1047:
603:
614:
1066:
1113:
1058:
1104:, the latter gained a majority and established a cemetery some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from Tehran at Ghassr-e Firouzeh (Firouzeh's Palace). The graves were lined with rocks and plastered with cement to prevent direct contact with the earth. In Kerman, older orthodox Zoroastrians continued to maintain a tower for a few years after a cemetary was built. Yazdi Zoroastrians continued using the Tower of Silence until the city asked them to close it in 1974.
561:
32:
149:
993:
Modern-day towers, which are fairly uniform in their construction, have an almost flat roof, with the perimeter being slightly higher than the centre. The roof is divided into three concentric rings: the bodies of men are arranged around the outer ring, women in the second ring, and children in the
1609:
Agathias described at second hand the disposal of the body of the
Persian general Mihr-Mihrōē, who died in 555: 'Then the attendants of Mihr-Mihrōē took up his body and removed it to a place outside the city and laid it there as it was, alone and uncovered according to their traditional custom, as
1150:
The right to use the Towers of
Silence is a much-debated issue among the Parsi community. The facilities are usually managed by the anjumans, the predominantly conservative local Zoroastrian associations. These usually having five priests on a nine-member board. In accordance with Indian statutes,
1089:
medical school. Since Islam considers dissection of corpses as an unnecessary form of mutilation, thus forbidding it, there were no corpses for study available through official channels. The towers were repeatedly broken into, much to the dismay of the
Zoroastrian community. Secondly, while the
1146:
of vultures and the use of "solar concentrators" (which are essentially large mirrors) to accelerate decomposition. Some have been forced to resort to burial, as the solar collectors work only in clear weather. Vultures used to dispose of a body in minutes, and no other method has proved fully
2191:منصور خواجه پور ; زینب رئوفی (June 2018). "راهبردی نظری برای باززندهسازی دخمههای زرتشتیان در ایران (نمونۀ موردی : دخمۀ زرتشتیان کرمان)" [A Theoretical Approach to Restoration of Zoroastrians' Tower of Silence (Dakhma) in Iran (A Case study of tower of silence of Kerman)].
1151:
these associations have domestic authority over trust properties and have the right to grant or restrict entry and use, with the result that the associations frequently prohibit the use by the offspring of a "mixed marriage", that is, where one parent is a Parsi and the other is not.
752:, again, kept secret, according to his account. However, he writes that he knows they expose the body of male dead to dogs and birds of prey, then they cover the corpse in wax, and then it is buried. The Achaemenid custom for the dead is recorded in the regions of
779:
dating to the 5th and 4th centuries BCE indicate that bones were sometimes isolated, but separation occurring through ritual exposure cannot be assumed: burial mounds, where the bodies were wrapped in wax, have also been discovered. The tombs of the
1077:
In the
Iranian Zoroastrian tradition, the towers were built atop hills or low mountains in locations distant from population centres. In the early 20th century, Iranian Zoroastrians gradually discontinued their use and began to favour burial or
1090:
towers had been built away from population centres, the growth of the towns led to the towers now being within city limits. Finally, many of the
Zoroastrians found the system outdated. Following long negotiations between the
850:: "the attendants of Mermeroes took up his body and removed it to a place outside the city and laid it there as it was, alone and uncovered according to their traditional custom, as refuse for dogs and horrible carrion".
1704:
Here, Modi is quoting from a "short description of the tower with a plan as given by Mr. Nusserwanjee
Byrawjee, the late energetic Secretary of the public charity funds and properties of the Parsi community."
1718:
1123:
Following the rapid expansion of the Indian cities, the squat buildings are today in or near population centres, but separated from the metropolitan bustle by gardens or forests. In
737:
i.140), the
Zoroastrian funerary rites are said to have been "secret"; however they were first performed after the body had been dragged around by a bird or dog. The corpse was then
2172:
1035:—they gradually disintegrate, and the remaining material, along with rainwater run-off, seeps through multiple coal and sand filters before being eventually washed out to sea.
2075:
2093:
1127:
Zoroastrian tradition, exposure of the dead is also considered to be an individual's final act of charity, providing the birds with what would otherwise be destroyed.
853:
Towers are a much later invention and are first documented in the early 9th century CE. The funerary ritual customs surrounding that practice appear to date to the
1176:
The bodies disintegrate naturally assisted with lime and the remaining is washed off by rainwater into multiple filters of coal and sand, finally reaching the sea.
1771:
2039:
1173:
The dead bodies are placed on stone beds on the roof of the tower and there is a central ossuary pit, into which the bodies fall after being eaten by vultures.
904:
The doctrinal rationale for exposure is to avoid contact with earth, water, or fire, all three of which are considered sacred in the
Zoroastrian religion.
2138:
1038:
The precipitous decline in the vulture population in India due to poisoning has led the Parsi community to explore alternatives to standard dakhmas.
683:
and other scavengers, consume the flesh. Skeletal remains are gathered into a central pit where further weathering and continued breakdown occurs.
589:
939:(an ecclesiastical code whose title means, 'given against the demons') has rules for disposing of the dead as safely as possible. Moreover, the
304:
1888:
2182:
Kotwal, Firoze M.; Mistree, Khojeste P. (2002), "Protecting the
Physical World", in Godrej, Pheroza J.; Mistree, Firoza Punthakey (eds.),
2128:
Wadia, Azmi (2002), "Evolution of the Towers of
Silence and their Significance", in Godrej, Pheroza J.; Mistree, Firoza Punthakey (eds.),
2256:
2212:
1989:
1142:
in 2006. The few surviving birds are often unable to fully consume the bodies. In 2001, Parsi communities in India were evaluating
1507:
1085:
The decision to change the system was accelerated by three considerations: the first problem arose with the establishment of the
96:
1667:
1450:
68:
1889:"India's vulture population is facing catastrophic collapse and with it the sacrosanct corporeal passing of the Parsi dead"
1308:
582:
1138:
poisoning of the birds following the introduction of that drug for livestock in the 1990s, until banned for cattle by the
511:
75:
2293:
2157:
1483:
2023:
1642:
1376:
115:
49:
20:
2043:
972:), the bodies of the dead are placed at the top of towers and there exposed to the sun and to scavenging birds and
1750:
1690:
1027:
Once the bones have been bleached by the sun and wind, which can take as long as a year, they are collected in an
886:, 'ossuary'. Another term that appears in the 9th- to 10th-century texts of Zoroastrian tradition (the so-called "
82:
2231:
1154:
The towers remain in use as sacred locations for the Parsi community, though non-members may not enter them. In
931:), is believed to rush into the body and contaminate everything it comes into contact with. For this reason, the
844:
792:
likewise suggest non-exposure, at least until the bones could be collected. According to legend (incorporated by
575:
1130:
In the late 20th century and early 21st century the vulture population on the Indian subcontinent declined (see
2190:
2063:
53:
976:
animals such as wild dogs. Thus, as an early-20th-century Secretary of the Mumbai Parsi community explained: "
64:
2146:
1600:
2298:
1170:
The roof of the tower is lower in the middle than the outer and is divided into three concentric circles.
1046:
541:
521:
733:; however, the use of towers is first documented in the early 9th century CE. In Herodotus' account (in
1821:
Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, pp. 221–222
1434:
1191:
2303:
1911:
2313:
2308:
877:
496:
132:
42:
1287:
2288:
2222:
1203:
259:
1418:
1344:
89:
1532:
1131:
1086:
1070:
1050:
913:
876:
One of the earliest literary descriptions of such a building appears in the late 9th-century
709:
546:
449:
1896:
2264:
1781:
705:
696:
660:
501:
444:
1981:
8:
1296:
1139:
738:
471:
2011:
1957:
1930:
1849:
1832:
1582:
1057:
859:
384:
314:
1536:, edited by Ehsan Yar-Shater, Routledge & Kegan Paul Volume 6, Parts 1–3, p. 281a.
1499:
2122:
2019:
1962:
1854:
1793:
1785:
1663:
1638:
1586:
1479:
1456:
1446:
1390:
1382:
1372:
1348:
1300:
781:
745:
602:
2200:
1952:
1942:
1844:
1630:
1574:
1438:
1364:
1360:
1278:
1143:
1005:
836:
644:
632:
299:
294:
613:
1947:
1719:"Defunct Tower of Silence lives on in the heart of an Andheri residential colony"
1442:
1422:
1158:
visitors are shown a model of a tower. Organized tours can be taken to the site.
1112:
1032:
854:
726:
565:
1282:
1547:
1243:
785:
719:
692:
399:
394:
344:
284:
140:
1634:
1578:
1368:
1065:
994:
innermost ring. The ritual precinct may be entered only by a special class of
2282:
2204:
1929:
Swan, Gerry; Naidoo, Vinasan; Cuthbert, Richard; et al. (January 2006).
1789:
1772:"'Our culture is dying': vulture shortage threatens Zoroastrian burial rites"
1430:
1386:
1304:
1292:
887:
668:
516:
309:
214:
2115:
1797:
1966:
1931:"Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures"
1858:
1776:
1744:
1684:
1124:
977:
973:
776:
772:
652:
404:
389:
349:
279:
274:
239:
1197:
1186:
847:
829:
656:
434:
289:
164:
2243:
1215:
1135:
995:
789:
730:
379:
269:
179:
2173:"Towers of Silence: Zoroastrian Architectures for the Ritual of Death"
2226:
2040:"My Visit To The Tower Of Silence Helped Me Come To Terms With Death"
1222:
1079:
821:
799:
722:
715:
676:
429:
424:
189:
169:
148:
911:
and animal corpses (in addition to cut hair and nail parings) to be
31:
1116:
A late-19th-century engraving of a Zoroastrian Tower of Silence in
945:
requires that graves, and raised tombs as well, must be destroyed.
934:
840:
793:
761:
748:, Herodotus reports on the Persian burial customs performed by the
560:
334:
329:
234:
1874:
The Zoroastrians of Iran: A history of transformation and survival
1478:. Vol. 3. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer. pp. 204–245.
1460:
1394:
980:
with all its concomitant evils... is most effectually prevented."
857:(3rd–7th CE). They are known in detail from the supplement to the
1028:
908:
865:
768:
753:
680:
664:
454:
374:
354:
194:
2213:"Giving New Life to Vultures to Restore a Human Ritual of Death"
896:; in its earliest usage, it referred to any place for the dead.
2076:"Citizen groups oppose heritage tour of Parsi Tower of Silence"
1356:
1155:
1117:
1101:
1097:
1061:
An early 20th century photograph of an Iranian tower of silence
757:
702:
506:
464:
459:
319:
264:
219:
2082:. New Delhi, India: HT Digital Streams Ltd. 10 December 2016.
926:
825:
339:
324:
229:
224:
2156:
Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji (2011) . Peterson, Joseph H. (ed.).
2016:
The Parsis of India: Preservation of identity in Bombay city
2227:"Skeptoid #323: 8 Spooky Places, and Why They're Like That"
1345:"Archaeological Evidence of Zoroastrian Funerary Practices"
967:
959:
749:
675:
and other natural elements by the decomposing dead bodies.
672:
184:
174:
1476:
Die Religion Zarathushtras: Geschichte, Gegenwart, Rituale
1427:
The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions
2094:"Protests don't hinder heritage walk at Tower of Silence"
1629:. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill. pp. 156–165, 325–330.
1548:"BURIAL ii. Remnants of Burial Practices in Ancient Iran"
951:
948:
To preclude the pollution of the sacred elements: earth (
1912:"Cattle drug blamed as India's vultures near extinction"
1161:
1928:
1567:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
1833:"The Ownership of Human Body: An Islamic Perspective"
1625:
Boyce, Mary (1975). "The Zoroastrian Funeral Rites".
797:
686:
1527:
1525:
891:
881:
2248:
Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices
2159:
The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees
1237:) as a sacred element; the Zoroastrian divinity of
56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1610:refuse for dogs and horrible carrion birds'
1031:pit at the centre of the tower, where—assisted by
1871:
1837:Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine
1522:
1474:Stausberg, Michael (2004). "Bestattungsanlagen".
2280:
2263:, vol. 7, Cosa Mesa: Mazda, archived from
2012:"Epilogue: Identity and the Present-Day Parsis"
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
2064:Tower of Silence, Sky Burial and Birds of Prey
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
2181:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1620:
1618:
1467:
1232:
1220:
1207:
1167:The towers are uniform in their construction.
1091:
1019:
1013:
999:
965:
957:
949:
940:
932:
924:
918:
708:is first attested in the mid-5th century BCE
583:
1554:. Vol. IV. pp. 559–561. Fasc. 5–6.
1401:
843:has described the Zoroastrian burial of the
651:), is a circular, raised structure built by
1607:. Vol. VI. pp. 279–286. Fasc. 3.
1592:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1256:
1134:) by over 97% as of 2008, primarily due to
805:
1979:
1810:
1615:
1539:
671:), in order to avoid contamination of the
590:
576:
147:
1956:
1946:
1848:
1627:A history of Zoroastrianism: Early period
1473:
1053:, Iran. The building is no longer in use.
917:, i.e. unclean, polluting. Specifically,
116:Learn how and when to remove this message
2009:
1716:
1601:"CORPSE, disposal of, in Zoroastrianism"
1416:
1323:
1111:
1064:
1056:
1045:
988:
612:
601:
2221:
2139:"A Zoroastrian Tapestry (book extract)"
1830:
1662:. Winona, MN, USA: Saint Mary's Press.
1277:
2281:
1769:
1545:
1500:"Herodotus iii. Defining the Persians"
907:Zoroastrian tradition considers human
2254:
2250:, London: Routledge, pp. 156–162
2242:
2211:Harris, Gardiner (29 November 2012).
2171:Lucarelli, Fosco (February 9, 2012).
2127:
1763:
1749:, Anthropological Society of Mumbai,
1746:The Funeral Ceremonies of the Parsees
1743:Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji Modi (1928),
1717:Sunavala, Nergish (28 October 2014).
1689:, Anthropological Society of Mumbai,
1686:The Funeral Ceremonies of the Parsees
1683:Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji Modi (1928),
1657:
1624:
1598:
1565:Falk, Harry (1989), "Soma I and II",
1162:Architectural and functional features
1069:The central pit of the (now-defunct)
2165:. Kasson, Minnesota, US: Avesta.org.
2155:
1980:Srivastava, Sanjeev (18 July 2001),
1909:
1886:
1742:
1682:
1564:
1510:from the original on 29 January 2019
1355:. Numen Book Series. Vol. 102.
1342:
54:adding citations to reliable sources
25:
2186:, New York: Mapin, pp. 337–365
2018:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 320–337.
1012:, consisting of the word elements,
983:
648:
636:
512:Zoroastrianism in the United States
13:
2108:
687:Ritual exposure by Iranian peoples
617:Early 20th century drawing of the
14:
2325:
1992:from the original on 30 June 2006
1887:Tait, Malcolm (10 October 2004).
1872:Kestenberg Amighi, Janet (2022).
1599:Boyce, Mary (October 31, 2011) .
824:himself is interred in a tomb at
667:with the purpose to enable their
21:Tower of Silence (disambiguation)
16:Zoroastrian excarnation structure
2237:1. Zoroastrian Towers of Silence
1831:Aramesh, Kiarash (30 May 2009).
1311:from the original on 17 May 2013
1206:, builder of the first (Mumbai)
1009:
725:who observed the custom amongst
559:
30:
2086:
2068:
2057:
2032:
2003:
1973:
1922:
1910:Adam, David (31 January 2006).
1903:
1880:
1865:
1824:
1753:from the original on 2005-02-07
1736:
1710:
1693:from the original on 2005-02-07
1676:
1651:
1546:Grenet, Frantz (January 2000).
1283:"BURIAL iii. In Zoroastrianism"
741:with wax and laid in a trench.
41:needs additional citations for
2145:. 21 July 2002. Archived from
1558:
1492:
1353:Zoroastrian Rituals in Context
1200:, Zoroastrian place of worship
880:, where the technical term is
744:Writing on the culture of the
1:
1249:
2193:ماهنامه علمی پژوهشی باغ نظر
1982:"Parsis turn to solar power"
1948:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040066
1770:Gulzeb, Sonia (2024-05-04).
1443:10.1017/CCO9781139047784.009
899:
639:), otherwise referred to as
7:
2143:The Hindu - Sunday Magazine
2010:Palsetia, Jesse S. (2001).
1180:
798:
764:, but not in Western Iran.
542:Criticism of Zoroastrianism
522:Persecution of Zoroastrians
10:
2330:
2257:"Death among Zoroastrians"
2195:(in Persian and English).
1435:Cambridge University Press
690:
18:
2294:Persian words and phrases
1635:10.1163/9789004294004_014
1579:10.1017/s0041977x00023077
1369:10.1163/9789047412502_027
1192:Disposal of human corpses
869:collections, and the two
661:exposure of human corpses
2205:10.22034/bagh.2018.63865
1423:Spaeth, Barbette Stanley
1417:Malandra, W. W. (2013).
1107:
295:101 Names of Ahura Mazda
1658:Brodd, Jeffrey (2003).
1343:Huff, Dietrich (2004).
1041:
892:
882:
878:Epistles of Manushchihr
621:on Malabar Hill, Mumbai
2184:A Zoroastrian Tapestry
2130:A Zoroastrian Tapestry
2119:Fargard 5, Purity Laws
1233:
1221:
1208:
1204:Seth Modi Hirji Vachha
1194: – Burial methods
1120:
1092:
1074:
1062:
1054:
1020:
1014:
1000:
966:
958:
950:
941:
933:
925:
919:
622:
610:
260:Zoroastrian literature
1899:on 27 September 2007.
1605:Encyclopaedia Iranica
1552:Encyclopaedia Iranica
1533:Encyclopaedia Iranica
1504:Encyclopaedia Iranica
1132:Indian vulture crisis
1115:
1071:Yazd Tower of Silence
1068:
1060:
1051:Yazd Tower of Silence
1049:
989:Structure and process
616:
605:
547:Zoroastrian cosmology
497:Zoroastrians in India
253:Scripture and worship
2261:Encyclopædia Iranica
2255:Boyce, Mary (1996),
1782:Guardian Media Group
1363:. pp. 593–630.
1299:. pp. 561–563.
1288:Encyclopædia Iranica
706:exposure of the dead
697:Zoroastrians in Iran
502:Zoroastrians in Iran
368:Accounts and legends
50:improve this article
19:For other uses, see
2225:(August 14, 2012).
2121:, as translated by
2100:. 12 December 2016.
1986:BBC News South Asia
1506:(online ed.).
1297:Columbia University
1140:Government of India
782:Achaemenid emperors
566:Religion portal
418:History and culture
2299:Religion and death
2217:The New York Times
2149:on 7 January 2003.
1723:The Times of India
1349:Stausberg, Michael
1291:. Vol. IV/6.
1281:(1 January 2000).
1121:
1075:
1063:
1055:
1018:('caretaker') and
923:the corpse demon (
860:Shayest ne Shayest
623:
611:
385:Book of Arda Viraf
315:Cypress of Kashmar
65:"Tower of Silence"
2132:, New York: Mapin
2123:James Darmesteter
1669:978-0-88489-725-5
1452:978-0-521-11396-0
1279:Russell, James R.
1024:('pollutants').
815:The Book of Kings
767:The discovery of
606:Interior view of
600:
599:
126:
125:
118:
100:
2321:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2251:
2239:
2208:
2187:
2166:
2164:
2150:
2133:
2102:
2101:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2072:
2066:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2042:. Archived from
2036:
2030:
2029:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1950:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1895:. Archived from
1884:
1878:
1877:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1852:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1714:
1708:
1700:
1699:
1698:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1622:
1613:
1612:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1543:
1537:
1529:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1414:
1399:
1398:
1361:Brill Publishers
1340:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1275:
1236:
1226:
1211:
1144:captive breeding
1095:
1023:
1017:
1003:
984:In current times
971:
963:
955:
944:
938:
930:
922:
895:
885:
845:Sasanian general
828:(in present-day
819:
816:
813:
810:
807:
803:
650:
641:Tower of Silence
638:
592:
585:
578:
564:
563:
300:Adur Burzen-Mihr
151:
128:
127:
121:
114:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
34:
26:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2304:Towers in India
2279:
2278:
2277:
2270:
2268:
2162:
2137:
2111:
2109:Further reading
2106:
2105:
2098:Hindustan Times
2092:
2091:
2087:
2080:Hindustan Times
2074:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2058:
2049:
2047:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2008:
2004:
1995:
1993:
1978:
1974:
1927:
1923:
1908:
1904:
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659:(that is, the
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106:November 2017
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67: –
66:
62:
61:Find sources:
55:
51:
45:
44:
39:This article
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
2269:, retrieved
2265:the original
2260:
2247:
2236:
2230:
2216:
2196:
2192:
2183:
2177:Socks-Studio
2176:
2158:
2147:the original
2142:
2129:
2116:
2097:
2088:
2079:
2070:
2059:
2048:. Retrieved
2044:the original
2034:
2015:
2005:
1994:, retrieved
1985:
1975:
1938:
1935:PLOS Biology
1934:
1924:
1916:The Guardian
1915:
1905:
1897:the original
1892:
1882:
1873:
1867:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1801:. Retrieved
1777:The Guardian
1775:
1774:. Pakistan.
1765:
1755:, retrieved
1745:
1738:
1726:. Retrieved
1722:
1712:
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1685:
1678:
1659:
1653:
1626:
1608:
1604:
1594:
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1570:
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1503:
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1313:. Retrieved
1286:
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1087:Dar ul-Funun
1084:
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870:
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858:
855:Sassanid era
852:
834:
777:Western Iran
766:
743:
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701:Zoroastrian
700:
653:Zoroastrians
649:برجِ خاموشان
640:
627:
626:
624:
618:
607:
476:
405:Frashokereti
350:The Rivayats
305:Adur Farnbag
290:Fire Temples
280:Yenghe hatam
275:Ahuna Vairya
240:Angra Mainyu
112:
103:
93:
86:
79:
72:
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48:Please help
43:verification
40:
2244:Boyce, Mary
1996:9 September
1198:Fire temple
1187:Burial tree
1147:effective.
1004:, from the
1001:nusessalars
996:pallbearers
848:Mihr-Mihroe
830:Afghanistan
657:excarnation
435:Khurramites
185:Persia/Iran
170:Zarathustra
165:Ahura Mazda
2283:Categories
2271:2007-08-15
2050:2020-12-09
1941:(3): e66.
1803:2024-05-19
1757:2005-09-09
1697:2005-09-09
1514:24 January
1461:2012049271
1395:2003055913
1250:References
1216:Sky burial
1136:diclofenac
956:), water (
863:, the two
839:historian
790:Pasargadae
731:Asia Minor
679:, usually
455:Initiation
270:Ashem Vohu
180:Vohu Manah
76:newspapers
1790:1756-3224
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1387:0169-8834
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1223:Vāyu-Vāta
1080:cremation
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900:Rationale
837:Byzantine
822:Zoroaster
800:Shahnameh
796:into his
769:ossuaries
735:Histories
723:historian
716:Herodotus
711:Histories
490:Adherents
450:Festivals
430:Mazdakism
425:Zurvanism
380:Bundahišn
190:Faravahar
2246:(1979),
2232:Skeptoid
2117:Vendidad
1990:archived
1967:16435886
1859:23908718
1798:60623878
1751:archived
1691:archived
1508:Archived
1431:New York
1315:28 April
1309:Archived
1293:New York
1181:See also
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935:Vīdēvdād
909:cadavers
841:Agathias
794:Ferdowsi
771:in both
762:Hyrcania
746:Persians
739:embalmed
681:vultures
665:elements
472:Marriage
445:Calendar
335:Visperad
330:Vendidad
235:Fravashi
133:a series
131:Part of
1958:1351921
1850:3713940
1425:(ed.).
1351:(ed.).
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1029:ossuary
1006:Avestan
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883:astodan
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809:
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754:Bactria
727:Iranian
663:to the
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633:Persian
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1100:, and
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871:Saddar
760:, and
758:Sogdia
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265:Avesta
230:Daevas
225:Ahuras
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1786:ISSN
1730:2022
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