaeology and Contemporary India",

1130: 3897:

Washbrook, David (1994), "The Commercialization of Agriculture in Colonial India: Production, Subsistence and Reproduction in the 'Dry South', c. 1870–1930",

196:, which affected the Bengal region during wartime; it was one of the major South Asian famines in which anywhere between 1.5 million and 3 million people died. 2301: 3181:

Grove, Richard H. (2007), "The Great El Nino of 1789–93 and its Global Consequences: Reconstructing an Extreme Climate Even in World Environmental History",

1550:

Simonow, Joanna (2022), "Famine relief in colonial South Asia, 1858–1947: Regional and global perspectives.", in Fischer-Tiné, Harald; Framke, Maria (eds.),

1522:

Simonow, Joanna (2022), "Famine relief in colonial South Asia, 1858–1947: Regional and global perspectives.", in Fischer-Tiné, Harald; Framke, Maria (eds.),

1494:

Simonow, Joanna (2022), "Famine relief in colonial South Asia, 1858–1947: Regional and global perspectives.", in Fischer-Tiné, Harald; Framke, Maria (eds.),

1402:

Simonow, Joanna (2022), "Famine relief in colonial South Asia, 1858–1947: Regional and global perspectives.", in Fischer-Tiné, Harald; Framke, Maria (eds.),

1374:

Simonow, Joanna (2022), "Famine relief in colonial South Asia, 1858–1947: Regional and global perspectives.", in Fischer-Tiné, Harald; Framke, Maria (eds.),

990: 503:

11 million perished during the years 1788–1794. One of the most severe famines known. People died in such numbers that they could not be cremated or buried.

1879:

frequently been implemented -- most notably in 1966, 1973 and 1987. In all cases, they have prevented severe food shortages from degenerating into famine.

1362:

For nearly two centuries, India's British administrators had presided over innumerous famines, each dismissed in turn as a Malthusian inevitability.

1176: 4658: 4177: 2398:

Davis, Mike (2002-06-17). Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World (p. 171-173). Verso Books. Kindle Edition.

2389:

Davis, Mike (2002-06-17). Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World (p. 151-158). Verso Books. Kindle Edition.

2315: 3331:, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552. 984:

A photograph of a famine-stricken mother with a baby who at 3 months weighs 3 pounds. Photographer: W. W. Hooper. Great Famine of 1876–1878.

3299:

Hill, Christopher V. (1991), "Philosophy and Reality in Riparian South Asia: British Famine Policy and Migration in Colonial North India",

824:

5 million (1 million in British territory.) 12 - 16 Million (in British Territories according to contemporary Western journalist accounts)

2005:

Brennan, Lance; McDonald, John; Schlomowitz, Ralph; Aker, Eva (2013), "Towards and anthropometric theory of Indians under British rule",

1582: 756:

5.5 million in British territory Mortality unknown for princely states. Total famine mortality estimates vary from 6.1 to 10.3 million

4311: 3247:

Hall-Matthews, David (1996), "Historical Roots of Famine Relief Paradigms: Ideas on Dependency and Free Trade in India in the 1870s",

4498: 225: 1112:, February 27, 1897, showing a bazaar scene in India with shoppers, many of whom are emaciated, buying grain from a merchant's shop. 932: 3219:

Hall-Matthews, David (2008), "Inaccurate Conceptions: Disputed Measures of Nutritional Needs and Famine Deaths in Colonial India",

4301: 1006: 113:, or control of law and order.) The year 1947 is the year in which the British Raj was dissolved and the new successor states of 3063: 4251: 4246: 3732:

Sen, A. K. (1977), "Starvation and Exchange Entitlements: A General Approach and its Application to the Great Bengal Famine",

4146: 4024: 3888: 3868: 3811: 3761: 3723: 3694: 3676: 3475: 3455: 3435: 3371: 3349: 3172: 3123: 3075: 3044: 2945: 2927: 2909: 2854: 2834: 2814: 2763: 2745: 2724: 2684: 2638: 2517: 2488: 2468: 2441: 2349: 2110: 1990: 1958: 1929: 1900: 1834: 1806: 1777: 1674: 1616: 1559: 1531: 1503: 1439: 1411: 1383: 1355: 1331: 3861:

Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy (Cambridge South Asian Studies)

2863:

Damodaran, Vinita (2007), "Famine in Bengal: A Comparison of the 1770 Famine in Bengal and the 1897 Famine in Chotanagpur",

2756:

Famines in India: A Study in Some Aspects of the Economic History of India With Special Reference to Food Problem, 1860–1990

4704: 4699: 3512:

McAlpin, Michelle B. (1979), "Dearth, Famine, and Risk: The Changing Impact of Crop Failures in Western India, 1870–1920",

4170: 2527: 4137:

Wylie, Diana (2001), "Disease, Diet, and Gender: Late Twentieth Century Perspectives on Empire", in Winks, Robin (ed.),

3878: 3657: 3360:"Extreme Weather Events: The Role of Public Health in Disaster Risk Reduction as a Means for Climate Change Adaptation" 606: 177: 122: 3084:

Ghose, Ajit Kumar (1982), "Food Supply and Starvation: A Study of Famines with Reference to the Indian Subcontinent",

4694: 4684: 4316: 2122:. He insisted that it was not a cowardly form of resistance; rather, it required the most determined kind of courage. 2033: 1863: 1740: 1703: 1470: 97:

The year 1765 is chosen as the start year because that year the British East India Company, after its victory in the

438: 4571: 4566: 4521: 4163: 1669:, Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster: D. Reidel Publishing Company; Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 91–112, 92, 846: 805: 189: 185: 4581: 4561: 4556: 4491: 4215: 1227: 969: 744: 740: 692: 288: 181: 3569: 3134:

Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Enquire into the Famine in Bengal and Orissa in 1866, Volumes I, II

1856:

Individual Human Rights: The Relationship of Political and Civil Rights to Survival, Subsistence and Poverty

1733:

Individual Human Rights: The Relationship of Political and Civil Rights to Survival, Subsistence and Poverty

1696:

Individual Human Rights: The Relationship of Political and Civil Rights to Survival, Subsistence and Poverty

4541: 4363: 4256: 1665:

Brennan, Lance (1984), "The Development of the Indian Famine Code", in Currey, Bruce; Hugo, Graeme (eds.),

549: 173: 1124:

A group of emaciated women and children in Bangalore, India, famine of 1876–1878. Photographer: WW Hooper.

4632: 4526: 4447: 4210: 2693:

Attwood, Donald W. (2005), "Big Is Ugly? How Large-scale Institutions Prevent Famines in Western India",

2589:

Ambirajan, S. (1976), "Malthusian Population Theory and Indian Famine Policy in the Nineteenth Century",

354: 268: 161: 2918:

Drèze, Jean (1995), "Famine prevention in India", in Drèze, Jean; Sen, Amartya; Hussain, Althar (eds.),

410:

11 million people may have died during the years 1782–1784. Severe famine. Large areas were depopulated.

4268: 3987:

Caldwell, John C. (December 1998), "Malthus and the Less Developed World: The Pivotal Role of India",

3626:"Notes on the Distress Amongst the Hand-Weavers in the Bombay Presidency During the Famine of 1896–97" 2297: 4689: 4463: 4342: 4305: 3823:(1975), "Agrarian Society and the Pax Britannica in Northern India in the Early Nineteenth Century", 276: 204: 3484:

McAlpin, Michelle B. (Autumn 1983), "Famines, Epidemics, and Population Growth: The Case of India",

267:

has been correlated to a large number of these famines. The first famine of the British period, the

4551: 4484: 3669:

The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947 (Oxford Historical Monographs)

2141: 663: 300: 3820: 789: 593: 565: 228:

in part for his work on the economic mechanisms underlying famines, has stated in his 2009 book,

2431: 1590:

London School of Economics and Political Science, Department of Economic History, Working Papers

4289: 3342:

Nationalism and Imperialism in South and Southeast Asia: Essays Presented to Damodar R.SarDesai

2846:

Peasants and Imperial Rule: Agriculture and Agrarian Society in the Bombay Presidency 1850-1935

2282: 878: 256: 133: 3770:

Sharma, Sanjay (1993), "The 1837–38 famine in U.P.: Some dimensions of popular action",

2940:, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd (reprinted by Adamant Media Corporation), 2339: 1245: 828: 176:, 800,000. In the second half of the 19th-century large-scale excess mortality was caused by: 66: 4576: 4546: 4419: 4413: 4241: 4186: 4015:

Drayton, Richard (2001), "Science, Medicine, and the British Empire", in Winks, Robin (ed.),

3359: 2738:

Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770–1870

2626: 1250: 997: 890: 765: 635: 280: 193: 43: 2901: 4373: 3581: 3256: 2891: 118: 78:(regions administered by Indian rulers), British India (regions administered either by the 1048:

Five emaciated children during the famine of 1876–1878, India. Photographer: W. W. Hooper.

8: 4393: 4320: 4261: 4105:

Watts, Sheldon (1999), "British Development Policies and Malaria in India 1897-c. 1929",

292: 252: 230: 208: 200: 71: 4033:

Derbyshire, I. D. (1987), "Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860-1914",

3585: 3260: 4388: 4118: 4094: 4078: 4050: 4004: 3968: 3922: 3914: 3848: 3840: 3800: 3787: 3745: 3645: 3613: 3597: 3557: 3529: 3501: 3413: 3397: 3316: 3268: 3236: 3208: 3097: 3007: 2971: 2880: 2664: 2606: 2578: 2570: 2450: 1064:(1944) showing homeless people eating on the sidewalk during the Bengal famine of 1943. 507: 296: 79: 3154: 4640: 4455: 4284: 4142: 4126: 4086: 4054: 4020: 3976: 3964: 3951:

Banthia, Jayant; Dyson, Tim (December 1999), "Smallpox in Nineteenth-Century India",

3926: 3884: 3864: 3852: 3807: 3791: 3757: 3719: 3690: 3672: 3605: 3533: 3471: 3451: 3431: 3405: 3367: 3345: 3320: 3272: 3240: 3212: 3168: 3119: 3101: 3071: 3040: 3015: 2979: 2941: 2923: 2905: 2884: 2850: 2830: 2810: 2792: 2787: 2759: 2741: 2733: 2720: 2680: 2668: 2634: 2614: 2513: 2484: 2464: 2454: 2437: 2345: 2106: 2029: 1986: 1954: 1925: 1896: 1869: 1859: 1830: 1802: 1773: 1746: 1736: 1709: 1699: 1670: 1612: 1555: 1527: 1499: 1476: 1466: 1435: 1407: 1379: 1351: 1327: 1195: 1167: 1137: 961: 785: 781: 773: 769: 723: 703: 216: 212: 114: 109:(although it would not directly administer Bengal until 1784 when it was granted the 106: 4098: 3417: 2647:

Arnold, David (1994), "The 'discovery' of malnutrition and diet in colonial India",

2582: 730:

district (top middle) was one of the worst-hit areas in the Bihar famine of 1873–74.

90:, from 1858 to 1947) and Indian territories independent of British rule such as the 4536: 4110: 4070: 4042: 3996: 3960: 3906: 3832: 3779: 3741: 3637: 3617: 3589: 3549: 3521: 3493: 3389: 3308: 3288: 3264: 3228: 3198: 3190: 3150: 3093: 2999: 2963: 2872: 2782: 2706: 2702: 2656: 2598: 2562: 1255: 1163: 957: 512: 467: 272: 169: 3880:

The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India, III.3)

2298:

Final report of thirds revised revenue settlement of Hisar district from 1905-1910

869: 810:

Madras, Bombay Deccan, Bengal, United Provinces, Central Provinces. Also parts of

4624: 4507: 4439: 4383: 4205: 3713: 3593: 3465: 3445: 3425: 3337: 3162: 3113: 2844: 2824: 2804: 2714: 2631:

Dreadful Visitations: Confronting Natural Catastrophe in the Age of Enlightenment

2505: 2478: 2458: 2100: 1462:

Society, economy, and the market: commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760-1800

1265: 1260: 777: 520: 516: 486: 482: 260: 243:

Migration of indentured labourers from India to the British tropical colonies of

98: 75: 3003: 2967: 1607:

Dreze, Jean, "Famine Prevention in India", in Dreze, Jean; Sen, Amartya (eds.),

121:

were established. The eastern half of the Dominion of Pakistan would become the

4531: 4296: 3783: 3548:(3 Special Issue: Conference on Applied Statistics in Ireland, 1991): 335–341, 3194: 3141:

O Grada, Cormac (1997), "Markets and famines: A simple test with Indian data",

2876: 2660: 2538:

Subject to Famine: Food Crises and Economic Change in Western India, 1860- 1920

1578: 904: 588: 490: 382: 308: 304: 264: 165: 91: 4074: 4046: 3934: 3910: 3836: 3540:

McGregor, Pat; Cantley, Ian (1992), "A Test of Sen's Entitlement Hypothesis",

3525: 3467:

Subject to Famine: Food Crisis and Economic Change in Western India, 1860-1920

3312: 3232: 900:

1.5 million from starvation; 2.1 to 3 million including deaths from epidemics.

706:

government, there were little to no significant mortalities during the famine

4678: 4337: 4114: 3292: 1231: 965: 793: 621: 569: 442: 397: 29: 2897:

Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World

2144:

has said, 'was one of the greatest acts of reconciliation in human history.'

1922:

Sustainability: Archaeological and Anthropological Perspectives on Tradeoffs

1799:

Sustainability: Archaeological and Anthropological Perspectives on Tradeoffs

1480: 311:

in 1920, Congress was to secure India both independence and reconciliation.

4398: 4130: 4090: 3980: 3707:, London School of Economics, Economic History, Working Papers No: 243/2016 3609: 3409: 3105: 3019: 2983: 2618: 2096: 577: 561: 474: 430: 284: 3802:

Agrarian Change in a Northern Indian State: Uttar Pradesh, 1819–1833

3276: 2796: 2677:

Famine: Social Crisis and Historical Change (New Perspectives on the Past)

1635:

1880 Famine Commission Report, followed by the introduction ofFamine Codes

4597: 4403: 4378: 4347: 4236: 4061:

Klein, Ira (1988), "Plague, Policy and Popular Unrest in British India",

3427:

Why They Did Not Starve: Biocultural Adaptation in a South Indian Village

2542:

Why They Did Not Starve: Biocultural Adaptation in a South Indian Village

1978: 1460: 1158: 952: 856: 815: 719: 221: 203:, those of the Indian Famine Commissions of 1880, 1897, and 1901 and the 87: 47: 4155: 2990:

Dyson, Tim (1991), "On the Demography of South Asian Famines: Part II",

760: 4408: 4368: 4008: 3649: 3601: 3561: 3401: 3011: 2975: 2954:

Dyson, Tim (1991), "On the Demography of South Asian Famines: Part I",

2610: 2574: 2119: 1953:, Themes in World History, London and New York: Routledge, p. 39, 1465:. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. pp. 262, 266. 1298: 434: 4607: 4122: 4082: 3972: 3918: 3844: 3505: 3283:

Hardiman, David (1996), "Usuary, Dearth and Famine in Western India",

3203: 1858:, Washington DC, London, and Brussels: Human Rights Watch, p. 3, 1735:, Washington DC, London, and Brussels: Human Rights Watch, p. 3, 1698:, Washington DC, London, and Brussels: Human Rights Watch, p. 3, 836:, January 31, 1897, showing the areas in India affected by the famine. 710: 649: 645:

1 million (Orissa) and approximately 4-5 million in the entire region

368: 3028:

India's Historical Demography: Studies in Famine, Disease and Society

1013: 532: 446: 401: 244: 83: 4000: 3641: 3625: 3553: 3393: 3326: 3070:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 400, pp. 108–146, 3037:

Floods, Famines, and Emperors: El Nino and the Fate of Civilizations

2938:

Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India

2602: 2566: 2251: 2155: 1326:, Springer Briefs in Political Science, SpringerNature, p. 14, 821:

Northern and eastern Rajputana, parts of Central India and Hyderabad

640:

Orissa (also 1867) and Bihar; Bellary and Ganjam districts of Madras

3497: 956:, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in 4476: 4141:, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 277–289, 4019:, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 264–276, 1080:(1944) showing a starvation fatality in the Bengal famine of 1943. 74:

from 1765 to 1947. The famines included here occurred both in the

4602: 1611:, Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, pp. 13–122, 33, 727: 678: 524: 494: 450: 405: 3364:

Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice

2316:"Churchill's policies contributed to 1943 Bengal famine – study" 1873: 1750: 1713: 192:, 1 million. The first major famine of the 20th century was the 4200: 3936:

Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar

3164:

Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943-1944

2534:

Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943-1944

2335:, The Lancet, Vol. 157, No. 4059, June 15, 1901, pp. 1713-1714; 2127: 1985:, Cambrdge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 852: 811: 528: 498: 426: 152:

famine by between 100,000 and 999,999 excess deaths; and (e) a

2004: 1552: