33:
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696:(foreign affairs ministry), regarding the protocol to be observed. The Qing government was also loath to hold the audience within the confines of the Forbidden City, eventually settling on the "Pavilion of Purple Light" at one of the lakeside palaces to the west of the Forbidden City, which is now part of
776:
Self-strengthening enterprises, including arsenals, shipyards, and technical schools, were now established in the principal treaty ports where access to
Western technology was most direct. By 1860, the overwhelming bulk of the Chinese scholarly class had become cognizant of the enormity of changes
614:
and two official concubines. The
Tongzhi Emperor apparently had wanted to take up power immediately, prompting a quarrel at court regarding the dismantling of the regency and the timing of it. However, the two empresses dowager stuck by the intended date of February 23, 1873.
752:
The inspiration for the future Self-Strengthening
Movement arose from the notion that China's defense in the face of war and rebellion must come from within, as the superior man strengthens himself under imperative of Heaven's robust action. The costs of war and
715:
at a time in which the empire was bankrupt, and over his dissolute behavior. The emperor reacted by firing the ministers, but
Empresses Dowager Ci'an and Cixi intervened, and he had them reinstated. That December, it was announced that he was ill with
481:), but this was later changed upon his succession to "Tongzhi". The era name means 'order and prosperity' coming from the Confucian teaching that "there are many ways of being a good government, and they can all be summarized as order and prosperity".
777:
that were taking place due to the increasingly prevalent
Western presence in China. They now proclaimed that change was irresistible and advocated for deeper studies of Western technology. Many reforms were proposed and implemented such as the
723:
The
Tongzhi Emperor's death left the court in a succession crisis as he was childless. Eventually, the empresses dowager designated the Tongzhi Emperor's three-year-old cousin, Zaitian, as the heir to the throne. Zaitian was biologically
772:
had run circles around cumbersome
Chinese war junks. Some Chinese at first believed the paddle-wheels were powered by men inside the ship, but soon came to appreciate the power of steam, Commissioner Lin was the first self-strengthener.
700:. The audience was finally held on 29 June 1873. After the audience, however, the foreign representatives made clear their annoyance at being received in a hall initially used by the Qing emperors to receive envoys of tributary states.
511:(who ascended the throne as a child in 1661), those hopes would soon be disappointed, as the Tongzhi Emperor grew up to become an obstinate and dissolute young man who also expressed his dissatisfaction with his mother Empress Cixi.
448:
at the age of 18 in 1875, following unsuccessful medical treatments; his death without a male heir created a succession crisis. In contravention to Qing's dynastic custom, his double first cousin assumed the throne as the
441:, began during his reign. The Tongzhi Emperor assumed personal rule over the Qing government in 1873, but immediately came into conflict with his ministers and was outmaneuvered by the dowager empresses.
32:
1960:
684:
The day after the
Tongzhi Emperor took power, foreigners requested an audience with him. The request precipitated a sharp disagreement between the ministers at the
728:'s son, but was symbolically adopted as the Xianfeng Emperor's son to make him eligible to succeed the Tongzhi Emperor. Zaitian was thus enthroned as the
1924:
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dictated that the Qing dynasty undertake vigorous measures to ensure its survival. Moreover, the very survival of China itself was now at stake.
1956:
484:
The
Tongzhi Emperor became emperor at the age of five upon the death of his father, the Xianfeng Emperor. His father's choice of a regent,
1640:
1418:
425:, he ascended the throne at the age of five under a regency headed by his biological mother Empress Dowager Cixi and his legal mother
760:
Self-strengthening efforts evolved in a succession of stages over a period of almost half a century. In 1840 Imperial
Commissioner
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1413:
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China's early industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916) and Mandarin enterprise Volume 1 of Harvard East Asian series
40:
1900:
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639:
414:. Although he had little influence over state affairs, the events of his reign gave rise to what historians call the "
2009:
1866:
1587:
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In the fall of 1874, the Tongzhi Emperor got into a clash with his ministers, which included his two uncles,
720:, and the Empress Dowagers resumed the regency. He died on 12 January 1875, leaving no sons to succeed him.
635:
507:
While there had most likely been hopes that the Tongzhi Emperor would become a successful leader like the
1729:
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778:
469:, the Tongzhi Emperor was namesake to the attempted political reform initiated by his mother, called the
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838:
410:. His reign, which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largely overshadowed by the rule of
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781:, but ultimately the failure of reforms was due to multiple factors such as political machinations.
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Jitian Kaiyun Shouzhong Juzheng Baoda Dinggong Shengzhi Chengxiao Xinmin Gongkuan Mingsu
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The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862-1874.
1973:
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Dragon Lady: the Life and Legend of the Last Empress of China
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Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China
1504:. Atheneum/the University of Michigan. pp. 2–3, 315–324.
84:
1856:
688:, who made it clear that they would not perform the ritual
488:, was removed in favor of a partnership between his mother
1530:"Volume 214: Biographies I (Empresses and Consorts)"
1760:
Later Jin rulers posthumously regarded as Qing emperors
1582:, Second Edition. May Holdsworth, Caroline Courtauld.
1519:
589:
575:
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387:(27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), also known by his
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711:, largely over the emperor's plans to rebuild the
477:was originally proposed as "Qixiang" (祺祥; Manchu:
1971:
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1479:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–161.
1379:"Tongzhi | emperor of Qing dynasty | Britannica"
256:Tongzhi (同治): 30 January 1862 – 5 February 1875)
1730:
1620:(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957).
531:
1499:
406:, and the eighth Qing emperor to rule over
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418:", an unsuccessful modernization program.
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1641:United States Government Printing Office
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859:(西林覺羅氏; 6 September 1856 – 18 May 1933)
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1568:, Wan Yi, Wang Shuqing, Lu Yanzhen.
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804:(阿魯特氏; 25 July 1854 – 27 March 1875)
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50:11 November 1861 – 12 January 1875
16:Emperor of China from 1861 to 1875
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1580:Forbidden City: The Great Within
1566:Daily life in the Forbidden City
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2005:19th-century Chinese monarchs
1925:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms
1431:(Empress Dowager Cixi, pg 51)
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852:Imperial Noble Consort Dunhui
828:Imperial Noble Consort Gongsu
237:Aisin-Gioro Zaichun (愛新覺羅·載淳)
2020:Emperors of the Qing dynasty
1500:Feuerwerker, Albert (1970).
1475:Fairbank, John King (1978).
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7:
1693:Emperor of the Qing dynasty
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1084:Tongzhi Emperor (1856–1875)
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779:Self-Strengthening Movement
431:Self-Strengthening Movement
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503:Emperor Tongzhi writing
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293:(繼天開運受中居正保大定功聖智誠孝信敏恭寬明肅
1616:Mary Clabaugh Wright.
1537:; et al. (eds.).
809:Imperial Noble Consort
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661:This article contains
628:This article contains
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392:Emperor Muzong of Qing
1778:Enthroned in 1626 as
1625:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
1545:Draft History of Qing
1403:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
1030:Empress Xiaoquancheng
747:
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494:Empress Dowager Ci'an
427:Empress Dowager Ci'an
302:: Filingga hūwangdi (
118:Empress Dowager Ci'an
2015:Deaths from smallpox
1657:House of Aisin-Gioro
1142:Huizheng (1805–1853)
490:Empress Dowager Cixi
467:Empress Dowager Cixi
412:Empress Dowager Cixi
124:Empress Dowager Cixi
1792:began to rule over
1551:Sterling Seagrave,
1452:Seagrave, Sterling
1195:Empress Xiaoqinxian
479:Fengšengge sabingga
471:Tongzhi Restoration
416:Tongzhi Restoration
376:Empress Xiaoqinxian
261:: Yooningga dasan (
96:Jiao Youying (1861)
1630:"Tsai-ch'un"
1408:"Tsai-ch'un"
1383:www.britannica.com
945:Empress Xiaoshurui
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196:Eastern Qing tombs
1967:
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1704:Succeeded by
1611:978-0-307-27160-0
1465:Seagrave, pg. 131
1443:(Anchee Min,2006)
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636:rendering support
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843:(獻哲皇貴妃) of the
831:(恭肅皇貴妃) of the
819:(淑慎皇貴妃) of the
800:(孝哲毅皇后) of the
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242:: Dzai šun (
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169:(1875-01-12)
1985:1875 deaths
1980:1856 births
1905:16 Kingdoms
1553:Dragon Lady
1197:(1835–1908)
1032:(1808–1840)
973:(1831–1861)
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915:(1782–1850)
889:(1760–1820)
845:Hešeri clan
726:Prince Chun
709:Prince Chun
705:Prince Gong
698:Zhongnanhai
444:He died of
389:temple name
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325:: Mudzung (
320:Muzong (穆宗)
314:Temple name
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120:(1861–1875)
55:Predecessor
1974:Categories
1897:3 Kingdoms
1784:Hong Taiji
1701:1861–1875
1535:Zhao Erxun
1486:0521220297
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563:Tóngzhì Dì
435:Opium Wars
144:1856-04-27
1822:Yongzheng
1605:, (2013)
1365:Citations
1253:Lady Fuca
833:Alut clan
821:Fuca clan
802:Alut clan
766:Opium War
755:rebellion
268:Mongolian
251:Era dates
65:Successor
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1827:Qianlong
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1299:See also
1061:Lady Uya
864:Ancestry
762:Lin Zexu
718:smallpox
475:era name
446:smallpox
437:and the
304:ᡶᡳᠯᡳᠩᡤᠠ
1852:Guangxu
1847:Tongzhi
1832:Jiaqing
1812:Shunzhi
1807:Taizong
1771:Taizong
1748:of the
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1230:Huixian
1119:Jingrui
790:Empress
527:Chinese
402:of the
400:emperor
396:Zaichun
351:Dynasty
327:ᠮᡠᡯ᠊ᡠ᠊ᠩ
306:ᡥᡡᠸᠠᠩᡩᡳ
287:Emperor
244:ᡯᠠᡳ ᡧᡠᠨ
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203:Consort
184:Beijing
158:Beijing
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473:. His
429:. The
372:Mother
362:Father
323:Manchu
300:Manchu
259:Manchu
240:Manchu
190:Burial
114:(1861)
112:Sushun
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75:Regent
1881:Shang
1766:Taizu
1670:Died:
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1543:[
1540:《清史稿》
1533:. In
632:text.
339:House
232:Names
216:(
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85:Muyin
47:Reign
1953:Qing
1949:Ming
1945:Yuan
1933:Song
1929:Liao
1921:Tang
1885:Zhou
1780:Khan
1607:ISBN
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1556:ISBN
1481:ISBN
707:and
492:and
465:and
457:Life
383:The
356:Qing
164:Died
138:Born
1961:PRC
1957:ROC
1941:Jīn
1917:Sui
1901:Jìn
1893:Han
1889:Qin
1877:Xia
585:IPA
533:同治帝
295:毅皇帝
25:同治帝
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