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with space for expansion at the sides and top. The gaskets holding the glass in the frame are also usually resilient to cushion the glass against wind buffeting. If no space is provided at the perimeter of the unit, the glass will bind against the frame, causing internal stresses to develop in the glass which can exceed the strength of glass, resulting in breakage.
552:
eight approximately 30 mm in diameter. Alternatively, small pieces of refractory brick can be eroded by the molten glass from the internal walls of the furnace during processing and become embedded in the finished glass. These are also known as "stones", and can also break the glass when the glass is heated, as they create thermal anomalies.
505:
result in the glass shattering into thumbnail-sized pieces. The glass is most susceptible to breakage due to damage at its edge, where the tensile stress is the greatest, but can also shatter in the event of a hard impact in the middle of the glass pane or if the impact is concentrated (for example, the glass is struck with a hardened point).
627:. These are teardrop-shaped bits of glass which are produced by allowing a molten drop of glass to fall into a bucket of water, thereby rapidly cooling it. They can withstand a blow from a hammer on the bulbous end without breaking, but the drops will disintegrate explosively into powder if the tail end is even slightly damaged.
573:
outer lite expands due to heating, the entire unit bends outward. If the spacer bar or other edge condition connects the two lites of glass in a very rigid manner, bending stresses can develop which exceed the strength of the glass, causing breakage. This was the cause of extensive glass breakage at the
560:
to nick or chip the edges of the glass with various tools. It is also possible for fasteners such as nails or screws used to attach glass stops to nick the glass edges if these fasteners are installed at an improper angle. These small nicks or chips may not result in immediate breakage. However, over
551:
change structure over time and grow, creating internal stresses in the glass. When these stresses exceed the strength of the glass, breakage results. This type of breakage is almost always found in tempered glass and is indicated by a distinctive "figure eight" pattern, with each "loop" of the figure
222:
Compressive surface stresses give tempered glass increased strength. Annealed glass has almost no internal stress and usually forms microscopic cracks on its surface. Tension applied to the glass can drive crack propagation which, once begun, concentrates tension at the tip of the crack driving crack
607:
after de la Bastie. In 1877 the German
Friedrich Siemens developed a different process, sometimes called compressed glass or Siemens glass, producing a tempered glass stronger than the Bastie process by pressing the glass in cool molds. The first patent on a whole process to make tempered glass was
564:
Binding of the glass in the frame, causing stresses to develop as the glass expands and contracts due to thermal changes or deflects due to wind. Glass expands and contracts with changes in temperature and deflects due to wind, so almost all modern glass is set on resilient blocks at the bottom and
504:
Tempered glass must be cut to size or pressed to shape before tempering, and cannot be re-worked once tempered. Polishing the edges or drilling holes in the glass is carried out before the tempering process starts. Because of the balanced stresses in the glass, damage to any portion will eventually
572:
with heavy heat-absorbing (reflective) coatings. The coating is usually applied to the "number two" surface (the inside face of the outside lite). This causes the outside lite of glass to heat up more than the inside lite as the coating converts radiant heat from the Sun into sensible heat. As the
333:
Tempered glass is also used in buildings for unframed assemblies (such as frameless glass doors), structurally loaded applications, and any other application that would become dangerous in the event of human impact. Building codes in the United States require tempered or laminated glass in several
265:
Tempered glass is used when strength, thermal resistance, and safety are important considerations. Passenger vehicles, for example, have all three requirements. Since they are stored outdoors, they are subject to constant heating and cooling as well as dramatic temperature changes throughout the
174:
does. These smaller, granular chunks are less likely to cause deep penetration when forced into the surface of an object (e.g. by gravity, by wind, by falling onto them, etc.) compared to larger, jagged shards because the reduction in both the mass and the maximum dimension of a glass fragment
214:
Tempered glass is about four times stronger than annealed glass. The more rapid contraction of the outer layer during manufacturing induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Fully tempered 6-mm thick glass must have either a
279:, which will not shatter into pieces when broken while side windows and the rear windshield have historically been made of tempered glass. Some newer luxury vehicles have laminated side windows to meet occupancy retention regulations, anti-theft purposes, or sound-deadening purposes.
981:
The security value of tempered glass, however, is questionable. Although it will resist a brick or rock, it is susceptible to sharp instruments such as ice picks or screwdrivers. When attacked in this manner, tempered glass tends to crumple easily and quietly, leaving no sharp
603:(1830–1901) of Paris, France is credited with first developing a method of tempering glass by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of oil or grease in 1874, the method patented in England on August 12, 1874, patent number 2783. Tempered glass is sometimes known as
409:"Rim-tempered" indicates that a limited area, such as the rim of the glass or plate, is tempered, and is popular in food service. There are also fully tempered variants for strength and thermal shock resistance. Some countries specify requirements regarding this.
334:
situations including some skylights, glass installed near doorways and stairways, large windows, windows which extend close to floor level, sliding doors, elevators, fire department access panels, and glass installed near swimming pools.
223:
propagation at very high speeds. Consequently, annealed glass is fragile and breaks into irregular and sharp pieces. The compressive stresses on the surface of tempered glass contain flaws, preventing their propagation or expansion.
511:
The surface of tempered glass does exhibit surface waves caused by contact with flattening rollers, if it has been formed using this process. This waviness is a significant problem in manufacturing of thin film solar cells. The
270:
such as stones as well as road accidents. Because large, sharp glass shards would present additional and unacceptable danger to passengers, tempered glass is used so that if broken, the pieces are blunt and mostly harmless. The
219:, the surface compressive stress should exceed 100 megapascals (15,000 psi). As a result of the increased surface stress, when broken the glass breaks into small rounded chunks as opposed to sharp jagged shards.
995:
342:
Tempered glass is also used in the home. Some common household furniture and appliances that use tempered glass are frameless shower doors, glass table tops, glass shelves, cabinet glass and glass for fireplaces.
600:
472:
Tempered safety glass which has been laminated often does not fall out of its frame when it breaks – usually because an anti-splinter film has been applied on the glass, as seen in this grocery store meat
555:
Minor damage during installation such as nicked or chipped edges later developing into larger breaks normally radiating from point of defect. While glass is being moved and installed, it is easy for the
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508:
Using tempered glass can pose a security risk in some situations because of the tendency of the glass to shatter completely upon hard impact rather than leaving shards in the window frame.
481:
of 564 °C (1,047 °F) to around 620 °C (1,148 °F). The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inner portion remains free to flow for a short time.
543:("stones") can be present in the glass. The most common cause of these inclusions is the use of stainless-steel machinery in the glassmaking and handling process. Small shavings of
477:
Tempered glass can be made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace that heats it well above its
580:
Inadequate glass thickness to resist wind load. A pane that is too large or thin, having not been properly engineered for wind loads on the site, can be broken by the wind. See
561:
time, as the glass expands and contracts, stress concentrations can develop around the nick, leading to breakage. In the case of tempered glass the entire unit usually breaks.
920:
592:
can be applied to the tempered panes of glass to protect from its falling. An old-fashioned precaution was to install metal screens below skylights.
182:
windows (apart from windshield), shower doors, aquariums, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, mobile phone screen protectors,
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516:
process can be used to provide low-distortion sheets with very flat and parallel surfaces as an alternative for different glazing applications.
226:
Any cutting or grinding must be done prior to tempering. Cutting, grinding, and sharp impacts after tempering will cause the glass to fracture.
170:. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into large jagged shards as ordinary
588:
Any breakage problem has more severe consequences where the glass is installed overhead or in public areas (such as in high-rise buildings). A
412:
Tempered glass has also seen increased usage in bars and pubs, particularly in the United
Kingdom and Australia, to prevent broken glass being
1668:
496:. Chemical toughening results in increased toughness compared with thermal tempering and can be applied to glass objects of complex shapes.
615:
Though the underlying mechanism was not known at the time, the effects of "tempering" glass have been known for centuries. In about 1660,
801:
1187:
215:
minimum surface compression of 69 MPa (10 000 psi) or an edge compression of not less than 67 MPa (9 700 psi). For it to be considered
492:
of the sodium ions in the glass surface with potassium ions (which are 30% larger), by immersion of the glass into a bath of molten
1220:
1769:
1084:) E 2431 -- "Practice for Determining the Resistance of Single Glazed Annealed Architectural Flat Glass to Thermal Loadings".
735:
100:
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is a phenomenon by which tempered glass may spontaneously break without any apparent reason. The most common causes are:
79:
1104:
951:
831:
396:
119:
996:"Integrated quantum efficiency, topography, and stress metrology for solar cell manufacturing: Real space approach"
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or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into
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1489:
847:
Shepherd, J (January 1994). "Violent crime: the role of alcohol and new approaches to the prevention of injury".
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Barr, Johathan. "The Glass
Tempering Handbook: Understanding the Glass Tempering Process". Self published.
68:
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460:), but there are also separate tempered screen protectors for touchscreen devices sold as an accessory.
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corresponds with a reduction in both the momentum and the penetration depth of the glass fragment.
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Thermal stresses in the glass. Breakage due to thermal stress is most common in large pieces of
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ASTM E1300 -- "Standard Design
Practice for Determining Load Resistance of Glass in Buildings".
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759:"ASTM C1048-18, Standard Specification for Heat-Strengthened and Fully Tempered Flat Glass"
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Tempered glass is used for its safety and strength in a variety of applications, including
1610:
229:
The strain pattern resulting from tempering can be observed by viewing through an optical
8:
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1132:. 9th ed. (American reprint). Vol. 10. Philadelphia: Sherman & co., 1894. 595. Print.
539:
defects can cause spontaneous breakage of tempered glass years after its manufacturing.
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involves forcing a surface layer of glass at least 0.1 mm thick into compression by
1130:
The
Encyclopædia Britannica : A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and General Literature
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921:"PET, TPU, or Tempered Glass – all you need to know to choose a screen protector"
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who was born in 1900 in
Austria and emigrated to the United States in 1935.
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Most touchscreen mobile devices use some form of toughened glass (such as
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O'Block, Robert L.; Donnermeyer, Joseph F.; Doeren, Stephen E. (1991).
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381: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Reliability of
Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems
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Glass. Science and
Technology: Elasticity and Strength in Glasses
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Safety approval markings on an automobile vent window made for a
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679:(a chemically hardened glass also known as CV-Glas and Ceverit)
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966:
1105:"The Achille Heel of a Wonderful Material: Toughened Glass"
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are clearly seen when the glass is photographed through a
202:
Tempered glass of a car rear window. Variations in glass
1002:. Vol. 7048. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. p. 704804.
266:
year. Moreover, they must withstand small impacts from
27:
Type of safety glass processed to increase its strength
874:
Shepherd, JP; Huggett, RH; Kidner, G (December 1993).
444:. This is also the type of glass used for oven doors.
282:
Other typical applications of tempered glass include:
1145:. Vol. 5. New York, N.Y.: Academic, 1980. 197. Print.
873:
821:
822:
Hageman, J.M.; Beeston, B.E.P.; Hageman, K. (2008).
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1761:
619:brought the discovery of what are now known as "
432:. Manufacturers and brands include Glasslock,
1669:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
1214:
993:
730:. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
601:Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie
519:
1080:American Society for Testing and Materials (
849:Alcohol and Alcoholism (Oxford, Oxfordshire)
328:
233:, such as a pair of polarizing sunglasses.
1221:
1207:
994:Walecki, Wojtek J.; Szondy, Fanny (2008).
946:(2 ed.). London: Chapman & Hall.
531:Internal defects within the glass such as
424:Some forms of tempered glass are used for
1096:
397:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
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304:Computer towers or computer cases (see:
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824:Contractor's Guide to the Building Code
14:
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1186:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1141:Uhlmann, D.R. and Kreidl, N. J. eds..
794:"Tempered vs. Annealed Glass | Hunker"
447:
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419:
826:(6th. ed.). Craftsman Book Co.
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379:adding citations to reliable sources
350:
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
308:Enthusiast computing#Computer cases
24:
876:"Impact resistance of bar glasses"
25:
1791:
975:. Butterworth–Heinemann. p.
337:
275:or windshield is instead made of
998:. In Dhere, Neelkanth G. (ed.).
931:from the original on 2015-08-20.
892:10.1097/00005373-199312000-00021
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463:
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261:Police van with screen protector
34:
1739:Radioactive waste vitrification
1694:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
1169:from the original on 2015-04-02
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1103:Barry, John (12 January 2006).
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1063:from the original on 2017-12-14
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804:from the original on 2017-12-14
366:needs additional citations for
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298:Shower doors and bathroom areas
45:needs additional citations for
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705:. Springer Nature America, LLC
697:Ford, Mark (22 January 2001).
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1770:Glass engineering and science
1606:Chemically strengthened glass
971:Security and Crime Prevention
727:The use of glass in buildings
699:"How is tempered glass made?"
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301:Exhibition areas and displays
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1439:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
767:. ASTM International. 2018.
724:Block, Valerie, ed. (2002).
7:
942:Pfaender, Heinz G. (1996).
630:
486:chemical toughening process
190:, and plates and cookware.
10:
1796:
1192:accessed February 28, 2015
617:Prince Rupert of the Rhine
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525:Spontaneous glass breakage
520:Spontaneous glass breakage
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1470:Chemical vapor deposition
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1419:
1391:Ultra low expansion glass
1281:Borophosphosilicate glass
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1237:
541:Nickel sulfide inclusions
533:nickel sulfide inclusions
1709:Glass-reinforced plastic
1371:Sodium hexametaphosphate
1053:"FLOAT GLASS TECHNOLOGY"
329:Buildings and structures
314:Case modding#Window mods
158:processed by controlled
143:made with tempered glass
1601:Anti-reflective coating
1475:Glass batch calculation
1356:Photochromic lens glass
570:sealed insulating glass
236:
764:ASTM Book of Standards
623:" to the attention of
479:transition temperature
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262:
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211:
166:and the interior into
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1734:Prince Rupert's drops
1583:Transparent materials
1543:Gradient-index optics
1351:Phosphosilicate glass
944:Schott Guide to Glass
880:The Journal of Trauma
621:Prince Rupert's Drops
582:Bernoulli's principle
471:
260:
244:
201:
135:
1699:Glass ionomer cement
1573:Photosensitive glass
1500:Liquidus temperature
1321:Fluorosilicate glass
375:improve this article
54:improve this article
1719:Glass-to-metal seal
1641:Self-cleaning glass
1563:Optical lens design
1008:2008SPIE.7048E..04W
703:Scientific American
448:Touchscreen devices
289:Athletic facilities
1704:Glass microspheres
1626:Hydrogen darkening
1548:Hydrogen darkening
1296:Chalcogenide glass
1286:Borosilicate glass
1057:ajzonca.tripod.com
642:Borosilicate glass
590:safety window film
575:John Hancock Tower
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420:Cooking and baking
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1674:Glass-coated wire
1646:sol–gel technique
1631:Insulated glazing
1568:Photochromic lens
1553:Optical amplifier
1505:sol–gel technique
1016:10.1117/12.792934
737:978-0-8031-3458-4
610:Rudolph A. Seiden
494:potassium nitrate
442:Arc International
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323:screen protectors
210:(bottom picture).
208:polarizing filter
184:bulletproof glass
180:passenger vehicle
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1306:Cranberry glass
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639:
637:Thermal stress
632:
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537:Nickel sulfide
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338:Household uses
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292:Swimming pools
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128:
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9:
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1780:Glass physics
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1558:Optical fiber
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1515:Vitrification
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1399:
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1396:Uranium glass
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1376:Soluble glass
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1291:Ceramic glaze
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953:9780412620607
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833:9781572182028
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672:Pressed glass
670:
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662:Stained glass
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500:Disadvantages
497:
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491:
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482:
480:
470:
464:Manufacturing
461:
459:
458:Gorilla Glass
455:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
417:
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410:
401:
398:
390:
380:
376:
370:
369:
364:This section
362:
358:
353:
352:
344:
335:
324:
321:Mobile phone
320:
315:
312:
309:
306:
305:
303:
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294:
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286:Balcony doors
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154:is a type of
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71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
1724:Porous glass
1679:Safety glass
1650:
1636:Porous glass
1594:modification
1406:Wood's glass
1326:Fused quartz
1301:Cobalt glass
1255:Supercooling
1171:. Retrieved
1150:
1142:
1137:
1129:
1124:
1112:. Retrieved
1109:Glass on Web
1108:
1098:
1089:
1076:
1065:. Retrieved
1056:
1047:
1035:. Retrieved
999:
989:
980:
970:
962:
943:
937:
924:
915:
905:19 September
903:. Retrieved
886:(6): 936–8.
883:
879:
869:
852:
848:
842:
823:
817:
806:. Retrieved
797:
788:
776:. Retrieved
762:
753:
741:. Retrieved
726:
719:
707:. Retrieved
702:
692:
614:
605:Bastie glass
604:
599:
587:
524:
523:
510:
507:
503:
490:ion exchange
483:
476:
451:
423:
411:
408:
393:
384:
373:Please help
368:verification
365:
347:Food service
341:
332:
281:
264:
228:
225:
221:
217:safety glass
213:
188:diving masks
186:components,
177:
156:safety glass
151:
147:
146:
116:
110:January 2009
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1775:Glass types
1749:Glass fiber
1714:Glass cloth
1458:Preparation
1434:CorningWare
1316:Flint glass
1311:Crown glass
1264:Formulation
855:(1): 5–10.
547:containing
514:float glass
268:road debris
164:compression
1764:Categories
1744:Windshield
1578:Refraction
1538:Dispersion
1346:Milk glass
1341:Lead glass
1173:2015-02-28
1067:2017-12-13
808:2017-12-13
798:Hunker.com
684:References
667:Lead glass
652:Superglass
647:Fire glass
577:in Boston.
273:windscreen
194:Properties
138:vandalised
80:newspapers
1611:Corrosion
1510:Viscosity
1465:Annealing
1128:"Glass."
1114:16 August
1024:0277-786X
677:Superfest
231:polarizer
1729:Pre-preg
1533:Achromat
1276:Bioglass
1271:AgInSbTe
1182:cite web
1164:Archived
1061:Archived
1032:96798712
929:Archived
802:Archived
631:See also
584:on wind.
558:glaziers
387:May 2017
247:Chrysler
148:Tempered
1660:Diverse
1592:Surface
1449:Zerodur
1037:12 June
1004:Bibcode
900:8263994
861:8003116
778:12 June
743:12 June
709:12 June
596:History
454:Corning
438:Corelle
426:cooking
295:Façades
249:car by
168:tension
160:thermal
94:scholar
1662:topics
1525:Optics
1331:GeSbTe
1238:Basics
1030:
1022:
982:edges.
950:
898:
859:
830:
734:
549:nickel
440:, and
430:baking
204:stress
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1444:Macor
1411:ZBLAN
1245:Glass
1230:Glass
1167:(PDF)
1160:(PDF)
1028:S2CID
473:case.
434:Pyrex
101:JSTOR
87:books
1188:link
1116:2019
1082:ASTM
1039:2020
1020:ISSN
948:ISBN
907:2021
896:PMID
857:PMID
828:ISBN
780:2020
745:2020
732:ISBN
711:2020
428:and
237:Uses
73:news
1012:doi
977:118
888:doi
769:doi
456:'s
377:by
310:and
251:PPG
150:or
56:by
1766::
1184:}}
1180:{{
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394:(
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385:(
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117:(
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108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
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50:.
20:)
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